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THE  UNIVERSAL  BIBLE  DICTIONARY 


THE   UNIVERSAL 
BIBLE    DICTIONARY 


EDITED   BY 


THE   VEN.   A.    R.    BUCKLAND,    M.A. 


V 

ARCHDEACON   OF  NORFOLK 


ASSISTED    BY 


THE  REV.  A.   LUKYN  WILLIAMS,  D.D. 

RON.    CANON  OF  ELY 

1333$ 
University  oi  ,  racy 

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FLEMING    H.    REVELL    COMPANY 
NEW  YORK      CHICAGO      TORONTO 
14  Ja  '26 


135 


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PREFACE 

THIS  Dictionary  has  been  prepared  to  meet  the  needs  of  Bible  readers 
for  whom  the  more  exhaustive  and  costly  works  are  unsuited.  Whilst 
aiming  primarily  at  leading  its  readers  to  a  careful  examination  of  the  Bible 
itself,  it  also  seeks  to  help  the  student  by  providing  articles  upon  such 
topics  as  the  text  of  Holy  Scripture,  the  Versions,  the  Higher  Criticism, 
Inspiration,  and  Theology,  as  well  as  on  such  cardinal  doctrines  as  the 
Trinity,  Immortality  of  the  Soul,  Justification,  Regeneration,  and  the  like. 
Whilst  the  references  are  for  the  most  part  to  the  Authorized  Version, 
names  of  persons  and  places  maybe  consulted  under  the  R.V.  or  the  A.V. 
form.  The  meanings  of  proper  names  are  given  or  suggested  where 
sufficient  warrant  exists. 

The  Editor  most  gratefully  acknowledges  the  aid  rendered  by  Canon 
Lukyn  Williams,  who,  in  addition  to  contributing  many  important  articles, 
has  revised  the  proofs  throughout,  without  being  responsible  for  their 
final  form.  Some  of  the  most  valuable  articles  have  been  written  by 
Professor  S.  W.  Green,  who  has  also  assisted  in  other  ways  in  the  pre- 
paration of  the  work.  Thanks  are  due  to  Mr.  W.  Grinton  Berry  and 
Mr.  Henry  Williams  for  their  labours  upon  the  general  body  of  the  work ; 
and  to  Dr.  E.  W.  G.  Masterman,  Professor  the  Rev.  Dr.  W.  H.  Griffith 
Thomas,  and  Principal  F.  S.  Guy  Warnian  (now  Bishop  of  Truro),  for 
valuable  contributions. 

In  this  Third  Impression  some  few  additions  and  corrections  have  been 
made. 


M124C94 


13  33f 
THE    UNIVERSAL 

BIBLE    DICTIONARY 


AARON] 

Aa'ron. — Meaning  uncertain  :  the  first  high 
priest  of  Israel,  descended  from  Levi,  the  third 
son  of  Jacob.  His  father's  name  was  Amram 
and  his  mother's  Jochebed,  and  he  was  the 
brother  of  Moses  and  Miriam,  three  years  older 
than  the  former,  but  younger  than  the  latter 
(Ex.  6.20,  7.7). 

God  chose  him  to  be  a  fellow-worker  of 
Moses  because  of  his  gift  of  speech  (Ex.  4.16). 
He  went  in  with  Moses  to  Pharaoh,  performing 
signs  before  the  latter,  and  being  also  the  instru- 
ment of  God  in  some  of  the  miracles  of  Exodus 
(Ex.  7-10).  At  the  battle  against  Amalek, 
Aaron,  along  with  Hur,  held  up  the  hands  of 
Moses  so  that  Israel  might  have  the  victory 
(Ex.  17.12).  When  Moses  was  absent  on  Mount 
Sinai,  Aaron  was  persuaded  by  the  people  to 
make  a  molten  image  of  a  calf  for  their  worship, 
and  was  severely  rebuked.  Moses  by  prayer 
obtained  the  forgiveness  of  God  for  Aaron  and 
the  people  (Deut.  9.20). 

Shortly  afterwards  he  was  consecrated  high 
priest,  the  office  to  be  hereditary  in  his  family. 
Korah  and  the  Levites  rebelled  against  his 
priestly  dignity,  and  the  former  was  consumed 
by  the  fire  of  the  Lord.  Aaron  offered  incense  to 
stay  the  plague ;  God,  by  granting  his  request, 
manifestly  accepted  him  as  intercessor  for  the 
people.  Along  with  Moses  and  the  princes  of 
Israel  he  was  commanded  to  number  the  people. 
The  murmuring  of  Aaron  and  Miriam  against 
Moses  probably  originated  with  Miriam, 
prompted  by  jealousy,  and  was  speedily 
quelled  (Num.  12).  With  Moses,  Aaron 
sinned  at  Meribah  (Num.  20.10  ff),  and  his  death 
seems  to  have  followed  almost  at  once  on  Mount 
Hor,  his  son  Eleazar,  who  alone  with  Moses  was 
present  and  performed  his  burial  rites,  succeed- 
ing to  his  office  (Num.  20.28). 

Aaron's  wife,  Elisheba,  bore  him  four  sons. 
Two  of  them,  Nadab  and  Abihu,  were  consumed 
by  the  fire  of  the  Lord  during  their  father's 
lifetime  for  offering  strange  fire.  Eleazar  and 
Ithamar  survived  their  father.  The  high  priest- 


[ABBA 

hood  continued  In  the  descent  of  the  former 
until  the  time  of  Eli,  who  belonged  to  the 
house  of  Ithamar.  Solomon,  on  his  accession, 
took  it  from  the  children  of  Eli  and  restored 
it  to  Zadok,  of  the  house  of  Eleazar,  so  fulfilling 
the  prophecy  of  1  Sam.  2.30.  [HIGH  PRIEST.] 

Aaronites. — The  descendants  of  Aaron. 
Thirteen  cities  were  assigned  to  them  at  the 
apportionment  of  Canaan  in  the  time  of  Joshua. 
To  the  number  of  3700,  the  Aaronites  joined 
David  at  Hebron.  They  must  have  been  an  im- 
portant family  at  this  time  to  be  reckoned  among 
the  tribes  of  Israel  (1  Ch.  12.27). 

Abad'don. — Destruction:  a  term  used  in 
conjunction  with  and  as  equivalent  to  Sheol 
(Job  26.6),  or  Death  (Job  28.22).  It  occurs 
once  in  N.T.  (Rev.  9.11),  where  it  is  personified 
as  "  the  angel  of  the  abyss,"  the  Destroyer  (Greek, 
Apollyon). 

Abag'tha. — Meaning  uncertain :  one  of  the 
seven  chamberlains  or  eunuchs  in  the  court  of 
Ahasuerus  (also  called  Xerxes),  King  of  Persia 
(Esth.  1.10). 

Aba'na. — Rocky :  one  of  the  two  rivers  of 
Damascus  (2  K.  5.12).  About  twenty-three 
miles  from  the  city  and  1149  feet  above  it  rises 
the  river  Barada,  which,  some  distance  from 
Damascus,  splits  up  into  seven  principal  streams 
flowing  through  the  city.  The  stream,  whose 
water  is  most  clear  and  sparkling,  is  the  Nahr 
Banias,  possibly  a  survival  of  the  ancient  names 
of  the  larger  river.  [AMANA.] 

Aba'rim. — Regions  beyond :  a  range  of 
mountainous  country,  east  of  the  Jordan,  in 
Moab  (Num.  33.47).  The  highest  elevation  is 
Mount  Nebo,  the  top  of  the  "  Pisgah  "  from 
which  Moses  saw  the  promised  land  just  before 
his  death  (Deul.  34.1,  5). 

Ab'ba. — Father  :  the  Aramaic  word  preserved 
in  St.  Mark's  record  of  the  prayer  of  Jesus 
in  Gethsemane  (Mk.  14.36).  It  appears  also 
in  the  Christian's  invocation  of  God,  prompted 
by  the  Holy  Spirit  (Rom.  8.15;  Gal.  4.6).  In 
each  case  the  full  phrase  is  "  Abba,  Father," 


ABDA] 


[ABIATHAR 


•t.ft  tho  Aramaic' term 'is  supplemented  by  its 
Greek  equivalent.  This  can  hardly  be  by 
way  of  interpretation  :  fervent  prayer  does  not 
atay  to  explain  the  words  used.  Probably  the 
invocation  "  Abba ",  made  sacred  by  the 
constant  usage  of  Jesus,  was  retained  by  Greek- 
speaking  Christians  as  a  sort  of  proper  name 
( =  God),  to  which  the  title  "  Father  "  was  a  real 
and  natural  addition. 

Ab'da.  —Servant :  1.  The  father  of  Adoniram 
(1  K.  4.6).  2.  The  son  of  Shammua  (Neh. 
11.17) ;  also  called  Obadiah,  son  of  Shemaiah,  in 
1  Ch.  9.16. 

Ab'decl.— Servant  of  God:  the  father  of 
Shelemiah  (Jer.  36.26). 

Abdi'.— Servant  of  Jehovah:  1.  A  Merarite, 
grandfather  of  Ethan,  the  singer  (1  Ch.  6.44). 
2.  The  father  of  Kish  (2  Ch.  29.12).  3.  A  Jew 
in  the  time  of  Ezra,  who  had  married  a  foreign 
wife  (Ezra  10.26). 

Ab'diel.— Servant  of  God  :  see  1  Ch.  5.15. 

Ab'don.— Servile :  1.  A  city  in  the  tribe  of 
Asher  ( Josh.  21.30 ;  1  Ch.  6.74) ;  in  Josh.  19.28 
it  is  called  Hebron  (Ebron).  Identified  with 
Abdeh,  small  ruins  on  a  hill  overlooking  the 
plain  of  Acre.  2.  The  eleventh  of  the  twelve 
judges  (Jud.  12.13-15).  3.  See  1  Ch.  8.23. 
4.  First-born  son  of  Jeiel,  father  of  Gibeon  (1  Ch. 
8.30).  5.  A  son  of  Micah,  sent  with  others 
by  King  Josiah  to  Huldah  the  prophetess  to 
inquire  of  Jehovah  regarding  the  words  of  the 
Book  of  the  Law  in  the  temple  (2  Ch.  34.20).  He 
is  called  Achbor  in  2  K.  22.12. 

Abedne'go. — Servant  of  Nego :  that  is, 
Nebo  (which  see).  His  original  name  was 
Azariah,  and  he  was  one  of  the  four  young 
princes  of  Judah  carried  away  to  Babylon. 
The  name  of  Abednego  was  given  to  him  by  the 
prince  of  the  eunuchs  of  Nebuchadnezzar 
(Dan.  1.7).  He  was  one  of  the  three  companions 
of  Daniel  cast  into  the  fiery  furnace  for  refusing 
to  bow  before  the  golden  image  erected  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  in  the  plain  of  Dura  (Dan.  3). 

ATjeL — A  breath  or  vapour  :  1.  The  second  son 
of  Adam  and  Eve,  a  keeper  of  sheep,  murdered 
by  his  brother  Cain.  Cain  brought  an  offering 
of  fruit  to  the  Lord,  Abel  an  offering  of  the 
firstlings  of  his  flock.  Cain's  offering  was 
rejected,  Abel's  accepted,  and  in  jealous  wrath 
Cain  slew  his  brother  (Gen.  4.2-15,  cf.  Heb.  11.4). 
Jesus  Christ  spoke  of  Abel  as  the  first  martyr 
(Matt.  23.35).  In  Heb.  12.24  the  phrase  of 
Gen.  4.11  ("  the  voice  of  thy  brother's  blood 
crieth  unto  Me  from  the  ground  "),  is  turned  into 
the  contrast  between  the  old  and  new  covenants: 
"  Ye  ar«  come  ...  to  the  blood  of  sprinkling 
that  speaketh  better  than  that  of  Abel." 
2.  Meadow  (a  different  Hebrew  word ;  see 
following  articles).  For  1  Sam.  6.18,  see  R.V. 
and  marg. 

Atel-beth-maa'chah.— Meadow  of  the  house 
of  Maachah  :  an  important  town  in  the  extreme 
north  of  Palestine  (2  Sam.  20.14-22).  It  was  an 
easy  conquest  in  successive  invasions  by  Syria 
and  Assyria  (1  K.  15.20,  2  K.  15.29). 

Atel-chera'mim.  —  Meadow    of     vineyard*  : 


near  Minnith,  in  Moab,  named  as  the  limit  of 
Jephthah's  slaughter  of  the  Ammonites 
(Judg.  11.33  ;  see  R.V.  and  marg.). 

A'bel-ma'im. — Meadow  of  waters  ;  another 
name  for  Abel-bethmaachab.  It  was  smitten 
by  the  armies  of  Benhadad  in  the  days  of  Asa 
(2  Ch.  16.4). 

ATjel-meho'lah.— Meadow  of  the  dance:  the 
birthplace  of  Elisha  the  prophet,  son  of  Shaphat, 
in  the  north  part  of  the  Jordan  valley.  Here 
Elisha  was  found  at  his  plough  by  Elijah  return- 
ing up  the  valley  from  Horeb  (1  K.  19.16, 19  : 
see  also  1  K.  4.12;  Judg.  7.22). 

AlDel-niizra'im. — The  name  given  by  the 
Canaanites  to  the  threshing-floor  of  Atad,  at 
which  Joseph,  his  brothers,  and  the  Egyptians 
mourned  for  Jacob  (Gen.  50.11).  The  passage 
probably  contains  a  play  on  words  as  between 
Abel,  meadow,  and  Ebel,  mourning.  The  nar- 
rative would  suggest  some  place  just  over  the 
Canaanite  border,  originally  named  meadow  of 
Egypt,  but  the  statement  that  it  was  "  beyond 
Jordan  "  places  it  much  further  north  and  east, 
involving  a  long  detour  for  the  mourners. 

A'bel-shitt'im. — Meadow  of  acacias  :  a  place 
in  the  plains  (or  deserts)  of  Moab,  seven  miles 
east  of  the  Jordan,  opposite  Jericho  ;  the  last 
resting-place  of  Israel  before  crossing  the  river 
(Num.  33.49).  Most  frequently  mentioned  by 
the  shorter  name  of  Shittim. 

A  l)ez. —  (?)  White:  a  town  belonging  to 
Issachar.  See  Josh.  19.20  (R.V.  Ebez). 

AM'.— The  daughter  of  Zechariah,  wife  of 
Ahaz  and  mother  of  Hezekiah,  kings  of  Judah  ; 
shortened  form  of  Abijah  (Jehovah  is  my  father), 
2  Ch.  29.1. 

Abi'a,  Abi'ah.— [ABIJAH.] 

ATri-arbon.— (?)  Father  of  strength :  one  of 
David's  mighty  men  (2  Sam.  23.31)  called  Abiel 
in  1  Ch.  11.32. 

Abia'saph. — Father  has  gathered :  the  son 
of  Korah,  descended  from  Levi,  and  head  of 
one  of  the  families  of  the  Korhites  (Ex.  6.24). 
If,  as  is  sometimes  supposed,  he  is  identical 
with  the  Ebi-asaph  of  1  Ch.  6.37,  he  was  an 
ancestor  of  Samuel. 

Abia'thar.— (?)  Father  of  Abundance,  or  The 
Great  One  is  father ;  eleventh  high  priest  in  suc- 
cession from  Aaron.  He  escaped  when  Doeg,  the 
Edomite,  at  the  instigation  of  Saul,  slew  his 
father  Ahimelech  and  eighty-five  priests,  because 
Abiathar  had  inquired  of  the  Lord  for  David, 
and  had  given  him  the  shew-bread  and 
the  sword  of  Goliath  (1  Sam.  21 ;  cf.  ML  2.26, 
where  "  Abiathar  "  should  be  "  Ahimelech  "). 
He  joined  David  in  Keilah,  bringing  with  him 
an  ephod,  which  enabled  him  in  the  crisis  of 
his  exile  to  "  inquire  of  the  Lord  "  (1  Sam.  23.9, 
30.2).  Abiathar  and  Zadok  were  sent  with  the 
ark  to  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  15).  He  afterwards 
conspired  to  make  Adonijah  king  in  succession 
to  David ;  was  banished  to  his  birthplace, 
Anathoth  in  Benjamin  ( Josh.  21.18) ;  and  at  last 
was  expelled  from  his  office  by  Solomon.  His  life 
was  spared  only  on  the  ground  of  his  services 
to  David  (1  K.  2.27-35).  [ABIMELECH,  4.] 


ABIE] 


[ABIMELECH 


•Budding  of  corn :  the  old  Canaanite  j 
name  for  the  first  month  of  the  sacred,  and 
seventh  of  the  civil,  year  of  the  Hebrews,  on 
the  fifteenth  of  which  Israel  left  Egypt  (Ex.  13.4). 
In  commemoration  of  this  deliverance  the 
Passover  moon  was  afterwards  made  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Jewish  year  (Ex.  12.2).  After 
the  Exile  the  name  was  changed  for  the  Baby- 
lonian Nisan  (March-April). 

Abi'da.— My  father  knoweth :  or,  Abidah,  son 
of  Midian  and  grandson  of  Abraham  ((?«*.  25.4 ; 
1  Ch.  1.33). 

Abi'dan.— My  father  judges:  chief  of  the 
tribe  of  Benjamin  at  the  time  of  the  Exodus ; 
took  part  in  the  numbering  of  the  people 
(Num.  1.11). 

Abi'el.— My  Father  is  God  :  1.  Father  of  Kish, 
grandfather  of  Saul  (1  Sam.  9.1),  as  well  as  of 
Abner,  Saul's commander-in-chief  (I/Sam.  14.51). 
2.  One  of  David's  mighty  men  (1  Ch.  11.32). 
In  2  Sam.  23.31  he  is  called  Abi-albon. 

Abie'zer.— My  father  is  help :  eldest  son  of 
Gilead,  and  descendant  of  Machir  and  Manasseh 
(Josh.  17.2 ;  Num.  26.30).  2.  One  of  David's 
mighty  men  (1  Sam.  23.37  ;  1  Ch.  11.28,  27.12). 
A  descendant  of  his  is  termed  the  Abiez'rite 
(Judg.  6.11). 

Abiga'il.— (?)  My  father  is  joy:  1.  The  beauti- 
ful wife  of  Nabal,  a  wealthy  owner  of  goats  and 
sheep  in  Carmel.  When  David's  messengers  were 
slighted  by  Nabal,  Abigail  took  the  blame  upon 
herself,  supplied  David  and  his  men  with  pro- 
visions, and  appeased  his  anger.  Ten  days  later 
Nabal  died,  and  Abigail  became  David's  wife. 
By  her  he  had  a  son,  called  Chileab  in  2  Sam.  3.3, 
but  Daniel  in  1  Ch.  3.1.  2.  A  sister  of  David, 
married  to  Jether,  the  Ishmaelite,  and  mother, 
by  him,  of  Amasa,  whom  Absalom  made  captain 
in  place  of  Joab  (2  Sam.  17.25,  marg.  ; 
1  Ch.  2.17). 

Abiha'iL— My  father  is  might :  1.  Father  of 
Zuriel,  chief  of  the  Levitical  family  of  Merari, 
a  contemporary  of  Moses  (Num.  3.35).  2.  Wife 
of  Abishur  (1  Ch.  2.29).  3.  See  1  Ch.  5.14. 
4.  Wife  of  King  Rehoboam,  the  son  of 
Solomon  (2  Ch.  11.18),  and  a  descendant  of 
Eliab,  the  elder  brother  of  David.  5.  Father  of 
Esther  and  uncle  of  Mordecai  (Esth.  2.15  ;  9.29). 
AbiTiu. — He  is  my  father,  i.e.  worshipper  of 
God  :  a  son  of  Aaron,  destroyed  with  his  brother 
Nadab  for  offering  strange  fire  (Num.  26.6 ; 
1  Ch.  24.2). 

AbiTiud.—  My  father  is  glory  :  see  1  Ch.  8.3. 
Abi'jah  or  Abi'jam. — Jehovah  is  Father:  1.  Son 
of  Rehoboam,  and  king  of  Judah  after  his 
father  (1  K.  14.31 ;  2  Ch.  12.16).  He  is  called 
Abijah  in  Chronicles  and  Abijam  in  Kings. 
Abijah  endeavoured  to  recover  the  kingdom 
of  the  ten  tribes  (Israel),  and  made  war  on 
Jeroboam.  He  was  successful  in  battle,  and 
took  the  cities  of  Bethel,  Jeshanah,  and 
Ephrain,  with  their  dependent  villages. 
After  his  victory  he  "waxed  mighty,  and  married 
fourteen  wives "  (2  Ch.  13.21).  He  only 
reigned  three  years,  and  the  latter  portion  of 
his  rule  was  wicked.  He  walked  in  all  the  sin 


of  his  father,  Rehoboam — idolatry  with  its 
accompanying  immoralities.  His  mother  was 
Maachah,  a  granddaughter  of  Solomon  (1  K.  15  ; 
2  Ch.  11.20,  and  marg.,  22).  2.  The  second 
son  of  Samuel  (1  Sam.  8.2,  R.V. ;  A.V.  has 
Allah,  and  so  both  A.V.  and  R.V.  in  1  Ch.  6.28). 
3.  The  son  of  Jeroboam,  first  King  of  Israel, 
in  whom  alone,  of  all  the  house  of  Jeroboam, 
was  found  some  good  thing  toward  the  Lord 
God  of  Israel,  and  who  was  therefore  the  only 
one  of  the  family  allowed  to  die  in  peace.  He 
died  in  his  childhood,  just  after  Jeroboam's 
wife  had  been  sent  in  disguise  to  seek  help  for 
him  in  his  sickness  from  the  prophet  Abijah 
(1  K.  14).  4.  A  descendant  of  Eleazar,  who 
gave  his  name  to  the  eighth  of  the  twenty- 
four  courses  into  which  the  priests  were  divided 
by  David  (1  Ch.  24.10).  5.  See  Neh.  10.7. 
6.  The  daughter  of  Zechariah,  wife  of  Ahaz  and 
mother  of  Hezekiah  (2  Ch.  29.1). 

Abile'ne. — A  plain:  a  tetrarchy,  mentioned  by 
Luke  as  under  the  rule  of  Lysanias  (Lk.  3.1). 
Abila  was  the  capital,  situated  on  the  eastern 
slope  of  Antilibanus,  in  a  district  fertilised 
by  the  river  Barada.  Tradition  associates 
Avila,  eighteen  miles  from  Damascus,  with  the 
death  of  Abel,  and  his  alleged  tomb,  called  Neby 
Havil,  rises  on  a  height  above  the  ruins  of  the 
city,  which  stands  in  a  remarkable  gorge,  where 
the  river  breaks  down  through  the  mountain 
towards  the  plain  of  Damascus. 

Abi'mael.— God  is  Father :  a  son  of  Joktan, 
of  the  family  of  Shem  (Gen.  10.26-28 ;  1  Ch. 
1.20,  22),  and  thus  the  progenitor  of  an  Arab 
tribe,  believed  to  have  settled  somewhere  in 
Arabia-Petraea. 

Abi'melech.— Melech  (king)  is  father :  1.  King 
of  Gerar  in  the  time  of  Abraham  (Gen.  20  and  21), 
who  took  Sarah  (the  wife  of  Abraham)  into 
his  harem.  Warned,  however,  by  God  in 
a  dream  as  to  his  inadvertent  offence,  he  re- 
stored Sarah,  and  made  a  covenant  of  peace 
with  Abraham  at  Beersheba.  2.  Another  king 
of  Gerar  in  the  time  of  Isaac  (Gen.  26),  who 
acted  in  regard  to  Rebekah  as  his  predecessor 
had  with  regard  to  Sarah.  After  a  dispute 
about  wells  (wells  in  dry  countries  are  frequently 
causes  of  trouble),  Abimelech  and  Isaac  became 
friends.  3.  Son  of  Gideon  (Judg.  8.31).  After  his 
father's  death  he  murdered  his  seventy  brethren, 
with  the  exception  of  Jotham,  who  concealed 
himself.  Then  through  the  influence  of  his 
mother's  brethren  (she  was  a  Shechemite)  he 
was  elected  king  of  Shechem,  which  became 
an  independent  state,  free  from  Israel.  Three 
years  later,  in  the  absence  of  Abimelech,  a 
rebellion  broke  out  in  the  city.  It  was  quelled 
by  Zebul,  the  governor,  who  expelled  Gaal,  the 
ring -leader,  utterly  destroyed  the  city,  and 
strewed  the  site  with  salt.  At  the  storming 
of  Thebez  a  woman  threw  a  piece  of  a  mill- 
stone on  to  the  head  of  Abimelech  (Judg.  9.53, 
54;  2  Sam.  11.21),  and  to  escape  the  disgrace  of 
dying  by  the  hand  of  a  woman  he  caused  his 
armour-bearer  to  kill  him.  4.  Son  of  Abiathar, 
the  high  priest  in  the  time  of  David  (1  Ch. 


ABINADAB] 


[ABOMINATION 


18.16);  in  2  5am.  8.17  he  is  called  Ahimelech, 
who,  according  to  1  Sam.  22.20,  etc.,  was  not 
son  but  father  of  Abiathar.  There  seems  to  be 
some  confusion  in  the  records,  which  has 
affected  the  reference  in  M k.  2.26.  [AHIMELECH.] 
5.  In  the  title  of  Ps.  34  this  name  is  appar- 
ently given  to  Achish,  king  of  Gath  (1  Sam. 
21.10-15). 

Abi'nadab.— My  father  it  noble:  1.  An 
Israelite  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  who  lived  near 
Kirjath-jearim,  and  in  whose  house  the  ark, 
after  being  sent  back  by  the  Philistines,  re- 
mained twenty  years  (15am.  7.1-2;  25am.  6.3-4; 
1  Ch.  13.7).  2.  Second  son  of  Jesse  (and 
therefore  brother  of  David),  who  fought  for 
Saul  in  the  war  against  the  Philistines  (1  Sam. 
16.8,  17.13;  1  Ch.  2.13).  3.  A  son  of  Saul 
slain  at  Gilboa  by  the  Philistines,  together  with 
his  brothers,  Jonathan  and  others  (1  Sam.  31.2 ; 
1  Ch.  8.33,  9.39,  10.2).  4.  Father  of  one  of 
Solomon's  officers  (1  K.  4.11 ;  but  R.V.  Ben- 
abinadab). 

Abi'noam. — My  father  is  pleasantness :  father 
of  Barak,  the  victor  over  Jabin  (Judg.  4  and 
5). 

Abi'ram. — My  father  is  the  lofty  one :  1.  A 
conspirator  with  Korah  and  Dathan  against 
Moses  and  Aaron  (Num.  16;  Deut.  11.6; 
Ps.  106.17).  2.  The  first-born  son  of  Hiel  the 
Bethelite.  As  Joshua  predicted  (Josh.  6.26), 
the  son  died,  or  was  sacrificed,  when  the  father 
laid  the  foundations  of  Jericho  (1  K.  16.34). 

Abi'shag. — My  father  has  wandered :  a  beauti- 
ful Shunammite  brought  to  cherish  David  in  his 
old  age  (1  K.  1.1-4).  After  David's  death 
Adonijah  (the  king's  fourth  son)  wished  to 
marry  her,  but  Solomon,  suspecting  a  treason- 
able design,  caused  Adonijah  to  be  put  to 
death  (1  K.  2.12-25). 

Abi'shai.— My  father  is  Jesse:  David's 
devoted  nephew,  the  eldest  son  of  his  sister 
Zeruiah  (1  Ch.  2.16).  He  went  with  David 
by  night  to  the  camp  of  Saul  (1  Sam.  26.6),  and 
would  have  slain  the  king  with  his  spear  had 
not  David  restrained  him.  Abishai  craved 
permission  to  slay  Shimei,  who  cursed  David 
while  fleeing  from  Absalom  (2  Sam.  16.9-14). 
Later  he  took  part  in  the  great  battle  which 
put  an  end  to  the  insurrection  of  Absalom 
(2  Sam.  20.6).  He  fought  victoriously  against 
the  Ammonites  (2  Sam.  10.10;  1  Ch.  19.11) 
and  against  the  Edomites  (2  5am.  8.13;  1  Ch. 
18.12).  He  aided  in  the  treacherous  murder  of 
Abner  (2  5am.  3.30),  and  in  the  pursuit  of 
Bichri  (2  5am.  20.6,  10).  In  a  war  with  the 
Philistines,  Abishai  rescued  David  from  im- 
pending death  at  the  hands  of  Ishbi-benob,  the 
giant,  whom  he  slew.  He  displayed  great 
valour  in  a  single-handed  contest  with  three 
hundred  men  (2  5am.  23.18  ;  1  Ch.  11.20). 

Abisha'lom. — My  father  is  peace :  the  name 
given  to  Absalom  in  1  K.  15.2,  10. 

Abi'shua,— My  father  is  safety:  1.  A  de- 
scendant of  Aaron  and  son  of  Phinehas  (1  Ch. 
6.4 ;  Ezra  7.5).  2.  Son  of  Bela,  the  son  of 
Benjamin  (1  Ch.  8.4). 


Abi'shur. — My  father  is  a  wall :  a  descendant 
of  Judah  and  son  of  Shammai  (1  Ch.  2.28). 

Abi'tal. — My  father  is  dew  :  one  of  David's 
wives  (2  5am.  3.4  ;  1  Ch.  3.3). 

Abi'tub. — My  father  is  goodness :  a  Benjamite 
(1  Ch.  8.11). 

Abi'ud. — A  descendant  of  Zorobabel,  in  the 
genealogy  of  Jesus  Christ  (Matt.  1.13). 

Ab'ner. — My  father  is  a  lamp :  the  commander- 
in-chief  of  Saul's  army.  Abner's  father, 
named  Ner,  was  the  brother  of  Saul's  father, 
named  Kish,  and  so  Abner  and  Saul  were  full 
cousins ;  he  brought  David  before  Saul  after 
the  fight  with  Goliath  (1  5am.  17.57),  and  went 
with  Saul  in  his  expedition  against  David 
(26.3-14).  Fire  years  after  the  death  of  Saul  and 
the  disastrous  defeat  by  the  Philistines  at 
Gilboa,  Abner  proclaimed  Ishbosheth,  Saul's 
son,  as  king  of  Israel ;  and  the  new  monarch  was 
generally  recognised  except  by  Judah,  where 
David  reigned.  A  war  between  the  rivals  ensued, 
and  a  battle  was  fought  at  Gibeon  between 
the  men  of  Israel  under  Abner  and  the  men 
of  Judah  under  Joab,  son  of  Zeruiah,  David's 
sister  (2  5am.  2.12-17).  Abner  was  defeated, 
and  was  personally  pursued  by  Joab's  youngest 
brother,  Asahel,  whom  Abner,  in  self-defence, 
reluctantly  killed.  Ishbosheth  foolishly  re- 
proached Abner  with  disl  )yal  designs,  because 
he  had  married  Rizpah,  Saul's  concubine. 
Abner,  indignant  at  the  charge,  went  over  to 
the  side  of  David,  who  promised  him  the  chief 
command  of  his  armies.  In  return  for  this 
Abner  was  to  win  over  Israel.  Before,  how- 
ever, he  could  do  anything  in  this  direction, 
he  was  treacherously  murdered  by  Joab  and 
his  brother  Abishai,  ostensibly  in  revenge  for 
the  death  of  Asahel,  but  really  out  of  a  jealous 
fear  that  Abner  would  dispossess  them  in  the 
favour  of  David.  The  treacherous  act  was 
viewed  by  David  with  indignation,  but  reasons 
of  state  caused  him  to  let  the  murder  go  un- 
avenged, though  he  showed  his  respect  for 
Abner  by  attending  his  funeral  and  speaking  a 
funeral  oration  over  the  body  (2  5am.  3.33,  34). 

Abomination. — A  term  especially  used  of  any 
object  or  practice  of  religious  abhorrence.  It 
is  applied  to  the  feeling  of  the  Egyptians  towards 
eating  with  the  Hebrews  (Gen.  43.32),  towards 
the  slaying  in  sacrifice  by  the  Israelites  of 
animals  held  sacred  (Ex.  8.26),  and  even  towards 
shepherds  (Gen.  46.34).  More  frequently  it 
refers  (representing  several  distinct  Hebrew 
words)  to  what  was  detested  by  Israel  or  Israel's 
God — unclean  meats  (Lev.  11),  stale  sacrificial 
flesh  (Lev.  7.18),  heathen  practices,  and,  especi- 
ally, idolatry  and  the  heathen  deities  (Jer.  4.1, 
7.30,  etc. ;  see  next  article). 

Abomination  of  Desolation.— In  His  prophecy 
of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  (Mk.  13.14) 
Jesus  gave  a  sign  to  His  disciples,  by  which  they 
should  know  that  the  event  was  now  imminent, 
and  take  to  flight  while  there  was  time.  "  When 
ye  see  the  abomination  of  desolation  (Matt,  adds 
'spoken  of  by  Daniel  the  prophet')  standing 
where  it  ought  not  (Matt.  '  stand  in  the  holy 


ABRAHAM] 


[ABRAHAM'S  BOSOM 


place')  .  .  .  then  let  them  that  be  in  Judaea  flee 
to  the  mountains."  InDaniel  (9.27, 11.31, 12.11) 
very  similar  phrases  are  used  of  the  attempt  of 
Antiochus  Epiphanes  to  abolish  Judaism, 
marked  by  the  profanation  of  the  Temple,  the 
suspension  of  the  sacrifices,  and  (hi  168  B.C.)  the 
setting  up  of  a  small  idol-altar  upon  the  Altar 
of  Burnt-offering  (see  1  Mace.  1,  where,  ver.  54, 
the  crowning  atrocity  of  this  idol-altar  is  called 
"  an  abomination  of  desolation  ").  The  exact 
fulfilment  of  the  prophecy  in  connection  with 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  (70  A.D.)  cannot 
be  determined.  Perhaps  it  is  satisfied  by  the 
desecration  of  the  Holy  Land  by  the  Roman 
armies  (so  Lk.  21.20) ;  or  it  may  refer  to  some 
more  specific  profanation  of  the  Temple. 

A'braham  [ATttam].— (The  probable  meaning 
of  Abram  is  The  Father  is  exalted ;  the  longer  form 
has  no  meaning,  but  suggests  by  similarity  of 
sound  the  Hebrew  for  "  father  of  a  multitude" 
Gen.  17.5.) 

The  ancestor  and  founder  of  the  Jewish  nation 
(Josh.  24.2;  1  K.  18.36;  Isai.  29.22;  Neh.  9.7, 
etc. ;  Matt.  1.1,  3.9,  etc.),  his  history  is  con- 
tained in  Gen.  11.26-25.10.  His  father,  Terah, 
descendant  of  Shem,  migrated  from  "  Ur  of  the 
Chaldees  "  with  his  son  Abram,  his  son's  wife 
Sarai,  and  his  nephew  Lot  to  Haran,  where  he 
made  a  home,  instead  of  completing  his  purpose 
to  "  go  into  the  land  of  Canaan  "  (Gen.  11.31). 
After  Terah's  death  Abram  heard  the  Divine  call 
to  leave  Haran,  and  received  the  first  of  a  succes- 
sion of  Divine  promises  of  future  greatness  and 
blessedness  (Gen.  12.1,  "And  Jehovah  said": 
the  A.V.  "  had  said"  transferring  the  call  to  Ur, 
is  incorrect,  and  apparently  is  due  to  the  trans- 
lators'desire  to  conform  the  narrative  to  Acts  7.2). 

Under  Divine  guidance,  the  family — Abram, 
Sarai,  and  Lot,  with  their  property  and  slaves — 
reach  Canaan,  and  we  find  Abraham  in  the 
rich  plain  of  Moreh,  near  Shechem,  and  under 
the  two  famous  hills  facing  each  other,  Ebal  and 
Gerizim.  Here  he  built  an  altar  to  Jehovah, 
and  received  the  first  distinct  promise  of  the 
land  for  his  inheritance  (Gen.  12.7).  His  second 
resting-place  was  in  the  strong  mountain  country 
between  Bethel  and  Ai,  where  he  dwelt  securely 
until  famine  drove  him  into  Egypt.  Here  his 
deceit  with  regard  to  Sarai  forced  him  into  a 
humiliating  position  with  respect  to  Pharaoh. 
His  wealth  and  power  were  now  become  con- 
siderable. After  his  return  from  Egypt  and 
separation  from  Lot,  he  found  a  resting-place  at 
Mamre  or  Hebron,  the  future  capital  of  Judah, 
situated  in  the  direct  line  of  communication 
from  Egypt,  and  opening  down  to  the  wilderness 
and  pasture  land  of  Beersheba.  In  the  attack 
on  Chedorlaomer  (Gen.  14),  Abram  appears  as 
the  head  of  a  small  confederacy  of  chiefs, 
powerful  enough  to  venture  on  a  long  pursuit 
to  the  head  of  the  valley  of  the  Jordan,  to 
attack  with  success  a  large  force,  and  not  only 
to  rescue  Lot,  but  to  roll  back  for  a  time  the 
stream  of  northern  invasion.  In  chap.  15  the 
promise  of  an  innumerable  seed  is  confirmed 
against  Abram'a  objection  that  he  U  childless, 


and  we  meet  with  the  declaration  of  Abram's 
faith,  afterwards  to  assume  such  prominence 
in  Jewish  and  Christian  theology,  that  "  he 
believed  in  the  Lord  ;  and  He  counted  it  to 
him  for  righteousness  "  (Gen.  15.6  ;  cf.  Rom.  4.3, 
9.7 ;  Gal.  3.6 ;  Jas.  2.23).  The  promise  is 
ratified  by  a  "  covenant  "  between  Jehovah  and 
Abram  ;  but  before  it  is  fulfilled  in  the  birth  of 
Isaac,  faith  is  tested  by  delay  and  strengthened 
by  moral  discipline.  Chaps.  16-20  contain 
narratives  of  the  birth  of  a  son,  Ishmael,  to 
Abram  and  Hagar  (Sarai's  handmaid) ;  the 
institution  of  circumcision  as  seal  of  the  cove- 
nant, with  the  change  of  names  from  Abram  to 
Abraham,  from  Sarai  to  Sarah ;  the  visit  of 
angels  and  specific  promise  of  a  son. to  Abraham 
and  Sarah  within  a  year  ;  Abraham's  pleading 
for  Sodom,  the  destruction  of  the  cities  of  the 
plain,  and  escape  of  Lot ;  a  second  deception 
in  regard  to  Sarah  (cf.  chap.  12,  and  see 
ABIMBLBCH). 

After  the  birth  of  Isaac,  and  expulsion  of 
Ishmael  in  favour  of  the  "  child  of  promise  " 
(chap.  21),  history  is  silent  for  some  years,  until 
in  Isaac's  boyhood  there  comes  the  crowning 
trial  of  Abraham's  faith  in  the  command  to 
offer  up  his  son  in  sacrifice  (chap.  22).  In  view  of 
the  widespread  practice  of  human  sacrifices  in 
the  surrounding  nations,  such  a  command  might 
readily  be  regarded,  without  moral  repugnance, 
as  the  Divine  will.  The  sequel  not  only  vindi- 
cated Abraham's  faith,  but  declared  that  to 
the  God  of  Israel  "  obedience  "  was  better  than 
"  sacrifice."  Though  the  life  of  Abraham  was 
prolonged  for  fifty  years  after  this  event,  the  only 
other  incidents  recorded  in  detail  are  the  death  of 
Sarah  and  the  purchase  of  the  cave  of  Machpelah 
for  a  burying-place  (chap.  23),  and  the  marriage 
of  Isaac  with  Rebekah  (chap.  24).  The  death  of 
Sarah  took  place  at  Kirjath-arba,  i.e.  Hebron,  so 
that  Abraham  must  have  returned  from  Beer- 
sbeba  to  his  old  home.  It  is  significant  (Acts  7.5) 
that  the  only  inheritance  of  Abraham  in  the 
land  of  promise  should  be  a  tomb  (cf.  Gen.  50.13). 
In  the  beautiful  story  of  Isaac's  marriage, 
Abraham's  refusal  to  ally  his  son  with  the 
idolatrous  Canaanites  is  specially  noteworthy. 
The  history  closes  with  the  mention  of  his 
marriage  with  Keturah  and  of  his  death  at  the 
age  of  175.  He  was  laid  to  rest  by  his  heir 
Isaac  and  the  outcast  Ishmael  in  the  cave  of 
Machpelah,  by  the  side  of  Sarah.  In  the  N.T. 
Abraham  represents  the  true  ideal  of  religion, 
whether  judged  by  his  faith  (Rom.  4.16-22)  or  by 
his  works  ( Jas.  2.21-23).  Our  Lord  even  says  of 
him,  "  Your  father  Abraham  rejoiced  to  see  my 
day  "  (John  8.56).  In  Jas.  2.23  he  is  called 
"  the  friend  of  God  "  (cf.  Isai.  41.8  ;  2  Ch.  20.7), 
a  designation  which  among  the  Arabs  has  super- 
seded his  proper  name  (Khalil  Allah,  or  simply 
El  Khalil,  the  Friend). 

Abraham's  Bosom. — At  the  meals  of  the 
Jews  the  guests  reclined  on  couches,  each  one 
leaning  himself  on  his  left  arm,  and  so  his 
neighbour  next  below  him  might  be  described 
as  lying  in  his  bosom  (cf.  John  13.33).  The 


ABEAM] 


[ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES 


bosom  of  Abraham,  therefore,  the  father  of  the 
race,  indicated  a  position  of  great  honour  and 
blessedness  after  death  (Lk.  16.22.) 

A'bram.— [ABRAHAM.] 

Ab'salom. — My  father  is  peace:  third  and 
favourite  son  of  David,  born  in  Hebron,  of 
Maacah  (2  Sam.  3.3.)  He  first  becomes  con- 
spicuous as  the  avenger  of  his  sister  Tamar, 
who  had  been  violated  by  her  half-brother 
Amnon,  David's  eldest  son  by  Ahinoam,  the 
Jezreelitess.  After  the  murder  of  Amnon, 
Absalom  fled  to  his  father-in-law's  court  at 
Geshur.  Three  years  later  David  was  per- 
suaded to  allow  his  son  to  return,  but  he  re- 
fused to  see  him  for  two  more  years,  though 
he  dwelt  in  Jerusalem,  Thereafter  David 
gave  him  the  kiss  of  reconciliation.  Absalom 
was  now  David's  eldest  surviving  son,  but, 
fearing  that  he  might  be  supplanted  by  Bath- 
sheba's  child,  he  began  courting  popularity  and 
keeping  a  splendid  retinue.  Finally  he  rose 
in  rebellion  against  his  father,  was  at  first  suc- 
cessful, but  subsequently  captured  and  slain  by 
Joab,  in  spite  of  the  prohibition  of  David,  who 
still  loved  him  dearly  (2  Sam.  3,  and  13-18). 

Ac'cad. — A  city  in  Shinar,  sixteen  miles 
west  of  Baghdad,  mentioned  with  Babel,  Erech, 
and  Calneh,  as  forming  part  of  Nimrod's  king- 
dom (Gen.  10.10). 

Ac'cho.— (R.V.  Aoco):  called  afterwards 
Ptolemais,  and  Saint  Jean  d'Acre,  the  modern 
Akka;  a  place  of  importance  on  the  Syrian 
coast,  about  thirty  miles  south  of  Tyre.  It  is 
situated  on  the  Bay  of  Acre,  an  inlet  formed 
by  the  bold  headland  of  Carmel,  which  juts  into 
the  Mediterranean.  In  the  division  of  Canaan 
among  the  tribes,  Accho  was  allotted  to  Asher, 
but  was  never  wrested  from  its  original  inhabi- 
tants (Judg.  1.31),  and  hence  is  reckoned 
among  the  cities  of  Phoenicia.  The  only 
reference  to  it  in  the  N.T.  (Ptolemais)  relates  to 
St.  Paul's  passage  from  Tyre  to  Caesarea 
(Acts  21.7). 

Acelda'ma  (R.V.  Akeldama).— The  field  of 
blood :  the  piece  of  ground  at  Jerusalem  pur- 
chased with  the  thirty  pieces  of  silver  which  Judas 
received  for  betraying  Jesus  (Acts  1.19).  The 
traditional  site  is  now  called  Hakk-ed-Dumm, 
and  lies  at  the  east  end  of  a  broad  terrace  on  the 
southern  slope  of  the  valley  of  Hinnom,  not  far 
from  the  pool  of  Siloam. 

Achai'a.— In  the  N.T.  the  word  is  used  to 
designate  a  Roman  province  which  included 
the  whole  of  Peloponnesus  and  the  greater  part 
of  Hellas  proper,  with  the  adjacent  islands. 
Achaia  and  Macedonia  together  comprised 
the  whole  of  Greece  (Acts  19.21 ;  Rom,  15.26). 
At  the  time  when  Paul  was  brought  before 
Gallio  (Acts  18.12),  Achaia  was  governed  by  a 
proconsul  on  behalf  of  the  Roman  Senate. 

Achai'cus. — A  Corinthian  who  visited  Paul 
at  Ephesus  (1  Cor.  18.17). 

A'chan.— (In  1  Ch.  2.7.  Achar,  troubled) : 
one  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.  At  the  destruction 
of  Jericho  by  Joshua  he  stole  part  of  the  spoil 
and  hid  it,  an  uilence  for  which  he  and  his 


whole  family  were  stoned  to  death  (Josh.  7). 
For  this  event  the  place  where  the  punishment 
was  carried  out  received  the  name  of  Achor. 

[ACHOR.] 

A'char.— [ACHAN.] 

A'chaz. — In  our  Lord's  genealogy  an  ancestor 
of  Joseph  (Malt.  1.9 ;  R.V.  Ahaz). 

Ach'bor. — A  mouse :  1.  Father  of  a  king  of 
Edom  (Gen.  36.38;  1  Ch.  1.49).  2.  A  messenger 
of  Josiah's  sent  to  inquire  as  to  the  denuncia- 
tion of  wrath  against  the  national  sins  recorded 
in  the  Book  of  the  Law  found  by  Hilkiah  in 
the  temple  (2  K.  22.12-14 ;  Jer.  26.22,  36.12). 
Achbor  is  called  Abdon  in  2  Ch.  34.20. 

A'chim. — In  our  Lord's  genealogy  an  ancestor 
of  Joseph  (Matt.  1.14). 

A'chish. — A  Philistine  king  of  Gath  with  whom 
David  twice  found  refuge  when  he  fled  from 
Saul  (1  Sam.  21  and  27).  In  the  title  of  the 
34th  Psalm  he  is  called  Abimelech.  Probably 
the  Achish  of  1  K.  2.39-40  is  the  same  person. 

Achme'tha. — The  capital  of  Media,  the  later 
Ecbatana  and  the  modern  Hamadan,  one  of 
the  chief  cities  of  Persia  (Ezra  6.2). 

Achor. — Valley  of  trouble :  the  spot  at  which 
Achan  and  his  family  were  stoned  and  buried 
( Josh.  7.24-26 ;  Eos.  2.15).  It  is  now  the  Wady 
Kelt,  south  of  Jericho. 

Achsa.— Anklet :  the  daughter  of  Caleb 
(1  Ch.  2.49),  promised  in  marriage  by  her  father 
to  whoever  should  take  Debir.  Othniel,  her 
father's  younger  brother,  won  her  (Judg.  1.11-15). 

Ach'shaph. — Enchanted :  a  city  within  the 
territory  of  Asher  (Josh.  19.25),  previously  the 
seat  of'  a  Canaanite  king,  defeated  by  Joshua 
(Josh.  11.1). 

Ach'zib.— Winter-torrent  or  falsehood  '  1.  A 
city  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.44  and  Mic.  1.14), 
thought  to  be  the  same  with  Chezib  and  Chozeba. 
Judah  was  at  Chezib  when  the  Canaanitess 
Shua  bare  his  third  son  Shelah  (Gen.  38.5). 
The  "  men  of  Chozeba  "  are  mentioned  (1  Ch. 
4.22)  as  amongst  the  descendants  of  Shelah. 
2.  A  town  belonging  to  Asher  in  which  the 
Canaanites  were  permitted  to  remain  (Josh. 
19.29  ;  Judg.  1.31).  It  is  now  ez-Zib,  a  small 
village  on  the  seashore  a  few  miles  north  of 
Akka.  After  the  captivity  it  marked  the 
extreme  northern  limit  of  Palestine. 

Acts  of  the  Apostles.— Title  and  Plan.— The 
title  of  the  book  in  the  oldest  MSS.  is  simply 
"  Acts  "  or  "  Acts  of  Apostles."  The  indefinite- 
ness  well  fits  the  selective  character  of  the 
contents.  The  opening  words  link  on  the 
narrative  of  the  Acts  to  that  of  the  Gospel. 
Whether  the  expression  "  all  that  Jesus  began 
to  do  and  to  teach  "  is  intended  to  suggest  that 
the  writer  is  going  to  record  the  continuance  of 
His  work  through  the  Apostles,  is  uncertain. 
Possibly  the  phrase  means  simply  "  did  at  the 
first,"  the  contrast  being  not  between  the  first 
and  second  stages  of  one  work,  nut  between 
the  work  of  Jesus  and  that  of  the  "  Apostles 
whom  he  had  chosen."  Its  theme  is  set  forth  in 
1.8,  "  But  ye  shall  receive  power,  after  that  the 
Holy  Ghost  is  come  upon  you  ;  and  ye  shall  be 


ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES] 


[ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES 


My  witnesses  unto  Me  both  in  Jerusalem,  and 
in  all  Judaea,  and  in  Samaria,  and  unto  the 
uttermost  part  of  the  earth." 

The  plan,  thus  informally  indicated,  is  easily 
recognised  in  the  structure  of  the  book.  The 
miracle  of  Pentecost  is  followed  by  the  witness 
of  the  Apostles,  and  the  growth  of  the  Church  in 
the  three  stages,  Jerusalem  (chaps.  2-7),  Judaea, 
and  Samaria  (chaps.  8-12),  "  unto  the  uttermost 
part  of  the  earth  "  (chaps.  13-28).  The  outward 
progress  of  the  Church  is  accompanied  by  inward 
growth,  especially  in  its  gradual  emancipation 
from  Judaism  ;  the  third  stage  is  almost  wholly 
identified  with  the  labours  of  Paul. 

The  Author.  —  External  testimony  from 
Irenseus  downwards  is  unanimous  in  attributing 
both  Acts  and  the  third  Gospel  to  Luke.  It  is 
universally  admitted  that  in  the  "  travel- 
document,"  first  appearing  in  the  "we"  of  16.10, 
we  have  the  contemporary  record  of  a  companion 
of  Paul.  Even  for  this  other  names  have  been 
suggested,  apparently  on  no  other  ground  than 
that  it  is  a  "  disadvantage  to  an  hypothesis 
that  it  should  have  some  amount  of  historical 
attestation."  But  Silas  and  Timothy  are  really 
excluded  by  the  phraseology  of  the  "tee-sections  " 
(cf.  16.17, 19,  20.4,  5),  and  if  the  name  of  Titus 
is  rendered  possible  by  the  absence  of  any 
mention  of  him  in  Acts,  there  is  nothing  to  give 
him  preference  over  the  positive  tradition  in 
favour  of  Luke.  So  little  is  known  of  Luke 
that  it  is  difficult  to  find  internal  confirmation 
of  the  tradition.  One  such,  however,  may  be 
noted.  Paul  speaks  of  Luke  as  "  the  beloved 
physician"  (Col  4.14).  Examination  of  the 
Gospel  and  the  Acts  shows  that  the  author 
drops  naturally  into  the  use  of  medical  phrase- 
ology. But  granting  that  the  "  travel-docu- 
ment "  is  from  the  pen  of  an  actual  companion 
of  Paul,  and  that  Luke  has  the  best  claim 
to  its  authorship,  does  this  certify  the  whole 
book  as  his  ?  Inquiry  shows  that  the  argu- 
ment for  a  single  authorship  is  unassailable. 
It  rests  upon  (1)  unity  of  plan  and  treat- 
ment, (2)  linguistic  characteristics — vocabulary 
and  style — pervading  the  whole  book,  (3) 
cross-references.  How  then  did  it  come  to 
pass  that  this  skilful  and  capable  author  of  a 
subsequent  age,  here  and  there,  by  his  use 
of  we,  represents  himself  as  sharing  in  the 
events  he  chronicles  ?  The  only  reasonable 
explanation  is,  that  at  Troas  the  author 
did  join  Paul,  accompanied  him  to  Philippi, 
remained  there  till  the  Apostle  returned,  and 
was  with  him  thenceforth  till  he  reached  Rome. 
So  far  as  the  evidence  goes,  we  are  on  safe 
ground  in  ascribing  both  Acts  and  the  third 
Gospel  to  a  companion  of  Paul's  travels,  and  in 
identifying  him  with  "  Luke  the  beloved 
physician." 

Sources.  -  -  The  *  travel-document  "  thus 
appears  as  Luke's  own  notes,  supplemented 
by  memory  and  research.  For  the  rest  we 
may  suppose  that  Luke  would  follow  the 
method  suggested  in  Lk.  1.1-4.  With  Paul 
he  would  have  leisurely  intercourse  at  Caesarea, 


Melita,  and  Rome,  where,  it  may  well  be,  he 
subsequently  met  with  Peter.  At  any  rate, 
Mark,  "  the  interpreter  of  Peter,"  was  with  him 
in  Rome  (Col.  4.10 ;  Phil.  24),  and  could 
no  doubt  supply  information  about  those 
early  events  in  Jerusalem  of  which  his  mother's 
house  was  a  centre.  At  Caesarea  Luke  stayed 
with  Philip  the  evangelist  (21.8),  and  in  Jeru- 
salem met  James  and  the  elders  (21.18).  It  is 
entirely  probable  that  the  interval  of  two 
years  between  the  arrest  and  the  departure 
for  Rome  were  used  by  Luke  in  collecting 
authentic  material  for  a  work  already  pro- 
jected. 

Date. — The  closing  words  (28.30,  31)  bring 
the  history  down  to  the  year  62.  It  has  been 
argued  that  the  somewhat  abrupt  ending  indi- 
cates the  limitation  of  the  writer's  knowledge, 
and  so  that  the  book  was  written  about  63. 
It  is  hardly  probable  that  Luke's  Gospel  was 
written  before  70,  and  the  Acts  is  later.  This 
and  other  slight  indications,  external  and 
internal,  lead  to  about  80  A.D.  as  perhaps  the 
most  probable  date  that  can  be  assigned. 

Historical  Value — The  general  impression 
that  the  book  gives,  of  the  truthful  narrative 
of  a  careful  historian,  guided  by  the  Holy 
Spirit,  is  confirmed  at  many  points.  So  long 
ago  as  1790,  Paley,  in  his  Hora  Paulines,  traced 
the  "  undesigned  coincidences  "  between  Acts 
and  the  Pauline  Epistles  in  an  argument 
which  has  by  no  means  lost  its  value.  The 
details  of  chap.  27  have  been  vindicated  in  the 
monograph  of  James  Smith  of  Jordanhill,  The 
Voyage  and  Shipwreck  of  St.  Paul  (1848),  still 
a  standard  authority.  In  recent  years  brilliant 
work  has  been  done  on  the  Acts  by  Prof.  W.  M. 
Ramsay,  of  Aberdeen,  especially  in  his  books  The 
Church  in  the  Roman  Empire  (1893),  and  St. 
Paul  the  Traveller  and  the  Roman  Citizen  (1895). 
Some  main  results  of  modern  investigation  are 
gathered  together  by  Dr.  F.  H.  Chase  in  his 
Hulsean  Lectures,  The  Credibility  of  the  Book 
of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (1902). 

The  contents  of  the  Book  may  be  summarised 
as  follows : — 

I.  The  first  portion  of  the  history,  devoted 
entirely  to  the  CHURCH  IN  JERUSALEM,  narrates 
the  filling  up  of  the  apostolic  body  (1) :    the 
first  manifestation  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  according 
to  promise  (2) ;  and  the  growth  and  prosperity 
of  the  Church  amidst  trials  and  disturbances 
from  within  and  without,  until  it  is  dispersed 
for    a    time    by   persecution    (3-7).       In    this 
period  special  prominence  is  given  to  Peter's 
early  addresses,  which  present  the  Gospel  as 
the  fulfilment  of  prophecy  and  the  completion 
of  "  the  covenant  made  with  the  fathers  "  ; 
and  to   Stephen's    historical  speech,   showing 
that  God's  dealings  with  ancient  Israel  were 
progressive,  and  that  the  connection  of  religious 
privilege  with  place  and  outward  circumstance 
was  temporary. 

II.  Then  follows  an  account  of  the  further 
diffusion  of  the  truth,  by  the  introduction  of 
the  Gospel  to  SAMABIA,  and  the  conversion  of 


ADADAH] 


8 


[ADDER 


a  proselyte  from  ETHIOPIA  (8) ;  then,  as  an 
introduction  to  the  missionary  history  of  the 
Church,  the  conversion  and  call  of  him  who 
was  to  be  the  "  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles  "  (9) ; 
the  opening  of  the  door  of  faith  to  the  uncircum- 
cised  at  OESARBA,  through  St.  Peter's  preach- 
ing ;  and  the  evangelisation  of  the  heathen  at 
ANTIOCH,  where  Paul  first  takes  up  his  special 
mission  (10,  11) ;  and  lastly,  the  death  of  one 
and  th«  deliverance  of  another  of  the  leaders  of 
the  Mother  Church  at  Jerusalem,  which  then 
ceases  to  be  the  chief  subject  of  the  history  (12). 

III.  The  third  portion,  starting  from  Antioch, 
the  great  centre  of  the  Gentile  Church,  begins 
with  another  interposition  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
and  follows  the  journeys  of  St.  Paul,  in  three 
great  missionary  circuits.  This  apostle  every- 
where addresses  himself  first  to  the  Jews,  but 
is  everywhere  rejected  and  persecuted  by 
them ;  while  Gentiles  crowd  to  hear  the  word, 
so  that  numerous  churches  rise  up  under  his 
ministry  in  the  chief  seats  of  heathen  civilisa- 
tion (13-20).  At  last,  when  he  visits 
Jerusalem  in  circumstances  peculiarly  fitted  to 
conciliate  his  countrymen,  he  is  attacked, 
arrested,  and  sent  as  a  prisoner  to  Csesarea, 
whence,  after  a  remarkable  series  of  defences 
of  himself  and  his  doctrine,  he  is  sent  to  take 
his  trial  before  the  Emperor  in  the  metropolis 
of  the  Gentile  world.  Even  there  he  once 
more  appeals  to  his  countrymen,  closing  with 
the  ancient  prophetic  lamentation  over  their 
wilful  blindness,  and  a  declaration  that  "  the 
salvation  of  God  is  sent  unto  the  Gentiles,  and 
that  they  will  hear  it  "  (21-28). 

Out  of  his  numerous  discourses  on  these 
missionary  journeys,  a  few  are  selected  as 
specimens  of  his  line  of  argument  and  manner 
of  address  to  different  classes  of  hearers.  That 
in  the  synagogue  in  Pisidia  (13)  is  an  example 
of  his  addresses  to  the  Jews ;  that  at  Lystra 
(14)  contains  the  arguments  which  he  used 
to  the  ruder  heathen;  that  at  Athens  (17) 
those  which  were  adapted  to  the  more  educated 
Greeks  ;  and  that  at  Miletus  (20)  his  admoni- 
tions to  the  pastors  of  his  widely  scattered 
converts. 

Ada  dah. — A  city  in  the  extreme  south  of 
Judah  (Josh.  15.22). 

A 'dah.  —  Ornament,  beauty:  1.  Wife  of 
Lamech  and  mother  of  Jabal  and  Jubal  (Gen. 
4.19).  2.  Wife  of  Esau,  mother  of  Eliphaz, 
and  so  the  ancestress  of  several  tribes  of  the 
Edomites  (Gen.  36.10).  She  is  called  Bashemath 
in  Gen.  26.34. 

Ada  iah.— Pleasing  to  Jehovah  :  1.  Maternal 
grandfather  of  King  Josiah  (2  K.  22.1).  2.  A 
Levite  (1  Ch.  6.41).  3.  A  Benjamite  (1  Ch. 
8.21).  4.  A  priest,  son  of  Jeroham  (1  Ch.  9.12 ; 
Neh.  11.12),  who  returned  with  two  hundred  and 
forty-two  others  from  Babylon.  5.  The  father 
of  a  captain  who  aided  Jeboiada  to  put  Joash 
on  the  throne  of  Judah  (2  Ch.  23.1).  6.  A  de- 
scendant of  Bani.  He  had  married  a  foreign  wife 
(Eua  10.29).  7.  Another  of  a  different  family 
of  Bani,  who  had  also  taken  a  foreign  wife 


(Ezra    10.39).      8.    A    descendant   of    Judah 
(Neh.  11.5). 

Ada'lia. — One  of  the  ten  sons  of  Hainan 
slain  and  afterwards  hanged  with  their  father 
(Esih.  9.8). 

Ad'am.— (Prob.  red):  1.  The  name  of  the  first 
man,  whose  creation  is  recorded  in  Gen.  1  and  2. 
He  was  formed  "  of  the  dust  of  the  ground  " 
(2.7),  in  God's  "  image  "  and  "  likeness  "  (1.26), 
given  authority  over  other  created  things  (1.26), 
and  placed  in  the  Garden  of  Eden  (2.8),  with  his 
wife,  Eve  (2.22).  Eve  yielded  to  temptation 
by  the  Serpent  (3.5),  ate  of  the  forbidden  fruit 
of  the  "  tree  of  the  knowledge  of  good  and 
evil "  (2.17,  3.6),  and  gave  of  it  to  Adam. 
As  a  result,  their  eyes  were  opened  (3.7) ;  and 
their  disobedience  was  punished  by  a  complete 
change  of  earthly  conditions,  which  included 
expulsion  from  Eden  (3.24).  The  curse  pro- 
nounced upon  the  Serpent  foreshadows  a  re- 
deemer (Gen.  3.15)  found  in  the  Lord  Jesus, 
who  is  by  St.  Paul  presented  as  the  Repairer 
of  the  loss  sustained  by  mankind  in  the  Fall 
(1  Cor.  15.22,  45).  [FALL.] 

2.  A  city  on  the  Jordan,  mentioned  in  con- 
nection with  the  passage  of  the  children  of 
Israel  (Josh.  3.16),  now  Ed-Damieh. 

Ada 'man. — Red  earth :  a  fortified  city  of 
Naphtali  (Josh.  19.36). 

Adamant.  —  A  Greek  word  (from  which  is 
derived  Eng.  diamond)  meaning  "  unconquer- 
able," and  applied  originally  to  the  hardest 
metal,  thus  metaphorically  to  anything  fixed 
and  unalterable.  It  occurs  twice  in  O.T.  as 
a  translation  of  the  Hebrew  shamir,  some  stone 
of  extreme  hardness  (prob.  corundum,  crystal- 
lised alumina)  used  for  cutting  purposes  (Ezek. 
3.9;  Zech.  7.12).  The  same  Hebrew  word  is 
rendered  diamond  in  Jer.  17.1. 

Ada 'mi.  —  Red  land :  a  city  of  Naphtali 
(Josh.  19.33,  A.V.),  more  probably  Adami- 
nekeb  (R.V.),  i.e.  the  Pass  of  Adami. 

A'dar. — Glorious:  1.  The  (Babylonian)  name 
of  the  twelfth  month  of  the  Jewish  sacred  year 
(February— March)  (Ezra  6.15 ;  Esih.  3.7,  etc.). 
It  was  doubled  seven  times  in  nineteen  years 
to  synchronise  the  lunar  and  the  solar  years. 
2.  A  town  on  the  boundary  of  Judah  (Josh. 
15.3,  A.V. ;  the  R.V.  has  Addar). 

AdT)eel.— Third  of  the  twelve  sons  of  Ishmael 
(Gen.  25.13  ;  1  Ch.  1.29),  and  thus  the  progeni- 
tor of  an  Arab  tribe. 

Ad  dan. — Strong  :  the  name  of  a  place  from 
which  some  of  the  inhabitants,  who  could  not 
show  their  pedigree  as  Israelites,  nevertheless 
returned  from  the  captivity  with  Zerubbabel 
to  Jerusalem  (Eera  2.59).  In  Neh.  7.61,  Addon. 
Adder.— The  A.V.  and  R.V.  use  this  word 
as  a  translation  of  four  distinct  Hebrew  words, 
signifying  in  general  any  poisonous  snake 
(Gen.  49.17;  Ps.  58.4,  91.13,  140.3;  Prov. 
23.32 ;  also  R.V.  marg.  Isai.  11.8,  14.29,  59.5 ; 
Jer.  8.17).  Thirty-three  species  of  the  serpent 
tribe  are  known  in  Palestine,  but  only  six  of 
these  are  poisonous.  The  prejudice  against 
the  serpent  tribe  was  probably  as  strong  among 


ADDI] 

the  Jews  as  among  the  Arabs  at  the  present  day, 
who  kill  all  snakes  when  they  have  the  oppor- 
tunity, and  believe  many  of  the  harmless  species 
to  be  poisonous.  Hence  the  poison  of  venomous 
serpents  is  employed  in  the  Scriptures  to  express 
the  evil  tempers  of  ungodly  men. 

Only  in  one  passage  is  the  exact  species  of 
serpent  known  with  any  degree  of  certainty, 
namely  in  Gen.  49.17,  "  Dan  shall  be  a  serpent 
in  the  way,  an  adder  (margin,  or  horned  snake) 
in  the  path,  that  biteth  the  horses'  heels,  so 
that  his  rider  falleth  backward  "  (R.V.).  This 
adder  is  the  cerastes  of  naturalists,  the  well- 
known  horned  snake.  It  is  the  habit  of  this 
extremely  venomous  viper — its  bite  causes  the 
certain  death  of  a  man  within  half  an  hour — to 
lurk  in  the  rut  of  wheels  and  the  depression  of  a 
footprint  by  the  roadside,  and  to  bite  the  legs 
of  unwary  passers-by,  or  of  horses  or  cattle. 
Horses,  aware  of  its  nature,  are  said  to  be  in 
terror  of  the  cerastes,  and  cannot  be  induced 
to  proceed,  once  they  have  detected  the  con- 
cealed reptile.  It  derives  its  name  of "  horned  " 
from  the  presence  of  two  protuberances,  one 
over  each  eye.  It  is  of  a  greyish  tint,  about 
a  foot  long,  and  very  active.  By  comparing 
the  tribe  of  Dan  to  this  wily  serpent 
the  Patriarch  intimated  that  by  stratagem 
more  than  by  open  bravery,  they  should  avenge 
themselves  of  their  enemies  and  extend  their 
conquests.  This  was  illustrated  by  the  wily 
manner  in  which  Samson,  a  Danite,  destroyed 
his  Philistine  foes. 

Ad'di.— An  ancestor  of  Jesus  Christ  (Lk.  3.28). 

Ad'don. — [ADDAN.] 

A'der.— See  1  Ch.  8.15  :  R.V.  Eder. 

A'diel. — Ornament  of  God :  1.  A  prince  of 
the  tribe  of  Simeon,  descended  from  Shimei 
(1  Ch.  4.36).  2.  A  descendant  of  Aaron  (1  Ch. 
9.12).  3.  Father  of  David's  treasurer  (1  Ch. 
27.25). 

A 'din. — Delicate  :  an  ancestor  of  some  who 
returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
2.15  and  8.6).  They  covenanted  to  separate 
themselves  from  the  heathen  (Neh.  10.16). 

Adi'na. — Delicate  :  a  Reubenite  captain  under 
David  (1  Ch.  11.42). 

Ad'ino. — One  of  David's  valiant  men  (2  Sam. 
23.8). 

Aditha'im. — Double  passage :  a  city  in  the 
lowlands  of  Judah  ( Josh.  15.36). 

Ad'lai. — Father  of  Shaphat,  who  was  overseer 
of  the  herds  "  in  the  valleys  "  in  David's  time 
(1  Ch.  27.29). 

Ad'mah. — Red  earth  :  one  of  the  cities  of  the 
plain  destroyed  with  Sodom  and  Gomorrah 
(Gen.  10.19,  14.2,  8  ;  Deut.  29.23  ;  Eos.  11.8). 

Adma'tha. — One  of  the  seven  princes  of 
Persia  (Esth.  1.14). 

Ad'na. — Pleasure :  1.  One  of  the  family  of 
Pahath-Moab.  He  took  a  foreign  wife  during  the 
exile  (Ezra  10.30).  2.  A  priest  (Neh.  12.15). 

Ad'nah. — 1.  A  captain  of  Manasseh  who  left 
Saul  and  joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Ch.  12.20). 
2.  The  chief  captain  of  Johoshaphat's  army  of 
300,000  men  of  Judah  (2  Ch.  17.14). 


[ADOPTION 

Adonibe  zek. — Bezek  is  my  lord :  king  of 
Bezek  (a  city  of  the  Canaanites),  vanquished 
by  Judah  (Judg.  1.3-7),  who  cut  off  his  thumbs 
and  great  toes,  and  brought  him  prisoner  to 
Jerusalem,  where  he  died.  Adonibezek  himself 
had  inflicted  the  same  cruelty  upon  seventy 
petty  kings,  whom  he  had  captured.  This 
practice  had  a  military  purpose  behind  it,  viz. 
to  unfit  those  thus  mutilated  from  again  taking 
the  field. 

Adoni'jah. — Jehovah  is  Lord  :  1.  The  fourth 
son  of  David,  born  at  Hebron,  while  his  father 
was  King  of  Judah  (2  Sam.  3.4).  In  the  closing 
years  of  David's  reign  Adonijah,  now  the  eldest 
surviving  son,  gathered  round  him  an  influential 
party,  and  began  to  put  forward  his  pretensions 
to  the  succession.  But  David  promised  Bath- 
sheba  that  her  son,  Solomon,  should  be  king 
after  him,  and  gave  orders  that  Solomon  should 
be  conducted  on  the  royal  mule  (see  MORDECAI  ) 
to  Gihon,  west  of  Jerusalem.  Here  he  was 
anointed  and  proclaimed  king  by  Zadok, 
and  joyfully  recognised  by  the  people.  This 
decisive  measure  struck  terror  into  the  opposite 
party,  and  Adonijah  fled  to  the  sanctuary.  He 
was  pardoned  by  Solomon,  on  condition  that  he 
should  "  show  himself  a  worthy  man,"  and  with 
the  threat  that  if  wickedness  were  found  in 
him  he  should  die  (1  K.  1). 

After  the  death  of  David,  Adonijah  sought 
Solomon's  consent  to  his  marriage  with  Abishag, 
who  had  been  the  wife  of  David  in  his  old  age. 
Solomon  thought  he  perceived  a  treasonable 
design  in  this  proposal,  and  caused  Adonijah  to 
be  put  to  death  (1  K.  2.25). 

2.  One  of  the  Levites  sent  out  by  Jehoshaphat 
to  teach  the  law  (2  Ch.  17.8). 

3.  A    Jewish    chief   who,    with    Nehemiah, 
sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  10.18).     [See  ADONI- 

KAM.] 

Adoni'kam. — My  Lord  has  arisen  :  head  of  a 
Jewish  family  in  the  time  of  Ezra.  Of  his 
"  children  "  666  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.13 ;  Neh.  7.18),  and  the  re- 
mainder with  Ezra  (Ezra  8.13).  In  Neh.  10.16 
his  name  is  given  as  Adonijah. 

Adoni'ram.— My  Lord  is  exalted^  chief  re- 
ceiver of  the  tribute  under  David  (2  Sam.  20.24), 
Solomon  (1  K.  4.6),  and  Rehoboam  (1  K.  12.18). 
The  name  is  written  A  dor  am  in  2  Sam.  20.24  ; 
1  K.  12.18. 

Adonize'dek. — Lord  of  righteousness :  king  of 
Jerusalem,  who,  with  four  other  Amorite  princes, 
formed  a  league  against  Joshua.  Being  de- 
feated, they  took  refuge  in  a  cave  at  Makkedah, 
where  they  were  captured  and  slain,  and  their 
bodies  hung  upon  trees  until  evening-time, 
when  they  were  buried  in  the  cave  in  which  they 
had  taken  refuge  (Josh.  10.1-27). 

Adoption,— A  term  by  which  Paul  expresses 
the  relationship  conveyed  by  the  phrases  sons 
or  children  of  God.  In  Rom.  8.15-23,  9.4; 
Gal.  4.5;  \Eph.  1.5,  the  reference  is  to  the 
Roman  legal  custom,  by  which  the  adopted 
child  took  the  name  of  his  new  father,  and  be- 
came bis  heir.  The  relationship  was  to  all  in- 


ADOEAIM] 


10 


[ADVOCATE 


tents  and  purposes  the  same  as  existed  between 
a  natural  father  and  son. 

The  ceremony  of  adoption  was  a  civil  contract, 
which  not  only  placed  the  child  adopted  in  the 
full  privileges  and  rights  of  a  son,  but  also  gave 
the  new  parent  any  property  possessed  by  the 
new  son,  as  well  as  the  full  rights  of  a  natural 
father.  Among  the  Jews,  however,  the  strict 
laws  relating  to  the  succession  of  property  pre- 
vented such  full  and  complete  adoption,  so 
that  while  they  followed  all  other  nations  in  this 
beautiful  custom  in  its  social  aspect,  there  could 
be  no  legal  act  binding  on  either  party  (see 
Gen.  15.3,  16.2,  30.5-10). 

The  custom  of  adoption  has  been  practised  by 
all  nations  in  all  times.  Civil  adoption  was 
allowed  and  provided  for  the  relief  and  comfort 
of  those  who  had  no  children  ;  but  in  spiritual 
adoption  this  reason  does  not  appear.  The 
Almighty  adopts  believers,  and  they  become 
the  children  of  God,  not  from  any  excellence 
in  themselves,  but  because  of  His  goodness. 
Pharaoh's  daughter  adopted  Moses  because  of 
his  fair  face  (Acts  7.20,  21) ;  Mordecai  adopted 
Esther  for  the  same  reason,  and  because  of  her 
relationship  to  him  (Esth.  2.7) ;  but  man  has 
nothing  in  him  that  merits  adoption  by  God 
(Ezck.  16.5).  Further,  in  spiritual  adoption  the 
new  son  receives  not  only  a  new  name  but  a 
new  nature  ;  he  becomes  partaker  of  the  Divine 
nature  (2  Pet.  1.4). 

Adora'im. — Double  mound  :  a  fortified  city  in 
the  lowlands  of  Judah,  built  by  Rehoboam 
(2  Ch.  11.9),  generally  identified  with  the  modern 
Dura,  a  large  village  on  the  slope  of  a  hill,  five 
miles  south-west  of  Hebron.  Near  it  is  the  cele- 
brated tomb  of  Neby  Nuh  (Noah). 
Ado'ram.— [ADONIEAM.] 
Adram'melech. — 1.  An  idol  of  the  Sepharvites 
whom  Shalmaneser  n.,  king  of  Assyria,  brought 
to  colonise  the  cities  of  Samaria,  after  carrying 
their  inhabitants  captive  (2  K.  17.31).  This  idol 
was  worshipped  with  rites  similar  to  those  of 
Moloch,  children  being  sacrificed  to  it.  2.  A  son  of 
Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria,who,with  his  brother 
Sharezer,  slew  his  father  in  the  temple  where  the 
god  Nis"och  was  worshipped  (2  K.  19.37). 

Adramyt'tium. — A  seaport  of  Mysia,  in  Asia 
Minor,  colonised  by  the  Athenians  (Acts  27.2). 
The  modern  Edremid  or  Adramyti  is  a  fair  village 
with  some  trade  in  timber.  Adramyttium  gives 
its  name  to  a  gulf  on  the  coast  opposite  the  Isle 
of  Lesbos.  Now  called  Adramyti. 

A'dria,  A'drias.— The  Adriatic  Sea  or  Gulf  of 
Venice.  The  name,  in  Paul's  time,  also  implied 
part  of  the  Mediterranean  between  Greece  and 
Sicily  (Acts  27.27). 

A'driel.— A  son  of  Barzillai  the  Meholathite, 
to  whom  Saul  gave  his  daughter  Merab,  although 
he  had  promised  her  to  David  (1  Sam.  18.19). 
Adriel's  five  sons  were  among  the  seven  descend- 
ants of  Saul  whom  David  surrendered  to  the 
Gibeouites  (2  Sam.  21.9)  in  satisfaction  for  the 
endeavours  of  Saul  to  extirpate  them,  although 
the  Israelites  had  originally  made  a  league 
with  the  Gibeonites  (Josh.  9.15). 


Adnl'lam.— A  city  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.35), 
the  seat  of  a  Canaanite  king  (Josh.  12.15),  evi- 
dently a  place  of  great  antiquity  (Gen.  38.1-20), 
now  known  as  'Aid-el-Ma.  There  were  many 
caves  in  the  limestone  cliffs  of  the  neighbourhood 
which  were  the  resort  of  David  and  his  com- 
panions ;  thither  his  father's  house  and  his 
brethren  went  down  to  him  from  Bethlehem 
(1  Sam.  22.1).  It  was  the  scene  also  of  the 
gallant  act  of  the  three  "mighty  men"  who  risked 
their  lives  to  bring  David  water  from  Bethlehem 
(2  Sam.  23.14-17;  1  Ch.  11.15-19).  The  city  of 
Adullam  was  fortified  by  Rehoboam  (2  Cft.11.7), 
and  was  one  of  the  towns  reoccupied  by  the 
Jews  after  their  return  from  Babylon  (Neh. 
11.30).  There  are  still  many  caves  in  the  lime- 
stone hills  of  the  neighbourhood. 

Adul'lamite.— A  native  of  Adullam,  the  term 
used  of  Hirah,  the  friend  of  Judah  (Gen.  38.1-20). 
The  word  has  come,  in  modern  English,  to 
denote  a  person  who  with  others  retires  in 
discontent  from  his  associates,  forming  a  small 
party  or  "  cave." 

Adul'tery.— The  act  is  forbidden  in  theseventh 
commandment  (Ex.  20.14;  Deut.  5.18).  The 
Mosaic  penalty  was  that  both  the  guilty  parties 
should  be  stoned  to  death  (Lev.  20.10  ;  Deut. 
22.22-24).  For  the  account  of  the  trial  of 
impurity  by  the  administration  of  the  "bitter 
water"  to  the  suspected  woman,  see  Num. 
5.11-29.  The  references  by  the  prophets  to 
adultery  indicate  a  low  state  of  morals 
(Isai.  57.3;  Jer.  23.10;  Eos.  7.4).  It  is 
probable  that  after  the  captivity,  when  the 
marriage  tie  became  a  looser  bond  of  union, 
the  death  penalty  was  seldom,  if  ever,  inflicted. 
The  word  used  in  Matt.  1.19,  meaning  to  make 
a  public  example,  probably  signifies  to  bring 
the  case  before  the  local  council,  which  was  the 
usual  course.  Joseph  did  not  purpose  to  take  it, 
preferring  repudiation,  because  that  could  be 
managed  privately.  Adultery  was  used  figura- 
tively to  express  the  unfaithfulness  of  the 
Hebrew  people  to  God.  The  figure  was  the 
more  appropriate  because  of  the  impure  rites 
associated  with  idol  worship  (Ezek.  16).  So 
also  our  Lord  spoke  of  an  "  adulterous  "  genera- 
tion (Matt.  12.39).  [See  MARRIAGE.] 

The  chief  N.T.  passages  bearing  on  adultery 
are  in  reference  to  divorce  or  separation,  viz. 
Matt.  5.31-32, 19.6;  Mk.  10.11,  12;  Lk.  16.18; 
John  8.3-11 ;  Rom.  7.2,  3;  1  Cor.  7.10,  11,  39. 

Adum'mim. — The  ascent  of  (blood  or  red) :  a 
ridge  west  of  Gilgal  (Josh.  15.7).  Still  called 
Tal'at  ed-Dumm,  "  the  ascent  of  blood," 
from  the  red  colour  of  the  rocks. 

Advocate. — The  Greek  word  (represented  in 
English  by  the  word  Paraclete)  rendered 
"  Advocate "  in  1  John  2.1  is  applied  also  to 
the  Holy  Spirit  in  John  14.16,  26,  15.26,  16.7, 
where  the  A.V.  "  Comforter "  is  retained  by 
R.V.  with  margin,  "or  Advocate  or  Helper." 
The  rendering  *'  Comforter "  may,  perhaps, 
be  justified  in  its  original  sense  of  "  strength- 
ener,"  but  hardly  in  its  modern  one  of  "  con- 
soler." For  the  "  paraclete  "  is  literally  "  one 


.ENEASJ 


11 


[AHAB 


called  to  one's  side,"  to  help,  especially  against 
a  legal  accusation  (Lat.  advocatus).  The 
Christian  has,  whether  in  the  Holy  Spirit  or 
in  Jesus  Christ,  One  who  champions  his  cause. 
[See  HOLY  SPIRIT.] 

2En'eas.— A  Greek  Jew  of  Lydda,  cured  by 
Peter  of  the  palsy  (Acts  9.33-35). 

SS'non. — Springs :  a  place  where  John 
baptized  (John  3.23),  west  of  the  Jordan.  Its 
present  name  is  Ainun,  a  village  six  or  seven 
miles  up  the  Wady  Fur'ah,  north  of  Salim,  be- 
tween which  and  ^Enon  are  springs  and  a 
copious  stream,  in  a  broad,  open  valley. 

Ag'abus. — A  prophet  from  Jerusalem  who  went 
to  Paul  at  Antioch  and  foretold  a  great  famine 
(Actsll.28).  Later  he  prophesied  Paul's  arrest 
and  deliverance  into  the  hands  of  the  Gentiles 
(Acts  21.10, 11). 

A 'gag. — Violent:  the  king  of  the  Amalekites 
(I  Sam.  15),  whose  life  Saul  spared  in  dis- 
obedience to  the  Divine  command.  Samuel 
declared  that  for  this  offence  the  succession 
should  pass  from  Saul's  family,  and  himself 
sent  for  Agag  and  hewed  him  in  pieces.  Hainan, 
tne  Agagite,  whose  fate  is  told  in  Esther,  was 
believed  by  the  Jews  to  be  a  descendant  of 
Agag ;  hence  his  hatred  for  their  race.  In 
Num.  24.7  the  name  Agag  seems  to  be  used  as  a 
general  title  of  the  Amalekite  kings. 

Agagite.— [AGAG.] 

Agar. — [H  AGAB.  ] 

Agee.  —  Fugitive :  a  Hararite,  father  of 
Shammah,  one  of  David's  three  mightiest 
heroes  (2  Sam.  23.11). 

Agriculture.— Palestine,  with  the  exception 
of  the  southernmost  portion,  was  a  fairly  well 
watered  region  of  mountains  and  valleys 
(Deut.  8.7-9).  The  "early  rain"  begins  in 
October.  It  is  not  continuous,  but  intermittent, 
and  thus  enables  the  cultivator  to  sow  wheat 
and  barley.  It  continues  to  fall  at  intervals 
during  November  and  December,  and  even  occurs 
as  late  as  March  and  April  (latter  rain).  All  the 
remaining  months  till  October  there  is  cloud- 
less weather.  As  soon  as  the  ground  in  October 
has  been  softened  by  showers,  the  sowing  of  the 
wheat,  barley,  and  lentils  begins.  The  plough 
of  the  ancient  Hebrew  probably  resembled  its 
modern  counterpart  very  closely,  consisting  of  a 
pole  made  of  two  pieces,  to  which  a  cross-piece 
was  fastened,  to  which  the  pair  of  oxen  were 
attached.  At  the  other  end  a  piece  was  inserted 
at  an  obtuse  angle,  terminating  in  the  share  at 
the  lower  end,  and  a  rude  sort  of  handle  at  the 
upper.  The  oxen  were  driven  with  a  goad, 
furnished  with  an  iron  point,  which  was  also 
employed  for  breaking  up  the  clods  or  clearing 
the  plough. 

Harvest  commences  at  the  end  of  March  or 
beginning  of  April.  The  barley  harvest  came 
first,  and  that  of  wheat  came  last,  in  the  middle 
of  May.  The  entire  harvesting  lasted  seven 
weeks.  The  corn  was  reaped  by  a  sickle,  and 
the  stalks  were  gathered  into  sheaves  or  heaps 
and  conveyed  to  the  threshing-floor,  consisting 
of  a  circular  piece  of  ground  some  twenty  yards 


across,  exposed  to  the  wind.  Here  the  grain 
was  freed  from  the  husk  by  the  trampling  of 
oxen  or  asses.  Small  portions  of  corn  were 
sometimes  threshed  with  a  staff  or  rude  flail 
(Isai.  28.27) ;  but  more  frequently  the  instru- 
ment employed  was  the  "  threshing  sledge,"  a 
plank  fitted  with  sharp-pointed  stones,  which 
were  fixed  into  holes  in  the  bottom.  This  was 
drawn  by  the  oxen  over  the  corn,  the  driver 
often  sitting  on  the  sledge  to  increase  the  weight. 
Another  variety  of  the  threshing  sledge  con- 
sisted of  a  small  framework  upon  wheels,  shaip 
iron  blades  being  attached  to  the  wheels,  so 
as  to  cut  through  the  corn. 

The  harvest  was  stored  up  in  subterranean 
chambers  (Jer.  41.8).  In  exchange  for  silver 
and  gold  and  luxuries,  Palestine  supplied  stores 
of  grain  to  the  markets  of  Tyro  and  Sidon,  where 
was  gathered  together  the  merchandise  of  all 
nations,  from  Spain  to  India.  In  Ezekiei's  de- 
scriptions of  the  greatness  of  Tyre  he  mentions 
wheat  among  the  chief  articles  imported  from 
Judah  in  his  own  time,  sixth  century  B.C.  [See 
also  WINNOW,  etc.]  A  special  deputation  came 
(about  44  A.D.)  to  King  Herod  Agrippa  from 
Tyre  and  Sidon,  asking  for  peace,  because  their 
country  was  fed  from  the  king's  country  (Acts 
12.20).  (And  see  Whitehouse,  Primer  of  Hebrew 
Antiquities,  84-95.) 

Agrippa. — A  member  of  the  Herodian  family. 
Agrippa  I. — Appointed  to  rule  over  all 
Palestine  by  Caligula.  He  killed  James,  the 
son  of  Zebedee,  and  put  Peter  in  prison  (Acts 
12.1).  He  died  a  terrible  death  at  Csesarea 
(Acts  12.23). 

Agrippa  II. — Son  of  the  former  king,  and 
Governor  (Acts  25.26)  before  whom  Paul  spoke 
as  recorded  in  Acts  26.  Like  others  of  his  family, 
he  was  profligate  in  his  life.  He  died  at  Rome 
100  A.D. 

A'gur. — Collector,  or  hireling :  known  only 
from  the  mention  in  Prov.  30.1,  "  The  words  of 
Agur  the  son  of  Jakeh,"  and  apparently  the 
author  of  the  striking  sayings  contained  in  this 
chapter. 

ATiab. — Father's  brother :  son  of  Ornri, 
seventh  king  of  Israel,  and  second  of  his 
house  to  sit  on  that  throne.  His  history  is 
given  in  1  K.  16-22.  He  married  Jezebel, 
daughter  of  Ethbaal,  king  of  Tyre,  who  was  a 
worshipper  of  Baal,  and  had  been  a  priest  of 
the  goddess  Astarte  before  he  deposed  his 
brother  and  seized  the  throne.  Ahab's  reign  was 
distinguished  by  the  ministry  of  Elijah,  who 
strongly  opposed  Jezebel  when  she  introduced 
into  Israel  the  worship  of  Baal  and  Astarte. 
[See  ELIJAH.]  Jezebel  not  only  led  her  husband 
into  heathenism  and  idolatry,  but  also  into 
wanton  extravagance.  Thus  he  was  instigated 
to  his  great  crime  against  Naboth,  whose  vine- 
yard Ahab  desired  to  add  to  the  pleasure-grounds 
of  his  new  palace  at  Jezreel.  Naboth  refused 
to  sell  his  land  on  the  ground  that,  in  accordance 
with  the  Mosaic  law,  the  vineyard  was  the 
"inheritance  of  his  fathers."  Accordingly  a 
charge  of  blasphemy  was  brought  against 


AHARAH] 


12 


[AHBAN 


Naboth,  and  he  and  his  sons  were  stoned  to 
death  (2  K.  9.26).  Elijah  declared  that  the 
destruction  of  Ahab'i  house  would  be  the 
penalty  of  this  atrocity. 

A  great  part  of  Ahab's  reign  was  occupied 
by  three  campaigns  against  Benhadad  n.,  king 
of  Damascus.  In  the  first  two  he  was  completely 
victorious.  At  the  end  of  the  second  campaign 
Benhadad  fell  into  the  hands  of  Ahab  ;  but  was 
released  on  condition  of  restoring  all  the  cities 
of  Israel  which  he  held,  and  making  "  streets  " 
for  Ahab  in  Damascus  (1  K.  20.34) ;  that  is, 
admitting  into  his  capital  permanent  Hebrew 
commissioners,  in  an  independent  position, 
with  special  dwellings  for  themselves  and  their 
retinues,  to  watch  over  the  commercial  and 
political  interests  of  Ahab  and  his  subjects. 
God's  blessing  was  vrithheld  from  the  third 
campaign.  The  prophet  Micaiah  warned  Ahab 
that  it  would  fail,  and  that  the  prophets  who 
ad  vised  it  were  hurrying  him  to  his  ruin.  Ahab, 
on  going  into  battle,  disguised  himself  so  as 
not  to  offer  a  conspicuous  mark  to  the  archers 
of  Benhadad.  But  be  was  slain  by  "  a  certain 
man  "  who  "  drew  a  bow  at  a  venture."  When 
his  body  was  brought  to  be  buried  in  Samaria, 
the  dogs  licked  up  his  blood  as  a  servant  was 
washing  his  chariot  (1  K.  22.37,  38). 

2.  The  son  of  the  false  prophet  Kolaiah,  who 
misled  the  Babylonian  Israelites.  He  was  put 
to  death  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (Jer.  29.21). 

Aha'rah. — Third  son  of  Benjamin  (1  Ch.  8.1). 
Also  called  Aher  (1  Ch.  7.12),  and  Ahiram 
(Num.  26.38). 

Ahar'hel — A  descendant  of  Judah  through 
Caleb  (1  Ch.  4.8). 

Aha'sai.— A  priest  (Neh.  11.13)  called 
Jahzerah  in  1  Ch.  9.12. 

Ahas'bai. — The  father  of  Eliphelet,  one  of 
David's  captains  (2  Sam.  23.34). 

Ahasue'rus. — 1.  The  father  of  Darius  the 
Mede  (Dan.  9.1).  [SeeDAEius.]  2.  Ahasuerus, 
king  of  Persia,  is  mentioned  in  Ezra  4.6.  The 
enemies  of  the  Jews,  after  the  death  of  Cyrus, 
desirous  to  frustrate  the  building  of  Jerusalem, 
sent  accusations  against  them  to  Ahasuerus. 
He  may  be  identified  with  3  below.  3.  The 
Ahasuerus  of  the  book  of  Esther  is  to  be  identified 
with  Xerxes,  son  of  Darius  Hystaspis,  best 
known  for  his  invasion  of  Greece  and  his  defeat 
at  the  battle  of  Salamis,  480  B.C.  He  divorced 
his  queen  Vashti  for  refusing  to  appear  in  public 
at  a  banquet,  and  four  years  afterwards  married 
the  Jewess  Esther,  cousin  and  ward  of  Mordecai. 
Five  years  after  this,  Hainan,  one  of  his  coun- 
sellors, having  been  slighted  by  Mordecai,  pre- 
vailed upon  the  king  to  order  the  destruction  of 
all  the  Jews  in  the  Empire.  But  before  the 
day  appointed  for  the  massacre,  Esther  and 
Mordecai  overthrew  the  influence  which  Haman 
had  exercised,  and  so  completely  changed  the 
king's  feelings  in  the  matter  that  they  induced 
him  to  put  Haman  to  death,  and  to  give  the 
Jews  the  right  of  self-defence.  This  they  used 
so  vigorously  that  they  killed  several  thousands 
of  their  opponents.  [ESTHER.] 


Aha'va. — A  place  or  river  near  the  Euphrates. 
Here  Ezra  assembled  the  second  expedition 
which  returned  with  him  from  Babylon  to  Jeru- 
salem (Etra  8). 

A'haz. — Possessor:  1.  The  son  of  Jotham,  and 
the  eleventh  king  of  Judah  (2  K.  16 ;  2  Ch.  28). 
At  his  accession,  Rezin,  king  of  Damascus,  and 
Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  formed  a  league  against 
Judah,  and  proceeded  to  lay  siege  to  Jerusalem. 
Isaiah  exhorted  Ahaz  to  vigorous  opposition, 
and  the  enterprise  failed  (Isai.  7.3-9).  The 
allies,  however,  took  a  vast  number  of  captives 
(2  Ch.  28),  who  were  restored  as  a  result  of  the 
remonstrances  of  the  prophet  Oded,  and  they 
also  inflicted  a  most  severe  injury  on  Judah 
(2  K.  16)  by  the  capture  of  Elath,  a  flourishing 
port  on  the  Red  Sea,  in  which,  after  expelling 
the  Jews,  they  re-established  the  Syrians. 
Ahaz,  in  the  midst  of  these  troubles,  appealed 
for  help  to  Tiglath-pileser,  who  invaded  Syria, 
took  Damascus,  killed  Rezin,  and  deprived 
Israel  of  its  northern  and  trans-Jordanic  dis- 
tricts. Ahaz,  in  return  for  these  services,  became 
tributary  to  Tiglath-pileser,  sent  him  all  the 
treasures  of  the  Temple  and  of  his  own  palace, 
and  even  appeared  before  him  in  Damascus  as 
a  vassal.  Ahaz  fell  into  the  idolatrous  worship 
and  ceremonial  of  the  Assyrians,  and,  when  he 
died  after  a  reign  of  sixteen  years,  he  was  not 
buried  with  the  kings  (2  Ch.  28.27). 

2.  A  great-grandson  of  Jonathan  (1  Ch.  8.35, 
9.42). 

Ahazi'ah. — Whom  Jehovah  possesses  :  I.  Son 
of  Ahab  and  Jezebel,  and  eighth  king  of  Israel. 
He  was  about  to  set  out  on  an  expedition  against 
the  vassal  king  of  Moab,  who  had  rebelled,  when 
he  was  seriously  injured  by  a  fall  through  a 
lattice  in  his  palace  at  Samaria.  In  his  health 
he  had  worshipped  his  mother's  gods,  and  now  he 
sent  to  inquire  of  the  oracle  and  Beelzebub  in 
the  Philistine  city  ot  JLnron  whether  he  would 
recover  his  health.  Elijah  rebuked  him  for  this 
impiety,  and  prophesied  his  approaching  death. 
He  reigned  for  two  years  in  all  (1  K.  22.51-53  ; 
2  K.  1). 

2.  Fifth  king  of  Judah,  son  of  Jehoram  and 
Athaliah,  daughter  of  Ahab,and  therefore  nephew 
of  the  preceding  Ahaziah.  He  is  called  Azariah 
in  2  Ch.  22.6,  and  Jehoahaz  in  2  Ch.  21.17. 
Ahaziah,  an  idolater,  successfully  allied  himself 
with  his  uncle  Jehoram,  king  of  Israel,  against 
Hazael,  king  of  Syria.  The  union  between 
uncle  and  nephew  was  so  close  that  there  was 
great  danger  lest  heathenism  should  entirely 
overspread  both  the  Hebrew  kingdoms.  This 
was  prevented  by  the  great  revolution  carried  out 
in  Israel  by  Jehu,  under  the  guidance  of  Elisha. 
While  Ahaziah  was  visiting  his  uncle  at  Jezreel, 
Jehu  approached  the  town.  The  two  kings 
went  out  to  meet  him,  but  Jehu's  arrow 
pierced  the  heart  of  Jehoram,  while  Ahaziah 
was  pursued,  and  mortally  wounded.  He 
had  reigned  only  one  year  (2  K.  8.25-29, 
and  9). 

Ah'ban. — Brother  of  the  intelligent :  a  member 
of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  2.29). 


AHER] 


13 


[AHIMELECH 


A 'her.— Another :  a  Benjamite  (1  Ch.  7.12), 
probably  the  same  as  Ahiram. 

Alii.— Brother  :  1.  A  chief  man  in  Gad  (1  Ch. 
5.15).  2.  An  Israelite  of  the  tribe  of  Asher 
(1  Ch.  7.34). 

Ahi'ah. — [AHIJAH.] 

Ahi'am. — A  mother's  brother  :  one  of  David's 
thirty  mighty  men  (2  Sam.  23.33). 

Ahi'an.— Brotherly  :  a  Manassite  (1  Ch.  7.19). 

Ahiez'er. — My  brother  is  help  :  1.  A  chief  of  the 
tribe  of  Dan  in  the  time  of  Moses  (Num.  1.12, 
2.25,  7.66-71,  10.25).  2.  The  Benjamite 
chief  of  a  body  of  archers  at  the  time  of  David 
(1  Ch.  12.3). 

Ahi'hud. — My  brother  is  majesty  :  1.  Prince  of 
the  tribe  of  Asher,  selected  to  assist  Joshua  and 
Eleazar  in  the  division  of  the  Promised  Land 
(Num.  34.27).  2.  A  Benjamite  (1  Ch.  8.7). 

Ahi'jah  or  Ahi'an. — Brother  of  Jehovah  : 
1.  A  priest  in  Shiloh.  The  ark  of  God  was  under 
his  care,  and  he  inquired  of  the  Lord  by  means 
of  it  and  the  ephod  (1  Sam.  14.18).  Probably 
identical  with  the  Ahimelech  of  1  Sam.  21  : 
both  were  sons  of  Ahitub  (1  Sam.  14.3,  22.9) ; 
and  "  brother  of  the  King  "  (Ahimelech)  may 
well  be  a  paraphrase  of  "  brother  of  Jehovah  " 
(Abijah).  2.  Son  of  Bela  (1  Ch.  8.7),  thought 
to  be  the  same  as  Ahoah  (1  Ch.  8.4).  3.  Son 
of  Jerahmeel  (1  Ch.  2.25).  4,  One  of  David's 
mighty  men  (1  Ch.  11.36).  5.  A  Levite  in 
David's  reign,  who  was  over  the  treasures  of  the 
House  of  God  and  over  the  treasures  of  the 
dedicated  things  (1  Ch.  26.20).  6.  One  of 
Solomon's  princes  (1  KA.3).  7.  A  prophet  of 
Shiloh  (1  K.  14.2),  hence  called  the  Shilonite 
(1  K.  11.29),  in  the  days  of  Solomon  and  of 
Jeroboam,  king  of  Israel.  Two  remarkable 
prophecies  by  him  are  extant.  The  first,  addressed 
to  Jeroboam,  announced  the  rending  of  the  ten 
tribes  from  Solomon  in  punishment  of  his  idola- 
tries, andthe  transfer  of  the  kingdom  to  Jeroboam. 
Solomon  came  to  know  of  this  prophecy,  and 
Jeroboam  fled  for  his  life  to  Shishak  in  Egypt, 
where  he  remained  until  Solomon's  death  (1  K. 
11.29-40).  The  second  prophecy,  inl  K.  14.6-16, 
was  delivered  to  Jeroboam's  wife,  who  had  come 
in  disguise  to  inquire  concerning  her  son  Abijah, 
who  was  sick.  Ahijah  foretold  the  lad's  death, 
also  the  destruction  of  Jeroboam's  house,  on 
account  of  his  idolatry,  and  the  captivity  of 
Israel  beyond  the  river  Euphrates.  8.  Father  of 
King  Baasha  (1  K.  15.27,  33).  9.  One  of  the 
heads  of  the  people  who  sealed  the  covenant 
with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  10.26). 

Ahi'kam.  —  My  brother  has  arisen.  When 
Shaphan,  the  scribe,  brought  to  King  Josiah 
the  Book  of  the  Law  which  Hilkiah,  the  high 
priest,  had  found  in  the  Temple,  Ahikam,  his 
son,  was  sent  by  the  king,  with  four  other 
delegates,  to  consult  Huldah,  the  prophetess 
(2  K.  22).  In  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim,  when  the 
priests  and  prophets  arraigned  Jeremiah  before 
the  princes  of  Judah  on  account  of  his  bold 
denunciations  of  the  national  sins,  Ahikam  used 
his  influence  te  protect  the  prophet  (Jer.  26.24). 
His  son  Gedaliah  was  made  governor 


of  Judah  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  the  Chaldean 
king,  and  to  his  charge  Jeremiah  was  entrusted 
when  released  from  prison  (Jer.  39.14,  40.5). 

Ahi'lud.— 1.  Father  of  Jehoshaphat  (2  Sam. 
8.16).  2.  Father  of  Baana  (1  K.  4.12). 
Possibly  the  two  are  identical. 

Ahi'maaz. — My  brother  is  anger  :  1.  Father 
of  Saul's  wife,  Ahinoam  (1  Sam.  14.50). 

2.  Son  of  Zadok,  the  priest  in  David's  reign. 
When  David  fled  from  Jerusalem  on  account  of 
Absalom's    rebellion,     Zadok    and     Abiathar, 
accompanied    by    their    sons,    Ahimaaz    and 
Jonathan  and  the  Levites,  carried  the  ark  of  God 
forth,  intending  to  accompany  the  king.     But 
at  his  bidding   they  returned   to  the  city,  as 
did  likewise  Hushai  the  Archite  (2  Sam.  15). 
It  was  arranged  that  Hushai  should  pretend  to 
be  a  friend  of  Absalom,  and  should  tell  Zadok 
and  Abiathar  about  anything  that  was  going 
forward  in  the  palace,  and  the  news  was  to  be 
taken  to  David  by  Ahimaaz  and  Jonathan,  who 
remained  at  En-rogel  outside  the  walls  of  the 
city  (2  Sam.  17.17).     A  message  soon  came  that 
Ahithophel  had  counselled  an   immediate  at- 
tack against  David  and  his  followers,  and  that 
the  king  ought  to  cross  the   Jordan  at  once, 
Absalom    heard    of   this   message,    and   com- 
manded Ahimaaz  and  Jonathan  to  be  pursued. 
They  reached  Bahurim,  where  the  woman  of  the 
house  hid  them  in  a  well  of  the  courtyard,  and 
covered  the  well's  mouth  with  ground  or  bruised 
corn.   Accordingly,  Absalom's  servants  searched 
for  them  in  vain,  and  Ahimaaz  and  Jonathan 
were  enabled  to  deliver  their  message  to  David, 
who,  with  his  whole  company,  crossed  the  Jordan 
that  very  night  (2  Sam.  17). 

The  last  we  hear  of  Ahimaaz  is  in  connection 
with  the  death  of  Absalom  at  the  hands  of  Joab 
and  bis  armour-bearers.  Ahimaaz  pleaded  hard 
with  Joab  to  be  allowed  to  carry  the  tidings  to 
David.  Joab,  being  friendly  to  Ahimaaz,  and 
knowing  how  distressing  the  news  would  be  to 
the  king,  did  not  grant  this  request,  but  sent 
Cushi  instead.  Even  after  Cushi  had  started 
Ahimaaz  still  pleaded  with  Joab  to  be  sent, 
and  at  length  his  request  was  granted.  Taking 
a  short  cut,  Ahimaaz  reached  David  before 
Cushi  and  informed  the  king  of  the  victory, 
making  no  mention  of  the  death  of  Absalom, 
leaving  to  Cushi,  with  Oriental  cunning,  the  un- 
pleasant task  of  this  announcement  (2  Sam.  18). 

3.  One  of   Solomon's   officers   who  had  the 
charge  of  victualling  the  king's  household  for  one 
month  in  the  year.     He  was  the  king's  son-in- 
law,    having    married    his   daughter    Basmath 
(1  K.  4.15). 

Ahi'man. — Brother  of  Man  (a  deity) :  1. 
One  of  the  three  giant  "  children  of  Anak,"  or 
Anakim,  who  inhabited  Hebron  (Num.  13.22), 
seen  by  Caleb  and  the  spies.  Nearly  the  whole 
race  was  cut  off  by  Joshua  (Josh.  11.21),  and 
these  three  were  exterminated  by  the  tribe  of 
Judah  (Judg.  1.10).  Possibly  the  names  are 
tribal  rather  than  personal.  2.  A  Levite  porter 
in  the  temple  (I  Ch.  9.17). 

Ahi'melech. — Brother   of   a   king  :     1.  High 


AHIMOTH] 


14 


[AIJALON,  AJALON 


priest  at  Nob  in  the  days  of  Saul.  He  gave 
David  the  shewbread  and  the  sword  of  Goliath, 
and  for  so  doing  was  put  to  death  with  his 
whole  house,  numbering  eighty-five  priests,  by 
Saul's  order.  Abiathar  alone  escaped  (1  Sam. 
22.9-20).  [ABIMELECH.]  2.  One  of  David's 
companions  while  he  was  persecuted  by  Saul 
(1  Sam.  26.6). 

Ahi'moth.— Brother  of  death:  a  Levite  (1  Ch. 
6.25). 

Ahi'nadab.— My  'brother  it  noble:  one  of 
Solomon's  twelve  commissaries  who  supplied 
provisions  for  the  royal  household  (1  K.  4.14). 

Ahi'noam. — My  brother  is  grace:  1.  Wife  of 
Saul,  first  king  of  Israel  (1  Sam.  14.50).  2.  A 
woman  of  Jezreel  who  became  the  wife  of  David 
during  his  wandering  (1  Sam.  25.43),  and  went 
with  him  and  his  other  wife,  Abigail,  to  the  court 
of  Achish  in  Gath  (1  Sam.  27.3).  She  was  mother 
of  Amnon,  David's  eldest  son  (2  Sam.  3.2). 

Ahi'o.— His  brother :  1.  One  of  the  two  sons 
of  Abinadab  who  accompanied  the  ark  when  it 
was  brought  out  of  their  father's  house  at 
Gibeah  (2  Sam.  6).  2.  A  Benjamite,  one  of 
the  sons  of  Beriah  who  drove  out  the  inhabitants 
of  Gath  (1  Ch.  8.14).  3.  A  Benjamite  of 
the  Gibeon  family  from  whom  Saul  sprang 
(1  Ch.  8.31,  9.37). 

Ahi'ra.— Brother  of  evil:  &  chief  of  Naphtali 
when  Moses  took  the  census  shortly  after  the 
Exodus  (Num.  1.15). 

Ahi'ram. — Exalted  brother  :  a  Benjamite 
(Num.  26.38).  He  is  called  EM  in  Gen.  46.21, 
and  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  the  Aher  of 
1  Ch.  7.12. 

Ahi'ramites. — Descendants  of  Ahiram  (Num. 
26.38). 

Ahi'samech. — The  brother  of  support :  father 
of  Aholiab,  who  was  one  of  the  architects  of  the 
tabernacle  (Ex.  31.6). 

Ahi'shahar.— Brother  of  the  damn :  grandson 
of  Benjamin  (1  Ch.  7.10). 

Ahi'shar.— The  brother  of  song:  controller 
of  Solomon's  household  (  1  K.  4.6). 

Ahi'thophel.  —  Brother  of  foolishness:  a 
Gihonite,  counsellor  of  David,  whose  reputation 
was  so  high  that  his  advice  had  the  authority 
of  a  divine  oracle.  If,  as  suggested  by  2  Sam. 
23.34,  compared  with  11.3,  he  was  the  grand- 
father of  Bathsheba,  it  may  have  been  her  fall 
which  influenced  him  to  join  in  the  rebellion 
of  Absalom,  who  sent  for  him  at  the  beginning 
of  the  outbreak  (2  Sam.  15.12).  To  show  to  the 
people  that  the  breach  between  Absalom  and 
his  father  was  irreparable,  Ahithophel  persuaded 
the  rebel  to  take  possession  of  the  royal  harem 
(2Sam.  16.21).  David,  to  counteract  his  counsel, 
sent  Hushai  to  Absalom.  Ahithophel  had 
recommended  an  immediate  pursuit  of  David  ; 
but  Hushai  advised  delay,  his  object  being  to 
send  news  to  David,  and  so  give  him  time  to 
collect  his  forces  for  a  decisive  engagement. 
When  Ahithophel  saw  that  Hushai's  advice 
prevailed,  he  despaired  of  success,  and,  returning 
to  his  own  home,  set  his  house  in  order  and 
hanged  himself  (2  Sam.  17).  It  has  been 


pointed  out  that  this  is  the  only  case  of  suicide 
mentioned  in  the  O.T.  (except  in  war),  as  that  of 
Judas  is  the  only  case  in  the  N.T. 

Ahi'tub.  —  My  brother  is  goodness  :  1.  Grandson 
of  Eli  (1  Sam.  14.3,  22.9-12).  2.  Father 
(but  according  to  Neh.  11.11,  1  Ch.  9.11, 
grandfather)  of  Zadok,  the  high  priest  in  the 
time  of  David  (2  Sam.  8.17  ;  1  Ch.  6.7).  3. 
Another  priest,  father  of  another  Zadok  (1  Ch. 
6.11  :  perhaps  a  copyist's  repetition  from 
ver.  7). 

Ah'  lab.  —  One  of  the  cities  of  Asher  from  which 
the  Cananites  were  not  driven  out  (Judg.  1.31). 

Ahla'i.  —  0  thai—!:  daughter  of  Sheshan,  a 
descendant  of  Pharez,  whom  he  gave  in  marriage 
to  Jarha,  a  slave  (1  Ch.  2.31-35). 

Aho'ah.  —  Grandson  of  Benjamin  (1  Ch.  8.4). 
Aho'hite.  —  Apatronymic  derived  from  Ahoah 
(2  Sam.  23.9  ;   1  Ch.  11.12). 

Aho'lah.  —  Tent  :  a  symbolic  name  for  Samaria 
(Ezek.  23.4  ;  R.V.  Oholah). 

Aho'liab.—  My  Father's  tent:  a  Danite  of 
great  skill  as  a  weaver  and  embroiderer,  whom 
Moses  appointed  with  Bezaleel  to  erect  the  taber- 
nacle (Ex.  31,  35,  36,  38  ;  R.V.  Oholiab). 

Aho'libah.  —  My  tent  within  her  :  a  symbolical 
name  of  Jerusalem  (Ezek.  23.4;  R.V.  Oholibah). 
Aholiba'mah  (R.V.  Oholibamah).—  Tent  of 
the  high  place  :  1.  One  of  the  wives  of  Esau, 
the  daughter  of  Anah,  a  descendant  of  Seir  the 
Horite  (Gen.  36.2).  In  Gen.  26.34  Aholibamah 
is  called  Judith.  The  subject  of  Esau's  wives 
is  obscure.  2.  An  Edomite  chief  (Gen.  36.41). 

Ahu'mai.  —  One  of  the  descendants  of  Judah 
(1  Ch.  4.2). 

Ahu'zam.  —  Possession:  a  descendant  of  Judah 
(1  Ch.  4.6). 

Ahuz'zath.  —  Possession:  a  friend  of  Abime- 
lech,  king  of  the  Philistines  in  the  time  of  Isaac 
(Gen.  26.26). 

A'i.  —  A  heap  :  1.  A  royal  city  of  Canaan, 
already  existing  (as  Hai)  in  the  time  of  Abraham 
(Gen.  12.8),  the  second  city  taken  by  Israel  and 
utterly  destroyed  after  their  passage  of  the 
Jordan  (Josh.  7,  8,  9,  10,  12).  The  "  men 
of  Bethel  and  Ai,"  to  the  number  of  223,  returned 
from  the  captivity  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
2.28).  Aiath  (Isai.  10.28),  passed  by  Sennacherib 
in  his  march  upon  Jerusalem,  and  Aija  (Neh. 
11.31)  are  other  forms  of  Ai.  2.  A  city  of  the 
Ammonites  (Jer.  49.3). 

A'i  ah,  A'jah.  —  Vulture  :    1.  Ancestor  of  one 
of  the  wives  of  Esau  (1  Ch.  1.40),  called  Ajah 
in  Gen.  36.24.     2.  Father  of  Rizpah,  a  concu- 
bine of  Saul  (2  Sam.  3.7,  21.8). 
Ai'ath.—  [Ai.] 


Aija'lon,  Aja'lon.-—  Place  of  gazettes:  1.  A 
city  of  the  Kohathites  (Josh.  21.24),  originally 
allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Dan  (Josh.  19.42), 
which  tribe,  however,  was  unable  to  dispossess 
the  Amorites  of  the  place  (Judg.  1.35).  Aijalon 
was  one  of  the  towns  fortified  by  Rehoboam 
(2  Ch.  11.10)  during  his  conflicts  with  the 
new  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  the  last  we  hear 
of  it  is  as  being  in  the  hands  of  the  Philistine 


AIJELETH  SHAHAR] 


15 


[ALEXANDRIA 


invaders  (2  Ch.  28.18).  The  town  has  been 
identified  beyond  doubt  as  the  modern  Yalo, 
a  little  to  the  north  of  the  Jaffa  road,  and  about 
fourteen  miles  from  Jerusalem.  It  stands  on  the 
side  of  a  long  hill  which  forms  the  southern 
boundary  of  a  fine  valley  of  cornfields,  now 
bearing  the  name  of  the  Merj  Ibn  'Amir,  but 
which  there  seems  no  reason  for  doubting  was 
the  valley  of  Aijalon,  which  witnessed  the  defeat 
of  the  Canaanites  (Josh.  10.12).  2.  A  place  in 
Zebulun,  mentioned  as  the  burial-place  of  Elon, 
one  of  the  Judges  (Judg.  12.12). 

Aije'leth  Shahar.— The  hind  of  the  dawn: 
part  of  the  title  of  Ps.  22  (R.V.  "set  to  Aijeleth 
hash-Shahar"),  and  probably  the  name  of  a 
melody  to  which  the  Psalm  was  to  be  sung.  Dr. 
Thirtle,  applying  his  theory  that  the  "  Titles  " 
follow  the  Psalm  to  which  they  belong,  attaches 
it  to  Ps.  21,  and  interprets  the  phrase  "  concern- 
ing the  Hind  of  the  Morning,"  as  "  a  pictorial 
designation  of  the  King  himself"  (Thirtle, 
The  Titles  of  the  Psalms,  p.  202). 

Ain. — An  eye:  hence  also,  by  figure  of  speech, 
a  spring,  or  natural  burst  of  living  water  (cf.  En- 
gedi,  En-rogel,  etc.).  1.  One  of  the  landmarks 
on  the  north-eastern  boundary  of  Palestine 
as  described  by  Moses  (Num.  34.11).  2.  One  of 
the  northernmost  cities  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.32), 
afterwards  allotted  to  Simeon  (Josh.  19.7),  and 
given  to  the  priests  (Josh.  21.16).  (Perhaps 
"  Ain  and  Rimmon  "  are  to  be  identified  with 
theEn-rimmonof  Neh.  11.29.) 

Air.—"  The  prince  of  the  power  of  the  air  " 
is  a  title  given  to  Satan  in  Eph.  2.2  and  nowhere 
else.  The  common  belief  was  that  the  air  was 
peopled  with  spiritual  beings,  those  nearest  to 
the  earth  being  spirits  of  evil,  with  Satan  for 
their  leader.  The  phrase  may  be  a  popular 
way  of  describing  an  agency  that  is  felt,  but 
not  seen,  over  the  whole  world,  pervading,  so  to 
speak,  its  moral  atmosphere.  Compare  6.12, 
and  the  corresponding  figure  of  "  darkness  " 
(Col.  1.13  ;  Lk.  22.53). 

Ajah.— [AIAH.] 

Ajalon. — [AIJALON.] 

A'kan. — See  Gen.  36.27,  called  Jakan  in 
1  Ch.  1.42. 

Akel'dama.— [ACELDAMA.] 

Ak'kub.— 1.  A  descendant  of  David  (1  Ch. 
3.24).  2.  One  *  of  the  porters  or  door- 
keepers at  the  east  gate  of  the  Temple.  His 
descendants  succeeded  to  his  office,  and  appear 
among  those  who  returned  from  Babylon 
(1  Ch.  9.17  ;  Ezra  2.42  ;  Neh.  7.45).  3.  The 
chief  of  a  family  of  the  Nethinim  who  returned 
to  Jerusalem  after  the  exile  (Ezra  2.45).  4.  A 
Levite  employed  by  Ezra  to  make  the  people 
understand  the  law  as  read  to  them  (Neh.  8.7). 

Akrab'bim. — Scorpions  :  a  pass  between  the 
south  end  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Desert  of 
Zin,  the  beginning  of  the  ascent  to  the  mountains 
of  Edom,  forming  one  of  the  landmarks  on  the 
south  boundary  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.3)  and  of 
Palestine  (Num.  34.4). 

Al'abaster.— See  Matt.  26.7;  Mk.  14.3; 
Lk.  7.37 ;  the  passages  which  describe  the 


occasions  when  a  woman  poured  the  contents 
of  an  alabaster  '*  box  "  (R.V.  "  cruse,"  marg. 
"  flask ")  of  ointment  on  the  head  of  the 
Saviour.  The  ancients  considered  alabaster 
(carbonate  of  lime)  to  be  the  best  material  in 
which  to  preserve  their  ointments.  The  usual 
form  of  these  vessels  was  round  and  bulbous  at  the 
bottom,  and  tapering  upwards  to  a  narrow  neck, 
which  was  carefully  sealed.  In  the  narrative 
of  Mark  the  woman  is  said  to  have  broken  the  box 
before  pouring  out  the  ointment.  This  may 
imply  no  more  than  the  breaking  of  the  seal  or 
neck  of  the  bottle  ;  but  it  may  also  mean  that 
the  vessel  itself  was  destroyed  that  it  might 
never  again  be  used. 

Ala'meth  (R.V.  Alemeth),  a  grandson  of 
Benjamin  (1  Ch.  7.8). 

Alam'melech  (R.V.  Allamelach).— The  King's 
Oak :  a  place  in  the  territory  of  Asher  (Josh. 
19.26),  perhaps  to  be  identified  with  a  little 
stream  (the  Wady  Melech)  flowing  into  the 
Kishon. 

Ala'moth. — Virgins  :  a  musical  phrase  ("set 
to  Alamoth")  occurring  in  1  Ch.  15.20, 
and  as  the  title  to  Ps.  46.  In  the  former 
passage  it  perhaps  refers  to  a  choir  of  female 
or  treble  voices,  and  has  its  contrast  in  ver.  21, 
"  set  to  the  Sheminith,"  or  bass  voices.  Such 
a  direction,  however,  does  not  seem  suitable 
to  the  martial  strains  of  Ps.  46  (**  Luther's 
battle-psalm"),  and  Dr.  Thirtle  (The  Titles 
of  the  Psalms,  p.  240)  finds  here  one  of  his  most 
striking  instances  in  support  of  his  theory  that 
the  "  title  "  which  now  heads  a  Psalm  is  really 
an  instruction  appended  to  the  Psalm  preceding  ; 
at  any  rate  Ps.  45,  "  that  loveliest  of  marriage 
songs,"  is  peculiarly  fitted  to  be  sung  by  a 
choir  of  maidens  (see  especially  vers.  9-17). 

Ale'meth.— 1.  (R.V.  Allemeth),  called  Almon 
in  Josh.  21.18,  a  Levitical  city  of  Benjamin 
(1  Ch.  6.60),  the  modern  Almet,  a  mile  north- 
east of  Anathoth.  2.  Son  of  Jehoadah,  a 
descendant  of  Saul  (1  Ch.  8.36).  [ALAMETH.] 

Alexan'der. — Helper  of  men  :  five  persons  of 
this  name,  which  was  a  common  one,  are, 
mentioned  in  the  N.T.  1.  Son  of  Simon  the 
Cyrenian,  who  was  compelled  to  carry  the  cross 
of  Jesus  (Mk.  15.21).  2.  A  kinsman  of  Annas 
the  high  priest,  a  leading  member  of  the  San- 
hedrin  in  Jerusalem,  when  Peter  and  John  were 
apprehended  and  brought  before  it  (Acts  4.6). 
3.  A  Jew  of  Ephesus,  whom  his  countrymen 
put  forward  during  the  tumult  raised  by  Deme- 
trius the  silversmith  (Acts  19.33).  4.  A  convert 
who  had  abandoned  his  faith,  and  had  been 
delivered  to  Satan  by  Paul  (1  Tim.  1.19,  20). 
5.  A  smith  who  had  done  Paul  much  evil,  and 
had  greatly  withstood  his  words  (2  Tim.  4.14); 
possibly  identical  with  3. 

Alexandria.— A  city  on  the  delta  of  the  Nile, 
founded  by  Alexander  the  Great,  King  of 
Macedon,  332  B.C.,  as  the  metropolis  of  his 
western  Empire.  From  the  beginning  the 
population  was  mixed,  and  one  of  the  three  dis- 
tricts into  which  the  city  was  divided  was  called 
the  Region  of  the  Jews.  After  the  capture  of 


ALGUM  or  ALMUG  TREES] 


16 


[ALMODAD 


Jerusalem,  Ptolemy  i.  removed  a  considerable 
number  of  its  citizens  to  Alexandria.  Many 
others  followed  of  their  own  accord,  and  the 
Jewish  colony  rapidly  increased  by  fresh  immi- 
grations. Later,  when  Alexandria  fell  under 
Roman  rule,  Julius  Caesar  and  Augustus  con- 
firmed to  the  Jews  the  privileges  which  they 
had  enjoyed  before.  They  were  represented 
by  their  own  officer,  and  Augustus  appointed 
a  Council  "  to  superintend  the  affairs  of  the 
Jews,"  according  to  their  own  laws. 

For  some  time  the  Jewish  Church  in  Alex- 
andria was  in  close  dependence  on  that  of 
Jerusalem,  both  acknowledging  the  high  priest 
as  their  religious  head  ;  but  later  on  the  two 
churches  became  alienated.  The  version  of 
the  O.T.  Scriptures  in  Greek  (known  as  the 
Septuagint,  from  the  fact  that  it  was  made 
by  seventy  Alexandrian  Jews)  strengthened 
the  barrier  of  language  between  Palestine  and 
Egypt,  and  the  temple  at  Leontopolis  (161  B.C.), 
which  subjected  the  Egyptian  Jews  to  the 
charge  of  schism,  widened  the  breach  which  was 
thus  opened.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
era,  however,  the  Egyptian  Jews  still  paid  the 
contributions  to  the  service  of  the  Temple  at 
Jerusalem,  which  was  still  the  holy  city  and 
mother  city  of  the  race. 

According  to  Eusebius,  Mark  first  preached 
the  gospel  in  Egypt,  and  founded  the  first 
church  in  Alexandria.  By  the  close  of  the 
second  century  Alexandria  had  become  an  im- 
portant centre  of  Christian  learning  and  influence. 
Its  catechetical  school  acquired  unique  dis- 
tinction. The  earliest  of  its  teachers  named 
by  the  historian  Eusebius  is  Pantaenus  (about 
the  year  180).  Clement  and  Origen  were  the 
most  famous  of  his  successors ;  though  Arius, 
the  founder  of  the  heresy,  is  named  by  Theodoret 
as  having  once  been  a  chief  teacher.  The 
N.T.  references  to  Alexandria  are  Act*  6.9, 
18.24,  27.6,  28.11. 

Al'gum  or  Al'mng  Trees. — Mention  of  the 
almug  is  made  in  1  K.  10.11  (algum  in  2  Ch. 
9.10),  as  having  been  brought  in  great  plenty 
from  Ophir,  together  with  gold  and  precious 
stones,  by  the  fleet  of  Hiram,  for  Solomon's 
temple  and  house,  and  for  the  construction  of 
musical  instruments.  The  tree  is  not  certainly 
identified,  but  the  balance  of  authority  is  in 
favour  of  red  sandal-wood,  which  is  heavy,  hard, 
fine-grained,  and  of  a  beautiful  garnet  colour. 

Al'iah,  ATvah. — Sublime:  duke  of  Edom 
(Gen.  36.40;  1  Ch.  1.51). 

Al'ian,  Alvan.— Sublime  (Gen.  36.23 ;  1  Ch. 
1.40). 

Alien.— [STRANGER.] 

Allegory.— -The  word  occurs  only  in  Gal.  4.24. 
[PARABLE.] 

Alleln'ia. — The  Greek  form  given  in  the 
Septuagint  to  the  compound  Hebrew  word 
Hallelujah,  i.e.  "  Praise  ye  Jehovah."  This 
ascription  of  praise  is  found  in  the  Septuagint 
version  of  Ps.  105-106,  and  other  Psalms,  where 
the  Latin  Vulgate  has  Alleluia,  the  margin  of 
A.V.  and  R.V.  Hallelujah.  The  adoption  of 


the  Hebrew  phrase  into  Christian  worship  is 
due  to  its  use  in  Rev.  19.1-7.  By  the  fourth 
century  it  had  become  recognised  as  a  Christian 
shout  of  victory  or  exultation.  The  Alleluia 
found  a  special  place  in  the  early  liturgies  of 
the  Church  in  the  West  and  the  East. 

Alliances. — Abraham  formed  an  alliance  with 
the  chiefs  of  Canaan  (Gen.  14.13)  and  with 
Abimelech  (Gen.  21.22).  The  latter  was  renewed 
by  Isaac  (Gen.  26.26).  When,  however,  the 
Israelites  settled  in  Canaan  they  were  forbidden 
to  form  alliances  with  surrounding  nations, 
the  Divine  intention  being  that  the  chosen 
people  should  not  become  infected  by  the  idolatry 
of  their  neighbours.  This  prohibition  was 
disregarded  later  on.  Solomon  formed  alliances 
with  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  and  with  Pharaoh, 
king  of  Egypt.  The  object  of  the  former  was  to 
obtain  materials  and  workmen  for  the  erection 
of  the  Temple,  also  ship-builders  and  sailors. 
By  the  latter  alliance  Solomon  received  a 
monopoly  of  the  trade  in  horses  and  other 
products  of  Egypt.  The  disputes  between 
Judah  and  Israel,  and  the  relations  of  these 
countries  to  Egypt  and  the  monarchies  of 
Assyria  and  Babylonia,  led  to  numerous  alli- 
ances and  counter-alliances.  See  throughout  the 
books  of  Kings  and  of  Chronicles,  as  well  as 
portions  of  Isaiah,  Ezekiel,  and  Jeremiah. 

Various  religious  rites  were  performed  at  the 
formation  of  an  alliance.  A  sacrificial  victim 
was  slain  and  divided  into  two  parts,  between 
which  the  contracting  parties  passed,  invoking 
imprecations  of  a  similar  destruction  upon  him 
who  should  break  the  terms  of  the  alliance.  This 
custom  was  in  operation  for  a  long  period 
(Jer.  34.18).  Generally  speaking,  the  oath 
alone  is  mentioned  in  the  contracting  of  alliances 
either  between  nations  ( Josh.  9.15)  or  individuals 
(Gen.  26.28,  31.53 ;  2  K.  11.4).  The  event  was 
celebrated  by  a  feast  (Ex.  24. 11;  28am.  3.12-20). 
Salt,  as  symbolical  of  fidelity,  was  used  on  these 
occasions,  applied  to  the  sacrifices,  hence  the 
expression  "covenant  of  salt"  (Num.  18.19; 
2  Ch.  13.5).  A  pillar  was  set  up  as  a  memorial 
of  the  alliance  between  Laban  and  Jacob 
(Gen.  31.52).  Presents  were  also  sent  by  the 
party  soliciting  the  alliance  (1  K.  15.18 ;  Isai. 
30.6).  The  Jews  throughout  their  whole 
history  attached  great  importance  to  fidelity  to 
their  engagements  (Josh.  9.18).  Divine  wrath 
fell  upon  the  violators  of  them  (2  Sam.  21.1  ; 
Ezek.  17.16). 

Al'lon. — An  oak:  1.  A  place  named  among  the 
cities  of  NaphtaU  (Josh.  19.33).  But  R.V.  has 
"from  the  oak  in  Zaanannim."  2.  The  chief 
of  a  family  in  Simeon  (1  Ch.  4.37). 

Allon-Ba'chuth. — Oak  of  weeping :  the  tree 
under  which  Rebekah'"s  nurse,  Deborah,  was 
buried  (Gen.  35.8). 

Almo'dad.— A  member  of  the  family  of  Shem, 
and  the  founder  of  an  Arab  tribe  (Gen.  10.26  ; 
1  Ch.  1.20).  His  name  appears  to  be  preserved 
in  that  of  Ahidad,  a  famous  personage  in 
Arabian  history,  the  reputed  father  of  Ishmael's 
Arab  wife. 


ALMON] 


17 


[ALTAR 


Al'mon. — Hiding-place:  a  city  of  Benjamin 
with  "suburbs"  given  to  the  priests  (Josh. 
21.18).  In  1  Ch.  6.60  it  is  called  Alemeth. 

Al'mon-Diblatha'im. — One  of  the  encamp- 
ments of  Israel  after  leaving  Egypt  (Num. 
33.46-47).  [See  BETH-DIBLATHAIM.] 

Almond,  Almond  Tree. — Aaron's  rod  that 
budded  "yielded  almonds"  (Num.  17.8).  In 
"  I  see  a  rod  of  an  almond  tree  "  (Jer.  1.11), 
the  "  almond  "  is  symbolical  of  speed,  for  the 
root  of  the  Hebrew  word  for  almond  means  to 
watch  for,  "  to  make  haste."  The  prophet  is 
shown  a  rod  of  an  almond  tree  to  signify  that 
Jehovah  will  hasten  His  word  to  perform  it. 
Early  as  the  tree  is  to  put  forth  its  pinkish- 
white  flowers  in  this  country,  it  is  in  full  bloom 
in  Palestine  in  January,  and  the  fruit  appears 
in  March  or  April.  From  the  fact  that  Jacob 
sent  almonds  as  among  "  the  best  fruits  of  the 
land  "  to  his  son  in  Egypt  (Gen.  43.11),  we  may 
infer  that  they  had  not  yet  been  introduced 
into  that  country.  The  bowls  of  the  golden 
candlesticks  were  to  be  "  made  like  unto 
almonds"  (Ex.  25.33),  that  is,  after  the  pattern 
of  almond  blossom.  The  use  of  the  flourishing 
of  the  almond  tree  as  a  symbol  of  old  age 
(Eccles.  12.5)  was  suggested  by  the  snowy 
whiteness  of  its  aspect  when  viewed  from  a 
distance.  The  "  Jordan  almonds  "  of  commerce 
do  not  come  from  Palestine,  but  from  Malaga, 
in  Spain. 

Alms. — This  word  (Anglo-Saxon  aclmaesse, 
from  the  Greek  word  meaning  pity)  occurs 
repeatedly  in  the  N.T.,  not  in  the  O.T.,  although 
the  duty  of  almsgiving  was  strictly  enjoined  by 
the  law  of  Moses.  The  Israelite  was  ordered 
to  present  the  first-fruits  of  the  land  before  the 
Lord  each  year.  Every  third  year  each  pro- 
prietor was  enjoined  to  share  the  tithes  of  his 
produce  with  "  the  Levite,  the  stranger,  the 
fatherless,  and  the  widow."  In  the  women's 
court  of  Herod's  Temple  were  thirteen  recep- 
tacles for  voluntary  offerings,  one  of  which  was 
devoted  to  alms  for  the  education  of  poor 
children  of  good  family.  After  the  captivity 
there  were  in  every  city  three  official  collectors 
of  alms,  the  giving  of  which  was  enforced  under 
penalties.  The  Pharisees  were  zealous  in  alms- 
giving, but  were  rebuked  by  the  Saviour  for  being 
too  ostentatious  in  displaying  this  (Matt.  6.2). 

The  duty  of  relieving  the  poor  was  not 
neglected  by  the  Christians  (Matt.  6.1-4;  Lk. 
14.13  ;  Acts  20.35 ;  Gal.  2.10).  Every  Christian 
was  exhorted  to  lay  by  on  the  Sunday  in  each 
week  some  portion  of  his  profits,  to  be  applied 
to  the  wants  of  the  needy  (Acts  11.30  ;  Rom. 
15.25-27  ;  1  Cor.  16.1-4).  It  was  considered 
a  duty  specially  incumbent  on  widows  to  devote 
themselves  to  such  ministrations  (1  Tim.  5.10). 
Before  the  captivity  there  is  no  trace  of  per- 
mission of  mendicancy,  but  it  was  evidently 
allowed  in  later  times  (Matt.  20.30 ;  Mk.  10.46 ; 
Acts  3.2). 

Almug  Tree.— [ALQUM.] 

Aloes,  Lign-Aloes. — The  aloes  of  Scripture 
bear  no  relation  to  the  flowery  aloe  of  modern 


gardens,  but  represent  an  odoriferous  wood 
which,  from  a  remote  period,  had  been  used  in 
the  East  for  sacred  and  common  purposes.  In 
Ps.  45.8,  Canticles  4.14,  and  Prov.  7.17 
aloes  are  associated  with  myrrh  as  agreeable  and 
attractive  perfumes  ;  they  are  once  mentioned 
in  the  N.T.  in  connection  with  the  burial  of  the 
Saviour  by  Joseph  and  Nicodemus  (John  19.39). 

A'loth. — Ascents  :  a  hilly  region  near  Asher, 
forming  with  the  latter  the  jurisdiction  of  one  of 
Solomon's  commissariat  officers  (1  K.  4.16,  A.V. 
"  in  Asher  and  in  Aloth,"  but  R.V.  "  in  Asher 
and  Bealoth  "). 

Al'pha.— The  first  letter  of  the  Greek  alpha- 
bet, as  Omega  is  the  last.  The  phrase,  "  I  am 
the  Alpha  and  the  Omega,"  is  used  of  God 
in  Rev.  1.8,  21.6.  Originally  an  obvious  ex- 
pression for  completeness  (parallels  are  found 
in  Hebrew  and  in  English,  "  from  A  to  Z"),  it 
became  specially  applied  to  the  eternity  and 
omnipresence  of  God,  the  Being  from  whom  all 
things  have  their  origin  and  to  whom  all  things 
tend.  Hence  the  phrase  is  parallel  to  Isai.  41.4 
and  to  Rom.  11.36;  1  Cor.  8.6;  Ileb.  2.10. 
In  Rev.  22.13  the  title  is  transferred  to  the 
glorified  Christ,  the  one  revealer  and  fulfilment 
of  the  Divine  purpose  of  redemption,  in  whom 
is  the  "  yea  and  the  Amen  " — the  confirmation 
and  the  accomplishment — of  all  the  promises  of 
God  (2  Cor.  1.20  ;  cf.  also  John  1.3  ;  1  Cor.  8.6  ; 
Col.  1.15-17  ;  Heb.  1.2,  3). 

Alphaeus. — 1.  Father  of  the  Levi  (Mk.  2.14) 
who  is  to  be  identified  with  Matthew  the  Apostle. 
2.  In  each  of  the  four  lists  of  the  Apostles 
(Matt.  10,  Mk.  3,  Lk.  6,  Acts  1)  the  ninth  place 
is  given  to  "  James  the  son  of  Alphaeus."  If 
this  Alphaeus  is  the  same  as  1,  Matthew  and 
James  were  brothers,  but  there  is  no  indication 
of  this,  and  in  Mark  and  Luke  the  names  are 
separated  by  that  of  Thomas.  Among  the 
women  who  witnessed  the  crucifixion  Mark 
mentions  a  "  Mary  the  mother  of  James  the 
less  "  (Mk.  15.40 ;  cf.  Matt.  27.56),  who  in  the 
parallel  passage  in  John  (19.25)  appears  to  be 
spoken  of,  as  "  Mary  the  wife  of  Clopas  "  (not 
Cleophas,  as  A.V. :  the  name  is  distinct  from  the 
Cleopas  of  Lk.  24.18).  If  this  "  James  the  less  " 
is  "  James,  the  son  of  Alphaeus,"  distinguished 
by  the  epithet  from  the  greater  James,  son  of 
Zebedee,  then  his  mother  was  wife  of  Alphoeus, 
and  it  has  been  argued  that  "  Alphaeus  "  and 
"  Clopas  "  are  differing  Greek  forms  of  the  same 
Aramaic  name.  But  this  is  etymologically 
doubtful ;  and  John's  phrase  may  mean  "  Mary, 
the  daughter  of  Clopas."  [CLOPAS,  JAMBS, 
MART.] 

Altar. — From  altus,  "  high  "  ;  used  of  the 
raised  or  elevated  structure  employed  for 
sacrifices  and  other  oSerings.  The  Hebrew 
and  Greek  words  of  which  it  is  most  usually 
the  translation  mean  "  place  of  slaughter."  Two 
other  Hebrew  (Ezek.  43.15)  and  one  Greek  word 
(Acts  17.23)  are  translated  "  altar,"  but  shed  no 
light  on  the  meaning  of  the  word.  No  explana- 
tion is  given  in  Scripture  of  either  word  or  thing. 
In  the  O.T.  its  first  use  is  noted  without  any 


ALTAR] 


18 


[ALTAR 


comment  in  Gen.  8.20.  The  origin  of  the 
idea  of  an  altar  is  unknown,  and  various  sugges- 
tions are  made,  based  on  primitive  usage.  Some 
have  said  that  it  was  originally  the  place  where 
the  blood  of  the  sacrifice  was  poured  or  smeared  ; 
that  from  this  was  developed  the  idea  of  a  hearth 
for  burning  the  flesh  used  in  sacrifice.  Some- 
times the  altar  was  made  of  earth,  sometimes 
of  a  large  stone  or  a  heap  of  stones.  Every- 
thing really  turns  on  the  prior  question  of  the 
origin  of  sacrifice.  Was  it  a  divine  revelation 
or  a  human  instinct  ?  If  the  former,  the  altar 
would  naturally  mean  the  divinely-appointed 
place  of  sacrifice  ;  if  the  latter,  it  would  be 
man's  idea  of  the  place  for  offering  his  gift. 

After  the  first  reference  (Gen.  8.20),  altars  are 
associated  with  the  patriarchs  (Gen.  12.7,  22.9, 
35.1,  7),  and  Moses  (Ex.  17.15,  24.4).  The  first 
instructions  as  to  the  erection  of  an  altar 
in  connection  with  the  Law  are  found  in  Ex. 
20.24,  25.  It  was  to  be  of  earth,  or  of  unhewn 
stone,  and  without  steps.  There  were  two  altars 
connected  with  the  Tabernacle,  one  in  the  outer 
court  and  one  in  the  Holy  Place.  The  former 
was  called  the  Brazen  Altar  or  Altar  of  Burnt 
Offering,  and  was  in  front  of  the  door  of  the 
Tabernacle.  It  was  a  hollow  frame  of  acacia 
wood,  7J  ft.  square  by  4£  ft.  high,  covered 
with  brass,  and  provided  with  rings  and  staves 
for  transit  in  the  wilderness  journeys.  At  its 
upper  corners  it  had  four  projections  called 
horns.  There  was  no  step,  but  a  ledge  round 
for  the  convenience  of  the  priests  while  doing 
their  work.  After  the  sacrifices  were  offered 
at  this  altar,  its  position  at  the  opening  of  the 
Tabernacle  was  a  constant  and  striking  object- 
lesson  to  Israel,  that  no  approach  to  God  was  pos- 
sible except  on  the  basis  of  sacrifice  (Ex.  27.1-8, 
38.1).  The  Altar  of  Incense  was  in  the  Holy 
Place  just  in  front  of  the  vail,  between  that  and 
the  Holy  of  holies.  It  was  3  ft.  high  and  1$  ft. 
square,  made  of  acacia  wood  overlaid  with  gold, 
with  horns  at  the  corners,  and  two  golden  rings 
at  each  side.  Although  it  was  situated  in  the 
Holy  Place,  it  had  such  a  close  connection  with 
the  spiritual  meaning  of  the  Holy  of  holies, 
that  it  could  be  said  to  "  belong  "  to  the  latter 
(Heb.  9.3,  4).  Incense  was  burnt  on  it  morning 
and  evening  as  a  symbol  of  the  constant  worship 
of  the  people  (Ex.  30.1-10,  40.5  ;  1  K.  6.22 ; 
Ps.  141.2).  In  Solomon's  Temple  the  brazen 
altar  was  much  larger  than  that  in  the  Tabernacle 
(1  K.  8.64),  and  a  new  Altar  of  Incense  was 
also  provided  (1  K.  7.48).  The  Tabernacle  con- 
stituted the  central  sanctuary  at  which  God 
could  be  worshipped  in  His  appointed  way,  and 
Israel  was  forbidden  to  have  more  sanctuaries 
than  one.  But  there  is  an  ambiguity  about  the 
word  "  sanctuary,"  for  it  was  used  for  both 
House  and  Altar.  The  House  or  central  sanctu- 
ary had  Us  two  altars,  but  not  every  altar  was 
connected  with  a  House.  Altars  were  per- 
mitted everywhere,  from  the  time  of  Moses  on- 
ward (Ex.  20.24-26),  but  only  one  sanctuary 
(Ex.  25.8).  The  Divine  qualification  as  to  the 
erection  of  altars  was  that  thev  should  not  be 


associated  with  heathen  altars  or  high  places 
(Deut.  16.21).  Plurality  of  altars  was  allowed 
(Ex.  20.24-26),  but  not  of  houses.  The  only 
time  when  there  w^as  more  than  one  house 
was  during  the  confusions  and  complications 
of  David's  time,  when  there  were  two  sanctuaries 
with  two  brazen  altars,  one  at  Gibeon  and  the 
other  at  Jerusalem  (1  K.  3.2,  4, 15).  Of  course, 
on  the  disruption  of  the  kingdom,  Jeroboam 
naturally  set  up  his  own  central  sanctuaries  at 
Dan  and  Bethel,  to  prevent  the  people  from 
going  to  Jerusalem,  and  thereby  being  led  away 
from  allegiance  to  him.  It  was  impossible  for 
subjects  of  the  Northern  Kingdom  to  go  to 
Jerusalem,  and  so  they  had  either  to  abstain 
from  worship  by  sacrifice,  or  else  to  erect 
houses  in  their  own  territory.  But  we  can  see 
the  old  belief  in  Elijah's  altar  at  Carmel,  which 
was  made  of  twelve  stones,  symbolising  the 
unity  of  the  entire  people  in  covenant  with  God. 
The  only  other  uses  of  the  altar  were  for  a 
memorial  (Josh.  22.10),  and  as  an  asylum  in 
danger  (1  K.  1.50) ;  but  these  were  exceptional, 
and  do  not  affect  the  general  idea  of  the  altar 
as  a  place  of  sacrifice. 

In  the  N.T.  the  usage  of  the  term  altar  is  quite 
infrequent.  In  Matt.  5.23,  it  refers  to  the  Jewish 
altar  of  burnt  offering.  In  1  Cor.  9.13,  and  10.18, 
the  heathen  altar  and  the  Christian  Lord's 
Table  are  brought  into  connection  and  contrast. 
It  is  significant  that  the  Apostle  carefully 
avoids  the  use  of  the  term  altar  in  connection 
with  the  Lord's  Supper.  Bishop  Lightfoot  calls 
this  avoidance  a  speaking  fact,  especially  because 
"  the  language  of  the  context  might  readily  have 
suggested  it  to  him  if  he  had  considered  it  appro- 
priate "  (Philippians,  p.  266,  Note).  Altar  and 
table  are  essentially  different.  The  altar  was 
used  for  offering,  not  for  eating;  and  nothing  that 
was  ever  laid  on  an  altar  was  taken  off,  except 
in  the  form  of  ashes  after  burning.  The  table 
was  used  for  eating,  not  for  offering.  The  two 
terms  are  never  used  synonymously,  for  even 
if  an  altar  could  be  used  as  a  table,  a  table 
could  not  be  called  an  altar.  So  that  any  idea 
of  the  elements  of  the  Lord's  Supper  being 
offered  on  a  holy  table  as  on  an  altar,  and  then 
taken  off  to  be  eaten  and  drunk,  would  be 
altogether  foreign  to  the  O.T.  ideas  of  the 
altar,  and  repulsive  to  Christian  Jews  familiar 
with  the  ritual  of  the  Temple. 

In  Heb.  13.10,  the  words,  "  We  have  an  altar," 
are  variously  interpreted  according  as  "  we 
have  "  is  referred  to  Christians  or  Jews.  Those 
who  interpret  it  of  Christians  understand  it 
either  of  the  Cross  of  Christ,  spiritually  inter- 
preted, or,  by  a  well-known  figure  of  speech, 
of  Christ  on  the  Cross.  It  is  impossible,  in  view 
of  the  immediate  context,  and  of  the  entire 
epistle,  to  interpret  the  words  of  the  Lord's 
Supper.  But  as  there  is  no  emphasis  on  the 
"  we,"  it  is  more  probable,  in  view  of  the 
context,  that  the  reference  is  to  Jews,  not  to 
Christians.  "  We  Jews  have  in  our  Mosaic 
ritual  a  sacrifice  (the  sin  offering)  of  which  the 
priests  are  not  allowed  to  eat ;  it  is  to  be  burnt 


AL-TASCHITH] 


19 


[AMASA 


outside  the  camp  ;  and  the  antitype  to  this 
is  the  offering  of  Jesus  outside  the  gate."  The 
connection  of  ver.  11  with  ver.  10  ("  for ") 
clearly  points  to  the  Jewish  idea,  and  the  whole 
context  shows  that  the  writer  had  in  mind  a 
particular  sacrifice,  of  which  no  part  was  eaten. 
Yet  in  the  Holy  Communion,  the  entire  elements 
are  supposed  to  be  eaten.  Moreover,  there  is 
one  fact  which  seems  clearly  in  favour  of  the 
Jewish,  and  against  the  Christian  idea.  An 
altar  requires  a  priest  and  a  sacrifice.  The  three 
go  together  :  so  that  if  the  altar  is  Christian, 
we  must  discover  the  Christian  priest  and 
sacrifice,  neither  of  which  exists,  and  against 
which  (apart  from  Christ's  priesthood  and 
sacrifice)  the  whole  epistle  is  directed.  The 
main  principle  of  Hebrews  is  that  there  is  no 
other  Priest  but  Christ,  and  no  other  Sacrifice 
but  the  Cross.  So  we  conclude,  with  Lightfoot, 
that  "it  is  surprising  that  some  should  have 
interpreted  altar  in  Ueb.  13.10,  of  the  Lord's 
Table  "  (Philippians,  p.  265,  Note). 

It  was  only  subsequent  to  N.T.  times  that 
the  word  altar  was  used  of  the  Lord's  Table. 
Westcott  says  that,  in  the  first  stage  of  Christian 
literature,  "  there  is  not  only  no  example  of  the 
application  of  the  word  altar  to  any  concrete 
material  object  as  the  Holy  Table,  but  there  is  no 
room  for  such  an  application"  (Hebrews,  p.  456). 
It  was  a  century  after  the  N.T.  times  when  a 
change  took  place,  which  found  its  full  develop- 
ment in  Cyprian's  language  (Ibid.  p.  458),  and 
the  outcome  is  best  expressed  in  Westcott's 
own  words  :  "  The  history  of  the  word  offers 
an  instructive  illustration  of  the  way  in  which 
spiritual  thoughts,  connected  with  material 
imagery,  clothe  themselves  in  material  forms, 
till  at  last  the  material  forms  dominate  the 
thought "  (Ibid.  p.  461).  In  the  Apocalypse,  the 
word  altar  is  used  symbolically  of  the  ideas  of 
sacrifice  and  incense  (Rev.  6.9,  etc.).  If  there- 
fore we  keep  in  mind  that  the  terms  altar,  priest, 
and  sacrifice  go  together,  and  cannot  be  separ- 
ated, that  wherever  there  is  an  altar  there  must 
be  a  priest  and  a  sacrifice,  we  see  at  once  that 
there  is  no  place  in  the  N.T.  for  an  altar,  since 
there  are  no  sacrifices  (apart  from  Christ's), 
except  the  three  spiritual  sacrifices  of  our- 
selves (Rom.  12.1),  our  praise,  and  our  gifts 
(Ileb.  13.15,  16). 

Al-tas'chith  (R.V.  Al-tashhsth).—  Destroy 
not:  (cf.  Deut.  9.26).  The  phrase  occurs  in 
the  titles  of  four  Psalms  (57,  58,  59,  75),  and 
would  seem  to  mark  them  out  as  prayers  for 
the  Divine  mercy,  to  be  used  in  times  of  special 
adversity  and  national  humiliations.  (So  Thirtle, 
who,  however,  attaches  the  phrase  to  the  pre- 
ceding Psalms,  56-58  and  74,  Titles  of  the 
Psalms,  p.  254.) 

A'lush. — The  ninth  encampment  of  Israel  in 
their  journeyings  (Num.  33.13). 

AI'vah. — [ALIAH.] 

Al'van. — [ALIAN.] 

A 'mad.— A  town  in  Asher  (Josh.  19.26). 

A'mal.— A  descendant  of  Asher  (1  Ch.  7.35). 

Ama'lek,    Amalekite :     according    to    Gen. 


36.12-16  grandson  of  Esau,  and  one  of  the 
dukes  of  Edom  (cf.  1  Ch.  1.36).  Elsewhere 
the  name  is  not  personal  but  tribal  =  Amalek- 
ites  (e.g.  Ex.  17.8-16),  and  there  is  good  reason 
to  assign  to  the  tribe  a  greater  antiquity  than 
the  date  of  their  supposed  ancestor  Amalek. 
See  Gen.  14.7  ;  and  comp.  Balaam's  phrase, 
"  Amalek  was  the  first  [i.e.  oldest]  of  the  nations" 
(Num.  24.20).  These  nomad  tribes  appear  in 
the  early  narrative  of  Gen.  14  as  dwelling  in 
Canaan,  near  Kadesh,  where  they  were  smitten 
by  Chedorlaomer  and  his  confederates  (Gen. 
14.7).  After  the  Exodus  they  attacked  the 
rear  of  the  Israelites  at  Rephidim,  near  Sinai 
(Deut.  25.17-19),  and  were  defeated  by  Joshua 
Ex.  17.8-16).  As  the  earliest  and  pitiless 
aggressors  of  Israrl  they  were  placed  under  the 
Divine  curse  :  "  The  Lord  will  have  war  with 
Amalek  from  generation  to  generation";  their 
remembrance  was  to  be  blotted  out  from  under 
heaven.  In  alliance  with  the  Canaanites  the 
Amalekites  inflicted  a  severe  defeat  upon  the 
Israelites  in  their  first  attempted  entry  into 
Palestine  (Num.  14.43-45).  In  the  time  of  the 
Judges  the  Amalekites,  along  with  the  children 
of  Ammon,  joined  with  Eglon,  King  of  Moab, 
to  attack  Israel,  took  Jericho  (Judg.  3.13) ;  but 
were  completely  defeated  by  Gideon  in  the 
valley  of  Jezreel  (Judg.  6.33,  7.12-22).  Later, 
Saul,  commissioned  to  execute  the  Divine 
decree  of  extermination,  "  utterly  destroyed 
all  the  people,"  but  spared  king  Agag  and  the 
best  of  the  spoil,  being  punished  for  his  dis- 
obedience by  the  loss  of  his  kingdom  (1  Sam. 
15).  In  David's  absence  they  invaded  and 
plundered  Ziklag,  and  carried  off  David's  two 
wives  and  others  as  captives,  but  were  pursued 
and  defeated  (1  Sam.  30.1-31);  one  of  them, 
accusing  himself  of  Saul's  death,  was  put  to 
death  by  David  (2  Sam.  1.1-16),  by  whom  their 
silver  and  gold  were  dedicated  to  Jehovah 
(2  Sam.  8.12  ;  1  Ch.  18.11).  They  were  again 
smitten  in  the  days  of  Hezekiah  by  five  hundred 
men  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon,  who  thereafter 
dwelt  in  their  place  (1  Ch.  4.39-43). 

A'mam. — A  town  of  south  Judah  (Josh.  15.26). 

Ama'na. — Constant :  some  part  of  the  Anti- 
Libanus  ranges,  from  which  springs  the  river 
Abana  (or  Amana)  which  flows  through  the 
plain  of  Damascus  (Cant.  4.8). 

Amari'ah. — Jehovah  hath  promised :  1.  See 
1  Ch.  6.7  and  6.52.  2.  High-priest  in  the  time 
of  King  Jehoshaphat  (2  Ch.  19.11),  whose 
endeavours  to  work  a  reformation  in  Israel  and 
Judah  he  seems  to  have  seconded.  3.  See 
1  Ch.  23.19  and  24.23.  4.  The  head  of  ore  of 
the  twenty-four  courses  of  priests  which  was 
named  after  him  in  the  time  of  David,  of 
Hezekiah,  and  of  Nehemiah,  where  he  is  named 
Immer  (1  Ch.  24.14  ;  2  Ch.  31.15  ;  Neh.  10.3, 
12.2-13).  5.  One  of  those  who  in  the  time  of 
Ezra  married  a  "  strange "  (or  foreign)  wife 
(EzralO.42).  "6.  See  Zeph.  1.1.  1.  See  Neh.  II  A. 

Ama'sa. — Burden  learer  :  1.  Son  of  David's 
sister,  Abigail  (2  Sam.  1 7.25).  Absalom  appointed 
him  commander-in-chief  of  his  rebel  army 


AMASAI] 


20 


[AMI 


in  place  of  Joab,  by  whom  he  was  routed  in 
the  forest  of  Ephraim  (2  Sam.  18.6).  Later  on 
David  forgave  Ainasa,  and  made  him  the 
successor  of  Joab,  who  had  incurred  the  king's 
displeasure  by  slaying  Absalom  (2  Sam.  19.13), 
Joab  afterwards  treacherously  slew  Amasa  while 
pretending  to  greet  him  (2  Sam.  20.10).  2. 
One  of  the  heads  of  the  children  of  Ephraim 
(2Ch.  28.12). 

Ama'sai. — Burden  -  bearer  :  1.  See  1  Ch. 
6.25.  2.  Leader  of  the  men  of  Judah  and 
Benjamin  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag  ;  possibly 
the  same  as  Amasa  1  (1  Ch.12.18).  3.  A  priest 
who  blew  the  trumpet  before  the  ark  when 
David  brought  it  from  the  house  of  Obed-edom 
(1  Ch.  15.24).  4.  A  Levite  mentioned  in  2  Ch. 
29.12. 

Amash'ai  (R.V.  Amashsai).— A  priest  men- 
tioned in  Neh.  11.13. 

Amasi'ah. — Jehovah  bears:  the  leader  of 
200,000  warriors  of  Judah  in  the  reign  of 
Jehoshaphat  (2  Ch.  17.1G). 

Amazi'ah. — Jehovah  has  strength  :  1.  The 
eighth  king  of  Judah,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne 
at  the  age  of  twenty-five  on  the  murder  of  his 
father  Joash  (2  K.  12  and  14).  He  made  war 
on  the  Edonu'tes,  defeated  them  in  the  valley  of 
Salt,  south  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  took  their 
capital,  Selah  or  Petra  (2  Ch.  25).  Amaziah 
performed  religious  ceremonies  in  honour  of  the 
gods  of  the  country,  and  from  this  idolatrous  act 
began  the  misfortunes  of  his  reign.  He  was 
totally  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Beth-Shemesh 
by  Joash,  King  of  Israel,  whom  he  had  challenged 
to  battle,  and  by  whom  he  was  captured  and  car- 
ried to  the  gates  of  Jerusalem,  which  fell  without 
resistance  (2  K.  14.13).  In  the  twenty-seventh 
year  of  his  reign  Amaziah  was  murdered  by 
conspirators  at  Lacliish,  whither  he  had  retired 
for  safety  from  Jerusalem  (2  Ch.  25.27).  2.  Priest 
of  Bethel,  who  sent  accusation  to  Jeroboam 
against  the  prophet  Amos,  and  endeavoured  to 
drive  him  from  Israel  into  Judah  (Amos  7.10; 
cf.  1  K.  12.25-33).  3.  One  of  the  "sons  of 
Simeon  "  mentioned  in  1  Ch.  4.34.  4.  A  Levite 
(1  Ch.  6.45). 

Ambassador. — The  messenger  of  ruler  to  ruler, 
hostile  (1  K.  20.2-6;  2  K.  14.8)  or  friendly 
(2  K.  16.7,  18.14).  In  A.V.  the  word  occurs 
as  translation  of  the  Hebrew  "  messenger  "  in 
2  Ch.  35.21  ;  Isai.  30.4,  33.7  ;  Ezek.11.15,  once 
as  equivalent  of  "  interpreter,"  2  Ch.  32.31,  and 
once  to  render  a  Hebrew  verb,  "  to  feign  oneself 
an  ambassador  "  ( Josh.  9.4 ;  so  R.V.  text,  but 
marg.,  following  another  reading,  "  took  them 
provisions  ").  The  Hebrew  noun  corresponding 
to  this  last  is  rendered  "  ambassador  "  in  R.V. 
(Prow.  13.17,  25.13;  Isai.  18.2,  57.9 ;  Jer.  49.14; 
Ob.  1.1).  Early  instances  of  the  practice  of 
sending  an  embassy  are  Num.  20.14,  21.21 ; 
Judg.  11.12-19;  see  also  2  K.  18.17.  In  the 
N.T.  the  word  is  used  metaphorically  (2  Cor. 
520;  Eph.  6.20:  also  Philem.  9,  R.V.  marg.). 
Ambasaage  (i.e.  Embassage,  a  collective  term 
=  ambassadors)  occurs  Lk.  14.32  and  Lk. 
19.14  R.V. 


Amber. — The  word  occurs  three  times  in 
Ezekiel  and  nowhere  else  (1.4,  27,  and  8.2).  It 
is  doubtful  whether  the  Hebrew  word  signifies 
the  modern  amber,  as  we  understand  the  word, 
a  fossilised  vegetable  resin,  yellow  or  red,  or 
an  alloy  of  one  part  silver  to  four  parts  of  gold, 
held  in  high  estimation  by  the  ancients  (so  R.V. 
marg.  "  Electrum"). 

Amen. — A  Hebrew  adverb,  from  a  root  mean- 
ing "  to  make  firm,  sure,"  and  hence  used  as  a 
formula  of  confirmation  of  what  another  has 
said  (cf.  Eng.  "  surely  "). 

1.  In  O.T.  it  accepts  and  ratifies  a  curse  (Num. 
5.22;    Deut.   27.15-26;    Neh.   5.13),    a    royal 
command  (I  K.  1.36) ;   a  prophecy  (Jer.  28.6) ; 
and  prayer,  especially  at  the  close  of  a  doxology 
(Neh.  8.6),  and  as  the  people's  response  to  the 
doxologies  which  stand  after  the  first  four  books 
of  the    Psalms    (41.13,   72.19,    89.52,   106.48; 
cf.  1  Ch.  16.36).     From  this  use  in  the  services 
of    the    synagogue    it    passed    into    Christian 
worship. 

2.  In  N.T. 

(a)  In  public  worship  (2  Cor.   14.16;    R.V. 
"  the     Amen ").     The    doxology     and     Amen 
which   close  the   Lord's   Prayer  in   A.V.   (not 
R.V.)  of  Matt.  6.13  are  no  doubt  due  to  the 
liturgical  use  of  the  prayer. 

(b)  From    this    responsive    use    the    Amen 
came   to   be   added    to   confirm  or  emphasise 
individual  prayer  or  thanksgiving  (Rom.  1.25, 
9.5,  11.36 ;  Gal.  6.18  ;    Rev.  1.6,  7,  etc.). 

(c)  A  use  peculiar  to  our  Lord  is  the  employ- 
ment of  this  word  to  introduce  some  word  of 
His  of  special  solemnity,  in  the  formula  "  Verily 
(lit.  Amen),  I  say  unto  you,"   for  which  the 
Fourth   Gospel    has    the    doubled    affirmation 
"Verily,  verily"  (Matt.  5.18,  and  thirty  times 
in  all,  M k.  thirteen  times,  Lk.  six  times ;  John, 
"  Verily,  verily,"  1.51,  and  twenty-five  times). 

(d)  In  2  Cor.  1.20  the  promises  of  God  are  said 
to  centre  in  Christ  ("  in  Him  is  the  yea  ")  and  to 
find  their  confirmation  and  fulfilment  through 
Him    ("  wherefore   also    through    Him   is    the 
Amen").     And   in    Rev.   3.14   Christ   Himself 
is  called   "  the   Amen,   the   faithful   and   true 
witness  "  (cf.  Isai.  65.16,  "  the  God  of  truth," 
lit.  "  the  God  of  Amen  "). 

The  use  of  the  word  in  the  synagogue  ser- 
vices was  early  transferred  to  the  services  of 
the  Christian  Church  (1  Cor.  14.16),  and  is 
noted  by  the  Fathers  (e.g.  Justin  Martyr, 
Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  and  Jerome). 

Amethyst.— This  precious  stone  (a  form  of 
rock-crystal)  had  a  place  in  the  breastplate  of 
the  high  priest  (Ex.  28.19,  39.12).  It  is 
mentioned  in  Rev.  21.20  as  adorning  the  founda- 
tions of  the  wall  of  the  heavenly  Jerusalem. 
Oriental  amethyst  from  the  East  Indies  is  a 
rare  gem,  very  bright,  inferior  only  to  the  dia- 
mond in ,  hardness,  and  usually  of  a  purple 
colour.  The  Hebrew  word  implies  the  belief 
that  to  wear  the  stone  caused  propitious  dreams  ; 
the  Greek  that  it  was  a  protection  against 
drunkenness. 

A 'mi. — A  servant  of  Solomon.     Descendants 


AMINADAB] 


21 


[AMOS 


me 

? 


of  Ami  came  up  with  Zerubbabel  from  Babylon 
(Ezra  2.57).  In  Neh.  7.59  he  is  called  Amon. 

Amin'adab.— [AMMINADAB.] 

Amit'tai. — Faithful :  father  of  the  prophet 
Jonah  (2  K.  14.25;  Jon.  1.1). 

Am'mah. — A  hill  near  Gibeon  of  Benjamin, 
mentioned  as  the  extreme  point  of  Joab  and 
Abishai's  pursuit  of  Abner  after  the  death 
of  Asahel  (2  Sam.  2.24). 

Am/mi. — My  people :  a  symbolic  name 
which  the  ransomed  are  directed  by  the  Lord 
to  use  (Eos.  2.1).  Cf.  Lo-ammi  (Eos.  1.9), 
and  see  Rom.  9.25,  26. 

Ammi'el. — Kinsman  is  God :  1.  One  of  the 
spies  sent  to  view  the  Promised  Land  (Num. 
13.12).  2.  The  father  of  Machir,  a  helper  of 
David  (2  Sam.  17.27).  3.  The  father  of  Bath- 
shua  or  Bathsheba,  the  wife  of  David  (1  Ch. 
3.5,  called  Eliam  in  2  Sam.  11.3.  He  was  the 
son  of  Ahithophel,  David's  prime  minister. 
4.  One  of  the  door-keepers  of  the  temple 
(1  Ch.  26.5). 

Ammi'hud. — Kinsman  is  glory:  1.  The 
father  of  Elishama  (Num.  1.10,  2.18,  7.48, 
10.22).  2.  The  father  of  Shemuel,  a  Simeonite 
(Num.  34.20).  3.  The  father  of  Pedahel,  a 
Naphthalite  (Num.  34.28).  4.  The  father 
of  the  King  of  Geshur  with  whom  Absalom 
took  refurge  (2  Sam.  13.37).  5.  The  father  of 
Uthai  (1  Ch.  9.4). 

Ammin'adab.—  Kinsman  is  generous  :  1.  The 
father  of  Aaron's  wife,  Elisheba  (Ex.  6.23), 
and  an  ancestor  of  Jesus  Christ  (Matt.  1.4  ; 
Lk.  3.33).  2.  The  chief  of  the  sons  of  Uzziel, 
whom  David  sent  for,  together  with  others, 
to  bring  the  ark  of  God  to  Jerusalem  (1  Ch. 
15.10-12).  3.  In  1  Ch.  6.22,  probably  by 
error,  for  Izhar  (see  vers.  2,  18,  38). 

Ammin'adib.— (Cant.  6.12,  A.V.  text  and 
R.V.  marg.  :  but  see  A.V.  marg.  and  R.  V. 
text).  The  passage  is  obscure. 

Ammishad'dai.—  Kinsman  is  the  Almighty  : 
father  of  Ahiezer,  a  Danite  (Num.  1.12,  2.25, 
7.66,  and  10.25). 

Ammiza'bad. — My  people  hath  given :  the 
son  of  Benaiah,  one  of  David's  captains  (1  Ch. 
27.6). 

Am'mon.— The  name  of  a  people  (1  Sam. 
11.11  ;  Ps.  83.7) ;  more  generally  Ammonites, 
children  of  Ammon.  According  to  Gen.  19.38 
they  were  descended  from  Ben-Ammi,  the  son 
of  Lot.  The  Ammonites  were  a  race  of  fierce 
and  cruel  marauders — we  read  of  them  thrusting 
out  the  right  eyes  of  their  enemies  (1  Sam.  11.2), 
ripping  up  the  women  with  child  (Amos  1.13). 
The  Ammonite  territory  was  east  of  Jordan 
north-east  of  the  Dead  Sea,  Moab  lying 
the  south.  Their  chief  city  was  Rabbah 
(2  Sam.  11.1 ;  Ezek.  25.5  ;  Amos  1.14).  They 
never  obtained  a  footing  on  the  west  side  of 
the  Jordan,  although  they  made  raids  in  that 
quarter.  The  Israelites  hated  the  Ammonites 
because  they  had  given  them  no  help  in  their 
passage  to  Canaan  (Deut.  23.4),  and  because 
of  then-  share  in  the  affair  of  Balaam  (Deut. 
23.4,  and  Nth.  13.1),  The  animosity  between 


the  two  people  continued  throughout  their 
history.  An  Ammonite  woman,  however, 
Naamah,  was  one  of  Solomon's  wives  and  the 
mother  of  Rehoboam  (1  K.  14.21).  The  god  of 
the  tribe  was  Milcom  (a  form  of  Molech),  the 
abomination  of  the  children  of  Ammon  (1  K. 
11.5). 

Ammonitess. — A  woman  of  the  Ammonite 
race,  as,  for  example,  Naamah  (1  K.  14.21),  one 
of  Solomon's  wives,  and  Shimeath  (2  Ch.  24.26). 

Am'non. — 1.  Eldest  son  of  David  by  Ahinoam 
the  Jezreelitess  (2  Sam.  3.2).  He  dishonoured 
his  half-sister  Tamar,  and  was  murdered  by 
her  brother  Absalom  (2  Sam.  13  ;  1  Ch.  3.1). 

2.  A  son  of  Shimon  (1  Ch.  4.20). 
A'mok. — Deep  :  a  priest  (Neh.  12.7). 
A'mon. — The    hidden :     an    Egyptian    god. 

This  name  is  incorporated  in  the  Hebrew 
designation  of  the  famous  Egyptian  city  of 
Thebes,  viz.  No- Amon  (Neh.  3.8,  R.V. ;  Jer. 
46.25,  R.V.). 

A'mon.—  Skilled  workman:  1.  King  of  Judah, 
son  and  successor  of  Manasseh.  He  served 
false  gods,  and  after  a  reign  of  two  years  was 
murdered  (2  K.  21.19-26;  2  Ch.  33.20-25). 
For  the  deplorable  condition  of  Jerusalem 
during  his  reign,  see  the  book  of  Zephaniah. 
The  name  occurs  in  the  genealogy  of  Jesus 
Christ  (Matt.  1.10).  2.  Governor  of  Samaria 
in  the  reign  of  Ahab  (1  K.  22.26  ;  2  Ch.  18.25). 

3.  One  of  Solomon's  servants  (Neh.  7.59).     [See 
AMI.] 

Am'orite,  the  Am'orites.—  Mountaineer,  the 
dweller  on  the  summits  :  the  Amorites  held  an 
important  place  among  the  nations  who  possessed 
the  land  of  Canaan  before  its  conquest  by  the 
Israelites.  At  first  they  seem  to  have  formed 
part  of  the  great  confederation  of  the  descend- 
ants of  Canaan  (Gen.  10.16).  But  between  the 
settlement  of  Jacob  in  Egypt  and  the  Exodus 
they  had  separated  from  the  Canaanites  and 
established  themselves  strongly  at  Jerusalem, 
Hebron,  and  other  important  places  in  southern 
Palestine,  while  they  had  also  crossed  the 
Jordan,  and  founded  the  kingdoms  over  which 
Sihon  and  Og  ruled  (see  Amos  2.9,  10).  Sihon 
refused  the  Israelites  passage  through  his 
territory,  and  went  out  to  fight  them,  but  was 
slain,  and  his  army  utterly  routed  (Num.  21  ; 
Deut.  2).  Later  we  find  the  five  kings  of  the 
Amorites  disputing  with  Joshua  the  land  west 
of  the  Jordan  (Josh.  10).  From  the  beginning 
to  the  end  the  Amorites  maintained  their 
character  of  bold  mountaineer  warriors. 
Nothing  is  known  of  their  history  after  the 
conquest  of  Canaan  by  the  Israelites. 

A'mos. — Burden-bearer:  1.  Author  of  the  book 
which  stands  third  in  the  collection  of  the  books 
of  the  Twelve  Prophets,  or  "  minor  Prophets," 
and  is  probably  the  earliest  of  the  prophetical 
wri  tings. 

As  to  the  date  of  the  prophet,  since  it  appears 
that  Amos  fulfilled  his  ministry  in  the  reigns  of 
Uzziah  and  of  Jeroboam  n.  (1.1),  he  must  have 
been  contemporary  with  Hosea.  The  mission 
of  Amos  was  to  the  Ten  Tribes  (7.10-13).  He 


AMOS,  BOOK  OF] 


22 


[ANAH 


did  not,  however,  belong  to  the  kingdom  of 
Israel ;  but  was  an  inhabitant,  and  probably  a 
native,  of  Tekoa,  a  city  south  of  Bethlehem,  on 
the  borders  of  the  vast  open  pastures  of  the 
hill  country  of  Judah.  As  to  his  personal  his- 
tory, Amos  was  by  profession  a  shepherd,  and 
a  husbandman  (7.14),  "  not  a  prophet,  or  a 
prophet's  son  "  (i.e.  not  trained  to  that  office) ; 
but  he  was  called,  by  an  irresistible  Divine 
commission  (3.8,  7.15),  to  prophesy  to  Israel. 
To  this  fact  he  alludes  when  Amaziah,  the 
idolatrous  priest  in  Bethel,  charged  him  with 
conspiring  against  Jeroboam.  His  previous 
occupation  ought  to  have  removed  all  sus- 
picion of  political  connection  with  the  house 
of  David  ;  whilst  it  illustrates  the  sovereignty 
and  wisdom  of  Him  who  selects  His  ministers 
from  the  tents  of  the  shepherd,  as  well  as  from 
the  palace  of  the  monarch,  adapting  each  for 
the  duties  to  which  he  is  appointed.- 

2.  The  son  of  Nahum  in  the  genealogy  of  Christ 
(Lk.  3.25). 

Amos,  Book  of  .—The  style  of  Amos  is  simple, 
but  by  no  means  deficient  in  picturesque 
beauty.  His  manner  of  life  was  the  source 
of  his  original  and  striking  illustrations,  which 
are  taken  mostly  from  rural  employments, 
and  are  painted  with  the  life  and  freshness 
of  nature.  His  knowledge  of  the  events  of 
remote  antiquity  (9.7),  and  of  others  more 
recent,  not  elsewhere  recorded  (6.2),  the  regular 
course  of  his  thoughts,  and  the  correctness  of 
his  language,  all  tend  to  show  that  the  respon- 
sible and  often  dangerous  (3.12)  occupation 
of  a  shepherd  was  still  as  favourable  to  mental 
culture  as  it  had  been  in  the  days  of  Moses  and 
of  David.  The  Contents  of  the  Book  may  be 
divided  into  five  parts  : — 

1.  Chaps.  1,  2.    A  series  of  measured  arraign- 
ments  against   heathen   nations,    Judah,    and 
lastly  Israel,  for  their  sins,  with  denunciations 
of  punishment. 

2.  Chaps.  3-5.17.     Samaria  (a  synonym  for 
the    northern    kingdom    of    Israel)  ;     its    sins 
exhibited  in  detail ;   with  the  certain  approach- 
ing punishment. 

3.  Chaps.  5. 18-6. 14.  Grounds  of  false  security 
exposed,  and  warnings  of  judgment  reiterated. 

4.  Chaps.  7.1-9.10.     A  series  of  five  visions, 
showing  in  various  ways  the  forbearance  and 
just  judgments  of  God.     A  personal  narrative 
of   great  interest  is   introduced    between   the 
third  and  fourth  visions  (7.10-17). 

5.  Chaps.  9.11-15.     A   conclusion,    showing 
how  the  nation  shall  be  reinstated  and  prosperity 
renewed. 

These  last  intimations  of  future  blessings 
are  quoted  by  the  Apostle  James  (Acts  15.16,  17) 
to  show  that  the  favour  in  reserve  for  the  Jews 
will  be  extended  to  all  the  nations  of  the  earth. 

The  language  and  allusions  in  the  book  of 
Amos  suggest  a  familiarity  with  the  books 
of  Moses.  See  2.10  (Dent.  29.5);  4.6-10 
(Deut.  4.30,  30.2);  4.11  (Deut.  29.23);  5.11 
(D<*t.  28.30-39). 

'«  the  N.T.  the  book  La   cited  by  Stephen 


in  his  address  to  the  Sanhedrin,  and  by  James 
in  the  Council  of  Jerusalem  (Acts  7.42,  43, 
15.16-18).  In  the  former,  the  extension  of 
the  phrase  "  beyond  Damascus  "  to  "  beyond 
Babylon  "  is  very  noticeable.  In  the  latter, 
the  "  residue  of  men  "  is  from  the  LXX,  the 
Hebrew  reading  being,  as  in  A.V.  and  R.V., 
"  the  remnant  of  Edam" :  "  Man  "  and  "  Edom  " 
are  alike  in  the  Hebrew  consonants.  Which- 
ever reading  be  adopted,  the  testimony  of  the 
prophet  to  the  universality  of  the  Gospel  is 
very  striking.  Note  also  the  coincidence 
between  3.7  and  Rev.  10.7,  declaring  the  revela- 
tion of  the  mystery  of  God  to  the  prophets. 

A'moz. — Strong:  father  of  the  prophet  Isaiah 
(Isai.  1.1). 

Amphi'polis. — The  encompassed  city  :  a  city 
of  Macedonia,  through  which  Paul  and  Silas 
passed  on  their  way  from  Philippi  to  Thessa- 
lonica  (Acts  17.1).  It  received  its  name  from 
the  fact  that  the  river  Strymon  flowed  almost 
round  the  town.  Its  site  is  now  occupied  by  a 
village  called  Neochori,  in  Turkish,  Jeni-Keni, 
literally  "  new  town." 

Am'plias. — Abbreviated  form  of  Ampliatus 
(so  R.V.).  A  Roman  Christian  (Rom.  16.8). 
The  name  Ampliatus  was  frequently  held  by 
slaves.  It  is  found  in  two  prominent  inscrip- 
tions (one  possibly  of  the  first  century)  in  the 
Christian  catacomb  of  St.  Domitilla  at  Rome. 
Does  this  mean  honour  done  to  a  slave  through 
whom  a  great  Roman  house  had  been  converted 
to  Christianity  ? 

Am 'ram. — Exalted  people  :  1.  A  Levite,  father 
of  Moses,  Aaron,  and  Miriam  (Ex.  6.18-20).  2. 
Son  of  Dishon  (1  Ch.  1.41).  R.V.  Hamram. 
The  name  is  given  as  Hemdan  in  Gen.  36.26.  3. 
A  son  of  Bani  who  had  taken  a  foreign  wife 
during  the  exile  (Ezra  10.34). 

Am'ramites. — The  descendants  of  Amram 
(Num.  3.27  ;  1  Ch.  26.23). 

Amra'phel. — A  king  of  Shinar,  or  southern 
Babylonia,  who  helped  Chedorlaomer  against 
the  kings  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  (Gen.  14). 
The  name  is  in  all  probability  identical  with  that 
of  Hammurabi,  King  of  Babylon,  2100,  or 
1958,  B.C.,  whose  Code  of  Laws  was  discovered 
engraved  on  a  large  monument  at  Susa  in 
1902. 

Am'zi.— 1.  A  Levite  (1  Ch.  6.46).  2.  A 
priest  named  in  Neh.  11.12. 

A'nab. — Grape-town :  a  town  in  the  mountains 
of  Judah  (Josh.  15.50),  inhabited  by  Anakim 
(Josh.  11.21).  It  is  still  called  Anab,  ten  miles 
south-west  of  Hebron. 

A'nah.— In  Gen.  36  Anah  is  (1)  daughter  of 
Zibeon  the  Hivite,  ver.  2 ;  (2)  daughter  of 
Zibeon,  ver.  14  ;  (3)  son  of  Seir  the  Horite  and 
brother  of  Zibeon,  ver.  20  ;  (4)  son  of  Zibeon. 
But  in  ver.  2  the  R.V.  marg.  reads  son.  and  if 
Hivite  is  in  error  for  Ilorite,  (1),  (2),  and  (4)  are 
easily  reduced  to  one.  And  if  the  name  is 
tribal  rather  than  personal,  the  sub-clan  Anah 
may  be  at  once  "  son  "  of,  i.e.  derived  from 
the  clan  Zibeon,  and  yet  brother  of  Zibeon, 
inasmuch  as  both  are  descendants  of  Seir 


ANAHARATH] 


23 


[ANDREW 


According  to  the  A.V.,  ver.  24,  Anah  is  noted  as 
the  discoverer  of  some  "  mules  "  in  the  wilder- 
ness :  R.V.  has  the  more  likely  rendering  of  an 
unknown  Hebrew  word,  "  hot  springs."  If  this 
is  right,  the  springs  may  be  those  of  Callirhoe, 
east  of  the  Dead  Sea,  well  known  to  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  and  resorted  to  by  Herod  the 
Great  in  his  last  illness. 

AnabYrath. — A  town  in  Issachar  (Jos7i.19.19), 
now  En-Na'urah. 

Anai'ah. — Jehovah  has  answered :  1.  A 
Levite  who  stood  on  the  right  hand  of  Ezra 
while  he  read  the  law  to  the  people  (Neh.  8.4). 
2.  A  Jew  who,  with  Nehemiah,  sealed  the 
covenant  (Neh.  10.22). 

A'nak. — [ANAKIM.] 

A'nakim — A  race  of  giants,  so  called  either 
from  their  size  or  their  strength  (Deut.  2.10), 
descended  from  Arba,  one  of  the  sons  of  Seth, 
dwelling  after  the  time  of  Abraham  in  the 
southern  part  of  Canaan,  and  particularly  at 
Hebron.  They  are  variously  called  sons  of 
Anak  (Num.  13.33),  and  sons  of  Anakim  (Deut. 
1.28).  They  struck  terror  into  the  hearts  of 
the  Israelites  by  their  warlike  appearance 
(Num.  13.28;  Deut.  9.2),  yet  Joshua  drove 
them  completely  from  Canaan,  except  such  as 
found  refuge  in  the  Philistine  cities  of  Gaza, 
Gath,  and  Ashdod  (Josh.  11.21,  22),  where 
they  lost  their  separate  existence.  Their  chief 
city,  Hebron,  became  the  possession  of  Caleb, 
who  drove  from  it  the  three  sons,  or  rather 
families  or  tribes,  of  Anak  (Josh.  15.14  ;  Judg. 
1.20). 

Ana'mim. — Descendants  of  a  tribe  of  Miz- 
raim,  i.e.  Egypt  (Gen.  10.13;  1  Ch.  1.11).  Of 
their  geographical  position  nothing  is  known, 
though  they  are  supposed  to  have  inhabited 
the  region  lying  between  south-west  Palestine 
and  Egypt. 

Anam'melech. — Anu  is  prince:  a  Babylonian 
god  whose  worship  among  the  Sepharvites  was 
transplanted  to  Israel  along  with  that  of 
Adrammelech  when  Shalmaneser  peopled  the 
cities  of  Samaria  with  the  Sepharvites.  This 
deity  was  worshipped  with  rites  similar  to  those 
of  Molech,  children  being  sacrificed  to  him 
(2  K.  17.31). 

A'nan. — An  exile  who,  with  Nehemiah, 
signed  the  covenant  (Neh.  10.26). 

Ana'ni. — My  protector:  son  of  Elioenai  (1  Ch. 
3.24). 

Anani'ah.— (?)  Jehovahhas  protected:  1. Grand- 
father of  a  returned  exile  (Neh.  3.23).  2.  A 
place  in  which  the  Benjamites  lived  after  their 
return  from  captivity  (Neh.  11.32),  now  Beit 
Hannina. 

Ananias. — Jehovah  is  gracious :  Greek  form 
of  Hananiah.  1.  High  priest  when  Paul  was 
brought  before  the  Sandedrin  (Acts  23  and  24). 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  revolt  in  66  A.D.  he  was 
murdered  by  the  rebels  as  a  leader  of  the  Roman 
and  pacific  party,  a  terrible  fulfilment  of  St. 
Paul's  prophecy,  "  God  shall  smite  thee,  thou 
whited  wall  "  (Acts  23.3).  2.  A  disciple  whose 
wife  Sapphira  conspired  with  him  to  hold  back 


part  of  the  price  of  a  possession,  and  offer  the 
other  part  to  the  apostles,  as  though  it  had  been 
the  whole.  Peter  sternly  rebuked  them,  and 
on  hearing  his  words  first  Ananias  and  then 
Sapphira  fell  down  dead  (Acts  5).  3.  A  Chris- 
tian Jew  of  Damascus  (Acts  9),  who  was  directed 
in  a  vision  to  seek  out  Saul  of  Tarsus,  just  after 
his  conversion.  The  laying  on  of  his  hands 
was  followed  by  Saul's  recovery  of  sight  and 
by  his  baptism. 

A'nath. — The  father  of  Shamgar,  who  was 
the  third  of  the  judges  after  Joshua  (Judg.  3.31, 
5.6). 

Ana'thema.— A  Greek  word,  meaning  "  a 
thing  set  up,"  for  example,  within  a  temple 
as  a  votive  offering  to  a  god.  (So  in  Lk. 
21.5.)  In  the  LXX  the  term  is  applied  to 
animals  devoted  to  God,  and  therefore  to  be 
slain  (Lev.  27.28,  29) :  hence,  generally, 
"  devoted  to  death,"  "  accursed  "  (Josh.  6.17, 
7.12).  In  N.T.  the  A.V.  has  the  word  only  in 
1  Cor.  16.22  :  R.V.  retains  the  Greek  term  also 
in  Rom.  9.3  ;  1  Cor.  12.3  ;  Gal.  1.8,  9  (A.V. 
"  accursed  ").  In  Acts  23.14  the  word  is  used 
in  the  sense  of  "  curse." 

Ana'thoth. — Responses  :  1.  A  city  of  Ben- 
jamin, two  miles  east  of  Gibeah,  allotted  to  the 
priests  (Josh.  21.18 ;  1  Ch.  6.60).  Abiathar 
was  banished  to  Anathoth  after  the  failure  of 
his  attempt  to  put  Adonijah  on  the  throne 
(1  K.  2.26).  This  was  the  native  place  of 
Abiezer,  one  of  David's  thirty  captains  (2  Sam. 
23.27  ;  1  Ch.  11.28,  27.12),  of  Jehu,  another 
of  the  mighty  men  (1  Ch.  12.3),  and  of  Jeremiah 
(Jer.  1.1,  11.21,  29.27).  It  was  reoccupied 
after  the  return  from  the  captivity.  The  city 
has  been  identified  with  the  modern  'Anata, 
not  far  from  Jerusalem,  with  its  well-tilled 
fields  of  grain,  figs,  and  olives.  There  are  the 
remains  of  walls  and  strong  foundations,  and 
the  quarries  still  supply  Jerusalem  with  build- 
ing stone.  2.  A  son  of  Becher  (1  Ch.  7.8). 
3.  One  of  the  chiefs  that  signed  the  covenant 
with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  10.19). 

Anchor. — The  anchor  was  formerly  cast  from 
the  stern  of  the  ship  (Acts  27.29).  In  this 
passage  the  reference  may  be  to  the  four-fluked 
anchor  in  common  use  in  shallow  water,  or  it 
may  mean  four  distinct  anchors  (but  see  SHIP). 
Used  symbolically,  the  word  denotes  whatever 
sustains  the  soul  in  times  of  stress  and  strain. 
The  grace  of  hope  has  such  an  influence  on  the 
believing  heart,  and  is  called  its  anchor  (Heb. 
6.19).  The  anchor  was  one  of  the  earliest 
symbols  used  in  the  Christian  Church,  and  is 
found  on  rings  and  on  monuments. 

An'drew. — Manly  :  brother  of  Simon  Peter, 
and  one  of  the  twelve  disciples.  In  the 
Synoptic  Gospels  he  is  little  more  than  a  name*  ' 
Apart  from  the  narratives  of  the  call  of  the  first 
four  disciples  (Matt.  4  ;  Mk.  1),  and  the  lists  of 
the  twelve  apostles,  the  only  other  references 
are  Mk.  1.29,  13.3.  In  the  Fourth  Gospel  he 
appears  as  originally  a  disciple  of  John  the 
Baptist  (John  1.41),  who  was  one  of  the  first 
two  to  follow  Jesus,  and  at  once  brought  t<> 


ANDRONICUS] 


24 


[ANOINT 


Him  his  brother  Simon.  Hence  he  has  been 
regarded  as  a  type  of  missionaries.  Other 
references  in  John  are  1.44,  6.8,  12.22.  In  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  he  is  never  mentioned 
after  the  list  in  Acts  1.  There  is  the  greatest 
obscurity  as  to  his  subsequent  career,  but  all 
traditions  agree  in  assigning  Patroe  in  Achaia 
(Greece)  as  the  place  of  his  martyrdom.  It  is 
said  by  old  writers  that  he  was  bound,  not  nailed, 
to  the  cross,  in  order  to  prolong  his  sufferings. 

Androni'cus. — Man  conqueror:  a  Christian 
at  Rome,  saluted  by  Paul  (Rom.  16.7),  together 
with  Junias.  They  are  described  as  Paul's 
"  kinsmen,"  i.e.  probably  Jews,  as  "  fellow- 
prisoners,"  either  in  some  unrecorded  imprison- 
ment or  as  captives  of  Christ,  as  "  of  note 
among  the  apostles,"  and  as  "  in  Christ "  be- 
fore Paul  himself. 

A'nem. — Double-fountain :  a  city  of  Issachar, 
belonging  to  the  Gershonites  (1  Ch.  6.73).  It 
is  probably  the  same  as  En-gannim  (Josh.  21.29). 

A'ner. — 1.  One  of  three  Hebronite  chiefs  who 
co-operated  with  Abraham  in  the  pursuit  of  the 
four  invading  kings  (Gen.  14.13-24).  2.  A  city  of 
the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh,  west  of  Jordan, 
given  to  the  Kohathites  (1  Ch.  6.70;.  It  seems 
to  be  the  same  place  as  Tanach  ( Josh.  21.25). 

Anetho'thite,  The.  —  The  name  given  to 
Abiezer,  an  inhabitant  of  Anathoth,  of  the  tribe 
of  Benjamin  (2  Sam.  23.27).  Called  also 
ANETOTHITE  and  ANTOTHITE. 

Angel. — Messenger  :  a  doctrine  of  angels  as 
the  attendant "  hosts  "  of  God  and  the  messengers 
and  ministers  of  His  will  runs  all  through  the 
Bible.  The  belief,  at  first  simple,  gradually 
developed  with  the  growth  of  Judaism,  especially 
after  the  Exile  (see  the  Apocryphal  books  of 
2  Esdras  and  Tobit).  There  is  little  that 
is  distinctive  in  the  N.T.  teaching  concerning 
angels  :  it  reflects  the  main  features  of  the  O.T., 
while  discarding  and  warning  against  certain 
features  and  tendencies  of  later  and  unscriptural 
speculation. 

1.  Their  Nature.— Of  this  we  are  told  little. 
Generally  they  appear  as  men  (Gen.  18  ;  Acts 
1.10),  sometimes  with  accompaniment  of  glory 
(Dan.  10.5,6  ;  Lk.  24.4).    The  Seraphim  of  Isai. 
6.2,  and  the  Cherubim  of  Ezek.  1.6,  have  wings  : 
so  too  Gabriel  (Dan.  9.21  :  but  see  R.V.  marg.), 
and  the  angel  of  Rev.  14.6  (not  8.13,  see  II.  V.). 
In  Heb.  1.14  they  are  ministering  "  spirits  " 
(cf.  Mk.  12.25). 

2.  Their     Functions.  —  Primarily    they    are 
messengers  of  God  to  men,  to  reveal  Him,  to 
guide,  guard,  strengthen,  warn,  rebuke,  chastise. 
See  the  stories  of  Gen.  18,  19,  22,  28,  32  ;  Judg. 
2,  6,  13 ;  2  Sam.  24.16,  17 ;  2  K.  19.35  :  and  cf. 
Ps.  34.7,  35.5,  6, 91.11.     In  the  earlier  references 
the  angel  of  Jehovah  is  hardly  to  be  distinguished 
from  Jehovah  Himself :  it  is  He  who  speaks 
(Gen.    22.16;    Ex.    3.2-16;     Judg.    13.18-22). 
But  there   is   also  the  conception  of  a  great 
multitude  of  angels  (Gen.  28.12,  32.2),  who  in 
later  thought  are  represented  as  the  hosts  of 
God,  His  court,  council,  army  (Ps.  103.20,  21 ; 
89.7 ;  Isai.  6.2-5,  etc. :  cf.  Lk.  2.13 ;  Matt.  26.53  ; 


Lk.  12.8,  9  ;  Heb.  12.22  ;  Rev.  5.11,  etc.).  They 
are  guardians  not  only  of  individuals  but  of 
nations  (Ex.  23.20 ;  Dan.  10.13-20) :  each  Chris- 
tian Church  has  its  "  angel,"  representing  "  the 
Divine  presence  and  the  Divine  power  in  the 
Church :  he  is  the  Divine  guarantee  of  the 
vitality  and  effectiveness  of  the  Church  "  (Ram- 
say: see  Rev.  2.1-8,  etc.).  One  saying  of  our 
Lord  seems  to  endorse  the  belief  that  every  indi- 
vidual has  his  guardian  angel  in  heaven,  and  to 
declare  that  the  care  of  children  is  committed  to 
those  of  highest  rank  among  the  councillors  and 
ministers  of  God  (Matt.  18.10  :  cf.  Lk.  1.19). 

It  is  in  accord  with  all  this  that  angels  minister 
to  Jesus  (Mk.  1.13  ;  Lk.  22.43),  are  concerned  for 
the  decorum  of  church  assemblies  (1  Cor.  11.14), 
and  for  human  salvation  (Lk.  15.10;  1  Pet. 
1.12) ;  had  part  in  the  majestic  revelation  of 
Sinai  (Acts  7.53  ;  Gal.  3.19 ;  Heb.  2.2),  and  will 
execute  the  Final  Judgment  (Matt.  13.41). 

They  are  of  differing  rank.  Two  are  specially 
named — Michael,  one  of  the  chief  princes  (Dan. 
10.13),  "  the  archangel  "  (Jude  9),  and  Gabriel 
(Dan.  8.16  ;  Lk.  1.19).  In  the  Apocrypha  other 
names  appear,  especially  Raphael  and  Uriel. 
Grades  of  these  heavenly  beings  are  also  referred 
to  in  the  terms  of  Eph.  1.21  ;  Col.  1.16,  2.15, 
and  one  main  theme  of  Colossians  is  condemna- 
tion of  the  speculative  thought  which  would 
interpose  them  between  God  and  man,  so  depriv- 
ing Christ,  the  one  mediator,  of  the  honour 
which  is  His  alone  (Col.  1.14-20,  2.18,  etc.). 

Fallen  angels  are  mysteriously  referred  to  in 
Jude  6  ;  2  Pet.  2.4  ;  and  in  Rev.  12.9  Satan  has 
his  army  of  angels. 

Ani'am. — Lamentation  of  the  people  :  a  son 
of  Shemidah  (1  Ch.  7.19). 

A'nim. — Springs  :  a  city  in  the  mountains 
of  Judah  (Josh.  15.50).  Now  called  Ghuwein, 
a  place  eleven  miles  south  of  Hebron. 

An'ise.— Occurs  only  in  Matt.  23.23  :  "  Ye 
pay  tithe  of  mint  and  anise  and  cummin." 
The  R.V.  marg.  has  "  dill,"  a  plant  which 
grows  freely  in  Palestine,  and  of  which  the  seeds 
are  largely  used  as  condiments  in  cookery.  It 
is  also  used  medicinally  all  over  the  east.  It 
must  not  be  confused  with  aniseed,  an  en- 
tirely different  plant. 

An'na. — Grace  :  a  prophetess  at  the  time  of 
the  birth  of  Jesus  (Lk.  2.36). 

An'nas. — Gracious  :  the  high  -  priest  from 
7-15  A.D.  Although  deposed,  he  retained  an  ex- 
traordinary power  :  five  of  his  sons,  and  also 
his  son-in-law,  Caiaphas,  held  the  office  after 
him;  indeed,  according  to  Lk.  3.2,  he  seems  to 
have  exercised  a  co-ordinate  authority  with 
Caiaphas  (cf.  Acts  4.6).  In  the  Fourth  Gospel 
we  are  told  that  Jesus,  after  His  arrest,  was  led 
first  to  Annas  (John  18.13  ;  cf.  ver.  24  A.V.  and 
R.V.,  and  see  the  commentaries  for  discussion 
of  a  difficult  problem). 

Anoint. — The  practice  of  anointing  the  body 
by  rubbing  in  oil  or  othor  unguents  was  a 
common  one  in  the  hot  climate  of  Palestine, 
a  necessity  for  health,  comfort,  arid  personal 
appearance.  Anointing  the  head  with  oil  or 


ANT] 


25 


[ANTIOCH 


ointment  was  a  mark  of  respect  sometimes  paid 
by  a  host  to  his  guests  (Ps.  23.5 ;  Matt.  26.7 ; 
Lk  7.46  ;  John  11.2,  12.3).  The  discontinu- 
ance of  the  practice  was  looked  upon  as  a 
sign  of  mourning  or  of  disaster  (Deut.  28.40 ; 
Mic.  6.15).  A  method  of  paying  respect  to  a 
corpse  was  the  anointing  of  it  with  oil  (Matt. 
26.12  ;  AfJfc.  16.1 ;  Lk.  23.56).  [See  EMBALM.] 
Isaiah  (21.5)  refers  to  the  custom  of  anointing 
the  shield  with  oil  before  the  warrior  went  into 
battle.  The  object  was  that  the  strokes  which 
fell  upon  it  might  glance  aside. 

Oil  was  employed  in  various  religious  observ- 
ances. The  Tabernacle  was  dedicated  to  God 
with  "  oil  of  holy  ointment."  It  was  employed 
at  the  consecration  of  Aaron  and  his  sons  to 
the  priesthood,  and  each  succeeding  high-priest 
was  anointed  on  assuming  office  (Lev.  16.32). 
Saul,  anointed  to  his  kingly  office  by  the  express 
command  of  God,  and  David,  Solomon,  Jehu, 
and  Joash  are  distinctly  said  to  have  been 
anointed.  David,  indeed,  was  anointed  three 
times  (1  Sam.  16.13  ;  2  Sam.  2.4,  5.3).  The 
phrase,  "mine  anointed,"  is  used  as  the  equiva- 
lent of  "  my  prophets  "  in  Ps.  105.15  ;  1  Ch. 
16.22. 

From  this  practice  of  anointing  with  oil  as 
the  symbol  of  consecration  and  equipment  for 
the  service  of  God  comes  the  Hebrew  title 
"  Messiah,"  with  its  Greek  equivalent  CHBIST, 
the  anointed  One,  "  prophet,  priest,  and  king," 
anointed  with  the  Holy  Ghost  and  with  power 
(Acts  10.38).  The  followers  of  Christ  are  also 
spoken  of  as  "  anointed  "  by  God  (2  Cor.  1.21  ; 
1  John  2.20,  27).  [UNCTION.] 

Ant. — This  insect  is  twice  mentioned  in  the 
Book  of  Proverbs,  where  it  is  held  up  as  a  model 
of  industry  (6.6-8)  and  of  wisdom  (30.24,  25). 
Arabs  held  the  wisdom  of  the  ant  in  such  estima- 
tion that  they  used  to  place  one  of  these  insects 
in  the  hands  of  a  newly-born  infant,  repeating 
these  words,  "  May  the  boy  turn  out  clever  and 
skilful." 

Antichrist. — (i.e.  a  rival  Christ,  a  counter- 
Christ).  The  term  occurs  only  in  1  John  2.18-22, 
4.3  ;  2  John  7,  where  the  "  last  hour  "  is  marked 
by  the  activity  of  false  teachers,  "deceivers," 
who  deny  that  "  Jesus  Christ  is  come  in  the 
flesh."  But  the  idea  appears  under  various 
forms  :  it  is  part  of  the  general  conception  that 
the  reign  of  Messiah  or  Christ  will  be  preceded 
and  heralded  by  a  fierce  and  final  outbreak  of 
the  powers  of  evil  (see  Ezek.  38,  39  ;  Dan.  7-9, 
11,  12).  The  basis  of  the  N.T.  teaching  may 
be  found  in  the  words  of  Jesus  recorded  in 
Matt.  24.5-24.  Paul  speaks  of  this  last  rally 
of  the  forces  of  antagonism  to  Christ  as  the 
"  falling  away "  (apostasy),  and  personifies 
them  as  'the man  of  sin "  (or,  lawlessness),  "  the 
son  of  perdition  "  (2  Thess.  2.3-12) :  in  2  Cor. 
6.15  he  uses  a  term  "  Belial,"  applied  in  Jewish 
literature  to  this  same  conception  of  "  Anti- 
christ" (cf.  Jude;  2  Pet.  2,  3,  and  the  "beast" 
of  Revelation,  especially  13  and  17).  It  is  from 
these  Scriptures  that  the  general  features  of 
the  "  apostasy  "  of  the  "  Antichrist  "  must  be 


gathered.  Two  points  are  clear  :  (1)  that  Anti- 
christ, though  a  personification,  is  not  a  person 
(1  John  2.18,  "many  Antichrists,"  and  note  how 
Paul  interchanges  "  that  which  restraineth  " 
with  "one  that  restraineth,"  2  Thess.  2.6,  7, 
R.V.) ;  (2)  that  the  triumph  of  Christ  over  Anti- 
christ is  certain. 

An'tioch. — There  were  two  considerable  cities 
bearing  this  name — (1)  Antioch  in  Syria.  No 
city,  after  Jerusalem,  is  so  intimately  connected 
with  the  early  history  of  Christianity  as  Antiocb 
in  Syria.  The  Christians  who  were  dispersed 
from  Jerusalem  after  the  death  of  Stephen 
preached  the  Gospel  at  Antioch.  It  was  at 
Antioch  that  St.  Paul  rebuked  St.  Peter  for 
conduct  into  which  he  had  been  betrayed 
through  the  influence  of  emissaries  from  Jerusa- 
lem (Gal  2.11,  12). 

Here  the  first  Gentile  Church  was  founded 
(Acts  11.20,  21);  here  the  disciples  of  Jesus 
Christ  were  first  called  Christians  ;  here  St. 
Paul  exercised  systematic  ministerial  work ; 
from  this  city  he  started  on  his  first  missionary 
journey,  and  thither  he  returned.  So  again, 
after  the  Apostolic  Council  (the  decrees  of 
which  were  specially  addressed  to  the  Gentile 
converts  at  Antioch,  Acts  15.23),  he  began 
and  ended  his  second  missionary  journey  at 
this  place.  This,  too,  was  the  starting-point  of 
the  third  missionary  journey,  which  was  brought 
to  a  termination  by  the  imprisonment  at 
Jerusalem  and  Csesarea. 

This  famous  city  of  Antioch  had  been  founded 
in  the  year  300  B.C.  Jews  were  settled  in  it 
from  the  first  in  large  numbers,  were  governed 
by  their  own  ethnarch,  and  allowed  to  have  the 
same  political  privileges  which  the  Greeks 
enjoyed.  It  is,  of  course,  the  Antioch  of  the 
Roman  period  with  which  we  are  concerned  in 
the  N.T.  The  citizens  were  noted  for  scurrilous 
wit  and  the  invention  of  nicknames.  The 
name  of  Christians  was  probably  given  to  the 
disciples  of  the  Crucified  One  in  scorn.  In  the 
immediate  neighbourhood  of  Antioch  was 
Daphne,  the  celebrated  sanctuary  of  Apollo. 
The  modern  Antakia  is  a  shrunken  and  miserable 
place. 

(2)  Antioch  o!  Pisidia  is  mentioned  in  Acts 
13  and  14,  and  in  2  Tim.  3.11.  All  that  now 
remains  are  ruins,  which,  however,  are  consider- 
able, including  those  of  a  temple,  a  theatre, 
a  church,  and  a  fine  aqueduct.  St.  Paul's 
preaching  in  the  synagogue  of  Antioch  (Acts 
13.14)  led  to  the  reception  of  the  Gospel  by  a 
great  number  of  the  Gentiles,  which  so  incensed 
the  Jews  that  they  stirred  up  opposition  against 
the  Apostle,  and  drove  him  first  to  Iconium  and 
afterwards  to  Lystra.  On  his  return  from 
Lystra  St.  Paul  revisited  Antioch  for  the  purpose 
of  confirming  converts  in  their  faith.  The 
events  happened  when  he  was  on  his  first  mis- 
sionary journey  in  company  with  St.  Barnabas. 
2  Tim.  3.10,  11  shows  that  Timothy  was  well 
acquainted  with  the  sufferings  which  the  Apostle 
had  undergone  during  his  first  visit  to  the 
Pisidian  Antioch. 


ANTIOCHUS  IL] 


26 


[APE 


Anti'ochus  n. — The  name  of  Antiochus  does 
not  occur  in  the  scriptures,  but  there  are  several 
references  to  monarchs  of  that  designation. 

Antiochus  IT.  is  one  of  the  kings  referred  to 
in  Dan.  11.6 :  "  they  shall  join  themselves 
together."  He  was  King  of  Syria,  and  had 
been  at  war  with  the  King  of  Egypt  (Ptolemseus 
Philadelphus).  Peace  was  made  in  250  B.C., 
Ptolemy  ("  the  king  of  the  south  ")  gave  his 
daughter  Berenice  in  marriage  to  Antiochus 
("  the  king  of  the  north  "),  who  set  aside  his 
former  wife  Laodice.  When  Ptolemy  died 
(247  B.C.)  Laodice  and  her  children  were  re- 
called to  court.  Thus  Berenice  was  "not  able 
to  retain  her  power,"  and  Laodice  poisoned 
Antiochus  (him  "  that  supported  her,"  i.e. 
Berenice),  and  caused  Berenice  and  her  infant 
to  be  put  to  death  (Dan.  11.6).  After  the  death 
of  Antiochus,  Ptolemseus  Euergetes,  the 
brother  of  Berenice  ("  out  of  a  branch  of  her 
root"),  exacted  vengeance  for  his  sister's  death 
by  an  invasion  of  Syria,  in  which  Laodice  was 
killed,  her  son  driven  for  a  time  from  the  throne, 
and  the  whole  country  plundered  (Dan.  11.7-9). 
Hostilities  continued  for  -many  years,  and  a 
grandson  of  Antiochus  threatened  to  overthrow 
the  power  of  Egypt  (Dan.  11.9,  10). 

Anti'ochus  in.,  King  of  Syria,  surnamed 
the  Great,  was  the  grandson  of  Antiochus  n. 
He  united  himself  with  Philip  in.  of  Macedon 
for  the  purpose  of  conquering  and  dividing  the 
Egyptian  dominions.  Some  factions  of  the 
Jews  espoused  the  same  cause  (Dan.  11.14). 
But  Antiochus  and  Philip  were  compelled 
by  troubles  at  home  to  desist  from  their 
enterprise,  and  the  King  of  Egypt  made  himself 
master  of  Jerusalem  and  recovered  the  territory 
he  had  lost.  In  198  B.C.  Antiochus  reappeared 
in  the  field,  captured  Scopas,  and  the  remnant 
of  his  forces  which  had  taken  refuge  in  Sidon 
(Dan.  11.15).  The  Jews  welcomed  Antiochus 
as  their  deliverer,  and  he  stood  "  in  the  glorious 
land  which  by  his  hand  "  was  to  be  consumed 
(Dan.  11.16).  Later,  Antiochus  gave  his  daughter 
Cleopatra  in  marriage  to  the  King  of  Egypt 
(Ptolemaeus  Epiphanes)  with  the  Phoenician 
provinces  for  her  dower,  but  she  favoured  the 
interests  of  her  husband  rather  than  those  of 
her  father.  In  187  B.C.  Antiochus  attacked 
a  temple  of  Belus  in  Elymais,  and  was  slain  by 
the  people  who  rose  in  its  defence.  Thus  he 
stumbled  and  fell  and  was  not  found  (Dan. 
11.19). 

As  regards  the  Jews,  Antiochus  not  only  gave 
them  perfect  liberty  of  worship,  but  he  also 
made  handsome  donations  to  the  Temple,  and 
greatly  favoured  the  priests.  Appreciating 
the  fidelity  of  the  Jews,  he  transported  2000 
families  of  them  from  Mesopotamia  to  Lydia 
and  Phrygia  to  repress  the  tendency  to  revolt 
which  was  manifested  in  these  provinces. 

Anti'ochus  rv.,  EPIPHANES,  King  of  Syria, 
youngest  son  of  the  preceding.  Seleucus,  the 
elder  brother,  was  slain  by  Heliodorus,  who 
usurped  the  crown.  Antiochus  expelled  the 
latter,  and  himself  obtained  "  the  kingdom  by 


flatteries"  (Dan.  11.21),  to  the  exclusion  of 
the  son  of  Seleucus,  viz.  Demetrius.  Antiochus 
waged  four  successful  campaigns  against  Egypt, 
and  the  complete  conquest  of  the  country  was 
prevented  only  by  the  interference  of  the  Romans 
(Dan.  11.24).  Antiochus  was  profligate  in  his 
expenditure,  and  the  condition  of  Palestine 
during  his  reign  was  turbulent.  On  his  return 
from  his  second  Egyptian  campaign  (170  B.C.), 
he  made  an  assault  upon  Jerusalem,  plundered 
the  Temple,  and  instituted  a  terrible  massacre. 
Two  years  afterwards  he  occupied  the  city  and 
fortified  it.  The  Temple  was  desecrated,  and 
the  observance  of  the  law  was  forbidden. 
An  offering  was  made  in  the  holy  place  to 
Jupiter  Olympus  (Dan.  11.29,  30,  31).  Mat- 
tathias  and  his  sons  organised  a  resistance 
("  holpen  with  a  little  help,"  Dan.  11.34),  which 
preserved  inviolate  the  name  and  faith  of  Israel. 
Meanwhile  Antiochus  turned  his  arms  to  the 
East  (Dan.  11.44).  He  attempted  in  vain  to 
plunder  a  rich  temple  of  Nansea  (perhaps 
"  the  desire  of  women,"  Dan.  11.37),  in 
Elymais.  At  last  he  died  in  164  B.C.  ;  he 
came  to  his  end,  and  there  was  none  to  help 
him  (Dan.  11.45). 

Great  prominence  is  given  to  the  reign  of 
Antiochus  iv.  in  the  Book  of  Daniel.  Regardless 
himself  of  the  gods  of  his  fathers  (Dan.  11.37), 
he  was  incapable  of  appreciating  the  power 
of  religion  in  others  ;  and  he  became  a  type 
of  the  enemy  of  God  (Dan.  11.36,  37).  By  the 
Jews  he  was  regarded  as  a  type  of  Antichrist, 
the  union  of  power  with  the  defiance  of  every- 
thing that  was  Divine. 

An'tipas. — 1.  An  abbreviation  of  Antipater,  a 
martyr  of  Pergamos  (Rev.  2.13).  Nothing 
further  is  known  of  Antipas,  but  tradition  (Ada 
Sanctorum)  says  he  was  cast  into  a  fire  within 
the  body  of  a  brazen  bull.  2.  See  HEBOD. 

Anti'patris.  —  A  town  forty-two  miles  from 
Jerusalem  and  twenty -six  from  Csesarea,  on  an  old 
military  road  between  these  places.  Here  Paul 
was  brought  by  the  soldiers  (Acts  23.31)  when 
Claudius  Lysias  sent  him  to  the  governor  at 
Ceesarea.  The  town  was  built  by  Herod  the  Great, 
who  called  it  Antipatris  in  honour  of  his  father 
Antipater.  It  is  identified  with  a  mound  crowned 
with  the  ruins  of  a  mediaeval  castle,  which  rises 
above  the  great  springs  of  Ras  el  Ain.  Anti- 
patris was  built  by  the  Romans  on  the  site 
of  an  older  town  named  Capharsaba,  a  name 
which  has  clung  to  the  neighbourhood,  and 
which  has  been  the  means  of  the  identification 
of  the  site,  for  the  Roman  city  had  been  utterly 
wiped  out. 

Antothi'jah  (R.V.  Anthothijah).— Son  of 
Shashak  (1  Ch.  8.24). 

Anto'thite,  The. — [ANETHOTHITE.] 

A 'nub.— A  descendant  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  4.8). 

Ape. — "  Once  in  three  years  came  the  navy 
of  Tharshish  (Tarsus),  bringing  gold  and  silver, 
ivory,  and  apes  and  peacocks"  (1  K.  10.22; 
2  Ch.  9.21).  Various  kinds  of  apes  and  monkeys 
are  depicted  upon  the  Assyrian  monuments, 
and  they  were  freely  imported  into  Egypt. 


APELLES] 


27 


[APOSTLE 


The  association  of  apes  with  peacocks  and 
elephants'  tusks  suggests  that  these  ships  of 
Tharshish  came  from  or  visited  India  and  Ceylon. 
[TABSHISH.] 

Apel'les. — A  disciple  at  Home,  to  whom 
Paul  sends  salutation  (Rom.  16.10). 

Aphar'sachites,  Aphar'sathchites,  Aphar- 
sites. — Names  of  unknown  Assyrian  tribes  (Ezra 
4.9,  5.6,  6.6). 

A 'phek.—  Fortress  :  1.  A  royal  city  of  the 
Canaanites,  the  king  of  which  was  slain  by 
Joshua  (Josh.  12.18).  It  was  assigned  to 
Issachar.  2.  A  city,  apparently  in  the  extreme 
north  of  Asher,  on  the  borders  of  the  Amorites 
(Josh.  19.30),  from  which  the  Canaanites  were 
not  ejected.  3.  A  place  at  which  the  Philistines 
encamped,  while  the  Israelites  pitched  in 
Ebenezer,  before  the  fatal  battle  in  which  the 
sons  of  Eli  were  killed,  and  the  ark  taken 
(1  Sam.  4.1 ).  It  was  near  Jerusalem  in  a  north- 
west direction.  4.  The  scene  of  a  battle  wherein 
Saul  was  defeated  and  slain  (1  (Sam.  29.1).  5.  A 
city  on  the  military  road  from  Syria  to  Israel 
(1  K.  20.26)  This  is  identified  with  the  modern 
Fik,  at  the  head  of  the  Wady  Fik,  six  miles  east 
of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  the  great  road  between 
Damascus  and  Jerusalem  still  passing  through 
the  village.  It  was  the  scene  of  Benhadad's 
defeat  (1  K.  20.30),  and  of  many  other  battles. 

Aphe'kah.—  Fortress  :  a  city  in  the  hill- 
country  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.53).  Probably  the 
same  as  Aphek  (1). 

Aph'iah. — Renewed  :  one  of  Saul's  ancestors 
(1  Sam.  9.1). 

Aph'ik. — Fortress  :  a  city  of  Asher  in  the 
north  of  Canaan.  The  Canaanites  kept 
possession  of  this  stronghold  (Judg.  1.31). 
Probably  the  same  place  as  Aphek  2. 

Aph'rah. — "  The  house  of  Aphrah  "  ;  appar- 
ently a  city  of  the  Philistines  (Mic.  1.10).  R.V. 
translates,  "  at  Beth-le  Aphrah." 

Aph'ses.— A  Levite  (1  Ch.  24.15). 

Apocalypse.— [REVELATION.] 

Apocrypha.— [NON-CANONICAL  BOOKS.] 

Apollon'ia. — A  city  in  the  south  of  Macedonia, 
through  which  Paul  and  Silas  passed  on  their  way 
from  Philippi  and  Amphipolis  to  Thessalonica 
(Acts  17.1).  Its  exact  site  has  not  been  ascer- 
tained, though  it  lay  to  the  east  of  Thessalonica. 
There  is  some  reason  to  think  that  the  present 
Pollina  is  the  same  place.  It  must  not  be 
confounded  with  Apollonia  in  Illyria. 

Apol'los. — An  eloquent  Jew  from  Alexandria, 
who  came  to  Ephesus  during  the  absence  of 
St.  Paul,  and  was  there  more  perfectly  taught 
in  Christian  doctrine  by  Aquila  and  Priscilla. 
At  their  suggestion  he  went  to  Corinth,  where 
his  work  was  very  successful,  especially  in 
controversy  with  the  Jews  (Acts  18.24-28). 
When  Paul  wrote  his  first  letter  to  Corinth 
the  Church  there  was  split  up  into  rival  factions  ; 
there  was  an  Apollos  party  in  opposition  to 
others  which  arrogated  to  themselves  the 
names  of  Paul  and  Cephas  and  Christ  (1  Cor. 
1.12;  3.4-6,  22;  4.6).  That  ApoMos  himself  had 
no  responsibility  for  the  schism  is  clear  from 


Paul's  confidence  in  him  expressed  in  1  Cor.  16.12. 
Apart  from  the  reference  at  Tit.  3.13  nothing 
further  is  known  of  him.  The  conjecture  of 
Luther  that  Apollos  was  the  author  of  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  has  gained  considerable 
acceptance. 

Apollyon. — [ABADDON.] 

Apostle. — The  word  means  more  than 
"  messenger  "  :  literally,  "  one  sent  forth,"  it 
carries  the  idea  of  representation  of  the  sender. 
The  apostle  is  an  envoy,  delegate,  ambassador. 

I.  In  the  Gospels.— St.  Luke  tells  us  that  the 
name  was  given  to  the  Twelve  by  our  Lord 
(6.13),  and  he  uses  it  of  the  disciples  in  four 
other  passages  (9.10,  17.5,  22.14,  24.10  ; 
11.49  is  of  doubtful  interpretation).  In  each 
of  the  other  Gospels  the  term  occurs  once  only 
(Matt.  10.2;  Mk.  6.30;  John  13.16,  R.V.  marg.); 
in  Acts  and  the  Epistles,  especially  those 
of  St.  Paul,  it  is  frequent.  The  reason  is 
plain :  Jesus  called  "  disciples,"  learners, 
called  them  to  close  personal  fellowship  and 
gradual  training,  but  always  with  the  purpose 
of  sending  them  forth  as  His  representatives. 
It  follows  that  the  essential  ideas  of  apostleship 
are  to  be  traced  in  all  His  dealings  with  the 
Twelve,  though  the  name  properly  belongs  to  a 
context  in  which  the  disciple  is  commissioned 
and  sent  forth,  whether  on  temporary  service 
during  the  life  of  Christ,  or  to  carry  on  His 
work  after  His  death.  The  whole  conception 
is  expressed  with  truth  of  insight  and  precision 
of  phrase  when  St.  Mark  records  that  "  He 
calleth  unto  Him  whom  He  Himself  would. 
.  .  .  And  He  appointed  twelve,  that  they 
might  be  with  Him,  and  that  He  might  send 
them  forth  to  preach"  (Mk.  3.13, 14,  R.V.).  The 
name  apostle,  though  not  used  here,  is  implied 
in  the  term  "  send  forth  "  (Greek,  apostello). 

A  primary  study  of  the  significance  of  an 
'*  Apostle,"  based  on  the  Gospels,  must,'  then, 
gather  round  these  three  points  of  call,  training, 
commission.  It  must  suffice  here  to  indicate 
some  features  of  each  as  they  are  presented 
in  the  simple  and  primitive  record  of  St.  Mark's 
Gospel. 

1.  The   Call— The   first   act  of   our   Lord's 
public  ministry  is  the  call  of  Simon  and  Andrew, 
James  and  John,  to  personal    companionship, 
that  He   may   make   them   "  fishers  of  men  " 
(Mk.      1.16-20).      A     summons     of     strange 
authority  is  met  with  instant  response  :  these 
features  appear  in  the  subsequent  call  of  Levi 
(2.14),  and   even   in   the   appointment  of   the 
Twelve  (3.13-19).     It  is  not  a  case  of  gradual 
adhesion  to  a  new  teaching  and  a  new  Teacher  : 
Jesus  Himself,  for  the  purposes  of  His  mission, 
takes  the  initiative. 

2.  The  Training.— In  the  earlier  portion  of 
the    Gospel    the    disciples    are    witnesses    and 
companions  of  the  public  ministry,  but  there 
is  only  incidental  mention  of  direct  instruction 
from  their  Master  (4.10-25,  35-41,  6.7-U,  31, 
47-52,      8.14-21).       Such      fellowship      with 
Jesus,    however,    enabled     Peter     as     spokes- 
man   for   all,    to   make    the   great    confession 


APOTHECARY] 


28 


[APPII  FORUM 


"  Thou  art  the  Christ "  (8.29),  a  confession 
met  by  Christ's  prediction  of  His  Passion, 
thrice  repeated  (8.31,  9.31,  10.33),  and  His 
searching  lessons  on  renunciation,  humility, 
and  service.  The  impression  derived  from 
St.  Mark  is  that  from  the  time  of  this  crisis 
of  the  Galilsean  ministry,  and  the  withdrawal 
from  Galilee  which  soon  followed  it,  Jesus 
devoted  Himself  more  and  more  to  the 
instruction  and  training  of  the  Twelve.  This 
conclusion  is  borne  out,  with  much  additional 
detail,  by  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Luke,  and  is 
confirmed  by  the  wonderful  discourse  of 
John  13-17. 

3.  The  Commission.— The  temporary  mis- 
sion recorded  in  Mk.  6.7-13,  though  not,  so 
far  as  we  know,  repeated,  may  be  regarded  as 
typical.  Stress  is  laid  upon  simplicity  of  outfit, 
such  as  befits  concentration  upon  an  urgent 
task,  and  implies  confidence  in  their  sender  :  it 
is  this  confidence  which  is  emphasised  also  in  the 
larger  discourse  of  Matt.  10.  (cf.  the  mission  of 
the  seventy,  Lk.  10.1-24).  They  are  invested 
with  authority  by  Jesus,  and  on  their  return 
teport  to  Him  all  that  they  had  done  and 
taught. 

II.  In  the  Acts  and  Epistles. — The  supreme 
authority  of  the  apostles  in  the  early  Church 
is  indicated  in  Acts  1.1-11,  and  appears  all 
through  the  narrative.  By  the  choice  of 
Matthias  in  place  of  Judas  the  circle  of  the 
Twelve  was  made  complete.  One  chief  interest  of 
this  incident  is  the  statement  of  essential  require- 
ments for  apostolic  office — companionship  with 
Jesus  from  baptism  to  ascension,  and  therefore 
competence  to  be  a  witness  of  His  resurrection 
(Acts  1.21,  22).  But  under  the  demands  of  the 
expanding  Church,  and  the  free  impartation 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  limitations  of  apostle- 
ship  to  the  Twelve  broke  down.  By  the  act  of 
the  Church  at  Antioch  (Acts  13.1-3),  Barnabas 
and  Saul  were  constituted  apostles  :  the  name 
is  accorded  them  at  14.4, 14.  Paul  not  only 
consistently  claims  the  title  for  himself  (Rom. 
1.1;  1  Cor.  1.1 ;  2  Cor.  1.1,  etc. ;  1  Cor.  9.1 ;  2  Cor. 
11.5;  Gal.  1.1,  etc.),  but  associates  Barnabas 
with  him  (Gal.  2.9  ;  2  Cor.  9.5,  6).  It  is  probable 
that  he  means  to  use  the  term  of  James  the 
Lord's  brother  (1  Cor.  9.5,  15.7;  Gal.  1.19), 
of  Silvanus  (1  Thess.  2.6),  and  even  of  Chris- 
tians so  little  known  to  history  as  Andronicus  and 
Junias  (Rom.  16.7,  K.V.).  But  this  extension 
of  the  Apostolic  circle  was  limited  by  one 
essential  condition  :  an  apostle  must  have  seen 
the  Lord  (1  Cor.  9.1),  i.e.  be  able  to  testify  at 
first  hand  to  the  object  of  the  Church's  faith, 
the  risen  Christ  (1  Cor.  15.8).  In  addition  to 
this  there  must  be  the  clear  consciousness  of  the 
Divine  call  and  appointment  (Rom.  1.1  ;  1  Cor. 

1.1,  etc.).,    and,    accompanying   the   ministry, 
the  "  signs  of  an  apostle  "  (2  Cor.  12.12  ;  1  Cor. 

9.2,  etc.).     It  is  in  virtue  of  these  combined 
qualifications     that     apostles     stand     first    in 
the  order  of  God's  gifts  to  His  Church  (1  Cor. 
12.28;    Eph.   4.11).     They  held   a  relation  to 
Jesus  Christ  which  made  them  the  depositaries 


and  authoritative  exponents  of  His  word  (2  Pet. 
3.2,  and  repeatedly  in  early  Church  writers : 
cf.  Eph.  2.  20  ;  Rev.  21.14).  In  accordance  with 
this,  the  test  of  "  apostolicity  "  was  afterwards 
applied  to  the  writings  which  were  finally 
gathered  into  the  N.T.  Canon. 

Apothecary.— The  Hebrew  word  does  not  refer 
to  the  preparation  of  medicines,  but  of  perfumes  ; 
hence  R.V.  substitutes  "  perfumer  "  in  Ex. 
30.25,  35,  37.29  ;  Eccles.  10.1,  while  retaining 
"  apothecary  "  in  2  Ch.  16.14  ;  Neh.  3.8  (marg. 
"  perfumer  ").  In  this  last  passage  "  son  of 
the  apothecaries  "  means  that  Hananiah  was 
member  of  a  trade-guild,  a  point  missed  by 
both  A.V.  and  R.V. 

Appa'im.— The  nostrils :  son  of  Nadab  (1  Ch. 
2.30,  31). 

Appeal.— 1.  In  the  O.T.— There  was  no 
formal  legal  procedure  in  the  patriarchal  age. 
The  head  of  the  family  was  the  final  and  ab- 
solute authority  in  all  matters.  During  the 
time  of  the  bondage  the  "  elders  of  Israel  "  were 
the  recognised  authorities  for  the  settlement 
of  all  disputes.  The  simple  legal  methods  of 
these  are  noted  in  Deut.  17  and  19.  In  the  time 
of  the  judges  the  final  appeal  lay  to  the  judge, 
and  under  the  monarchy  to  the  king.  Jeshosha- 
phat  relegated  his  judicial  authority  to  a  court 
permanently  established  for  the  purpose,  and 
presided  over  by  the  high-priest  for  all  matters 
spiritual,  and  by  "  the  ruler  of  the  house  of 
Judah  "  for  matters  temporal  (2  Ch.  19.8-11). 
After  the  institution  of  the  Sanhedrin  the  firal 
appeal  lay  to  them.  But  the  O.T.  shows  no 
provision  for  appeal  in  the  sense  of  revision  by  a 
higher  tribunal  of  the  judgment  of  a  lower. 

2.  In  the  N.T.—A  Roman  citizen  had  a 
right  of  appealing  in  criminal  cases  from  the 
decision  of  a  magistrate  or  provincial 
governor  to  the  supreme  tribunal,  the  Em- 
peror. The  governor  might  disallow  the 
appeal,  but  only  at  his  peril.  St.  Paul,  as  a 
Roman  citizen,  exercised  the  right  of  appeal 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  local  court  at  Jeru- 
salem (whether  the  Sanhedrin  in  the  presence 
of  Festus,  or  a  Roman  tribunal  removed  for 
convenience  from  Caesarea,  is  not  quite  certain), 
to  the  Emperor  ( Acts  25.9-12). 

Ap'phia. — A  Christian  woman  to  whom, 
jointly  with  Philemon  and  Archippus,  Paul 
addressed  the  Epistle  to  Philemon.  It  seems 
certain  that  she  was  a  member  of  Philemon's 
household,  and  the  probability  is  she  was  the 
wife  of  Philemon  himself,  and  the  mother  of 
Archippus  (Philem.  2). 

Ap'pii  For'um  (R.V.  The  Market  of  Appius):  a 
well-known  station,  forty- three  miles  from  Rome, 
on  the  Appian  Way,  the  great  road  from  Rome 
to  the  Bay  of  Naples.  St.  Paul  having  landed 
at  Puteoli,  on  his  arrival  from  Malta  (Acts  28), 
proceeded  under  the  charge  of  the  centurion 
along  the  Appian  Way  towards  Rome,  and 
found  at  Appii  Forum  a  group  of  Christians  who 
had  come  to  greet  him.  The  site  is  near 
Trefonti,  where  the  forty-third  milestone  is  still 
in  position. 


APPLE,  APPLE  TKEE] 


29 


[ARABIA 


Apple,  Apple  Tree. — The  apple  is  mentioned 
in  several  passages  of  Scripture  (Prov.  25.11 ; 
Song  2.3-5,  7.8,  8.5;  Joel  1.12);  but  it  is 
doubtful  whether  it  is  our  apple  which  is  there 
referred  to,  for  that  is  not  a  native  of  Syria. 
Authorities  are  divided  between  apple,  citron 
or  orange,  quince  and  apricot.  Canon  Tristram 
maintained  that  there  is  only  one  fruit  which 
meets  all  the  requirements  of  the  above  passages, 
and  that  is  the  apricot,  which  is  abundant  in 
the  Holy  Land.  The  tree  groAvs  to  a  height  of 
thirty  feet,  bearing  fruit  of  a  delicious  perfume. 
"  What  can  better  fit  the  imagery  of  Solomon, 
'  apples  of  gold  in  pictures  of  silver,'  than  this 
golden  fruit,  as  its  branches  bend  under  the 
weight  of  their  crop,  in  its  setting  of  bright  yet 
pale  foliage  ?  " 

Apple  of  the  Eye. — This  expression  occurs 
in  Deut.  32.10;  Ps.  17.8;  Prov.  7.2;  Lam. 
2.18  ;  Zech.  2.8.  The  Hebrew  word  translated 
"  apple  "  literally  means  "  little  man,"  with 
the  same  force  as  the  word  "  pupil." 

A'quila. — Eagle:  a  Jew  who,  with  Priscilla,  his 
wife,  had  left  Rome  under  the  edict  of  Claudius. 
St.  Paul  found  them  at  Corinth  on  his  first  visit, 
and  worked  with  them  at  Cilician  hair-cloth  and 
tent-making.  On  St.  Paul's  departure  eighteen 
months  later  they  accompanied  him  to  Ephesus, 
and  were  left  by  him  there  while  he  went  on  to 
Syria.  At  Ephesus  they  took  in  hand  the  further 
instruction  in  doctrine  of  Apollos,  who  had  al- 
ready been  "instructed  in  the  way  of  the  Lord," 
but  imperfectly  (Acts  18.24-26).  The  earnestness 
of  their  Christian  profession  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  both  at  Ephesus  and  at  Rome  it  was 
usual  for  Christians  to  meet  at  their  house  for 
worship  (1  Cor.  16.19;  Rom.  16.5),  and  they 
are  described  by  Paul  in  the  salutation  in 
Romans  as  having  "  laid  down  their  own  necks  " 
for  his  life,  a  reference  to  their  loyal  care  of  the 
Apostle  during  times  of  tumult  and  danger 
(Rom.  16.4). 

Ar. — City :  the  chief  city  of  the  Moabites, 
on  a  low  hill  a  few  miles  east  of  the  Dead  Sea 
(Num.  21.28).  The  site  is  now  called  Rabba, 
between  Kerek  and  Wady  Mojib,  ten  or  eleven 
miles  from  each,the  Roman  road  passing  through 
it.  In  the  books  of  Moses,  Ar  sometimes  appears 
to  designate  the  whole  nation  of  Moab.  The 
Rabbah  (capital)  of  the  Scriptures  Ls  always 
Rabbah  of  the  Ammonites. 

Ara.— Strong  :  see  1  Ch.  7.38. 

Arab. — Ambush  :  a  city  in  the  hill  country 
of  Judah,  east  of  Hebron  (Josh.  15.52). 

Ara'bah. — The  plain,  the  wilderness  :  the  deep 
sunken  valley  which  forms  the  most  striking 
natural  feature  of  Palestine,  and  extends,  on 
both  sides  of  the  Jordan,  from  beyond  the  Sea  of 
Galilee  on  the  north,  down  beyond  the  Dead 
Sea  to  the  Elanitic  Gulf  of  the  Red  Sea,  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  depressions  on  the  surface 
of  the  globe.  The  southern  province  of  this 
irregular  valley — that,  namely,  south  of  the  Dead 
Sea — still  bears  the  name  of  Arabah,  and  possesses 
a  peculiar  interest  as  the  scene  of  the  wanderings 
of  the  children  of  Irsael  after  their  repulse  from 


the  south  of  the  Promised  Land.  Itis  for  the  most 
part  a  region  of  appalling  desolation,  stripped 
of  every  particle  of  vegetation  by  the  scorching 
heat :  "  a  dry  land  and  a  wilderness,  a  land 
wherein  no  man  dwelleth,  neither  doth  any  son 
of  man  pass  thereby "  (Jer.  51.43).  The  A.V. 
has  the  word  only  in  Josh.  18.18,  the  R.V. 
also  in  DeuL  1.1,  2.8,  3.17,  4.49,  11.30 ;  Josh. 
3.16,  8.14,  11.2, 16,  12.1,  3,  8  ;  2  -Sam.  2.29, 
4.7  ;  2  K.  14.25,  25.4  ;  Jer.  39.4,  52.7). 

Ara'bia. — Wilderness  :  the  first  mention  of 
this  country  in  the  Scriptures  represents 
Solomon  as  receiving  gold  from  "  all  the  kings  of 
Arabia  "  (1  K.  10.15 ;  2  Ch.  9.14).  Jehoshaphat 
received  7700  rams  and  7700  he-goats  from  the 
Arabians  (2  Ch.  17.11).  These  wild  warriors 
came  up  against  Judah  in  the  days  of  Jehoram, 
plundered  his  house,  and  carried  away  his  wives 
and  his  sons ;  but  they  were  defeated  by 
Uzziah  (2  Ch.  26.7).  Arabia  and  the  princes  of 
Kedar  traded  with  Tyre,  and  some  of  its  inhabit- 
ants were  among  the  hearers  of  the  Apostles  on 
the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  2.11).  Paul,  after 
his  conversion,  retired  into  Arabia  (Gal.  1.17), 
which  probably  implied  the  wilderness  near 
Damascus,  then  included  in  Arabia.  In  Gal. 
4.25  the  reference  is  to  the  Sinaitic  peninsula. 

The  designation  Arabia,  as  used  in  the 
Scriptures,  generally  applies  to  Arabia  Petraea, 
consisting  of  Sinai,  Idumea,  and  the  region  of 
Mount  Seir.  The  country  is  sometimes  referred 
to  as  "  the  East "  (Gen.  10.30,  25.6,  29.1).  The 
oldest  inhabitants  were  called  Horim  or  Horites, 
because  of  their  living  in  holes  or  caves;  but 
they  were  supplanted  by  the  Edomites,  the 
Ishmaelites,  and  the  Amalekites.  The  principal 
tribes  in  Arabia  Petraea  mentioned  in  the  Bible 
were  the  Amalekites,  Edomites,  Horites,  Ishmael- 
ites, Midianites,  Moabites,  and  Ammonites. 

The  inhabitants  of  Northern  Arabia  or 
the  Arabian  desert  (west  and  north  of  Arabia 
Potrsea)  claim  descent  from  Ishmael  and 
Keturah.  Their  predatory  habits  are  several 
times  mentioned  in  the  O.T.  (2  Ch.  21.16, 
26.7 ;  Job  1.15 ;  Jer.  3.2).  They  conducted 
a  considerable  trade  in  merchandise  of  Arabia 
and  India  from  the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf 
(Ezek.  27.20-24),  whence  a  chain  of  oases 
in  the  desert  still  forms  caravan-stations. 
Western  Arabia,  which  includes  the  peninsula  of 
Sinai,  was  peopled  by  descendants  of  Esau,  and 
was  generally  known  as  the  land  of  Edom  or 
Idumaea,  as  well  as  by  its  older  name,  the  desert 
of  Seir  or  Mount  Seir.  The  common  origin  of  the 
Idumaeans  from  Esau  and  Ishmael  is  traced  to 
the  marriage  of  the  former  to  a  daughter  of  the 
latter  (Gen.  28.9,  36.3).  The  chief  state  of 
ancient  Arabia  was  that  of  the  Yemen,  in  the 
south-west  corner  of  the  peninsula.  This  was 
the  Biblical  realm  of  Sheba,  whose  queen  came 
to  hear  the  wisdom  of  Solomon  (1  K.  10).  The 
Arabs  call  her  Bilkis.  Another  important 
kingdom  was  that  of  the  Hija,  which  lay  upon 
the  upper  portion  of  the  Red  Sea  littoral,  and 
of  which  Mudad  (or  El-Mudad)  was  one  of  the 
famous  rulers.  Ishmael,  according  to  the  Arabs, 


ARABIAN] 


30 


[ARARAT 


married  a  daughter  of  the  first  Mudad,  whence 
sprang  Adnan,  the  ancestor  of  Mahomet.  The 
modern  Arabians  assert  that  their  nation  is  pre- 
dominatingly Ishmaelite.  The  tribes  claiming 
descent  frcra  the  cast-off  son  of  Abraham  have 
always  been  governed  by  petty  chiefs  or  heads 
of  families  (sheikhs  and  emirs),  and  have 
generally  followed  the  patriarchal  life. 

"  No  one,"  says  the  late  Edward  Stanley 
Poole,  "  can  mix  with  this  people  without 
being  constantly  and  forcibly  reminded  either 
of  the  early  patriarchs  or  of  the  settled  Israelites. 
We  may  instance  their  pastoral  life,  their 
hospitality,  their  universal  respect  for  age  (Lev. 
19.32),  their  familiar  deference  (2  K.  5.13),  their 
superstitious  regard  for  the  beard.  On  the  signet- 
ring,  which  is  worn  on  the  little  finger  of  the 
right  hand,  is  usually  inscribed  a  sentence  of 
submission  to  God,  or  of  His  perfection,  ex- 
plaining Ex.  39.30  (R.V.) :  4  the  engravings  of  a 
signet,  holy  to  the  Lord,'  and  the  saying  of 
Christ  (.7oAn3.33,  R.V.), '  He  hath  set  his  seal  to 
this,  that  God  is  true.'  "  As  a  mark  of  trust  this 
ring  is  given  to  another  person  (as  in  Gen. 
41.42).  The  inkhorn  worn  in  the  girdle  is  also 
very  ancient  (Ezek.  9.2),  as  well  as  the  veil.  A 
man  has  a  right  to  claim  his  cousin  in  marriage, 
and  he  relinquishes  this  right  by  taking  off  his 
shoe,  as  the  kinsman  of  Ruth  did  to  Boaz  (Ruth 
4.7-8). 

The  spices,  incense,  and  precious  stones  men- 
tioned in  the  Scriptures  as  having  been  brought 
from  Arabia  were  probably  the  products  of  the 
southern  provinces,  which  are  still  celebrated 
for  these  productions. 

Christianity  was  introduced  into  Southern 
Arabia  towards  the  close  of  the  second  century, 
and  about  a  century  later  it  had  made  great 
progress.  It  flourished  chiefly  in  the  Yemen, 
where  many  churches  were  built,  but  the  pro- 
mulgation of  the  Mohammedan  religion,  while 
it  overthrew  paganism,  also  extinguished 
Christianity  in  the  country. 

Arabian.— [ARABIA.] 

A'rad. — Fugitive :  1.  A  royal  city  of  the 
Canaanites  (Josh.  12.14),  whose  king  unsuccess- 
fully attacked  the  Israelites  near  Mount  Hor 
(Num.  21  and  33.40,  R.V.  The  A.V.  has 
wrongly  "  King  Arad  ").  The  site  has  been 
identified  with  a  hill,  Tell  'Arad,  sixteen  miles 
south  of  Hebron.  2.  See  1  Ch.  8.15. 

A'rah.— Wayfarer :  1.  A  son  of  Ulla  (1  Ch. 
7.39).  2.  The  family  of  Arah  returned  with 
Zerubbabel  from  exile  (Ezra.  2.5  ;  Neh.  7.10). 
One  of  his  descendants  became  the  wife  of 
Tobiah,  the  Ammonite,  who  attempted  to  hinder 
Nehemiah  in  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem  (Neh. 
6.18). 

A'ram.— (?)  Lifted  up,  exalted:  the  country 
lying  to  the  north-north-east  of  Palestine,  a 
high  pasture  tableland  2000  feet  above  the 
Mediterranean.  It  extended  from  Lebanon, 
Phoenicia,  and  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Euph- 
rates (Num.  23.7  ;  1  Ch.  2.23).  Roughly  speak- 
ing, it  included  Mesopotamia  and  the  land  we 
know  as  Syria  (see  STHIA),  without  Palestine. 


[It  must  be  remembered  that  the  Syria  of  the 
Bible  and  the  modern  Syria  are  not  quite 
identical.] 

The  country  was  peopled  by  Aram,  the  fifth 
son  of  Shem,  whose  descendants  colonised  the 
fertile  country  north  of  Babylonia  called 
Aram-Naharaim,  or  Aram  between  the  two 
rivers,  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  the  country 
being  afterwards  called  Mesopotamia  by  the 
Greeks,  and  by  the  Hebrews  Padan-Aram 
(Gen.  25.20,  28.2,  which  see).  In  Scripture  Aram 
is  generally  rendered  "  Syria." 

The  highland  is  part  of  the  lofty  and  ex- 
tensive chain  of  mountains  known  as  Lebanon, 
and  including  Mounts  Hermon  and  Hor.  The 
Orontes,  Abana,  and  Pharpar  are  its  chief  rivers. 

During  the  period  of  O.T.  history  Aram 
was  divided  into  several  petty  kingdoms, varying 
from  time  to  time  in  extent  and  power.  Syria 
of  Damascus,  Zobah,  Hamath,  Aram-Naharaim, 
Padan-Aram,  Maachah,  Beth-Rehob,  and 
Geshur  were  the  chief  of  these.  In  the  time 
of  David,  Zobah  was  the  most  powerful  of  these 
states,  but  later  the  sovereign  authority  was 
transferred  to  Damascus  (1  K.  11.24  ;  Isai.  7.8). 
It  was  afterwards  reduced  by  Joab  to  sub- 
mission to  the  Jewish  monarchy.  Solomon  lost 
Damascus  (see  DAMASCUS),  and  Rehoboam  the 
remainder  of  the  country. 

In  the  early  days  of  its  history  the  Hittites 
inhabited  the  northern  part  of  Aram  (see 
HITTITES).  It  was  the  home  of  Balaam  (Num. 
23.7).  [See  SYRIA  and  the  Aram  compounds.] 

2.  Son  of  Shem  (Gen.  10.22,  23  ;  1  Ch.  1.17). 

3.  Son  of  Kemuel  (Gen.  22.21). 

4.  An  ancestor  of  Jesus  (1  Ch.  7.37;  Mall. 
1.3,  4  ;  Lk.  3.33).     But  see  R.V. 

Aramaic. — The  language  of  the  people  of 
Aram.  It  spread  far  and  wide ;  influenced 
Hebrew ;  and  in  the  time  of  our  Lord  was  the 
popular  language  of  Palestine.  The  conquests 
of  the  Arabs  destroyed  the  position  held  by 
Aramaic. 

Arami'tess. — A  female  inhabitant  of  Aram, 
i.e.  a  Syrian  woman  (1  Ch.  7.14). 

A'ram-nahara'im. — A  ram  of  the  two  rivers  : 
see  the  title  of  Ps.  60.  The  northern  portion 
of  Syria  between  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris, 
also  called  Mesopotamia  and  Syria  (Gen.  24.10  ; 
Deut.  23.4 ;  Judg.  3.8  ;  1  Ch.  19.6). 

A'ram-zo'bah. — An  Aramaean  state  comprising 
the  land  between  the  Orontes  and  the  Euphrates, 
north-east  of  Damascus  and  south  of  Hamath 
(Ps.  60,  title).  It  is  also  called  Zobah. 

A 'ran. — Wild  goat :  a  descendant  of  Seir  the 
Horite  (Gen.  36.28  ;  1  Ch.  1.42). 

A'rar  at. — A  mountainous  district  in  Armenia, 
mentioned  in  Scripture  as  the  resting-place  of 
the  ark  after  the  flood  (Gen.  8.4),  as  the  asylum 
of  the  sons  of  Sennacherib  (2  K.  19.37  ;  Isai. 
37.38,  R.V.),  and  as  the  ally,  and  probably  the 
neighbour,  of  Minni  and  Ashchenaz  ( Jer.  51.27). 
The  Armenian  plateau  was  well  adapted  to 
be  the  cradle  of  the  human  race,  the  centre 
from  which  men  might  start  out  for  the  various 
quarters  of  the  world. 


ARAUNAH] 


31 


[ARCHITECTURE 


The  particular  mountain  which  has  been 
identified  as  that  on  which  the  ark  rested, 
though  called  Ararat  by  European  explorers, 
is  known  as  Massis  by  the  Armenians,  Aghri- 
Dagh,  i.e.  Steep  Mountain,  by  the  Turks,  and 
Kuh-i-Nuh,or  Noah's  Mountain,  by  the  Persians. 
It  terminates  in  two  conical  peaks,  named 
the  Great  and  Less  Ararat,  about  seven  miles 
distant  from  each  other,  the  former  17,260  feet 
above  sea  level,  and  the  latter  14,000  above 
the  plain  of  the  Arapes.  The  higher  peak 
was  ascended  in  1829  by  Parrot,  who  describes  a 
secondary  summit  about  400  yards  distant  from 
the  highest  point,  and  on  the  gentle  depression 
which  connects  the  two  eminences  he  surmises 
that  the  ark  rested.  Argur  (the  only  village 
known  to  have  been  built  on  its  slopes),  which 
was  buried  beneath  the  de'bris  brought  down 
from  the  upper  heights  by  a  violent  earthquake, 
was  the  spot  where,  according  to  tradition, 
Noah  planted  his  vineyard.  Lower  down, 
in  the  plain  of  Araxes,  is  Nachitjevan,  where 
the  patriarch  is  reputed  to  have  been  buried. 

Arau'nah. — A  Jebusite  from  whom  David 
purchased  the  site  of  an  altar  to  the  Lord 
(2  Sam.  24.18-24  ;  1  Ch.  21.25). 

Arba. — Four  :  the  progenitor  of  the  sons  of 
Anak,  from  whom  Hebron  received  its  name 
of  Kirjath-arba  (Gen.  35.27  ;  Josh.  14.15,  etc.). 

Arbath'ite. — A  native  of  Arabah  (2  Sam. 
23.31  ;  1  Ch.  11.32). 

Ar'bite. — A  native  of  Arab,  a  city  of  Judah. 
Paarai  the  Arbite  was  one  of  David's  guard 
(2  Sam.  23.35).  In  1  Ch.  11.37  the  name  is 
given  as  Naarai,  the  son  of  Ezbai.  [See  EZBAI.] 

Archangel.— Chief  angel:  2Thess.  4.16;  Jude 
9.  [ANGEL.] 

Archela'us. — Leader  of  the  people  :  son  of 
Herod  the  Great  and  Matthaka,  to  whom  Herod 
bequeathed  the  largest  share  of  his  kingdom 
(Judaea,  Idumoea,  and  Samaria),  with  the  title 
of  king.  The  only  mention  of  him  in  the 
N.T.  is  significant.  When  Joseph,  the  husband 
of  Mary,  "  heard  that  Archelaus  did  reign 
in  Judaea  in  the  room  of  his  father  Herod,  he 
was  afraid  to  go  thither  "  with  the  child  Jesus 
(Matt.  2.22).  From  the  beginning  the  govern- 
ment of  Archelaus  had  been  stained  by  bloodshed 
and  cruelty.  Not  long  after  his  father's  death 
3000  Jews  had  been  slain  in  the  Temple  by  a 
cohort  of  Roman  soldiers  sent  by  Archelaus 
to  quell  a  tumult.  An  influential  embassy  of  Jews 
prayed  the  Emperor  Augustus  to  depose 
Archelaus,  and  attach  them  to  the  government 
of  Syria,  but  Augustus  refused,  though  permit- 
ting only  the  title  ethnarch  instead  of  king, 
and  Archelaus  ruled  for  ten  years,  4  B.C.  to 
6  A.D.  Then  a  second  deputation  went  to 
Rome  with  complaints  of  Archelaus'  cruelty. 
This  time  their  evidence  was  overwhelming. 
Augustus  confronted  the  Governor  with  his 
accusers,  and  finally  banished  him  to  Vienne 
in  Gaul,  where  he  died. 

Archer. — Archers  were  employed  both  in 
the  hunting  field  and  in  the  army  (Gen.  21.16, 
27.3  ;  Jtr.  51.3).  In  battle  they  delivered  the 


first  attack  and  then  retired  more  to  the  rear, 
from  whence  they  harassed  the  enemy  by 
firing  over  the  heads  of  their  comrades  engaged 
in  the  front  ranks.  Their  arrows  were  short 
or  long,  according  to  the  service  they  were 
employed  in,  and  the  bows  were  made  of  wood 
or  steel  (Ps.  18.34).  The  bowstring  was  of 
leather,  horsehair,  or  catgut.  The  point  of  the 
arrow  was  sometimes  barbed,  that  it  might 
rankle  and  inflame  the  wound. 

The  archers  that  sorely  grieved  Joseph,  and 
shot  at  him,  were  his  enemies,  who  with  arrows 
of  false  accusation,  bitter  words,  and  murderous 
attempts,  sought  to  destroy  him  (Gen.  49.23). 
The  archers  of  God  that  encompassed  Job  were 
afflictions,  pains,  and  terrors,  sent  by  God ; 
which,  like  sharp  poisoned  arrows,  wounded 
and  vexed  his  soul  (Job  6.4,  16.13).  [See 
ARROWS,  Bows,  ARMOUR,  etc.  ] 

Ar'chevites.— The  inhabitants  of  Erech, 
in  Chaldea,  who  were  removed  to  Samaria  to 
colonise  the  land  after  the  Israelites  had  been 
carried  away  (Ezra  4.9).  This  exchange  of 
populations  was  not  uncommon  in  old-time 
warfare. 

Ar'chi. — A  place  on  the  borders  of  the  "  lot 
of  the  children  of  Joseph  "  (Josh.  16.2).  It 
has  been  identified  as  the  modern  'Ain  Arik 
between  Bethel  and  Bethhoron. 

Archip'pus.— A  Colossiau  Christian,  joined 
with  Philemon  and  Apphia  in  the  address  of 
St.  Paul's  letter  to  Philemon,  and  styled  Paul's 
fellow-soldier  (Philem.  2).  It  seems  probable 
that  the  three  were  husband,  wife,  and  son. 
In  the  contemporary  letter  to  the  Church  at 
Colossae,  Paul  sends  a  message :  "  Say  to 
Archippus,  Take  heed  to  the  ministry  which 
thou  hast  received  in  the  Lord,  that  thou  fulfil 
it"  (Col.  4.17).  This  need  not  imply remissness 
on  the  part  of  Archippus,  but  rather  encourage- 
ment to  a  service  always  responsible  and 
exacting.  Tradition  makes  him  one  of  the 
seventy  (Lk.  10),  and  relates  his  martyrdom 
at  Chonai,  near  Laodicea,  not  far  from  Colossae. 

Arch'ite,  The.— (?)  Forbearance:  the  usual 
designation  of  David's  friend,  Hushai  (2  Sam. 
15.32,  16.16,  17.5  and  14  ;  1  Ch.  27-33),  and 
probably  meaning  a  native  of  Archi,  a  town  on 
the  boundary  of  Joseph  (Josh.  16.2). 

Architecture.— The  earliest  recorded  build- 
ing is  the  Tower  of  Babel,  which  was  built 
of  burnt  bricks,  firmly  cemented  with  bitumen, 
the  "  slime "  with  which  the  valley  of  the 
Euphrates  so  abounds  (Gen.  11).  There 
are  at  least  two  cities  in  Bible  lands 
which  may  claim  a  very  remote  and  well 
authenticated  antiquity,  Damascus  and  Hebron. 
The  former  is  earlier  in  date  than  the  time  of 
Abraham,  and  Hebron,  which  was  of  Canaanite 
origin,  was  founded  about  2000  B.C. 

The  first  Israeli tes,being  wandering  shepherds, 
dwelt  in  tents,  but  during  their  bondage  in  Egypt 
they  were  compelled  to  labour  at  the  buildings, 
many  of  them  of  considerable  age  and  fame. 

It  was  not  until  the  reign  of  David  that  the 
Israelites  could  be  said  to  build.  Then  they 


AKCTURUS] 


32 


[AEIDATHA 


began  to  make  use  of  the  abundance  of  lime- 
stone on  every  band,  first  for  repairing  the 
ruins  about  them,  and  then  for  the  building  of 
new  palaces  and  strong  places.  But  tents,  or 
huts  of  wattle  and  daub,  still  remained  the 
favourite  houses  of  the  people.  On  entering 
the  promised  land  they  found  walled  cities 
(Num.  13.28;  Deut.  1.28)  awaiting  them.  David 
prepared  for  the  great  work,  but  the  task  of 
building  the  Temple  was  reserved  for  Solomon, 
who  freely  called  to  his  aid  foreign  materials 
and  foreign  workmen  (1  K.  5.10  ;  1  Ch.  28,  29). 
Besides  his  works  in  and  near  Jerusalem, 
Solomon  built  fortresses  and  cities  in  various 
places.  Among  the  subsequent  kings  of  Israel 
and  Judah  were  many  great  builders  (1  K. 
15.17,  23,  22.39  ;  2  K.  20.20 ;  2  Ch.  32.27, 
30). 

On  the  return  from  the  captivity  the  Temple 
and  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  were  rebuilt  in 
a  substantial  manner  with  stone  and  with 
timber  from  Lebanon  (Ezra  5.8).  During  the 
government  of  Simon  Maccabaeus  the  fortress 
called  Baris,  and  afterwards  Antonia,  was  erected 
for  the  defence  of  the  Temple  and  the  city. 
"But," says  Canon  Philpott,  "the  reigns  of  Herod 
and  his  successors  were  especially  remarkable  for 
display  in  architecture.  The  Temple  was  restored 
with  great  magnificence,  and  Jerusalem  was 
strengthened  with  fortifications  and  embellished 
with  public  buildings." 

The  remains  of  many  Galilean  synagogues, 
of  a  mixed  or  bastard  style  of  architecture, 
partly  Jewish,  partly  Roman,  and  built  during 
the  second  and  third  centuries  of  our  era,  still 
exist. 

Arctu'rus. — Crowd  :  the  constellation  Ursa 
Major,  known  commonly  as  the  Great  Bear, 
or  Charles's  Wain  (Job  9.9,  38.32;  R.V. 
"  the  Bear  "). 

Ard.— A  son  of  Benjamin  (Gen.  46.21),  or 
grandson  (Num.  26.40).  His  descendants  are 
called  the  Ardites  (Num.  26.40).  The  name  is 
Addar  in  1  Ch.  8.3. 

Ard'ites,  The.— [ ARD.] 

Ar'don.— A  son  of  Caleb  (1  Ch.  2.18). 

Are'H.— A  son  of  Gad  (Gen.  46.16).  His  de- 
scendants are  called  the  Arelites  (Num.  26.17). 

Areop'agite.— A  member  of  the  court  of 
Areopagus  (Acts  17.34). 

Areop'agns,  or  Mars'  Hill. — Areopagus  liter- 
ally means  the  hill  of  Ares  or  Mars — a  rocky 
height  in  Athens,  opposite  the  Acropolis.  Accord- 
ing to  tradition,  it  was  called  the  hill  of  Mars,  be- 
cause this  god  was  brought  to  trial  here  before 
the  assembled  gods  by  Neptune,  on  account  of  his 
murdering  Halirrhotius,  the  son  of  the  latter. 
The  spot  is  memorable  as  the  place  of  meeting 
of  the  Council  of  Areopagus,  the  most  ancient 
and  venerable  of  all  the  Athenian  courts.  The 
Areopagites  sat  as  judges  in  the  open  air, 
seated  on  a  bench  of  stones  excavated  in  the 
rock.  The  language  of  Acts  17.19,22  leaves  it 
in  doubt  whether  St.  Paul  was  brought  before 
and  stood  up  in  the  midst  of  the  "  court  of  the 
Areopagus/'  or  led  aside  to  Mars'  Hill  by  the 


philosophers,  that  in  greater  quiet  than  prevailed 
in  the  market-place  they  might  hear  what  he 
had  to  say.  (Opinion  is  divided :  the  A.V. — with 
some  ambiguity:  see  text  and  marg.  in  both  vers. 
— and  the  R.V.  text  adopt  court,  with  alternative 
margin.  So,  of  modern  Bible  Diet.,  does  the 
Encyc.  Bib.,  while  Hastings  and  Murray 
maintain  the  site.)  Against  the  site  may  be 
the  sacredness  of  its  associations  to  these 
Athenians,  and  the  expression  "  in  the  midst 
of "  Areopagus  (ver.  22,  cf.  ver.  33) :  against  the 
court,  the  absence  of  legal  procedure,  and  the 
popular  character  of  St.  Paul's  address.  Cer- 
tainly there  was  no  formal  trial,  but  it  is  possible 
that  Paul  was  brought  before  the  Court  (sitting 
in  the  Stoa  Basileios,  in  the  market-place), 
either  for  preliminary  examination,  with  a  view 
to  prosecution,  or  "  to  satisfy  the  supreme  uni- 
versity tribunal  of  his  qualifications  "  to  teach 
(so  Ramsay,  Paul  ike  Traveller,  pp.  241-249). 

Ar'etas.— "  Aretas  the  King  "  (2  Cor.  11.32). 
There  were  many  princes  of  Arabia  of  this  name, 
but  the  only  one  mentioned  in  Scripture  is  he 
(9  B.C.-40  A.D.)  whose  "governor,"  then  in 
possession  of  Damascus,  sought  to  apprehend 
Paul,  who  escaped  by  being  let  down  from 
the  wall  in  a  basket.  This  was  the  Aretas 
whose  daughter  married  Herod  Antipas.  When 
the  latter  put  her  away  to  make  room  for 
Herodias  (his  brother  Philip's  wife),  Aretas 
sent  an  army  against  him  and  won  a  great 
victory.  This  campaign  was  believed  by  the 
populace  to  be  a  Divine  punishment  for 
Herod's  murder  of  John  the  Baptist. 

Ar'gob. — Heaped  with  stones :  1.  A  tract  of 
country  on  the  east  of  the  Jordan  in  Bashan, 
in  the  kingdom  of  Og,  containing  sixty  "  great  " 
and  fortified  "  cities."  Axgob  was  in  the 
portion  allotted  to  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh, 
and  was  taken  possession  of  by  Jair,  a  chief 
man  in  that  tribe.  It  afterwards  formed  one 
of  Solomon's  commissariat  districts,  under  the 
charge  of  an  officer  whose  residence  was  at 
Ramoth-Gilead  (Deut.  3.4,  13,  14  ;  IK.  4.13). 
In  later  times  Argob  was  called  Trachonitis. 
It  has  been  identified  with  the  Lejah,  a  remark- 
able region  south  of  Damascus  and  east  of  the 
Sea  of  Galilee.  The  district  is  in  reality  one 
vast  bed  of  lava,  as  hard  as  flint,  ringing  like 
metal  when  sharply  struck.  Though  so  rocky 
and  bare  as  a  whole,  it  yet  has  fertile  spots.  It 
must  have  been  thickly  peopled  at  one  time,  for 
the  ruins  of  over  fifty  cities  have  been  discovered. 
This  extraordinary  region  forms  a  wonderful 
contrast  to  the  surrounding  plain  of  the  Hauran, 
a  plateau  of  waving  downs  of  the  richest  agri- 
cultural soil,  stretching  from  the  Sea  of  Galilee 
to  the  Lejah,  and  beyond  that  to  the  desert, 
almost  literally  "  without  a  stone."  2.  See 
2  K.  15.25  ;  this  passage  leaves  it  doubtful 
whether  he  was  a  conspirator  or  an  officer  of 
King  Pekahiah. 

Ari'dai. — A  son  of  Raman,  slain  by  the  Jews 
(Esth.  9.9). 

Aricla'tha. — A  son  of  Hainan,  slain  by  the 
Jews  (Esth.  9.8). 


ARIEH] 


33 


[ARKITE 


Ari'eh. — Lion :  a  fellow-conspirator  or  fellow- 
officer  with  Aigob  (2  K.  15.25).  [ABOOB.] 

Ari'el.— The  lion  of  God  :  1.  One  of  the  chief 
men  who,  under  Ezra,  directed  the  caravan 
which  he  led  back  from  Babylon  to  Jerusalem 
(Ezra  8.16).  2.  A  designation  given  by  Isaiah 
to  the  city  of  Jerusalem  (Isai.  29.1,  2,  7),  as  a 
symbol  of  hope.  In  this  connection  the  name 
would  signify  the  "  hearth,  or  altar  of  God." 

Arimathse'a. — A  height :  the  residence  of 
Joseph,  who  obtained  leave  from  Pilate  to  bury 
our  Lord  in  his  own  new  tomb  at  Jerusalem 
(Matt.  27.57  ;  Lk.  23  51 ;  John  19.38).  It  is 
probably  identical  with  Ramah,  or  Ramathaim- 
Zophim,  the  birthplace  of  the  prophet  Samuel 
(1  Sam.  1.1,  19).  Now  Rantieh,  north  of 
Lydda. 

Ari'och.— 1.  King  of  Ellasar  (Gen.  14.1-9). 
2.  "  The  captain  of  the  guard  "  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar (Dan.  2.14). 

Ari'sai. — A  son  of  Haman,  slain  by  the  Jews 
(Esth.  9.9). 

Aristar'chus. — A  Jew  of  Thessalom'ca,  and 
travelling  companion  of  St.  Paul,  first  mentioned 
as  roughly  handled  in  the  riot  at  Ephesus 
(Acts  19.29).  He  was  one  of  the  delegates  of 
the  Churches  contributing  to  the  "collection 
for  the  saints  "  at  Jerusalem,  who  accompanied 
St.  Paul  thither  at  the  close  of  his  Third  Mis- 
sionary Journey  (Acts  20.4  ;  cf.  1  Cor.  16.1-4  ; 
2  Cor.  8,9).  He  sailed  with  St.  Paul  from  Crcsarea 
to  Rome  (Acts  27.2),  and  was  with  him  when 
he  wrote  from  there  to  Philemon  and  the 
Church  at  Colossoc,  his  "  fellow-worker,"  "  a 
comfort  "  to  him,  even  his  "  fellow-prisoner  "  • 
(PhUem.  24  ;  Col.  4.10,11).  As  in  Philem.  23,  24' 
only  Epaphras  is  described  as  "  fellow-prisoner," 
and  in  Col.  4.10-14  only  Aristarchus,  it  may  be 
conjectured  that  Paul's  companions  took  turns 
in  sharing,  voluntarily,  his  captivity. 

Aristobu'lus. — They  of  "  the  household  of 
Aristobulus "  are  greeted  in  Rom.  16.10,  i.e. 
probably  the  Christians  among  the  slaves  of 
Aristobulus  (perhaps  the  grandson  of  Herod 
the  Great). 

Ark. — A  chest  or  box,  or  any  vessel  of  similar 
shape.  There  are  three  arks  which  call  for 
special  notice. 

1.  Noah's   Ark   (Gen.   6.14   to   8.19).— Noah 
was  ordered  by  God  to  construct  this  vessel, 
in  which  he  and  his  family  and  a  great  variety 
of  animals  were  preserved   from  the  Deluge. 
If  we  take  a  cubit  as  equal  to  eighteen  inches — 
the    usual    assumption — then    the    dimensions 
of  the  ark  were  450  feet  long,  75  feet  broad,  and 
45   feet  high.     It   was   made    of    gopher,   i.e. 
cypress   wood,    and    rendered    water-tight    by 
being  daubed  inside  and  outside  with  bitumen. 
It   had    three   storeys   and  a  window,    which 
probably  extended,  with  slight  interruptions,  all 
round  th«  vessel.     [NoAH.J 

2.  The   Ark   of   Moses,    made   of   bulrushes 
(Ex.   2.3-6),   in  which   the  infant  Moses   was 
placed  when  he  was  exposed  upon  the  Nile. 
Like  Noah's  ark  it  was  made  water-tight  with 
bitumen.     [Moses.] 


3.  The  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  or  of  the  Testi 
mony,  which,  with  its  cover,  the  mercy-seat, 
was  especially  invested  with  sacredness  and 
mystery.  A  full  description  of  its  structure 
is  given  in  Ex.  25.  The  mercy-seat,  supporting 
the  cherubim,  was  regarded  as  the  symbol  of 
the  presence  of  God  [MERCY-SEAT],  mani- 
fested on  occasions  by  a  luminous  cloud,  called 
the  Shechinah.  The  care  of  the  ark  was 
given  to  the  Levites  of  the  house  of  Kohath, 
who  bore  it  in  its  progress ;  but  before  being 
transported  it  was  covered  over  by  the  priests, 
and  was  therefore  not  seen.  The  ark  contained 
the  two  tables  of  the  Law  (hence  its  name  as 
the  Ark  of  the  Covenant),  probably  also  the 
pot  of  manna  and  the  rod  of  Aaron  (Heb.  9.4). 
The  ark,  which  occupied  the  most  holy  spot  of 
the  whole  sanctuary,  in  "  the  holy  of  holies," 
was  never  seen  save  by  the  high  priest,  and 
that  only  on  special  occasions. 

The  ark  figures  prominently  in  the  history 
of  the  chosen  people.  It  was  borne  by  the 
priests  into  the  bed  of  the  Jordan,  which  separ- 
ated, opening  a  pathway  for  the  whole  of  the 
host  to  pass  over  (Josh.  4.9-11).  It  was  carried 
for  seven  days  round  Jericho  before  the  walls 
of  the  city  fell  down  (Josh.  6.1-20).  After 
the  settlement  of  Israel  in  Palestine  the  ark 
remained  in  the  tabernacle  at  Gilgal  for  a 
season,  and  was  then  removed  to  Shiloh  till 
the  time  of  Eli,  when  it  was  carried  into  the 
field  of  battle,  so  as  to  secure,  as  they  supposed, 
victory  to  the  Israelites,  and  was  taken  by  the 
Philistines  (1  Sam.  4.3-11).  The  sanctity  of 
the  ark,  while  it  remained  in  the  possession 
of  the  heathen,  was  indicated  by  miracles,  as 
seen  in  its  avenging  progress  through  the 
Philistine  cities  (1  Sam.  4  and  6).  After  six 
months  the  Philistines  sent  back  the  ark  into 
Hebrew  territory.  It  returned  first  to  Beth- 
shemesh,  where  the  curiosity  of  the  people  was 
terribly  punished  (1  Sam.  6.11-20) ;  and  after- 
wards to  Kirjath-jearim  (1  Sam.  7.1),  whence  it 
was  brought  by  David  with  much  ceremony  to  the 
city  of  David,  after  a  temporary  halt  at  Perez- 
Uzzah,  where  Uzzah  was  struck  dead  for  touch- 
ing it  whe"  it  seemed  to  totter  (2  Sam.  6.1-19). 
It  was  afterwards  deposited  by  Solomon  in 
the  Temple  (1  K.  8.6-9).  When  the  Babylonians 
destroyed  Jerusalem  and  plundered  the  Temple, 
the  ark  was  probably  taken  away  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar and  destroyed,  as  no  trace  of  it  is  after- 
wards to  be  found.  It  is  not  mentioned 
amongst  the  sacred  vessels  restored  (Ezra 
1.7-11).  Tacitus,  the  Roman  historian,  bears 
witness  to  the  emptiness  of  the  holy  of  holies 
when  entered  by  Pompey.  The  absence  of 
the  ark  from  the  second  temple  was  one  of  the 
points  in  which  it  was  inferior  to  the  first  temple. 

Arkite.— One  of  the  families  of  the  Canaan- 
ites,  dwelling  in  Area  (Gen.  10.17 ;  1  Ch. 
1.15),  a  city  in  the  north  of  Phoenicia.  Area 
became  famous  for  the  worship  paid  by  its 
inhabitants  to  Aphrodite.  It  was  fortified  by 
the  Arabs,  and  attacked  by  the  Crusaders,  who, 
under  Raimond  of  Toulouse,  vainly  besieged  it 


ARMAGEDDON] 


[ARMY 


for  two  months  in  1099.  It  was,  however, 
afterwards  taken  by  William  of  Sartanges. 
In  1202  it  was  totally  destroyed  by  earthquake. 
The  site  which  now  bears  the  name  of  Area 
lies  about  twelve  miles  north  of  Tripoli,  and 
five  miles  south  of  the  Nahr-el-Kebir  (Eleuth- 
erus).  The  great  coast  road  passed  half-way 
between  it  and  the  sea. 

Annaged'don  (R.V.  Har-Magedon),  the 
mountain  of  Megiddo. — A  symbolic  name 
(derived  from  2  Ch.  35.22)  for  the  scene 
of  the  last  great  spiritual  contest  (Rev.  16.16). 
The  valley  of  Megiddo  is  the  great  battlefield 
of  the  Old  Testament,  where  the  chief  conflicts 
took  place  between  the  Israelites  and  the 
enemies  of  God's  people.  There,  in  the  plain 
of  Esdraelon,  Barak  won  a  great  victory  over 
the  Canaanites  (Judg.  4  and  5)  and  Gideon 
over  the  Midianites  (Judg.  7).  There,  too, 
Saul  met  his  death  at  the  hands  of  the  Philis- 
tines (1  Sam.  31.8),  and  Josiah  at  the  hands 
of  the  Egyptians  (2  K.  23.29,  30  ;  2  Ch.  35.22). 

Arme'nia. — The  Greek  name  for  Ararat, 
and  so  rendered  Ararat  (which  see)  in  R.V.  (2  K. 
19.37;  Isai.  37.38).  This  country,  according 
to  tradition,  was  settled  by  Haik,  son  of 
Togarmah,  and  grandson  of  Japhet  (Gen.  10.3). 
Its  boundaries  were  not  well  defined,  but  it 
may  be  described  roughly  as  the  country 
which  stretches  away  from  the  shores  of  Lake 
Van,  southwards  to  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan. 
Armenia  was  frequently  invaded  by  the 
Assyrians,  the  Babylonians,  the  Medes  and 
Persians,  and  for  many  years  remained  in 
subjection  to  one  or  other  of  these  empires. 

Armlet  (A.V.  Tablet). — A  golden  ornament  of 
some  kind,  perhaps  a  necklace  (Ex.  35.22 ; 
Num.  31.50). 

Armo'ni. — Born  of  the  palace:  son  of  Saul 
by  TCizpah.  He  was  given  up  by  David  to  the 
Gibeonites  (2  Sam.  21.8). 

Armour.— [ARMS.] 

Armour-Bearer.— This  was  an  officer  selected 
by  kings  and  generals  from  the  bravest.  It  was 
his  duty  to  carry  the  arms  of  his  master,  and 
also  to  bear  messages  from  one  part  of  the  field 
to  another,  much  as  the  modern  aido-de-onmp 
does.  In  the  fight  the  armour-bearer  often 
carried  the  shield  and  protected  the  person  of 
his  master  (Judy.  9.54  ;  1  .Sam.  16.21,  31.4). 

[ARM  Y.I 

Armoury. — The  armoury  (Neh.  3.19),  where 
the  "  thousand  bucklers,  all  shields  of  mighty 
men,"  hung,  was  in  the  tower  of  David. 

[TOWBB.] 

Arms. — First  as  to  the  weapons  of  offence 
mentioned  in  the  Bible. 

1.  The  sword,  the  most  widely  used  weapon, 
was  a  smaller  weapon  than  the  modern  sword, 
as  we  may  infer  from  the  statement  that 
the  sword  of  Ehud  (Judg.  3.16)  was  a  cubit,  i.e. 
18  inches  long.  But  in  the  hands  of  a  practised 
swordsman  it  could  be  wielded  with  terrible  effect 
(2  Sam.  20.8-12  ;  1  K.  2.5).  It  was  sometimes 
worn  in  a  sheath,  attached  to  a  girdle.  Before 
the  days  of  metal,  weapons  for  s*-abbing  and 


cutting  were  made  of  flint,  but  we  are  not  told 
that  the  Israelites  ever  used  these.  The  sword 
was  worn  in  limes  of  war  only;  in  times  of 
peace  even  the  king  in  state  did  not  wear  a 
sword  (1  K.  3.24). 

2.  The  spear,  of   which    there  were   several 
varieties,  from  the  very  powerful  weapon,  the 
Chanith,   weighing   about   25  Ibs.,  which    was 
the  weapon  of  Goliath  and  Saul,  to  the  Kidon, 
a  light  and  short  spear,  carried  on  the  back  of  the 
warrior,  between  the  shoulders.     Other  varieties 
include    the     Romach,    the   Shelach,    and    the 
Shebet.     It     was     with     Shebets     (translated 
"darts")     that    Joab     despatched     Absalom 
(2  Sam.  18.14). 

3.  The  bow  was  a  weapon  in  which  all  grades  of 
soldiers,  from  the  lowest  to  the  king's  sons,  were 
trained.     It  seems  to  have  been  bent  with  the 
aid  of  the  foot.     Bows  of  steel  are  mentioned  as 
if  specially  strong.     The  string  was  probably 
at  first  some   tough   fibre.     The  arrows  were 
carried    in    a    quiver,    and    were    sometimes 
poisoned. 

4.  The  sling  is  first  mentioned  in  Judg.  20.16, 
where  we  hear  of  the  300  Renjamites  who,  with 
their  left  hand,  could  "  sling  stones  at  an  hair- 
breadth and  not  miss."     In  later  times  slingers 
formed  part  of  the  regular  army  (2  K.  3.25). 
Slings  are  still  used  in  Palestine  by  those  who 
watch  the  flocks,  just  as  David,  as  a  shepherd  lad, 
doubtless  used  the  weapon  with  which  he  after- 
wards slew  Goliath. 

Next  are  to  be  noticed  the  weapons  of  defence 
mentioned  in  the  Scriptures.  They  include  (1) 
the  breastplate  (1  Sam.  17.5) ;  (2)  the  coat  of 
mail  (2  Ch.  26.14 ;  Neh.  4.16) ;  (3)  the  helmet 
(1  5am.  17.5  ;  2  Ch.  26.14  ;  Ezek.  27.10) ;  (4) 
greaves  or  defences  for  the  legs  (1  Sam.  17.6) ; 
(5)  the  shield,  of  which  there  were  two  sorts — 
the  Zinnah,  covering  the  whole  person,  and  the 
Magen,  probably  for  use  in  hand-to-hand 
conflicts.  Both  woro>5  are  used  in  the  Psalms 
metaphorically  of  toe  protection  of  God  (cf. 
Eph.  6.10-17). 

Army. — During  the  Exodus  every  man  above 
twenty  years  of  age  was  a  soldier  (Num.  1.3), 
priests  and  Levites  alone  exempted  (Num.  2.33). 
Each  tribe  formed  a  regiment,  with  its  own 
banner  and  its  own  leader  (Num.  2.2 ;  10.14).  At 
the  approach  of  an  enemy  a  conscription  was  made 
from  the  general  body.  From  the  number  so 
selected  some  might  be  excused  service  on  certain 
specified  grounds  (Deut.  20.5-8).  The  army  was 
then  divided  into  thousands  and  hundreds  under 
their  respective  captains  (Num.  31.14  ;  1  Sam. 
8.12  ;  2  K.  1.9).  After  the  entry  into  Canaan, 
and  the  dispersion  of  the  people  throughout  the 
country,  combatants  could  be  summoned  on 
the  spur  of  the  moment  by  trumpet-call  (Judg. 
3.27),  by  messengers  (Judg.  6.35),  by  some 
significant  token  (1  Sam.  11.7),  or,  as  in  later 
times,  by  the  erection  of  a  standard  (Isai.  18.3 
Jer.  4.21,  51.27),  or  by  a  beacon  fire  on  ar 
eminence  (Jer.  6.1). 

The  king  provided  himself  with  a  bodyguard 
which  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  army.  Saul 


ARMY] 


35 


[AEOEB 


had  a  band  of  3000  select  warriors  (1  Sam.  13.2, 
14.52,  24.2)  and  David  600,  which  he  subse- 
quently increased  (2  Sam.  15.18).  He  further 
organised  a  national  militia,  divided  into  twelve 
regiments,  each  of  which  was  called  out  for  one 
month  in  the  year  (1  Ch.  27.1) ;  at  the  head  of 
the  army  when  in  active  service  he  appointed  a 
commander-in-chief  (1  Sam.  14.50). 

Hitherto  the  army  had  consisted  entirely  of 
infantry,  but  as  the  foreign  relations  of  the 
country  extended  much  importance  was  attached 
to  chariots.  They  were  not  of  great  service 
in  Palestine  itself,  owing  to  the  very  uneven 
character  of  the  country,  but  they  could  be 
employed  to  advantage  on  the  borders,  both  on 
the  side  of  Egypt  and  of  Syria.  David  reserved 
a  hundred  chariots  from  the  spoil  of  the  Syrians 
(2  Sam.  8.4) ;  Solomon  greatly  enlarged  this 
force,  and  applied  it  to  the  protection  of  his 
border,  stations  or  barracks  being  erected  for 
them  in  different  localities  (1  K.  9.19).  The  force 
amounted  to  1400  chariots  and  12,000  horsemen. 
Three  horses  were  assigned  to  each  chariot, 
the  third  being  kept  as  a  reserve  (1  K.  10.26; 
2  Ch.  1.14).  The  ranks  in  the  army  were  privates 
("men  of  war"),  lieutenants  ("servants"), 
captains  ("  princes  "),  staff-officers,  and  cavalry 
officers  (1  K.  9.22) 

Warlike  operations  were  generally  begun  in 
the  spring,  after  solemnly  taking  counsel  of  God 
[URIM  AND  THUMMIM].  Priests,  bearing  the 
ark,  accompanied  the  fighting  men,  both  to 
encourage  and  help  in  other  ways.  They  also 
acted  as  heralds  and  diplomatists  both  before  and 
after  the  battle  (Num.  10.8;  Deut.  20.2-4; 
1  Sam.  7.9). 

The  Jews  as  warriors  were  fierce  fighters, 
loving  to  get  near  the  enemy  and  engage  him 
hand-to-hand.  They  rushed  to  the  attack 
with  loud  cries  and  trumpet-blasts.  They  also 
exercised  a  considerable  amount  of  cunning, 
and  resorted  to  ambuscades  and  night  attacks 
[DAVID,  JONATHAN].  Deeds  of  valour  were 
rewarded  handsomely. 

Before  the  establishment  of  the  standing  army 
the  soldier  had  to  provide  his  own  armour  and — 
by  force  or  otherwise — his  own  food.  Afterwards 
the  army  became  a  national  charge,  though  the 
soldiers  received  no  pay. 

The  framework  of  the  Roman  army  may  be 
set  out  in  tabular  form — 


A  century    . 
Two  centuries 
Three  maniples 
Ten  cohorts  . 


=  50  to  100  men. 
=   1  maniple. 
=   1  cohort 
=   1  legion 


It  follows  that  there  were  sixty  centuries  in  a 
legion,  each  under  the  command  of  a  centurion. 
Originally,  a  century,  as  the  name  implies,  con- 
sisted of  100  men,  but  subsequently  the  figure 
varied  according  to  the  strength  of  the  legion. 

In  the  N.T.  the  "  legion "  is  mentioned 
(Matt.  26.53  ;  Mk.  5.9) ;  the  "  cohort "  (Matt.  27. 
27  ;  Mk.  15.16 ;  John  18.3-12  ;  Acts  10.1,  21.31; 
27.1).  The  commander  of  a  cohort  (Lat. 
tribunus,  Gk.  chiliarch,  i.e.  commander  of  1000, 


Eng.  chief  captain)  appears  in  John  18.12,  and 
frequently  in  Acts  21-24 :  here  the  "  cohort  " 
is  the  Roman  garrison  of  Jerusalem,  with  its 
quarters  in  Fort  Antonia,  adjoining  the  Temple. 

In  addition  to  the  legionary  cohorts,  inde- 
pendent cohorts  of  volunteers  served  under  the 
Roman  standards.  One  of  these  was  named 
Italian  (Acts  10.1),  as  consisting  of  volunteers 
from  Italy.  The  headquarters  of  the  Roman 
forces  in  Judoea  were  at  Csesarea.  The  "Augustan 
band  "  of  Acts  27.1  may  be  another  of  these 
provincial  cohorts,  deriving  its  name  from 
Sebaste  (Lat.  Augusta),  the  name  given  by 
Herod  the  Great  to  the  city  of  Samaria ;  or  it 
may  have  had  its  name  from  some  special 
honour  conferred  upon  it  by  the  Emperor. 
References  to  the  "  centurion  "  are  found  in 
Matt.  8.5,  27.54,  and  frequently  in  Acts.  Four 
soldiers  constituted  the  ordinary  military  guard, 
of  which  there  were  four,  corresponding  to  the 
four  watches  of  the  night,  who  relieved  each 
other  every  three  hours  (John  19.23  ;  Acts  12.4). 
When  in  charge  of  a  prisoner,  two  watched 
outside  the  door  of  the  cell,  while  the  other  two 
were  inside  (Acts  12.6).  The  spearmen  noticed 
in  Acts  23.23  appear  to  have  been  light-armed 
irregular  troops. 

Ar'nan.— (1  Ch.  3.21). 

Ar'ni  (A.V.  Aram). — An  ancestor  of  our  Lord 
(Lk.  3.33). 

Ar'non. — A  torrent :  a  river  which  formed 
the  boundary  between  Moab  and  the  Amorites, 
on  the  north  of  Moab.  Rising  in  the  mountains 
of  Arabia,  it  flows  through  the  wilderness  into 
the  Dead  Sea,  opposite  En-gedi.  The  name 
of  the  river  is  now  Mojeb.  Its  course  lies 
through  a  ravine  of  great  depth.  The  level 
plain  comes  close  to  the  abrupt  descent,  which 
breaks  away  in  limestone  precipices.  The 
width  across,  from  crest  to  crest,  is  about  three 
miles.  At  one  part  there  are  traces  on  each 
face  of  the  ravine  of  the  paved  Roman  road, 
with  milestones,  and  the  arch  of  a  Roman 
bridge  still  stands.  The  stream  runs  through 
rich  meadows,  and  is  bordered  in  places  with 
trees,  oleanders  and  willows.  When  it  bursts 
into  the  Dead  Sea  the  Arnon  is  over  eighty 
feet  wide  and  four  feet  deep,  flowing  through  a 
chasm  with  perpendicular  sides  of  red,  brown, 
and  yellow  sandstone,  ninety-seven  feet  wide. 

A'rod.— Wild  ass :  a  son  of  Gad  (Num. 
26.17),  called  Arodi  in  Gen.  46.16.  His  de- 
scendants, the  Arodites,  are  mentioned  in  Num. 
26.17. 

Aro'di. — [AEOD.] 

Aro'dites. — [AROD.] 

Aro'er. — 1.  A  town  on  the  north  bank  of 
the  river  Arnon,  first  under  the  sway  of  Sihon, 
king  of  the  Amorites  (Josh.  12.2),  and  after- 
wards the  territory  of  the  tribe  of  Reuben. 
The  ruins  contain  several  wells  and  cisterns. 
2.  A  town  of  Gad  (Num.  32.34  ;  Josh.  13.25  ; 
Judg.  11.33;  2  Sam.  24.5).  3.  A  place  farther 
north  than  either  1  or  2,  and  dependent  upon 
Damascus  (Isai.  17.2).  4.  A  town  in  Judah 
(1  Sam.  30.28). 


AROERITE] 


36 


[ASENATH 


Aro'erite. — Ho  than  the  Aroerite  was  the  father 
of  two  of  David's  chief  captains  (1  Ch.  11.44). 

Arpachsad.— [  ARPHAXAP.  ] 

Ar'pad,  Ar'phad. — A  couch,  a  resting-place: 
a  city  or  district  in  Syria  dependent  upon 
Damascus,  and  invariably  named  with  Hamath, 
now  Hamah,  on  the  Orontes  (Jer.  49.23 ; 
2  K.  18.34,  19.13;  Isai.  10.9,  36.19,  37.13). 
Now  known  as  Tell  Erfad. 

Ar'phad. — [ARPAD.] 

Arphax'ad  (R.V.  Arpachsad).— Issuing  forth: 
a  son  of  Shem  and  the  ancestor  of  Eber 
(Gen,  10.22,  24,  11.10).  According  to  tradition, 
he  was  the  progenitor  of  the  Chaldeans. 

Arrows.— [ARMS.] 

Artaxerxes.  —  The  great  king.  In  the 
books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  the  name  Arta- 
xerxes appears  to  be  given  to  two  kings  of  Persia 
— (1)  the  Artaxerxes  of  Ezra  4;  who  stopped 
the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple,  variously  identi- 
fied with  Cambyses,  the  pseudo-Smerdis,  or 
Xerxes ;  (2)  the  later  monarch  of  Ezra  1 ;  Neh. 
2.1,  5.14,  13.6,  who  permitted  and  furthered 
the  rebuilding  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem.  But 
the  identification  of  (1)  is  difficult,  for  the 
inscriptions  disprove  the  theory  that  Artaxerxes 
was  a  royal  title,  and  not  simply  a  name.  And 
it  is  now  generally  agreed  that  only  one  Artax- 
erxes is  referred  to,  and  that  the  section,  Ezra 
4.6-27,  is  out  of  place.  He  is  probably  to  be 
identified  with  Artaxerxes  i.  (Longimanus),  who 
reigned  464-425  B.C. 

Ar'temas.— A  companion  of  St.  Paul  (Tit. 
3.12). 

Aru'bboth. — The  district  in  which  the  son  of 
Hesed  acted  as  commissariat  officer  for  Solomon 
(1  K.  4.10). 

Am 'mail. — A  town  five  miles  south-east  of 
Nablous,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Shechem,  at 
which  Abimelech  resided  (Judg.  9.41). 

Ar'vad. — A  small  rocky  island  near  Zidon 
(Ezek.  27.8),  now  called  Ruad,  two  or  three 
miles  off  the  Phoenician  coast.  Although  very 
small — barely  a  mile  in  circumference — it  was 
noted  for  the  naval  skill  of  its  inhabitants, 
called  Arvadites.  It  was  a  dependency  of 
Tyre  and  Sidon  (Gen.  10.18;  1  Ch.  1.16). 

Arvad'ite. — [ARVAD.] 

Arza. — A  steward  of  Elah,  king  of  Israel, 
who  was  assassinated  at  a  banquet  in  Arza's 
house  by  Zimri  (1  K.  16.9). 

A'sa.— Physician :  1.  Son  of  Abijah,  and  king 
of  Judah,  who  distinguished  himself  by  his 
devotion  to  the  pure  worship  of  Jehovah,  and 
his  very  active  hostility  to  idolatry  (1  K. 
15.9-24  ;  2  Ch.  15.1-19).  Maachah,  his  grand- 
mother, had  set  up  some  impure  worship 
in  a  grove,  but  Asa  burnt  the  symbol  of  her 
religion  and  threw  the  ashes  into  the  brook 
Kidron,  afterwards  deposing  Maachah  from 
her  dignity  as  queen-mother.  Asa  fortified 
cities  on  his  frontiers,  and  raised  a  large  army 
(2  Ch.  14.8),  with  which  he  utterly  defeated  the 
invader  Zerah.  On  his  return  to  Jerusalem 
Asa  convoked  a  great  assembly,  at  which  was 
renewed,  with  impressive  solemnity,  the 


covenant  by  which  the  nation  was  dedicated  to 
God  (2  Ch.  15).  In  alliance  with  Benhadad, 
king  of  Damascus,  Asa  forced  Baasha,  king  of 
Israel,  to  abandon  his  purpose  of  fortifying 
Ramah,  and  strengthened  the  strongholds  of 
Geba  and  Mizpeh  in  Benjamin,  with  the  inten- 
tion of  preventing  emigration  from,  or  immi- 
gration into,  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  Asa  died 
greatly  loved  and  honoured,  in  the  forty-first 
year  of  his  reign.  2.  See  1  Ch.  9.16. 

Asa'hel. — God  has  made  :  1.  The  youngest 
son  of  David's  sister,  Zeruiah,  celebrated  for 
his  speed  as  a  runner.  He  was  one  of  the 
thirty  heroes  of  David  (2  Sam.  23.24),  who  gave 
him  a  command  in  the  army  (1  Ch.  27.7).  When 
fighting  under  the  command  of  his  brother 
Joab  against  Ishbosheth's  army  at  Gibeon, 
he  pursued  Abner,  who,  after  vainUy  warning 
liim  to  desist,  was  obliged  in  self-defence  to  kill 
him  (2  Sam.  2.18).  2.  A  Levite  sent  by 
Jehoshaphat  to  teach  the  law  to  the  people 
in  Judah  (2  Ch.  17.8).  3.  A  Levite  employed 
under  Hezekiah  as  an  officer  of  the  offerings 
and  tithes  and  dedicated  things  (2  Ch.  31.13). 
4.  The  father  of  an  agent  employed  by  Ezra 
(Ezra  10.15). 

Asahi'ah  (R.V.  Asai'ah). — Jehovah  hath  made : 
1.  An  officer  of  King  Josiah,  sent  by  him, 
together  with  others,  to  seek  information  of 
JehoVah  respecting  the  Book  of  the  Law 
which  Hilkiah  found  in  the  Temple  (2  K. 
22.12-14,  A.V.  Asahi'ah  ;  2  Ch.  34.20).  2.  A 
Simeonite  prince  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah, 
who  drove  out  the  Hamite  shepherds  from 
Gedor  (1  Ch.  4.36).  3.  A  Levite  in  the  reign  of 
David,  chief  of  the  family  of  Merari  (1  Ch.  6.30). 
He  assisted  in  bringing  the  ark  from  Obed-edom 
to  Jerusalem  (1  Ch.  15.6).  4.  The  first-born  of 
"  the  Shilonite,"  according  to  1  Ch.  9.5,  who, 
with  his  family,  returned  from  Babylon  to  Jeru- 
salem. In  Neh.  11.5  he  is  called  Maaseiah. 

A'saph.  —  Collector :  1.  A  Levite,  one  of 
David's  three  chief  musicians,  whom  the  king 
appointed  to  preside  over  "  the  service  of 
song  in  the  house  of  the  Lord  "  (1  Ch.  6.31,  39). 
Asaph  was  also  a  "  seer  "  (2  Ch.  29.30),  and 
twelve  Psalms,  all  of  a  prophetical  character, 
are  assigned  to  him  (Ps.  50,  73-83).  His  de- 
scendants or  followers,  the  "  sons  of  Asaph," 
took  part  in  the  purification  of  the  Temple 
and  in  the  celebration  of  that  event  (2  Ch. 
29.13-30,  35.15).  2.  The  ancestor  of  Joah, 
who  was  recorder  under  Hezekiah  (2  K. 
18.18 ;  Isai.  36.3-22).  3.  An  officer  under  the 
King  of  Persia,  as  "  keeper  "  of  the  royal  forests 
in  Judah  (Neh.  2.8).  4.  A  Levite  mentioned  in 
1  Ch.  9.15  ;  Neh.  11.17. 

Asare'el  (R.V.  Asarel).— A  son  of  Jehaleleel 
(1  Ch.  4-16). 

Asare'lah  (R.V.  Asharelah).— A  son  of  Asaph, 
set  apart  by  David  to  "  prophesy  with  harps 
and  with  psalteries  and  with  cymbals"  (1  Ch. 
25.2;  in  ver.  14,  Jesharelah). 

Ascension.— [ JESUS  CHRIST.] 

Ase'nath. — (?)  Belonging  to  Neit  (an  Egyptian 
goddess).  The  Egyptian  whom  Joseph  took  to 


ASER] 


37 


[ASHKELON 


wife  (Gen.  41.45-50,  46.20),  who  bore  him 
Manasseh  and  Ephraim.  She  was  the  daughter 
of  Potipherah,  the  high- priest  of  On,  or  Helio- 
polis,  the  headquarters  of  sun  worship. 

As'er.— The  Greek  form  of  Asher  (Lk.  2.36  ; 
Rev.  7.6). 

Ash. — The  word  occurs  only  once  in  the  A.V. 
(Isai.  44.14).  The  R.V.  translates  "  fir-tree." 
The  exact  tree  meant  is  not  certainly  known.  It 
cannot  be  our  ash-tree,  which  is  not  a  native  of 
Palestine. 

A'shan. — A  city  in  the  low  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  15.42).  It  was  allotted  to  Simeon,  and 
assigned  to  the  priests. 

Ashare'lah.— [ASARELAH.] 

Ash'bea. — A  proper  name,  but  whether  of  a 
man  or  a  place  is  uncertain  (1  Ch.  4.21). 

Ash'bel. — Man  of  Baal :  one  of  the  sons  of 
Benjamin  (Gen.  46.21 ;  Num.  26.38 ;  1  Ch.  8.1). 

Ashbel'ite.  —  The  descendants  of  Ashbel 
(Num.  26.38). 

Ashche'naz.— 1.  A  son  of  Gomer  (1  Ch.  1.6). 
2.  A  people  or  kingdom  mentioned  in  Jer.  51.27. 

[ASHKKNAZ.] 

Ash'dod,  or  Azo'tus.— Fortress,  castle:  a 
strongly  fortified  town  overlooking  the  plain  of 
Philistia.  It  is  perched  on  the  top  of  a  hill,  and 
commands  the  entrance  to  Palestine  from  Egypt, 
owing  its  great  importance  in  history  to  this 
fact.  Ashdod  was  also  a  chief  seat  of  Dagon 
worship.  It  is  about  thirty  miles  from  the 
southern  frontier  of  Palestine,  three  from  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  and  nearly  midway  between 
Gaza  and  Joppa.  Though  assigned  to  Judah 
(Josh.  15.47),  it  was  never  conquered  by  the 
Israelites.  It  is  mentioned,  on  the  other  hand, 
as  the  point  for  conducting  offensive  operations 
against  them.  When  King  Uzziah  broke  down 
the  wall  of  the  town,  he  established  forts  on  the 
adjacent  hills,  so  as  to  be  safe  against  future 
attacks  (2  Ch.  26.6).  Even  down  to  Nehemiah's 
age  it  preserved  its  distinctiveness  of  race  and 
language  (Neh.  13.23,  24).  The  only  notice  of  it 
in  the  N.T.  is  in  connection  with  Philip's  return 
from  Gaza  (Acts  8.40).  It  is  now  an  insig- 
nificant village,  bearing  the  name  Esdud,  with 
no  memorials  of  its  ancient  importance. 

Ashdod'ites,  Ashdoth'ites.— The  inhabitants 
of  Ashdod. 

Ash' doth  Pisgah.— Slopes  of  Pisgah:  some 
definite  natural  feature,  probably  a  ravine,  east 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  on  the  borders  of  Reuben 
(Deut.  3.17,  4.49  ;  Josh.  10.40,  12.3,  8,  13.20). 
The  district  is  noted  for  its  many  perennial 
springs,  starting  out  of  the  hillsides  at  various 
altitudes.  The  valley  whence  the  water  of 
these  springs  was  collected  formed  the  northern 
boundary  of  Nebo.  It  is  a  spot  of  great  natural 
beauty,  contrasting,  as  it  does,  its  springs  and 
luxuriant  vegetation  with  the  arid  wastes  in 
which  it  lies. 

Ashdoth'ites,  The.— [ASHDODITES.] 

A'sher. — Happy :  the  eighth  son  of  Jacob,  by 
Zilpah,  Leah's  handmaid  (Gen.  30.13).  Of  the 
tribe  descended  from  Asher  no  accountis  recorded 
during  the  whole  course  of  the  sacred  history. 


The  territory  assigned  to  the  descendants  of 
Asher  was  on  the  sea-shore  from  Carmel  north- 
wards as  far  as  Sidon.  It  contained  some  of  the 
finest  soil  in  all  Palestine,  and  in  its  productive- 
ness fulfilled  the  blessings  which  had  been 
bestowed  on  Asher  by  Jacob  and  by  Moses 
(Gen.  49.20  ;  Deut.  33.24,  25).  Here  was  the  oil 
in  which  he  was  to  "  dip  his  foot,"  bread, 
which  was  to  be  "  fat,"  and  the  "  royal  dainties  " 
in  which  he  was  to  indulge ;  and  here,  in  the 
metallic  manufactures  of  the  Phoenicians,  were 
the  "  iron  and  brass  "  for  his  "  shoes."  The 
Phoenician  settlements  were  even  at  that  early 
period  in  full  vigour  ;  and  Asher  was  contented 
to  partake  of  their  luxuries  and  to  "  dwell 
among  them  "  without  attempting  the  conquest 
and  extermination  enjoined  in  regard  to  all  the 
Canaanites  (Judg.  1.31,  32,  5.17).  At  the 
numbering  of  Israel  at  Sinai,  Asher  was  more 
numerous  than  either  Ephraim,  Manasseh,  or 
Benjamin  (Num.  1.32-41) ;  but  in  the  reign  of 
David,  so  insignificant  had  the  tribe  become 
that  its  name  is  altogether  omitted  from  the  list 
of  the  chief  rulers  (1  Ch.  27.16-22).  With  the 
exception  of  Simeon,  Asher  is  the  only  tribo 
west  of  the  Jordan  which  furnished  no  hero  or 
judge  to  the  nation.  However,  Anna,  who 
served  God  with  fastings  and  prayers  night  and 
day  in  the  Temple  (Lk.  2.36-38),  was  "the 
daughter  of  Phanuel,  of  the  tribe  of  Aser." 

A'sher. — A  town  west  of  the  Jordan  (Josh. 
17.7),  on  the  boundary  of  Manasseh,  on  the  road 
to  Beth-shean. 

Ash'erah.— [GROVES.] 

Ashes. — The  ashes  of  a  red  heifer,  burnt  entire, 
according  to  regulations  prescribed  in  Num.  19, 
had  the  ceremonial  efficacy  of  purifying  the 
unclean  (Heb.  9.13),  but  of  polluting  the  clean. 
Ashes  about  the  person,  especially  on  the  head, 
were  used  as  a  sign  of  sorrow ;  and  the  passage  in 
Job  2.8,  sitting  upon  ashes,  is  an  extreme  ex- 
presson  of  grief.  Ashes  are  also  used  figura- 
tively in  Job  30.19  ;  Isai.  44.20  ;  Mai.  4.3,  and 
other  passages. 

Ashhur. — [ASHUB.] 

Ashi'ma. — A  god  worshipped  by  the  people  of 
Hamath.  The  worship  was  introduced  into 
Samaria  by  the  Hamathite  colonists,  whom  the 
king  of  Assyria  settled  in  the  land  (2  K.  17.30). 

Ashke'lon,  Askelon,  Eshkalon.— One  of  the 
five  cities  of  the  lords  of  the  Philistines  (Josh. 
13.3:  1  Sam.  6.17).  It  was  situated  on  the 
extreme  edge  of  the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean 
(Jer.  47.7).  The  site  still  retains  the  ancient 
name.  Samson  went  down  from  Timnath  to 
Ashkelon,  where  he  slew  the  thirty  men  and  took 
their  spoil.  It  was  a  remote  town,  and  is  much 
less  prominent  in  the  Scriptures  than  the  other 
chief  Philistine  cities.  In  the  time  of  Origen 
some  wells  of  remarkable  shape  were  shown  near 
the  town,  which  were  believed  to  be  those  dug 
by  Isaac,  or,  at  any  rate,  to  be  of  the  time  of 
the  Patriarchs.  Ascalon  played  a  memorable 
part  in  the  struggles  of  the  Crusades  ;  within  the 
walls  and  towers  now  standing  Richard  Coeur- 
de-Lion  held  his  court.  Its  name  is  familiar  to 


ASHKENAZ] 


38 


[ASS 


us  in  the  "  eschalot "  or  "  shallot,"  a  kind  of 
onion,  first  grown  there,  for  which  the  place 
was  widely  known. 

Ashke'naz, — One  of  the  three  sons  of  Gomer, 
son  of  Japhet  (Gen.  10.3) ;  that  is,  one  of  the 
peoples  or  tribes  belonging  to  the  great  Japhetic 
division  of  the  human  race,  and  springing  im- 
mediately from  that  part  of  it  which  bears  the 
name  of  Gomer,  or  Cimmerians.  [ASCHENAZ.] 

Ash'nah.— The  strong  fort :  the  name  of  two 
cities  in  the  lowlands  of  Judah ;  see  Josh.  15.33 
and  15.43. 

Ashpe'naz. — The  master  of  the  eunuchs  of 
Nebuchadnezzar  (Dan.  1.3). 

Ashtar'oth,  Astar'oth. — A  city  on  the  east  of 
Jordan,  in  Bashan,  in  the  kingdom  of  Og.  It 
fell  into  possession  of  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh 
(Josh.  13.31),  and  was  given  with  its  suburbs  or 
surrounding  pasture-lands  to  the  Gershonites 
(1  Ch.  6.71).  It  was  the  birthplace  of  Uzzia 
(1  Ch.  11.44).  It  has  been  identified  with  Tell 
'Ashterah,  a  height  or  low  hill  to  the  east  of  the 
Sea  of  Galilee,  rising  in  the  midst  of  the  plain, 
with  scattered  ruins  about  it.  [  ASTORETH.  ] 

Ashter'athite.— Uzzia  was  an  inhabitant  of 
Ashtaroth  (1  Ch.  11.44). 

Ashter'oth  -  Karna'im.—  Two-horned  Ash- 
taroth :  a  place  of  very  great  antiquity,  the  abode 
of  the  Kephaim  at  the  time  of  the  incursion 
of  Chedorlaomer  (Gen.  14.5),  while  the  cities 
of  the  plain  were  still  standing  in  their  oasis. 

Astor'eth. —  Star,  the  planet  Venus',  the 
principal  female  divinity  of  the  Phoenicians,  as 
Baal  was  the  principal  male  divinity.  As  Baal 
was  identified  with  the  Sun,  so  Ashtaroth  or 
"Astarte  with  the  crescent  horns"  was  with 
the  moon,  and  was  symbolised  by  the  cow.  The 
worship  of  this  goddess  was  borrowed  by  the 
Canaanites  from  the  Chaldaeans.  She  was  the 
goddess  of  productive  power,  of  love  and  of  war. 
She  was  the  Philistine  goddess  of  war,  and  her 
worship  was  accompanied  by  gross  licentious- 
ness, in  which  the  "  groves  "  played  a  prominent 
part.  Doves  were  sacred  to  her.  [ASHEBAH, 
GROVES.] 

Ash'ur  (R.V.  Ashhur).— "Father  (i.e.  founder) 
of  Tekoa  "  (1  Ch.  2.24,  4.5). 

Ash'urites.— The   name   occurs   only  in  the 

enumeration  of  those  over  whom  Ishbosheth  was 

made  king  (2  Sam.  2.9).   Perhaps  reads  Asherites. 

Ash'vath.— One  of  the  sons  of  Japhet,  of  the 

tribe  of  Asher  (1  Ch.  7.33). 

Asia. — A  Roman  province  which  embraced 
the  western  part  only  of  what  is  now  known  as 
the  peninsula  of  Asia  Minor,  and  of  which 
Ephesus  was  the  capital.  The  province 
originated  in  the  bequest  of  Attalus,  king  of 
Pergamum,  or  king  of  Asia,  who  left  by  will  to 
the  Roman  Republic  his  hereditary  dominions 
in  the  west  of  the  peninsula  (133  B.C.).  The 
frontier  was  altered  somewhat,  and  Asia  was 
constituted  a  province,  and  in  the  reign  of 
Augustus  was  governed  by  a  proconsul.  It 
contained  many  important  cities,  among  which 
were  the  seven  Churches  of  the  Apocalypse. 
The  "chiefs  of  Asia"  (Acts  19.31),  or  Asiarchs, 


R.V.  marg.,  were  officers  of  (he  Province  of 
Asia  chosen  to  take  charge  of  the  public  games 
and  religious  festivals.  It  is  not  certain 
whether  the  office  was  annual,  or  was  held  for 
four  years. 

Asi'el. — A  Simeonite  whose  descendant,  Jehu, 
lived  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  (1  Ch.  4.35). 

Askel'on. — [ASHKELON.] 

As'nah. — The  children  of  Asnah  were  among 
the  Nethinim  who  returned  with  Zerubbabel 
(Ezra  2.50). 

Asnap'per  (R.V.  Osnapper). — A  ruler  men- 
tioned in  Ezra  4.10  as  the  great  and  noble 
personage  who  had  brought  several  nations 
from  beyond  the  Euphrates  and  settled  them 
in  Samaria.  He  is  now  generally  identified 
with  the  great  Assyrian  king,  Asur-bani-pal, 
who  began  to  reign  668  B.C. 

Asp.— The  word  occurs  in  Deut.  32.33,  "  the 
cruel  venom  of  asps";  Job  20.14,  16,  "the 
gall  of  asps,"  "  he  shall  suck  the  poison  of  asps  " 
(cf.  7fom.3.13) ;  /sen".  11.8,  the  "  sucking  child  shall 
play  on  the  hole  of  the  asp."  The  word  trans- 
lated "  adder  "  in  Ps.  58.4,  "  the  deaf  adder  that 
stoppeth  her  ear,"  and  in  Ps.  91.13,  "  thou  shalt 
tread  upon  the  lion  and  adder,"  is  the  same 
Hebrew  word  as  is  elsewhere  translated  "  asp." 

The  reptile  referred  to  is  that  which  we  know  as 
the  hooded  cobra  of  Egypt.  It  is  only  to  be 
found  in  the  wilder  districts  of  Palestine, 
though  common  enough  south  of  Beersheba. 
It  lives  in  the  holes  of  rocks  or  old  walls.  This 
cobra  is  very  susceptible  to  the  charmer's 
art,  but  there  are  some  which  defy  all 
attempts  to  soothe  them,  and  these  are  called 
"  deaf  "  (Ps.  58.4),  though  they  can  hear  well 
enough.  It  is  true  that  serpents  have  not  a 
keen  sense  of  sound ;  it  is  only  sharp,  shrill 
notes,  such  as  those  produced  by  a  flute,  that 
make  any  impression  upon  them. 

Aspa'tha. — One  of  the  ten  sons  of  Hainan 
slain  by  the  Jews  (Esth.  9.7). 

Asri'el. — The  son  of  Gilead,  and  great-grand- 
son of  Manasseh  (Num.  26.31 ;  Josh.  17.2). 
The  name  occurs  as  Ashriel  in  1  Ch.  7.14. 

Asri'elites. — Descendants  of  Asriel  (Num. 
26.31). 

Ass. — The  frequency  with  which  the  ass  is 
mentioned  in  the  Bible  testifies  to  its  extensive 
use  in  Bible  lands  at  all  times.  References  to 
the  animal  may  be  usefully  grouped  under  five 
heads,  according  to  the  Hebrew  names  for  the 
different  sorts  in  the  original. 

1.  The  first  is  Chamor,  the  ordinary  name  for 
the  domestic  ass,  male  or  female,  but  more 
properly  the  male.  In  eastern  countries  the  ass 
is  a  more  valuable  animal  than  with  us,  being 
well  cared  for  and  considerably  larger.  It  can 
do  a  good  day's  journey  at  an  easy  canter  or 
trot,  and  it  has  a  spirited  and  wide-awake 
manner.  The  breed  is  carefully  selected,  and  a 
well-bred  Syrian  ass  is  worth  £40.  The  Palestine 
asses  are  the  finest  in  the  world. 

The  colour  and  markings  of  the  domestic  ass 
are  much  the  same  everywhere,  being  a  nearly 
uniform  drab.  There  is  a  white  variety,  however, 


ASSHUR,  ASSUR] 


39 


[ASSYRIA,  ASSHUR 


in  Syria  which  is  greatly  valued  for  its  beauty, 
though  it  is  a  delicate  animal.  Only  kings 
and  the  wealthy  rode  upon  this  ass,  which  was 
found  chiefly  around  Bagdad  and  Damascus. 
Deborah  and  Barak  address  the  mighty  ones  in 
Israel  as  "  ye  that  ride  on  white  asses  "  (Judg. 
5.10). 

Amongstthe  Jews  the  mosthonourable  persons 
rode  upon  asses.  Asses  were  also  used  for 
ploughing  and  the  carrying  of  burdens.  Abra- 
ham went  on  his  ass  from  Beersheba  to  Mount 
Moriah  (Gen.  22.3).  See  also  Judg.  10.4  and 
12.14.  Women  also  rode  on  asses.  Achsah 
and  Abigail  are  particularly  mentioned  as  doing 
so  (Judg.  1.14  ;  1  Sam.  25.20).  Though  the  ass 
was  reckoned  a  valuable  possession,  it  was  not 
used  for  food, except  in  time  of  famine  (2  K.Q.25), 
being  rendered  unclean  by  the  Mosaic  Law, 
because  it  did  not  chew  the  cud,  and  had  an 
undivided  hoof. 

2.  The  second  word,  Athon,  is  always  rendered 
44  she-ass."     Balaam  rode  on  a  she-ass  (Num. 
22.23) ;     the   wealthy   Shunammite  saddled   a 
she-ass  on  her  errand  to  Elisha  (2  K.  4.24) ; 
Saul  sought  the  she-asses  of  Kish  (1  Sam.  9.3)  ; 
and  Jehdeiah  had  charge  of  David's  she-asses 
(1  Ch.  27.30).     They  were  more  valuable  than 
males,  and  we  find  that  part  of  Job's  wealth  con- 
sisted of  a  thousand  she-asses. 

3.  The  third  term,  Ajir,  always  signified  a  colt 
or  young  ass,  frequently  used  for  riding  (Judg. 
10.4,  12.14).      Our  Saviour  made  His  triumphal 
entry  into  Jerusalem  upon  a  colt,  the  foal  of  an 
ass,  and  the  animal  selected  was  not  typical 
of    meekness,   as    is    generally  supposed,  but 
honourable  and  suitable  in  dignity  to  bear  the 
King  of  Israel  (Matt.  21.2,  5,  7). 

4-5.  The  fourth  and  fifth  terms,P«re  and  Arod, 
are  invariably  rendered  wild  ass,  though  pro- 
bably two  different  species  are  indicated 
(Job  39.5  ;  Ps.  104.11 ;  /sat.  32.14;  Jer.  2.24  ; 
Dan.  5.21 ;  Eos.  3.9).  The  wild  ass  is  not  now 
met  with  in  Palestine  or  Sinai,  but,  to  judge  from 
the  frequent  mention  of  them,  they  must  have 
been  plentiful  in  O.T.  times.  All  wild  asses 
are  swift  runners,  and  roam  over  wide  areas 
in  search  of  pasture. 

Assh'ur,  Assur.— [ASSYRIA.] 

Asshu'rim. — Descendants  from  Dedan,  the 
grandson  of  Abraham  (Gen.  25.3). 

As'sir. — Prisoner:  a  name  frequent  in  the 
family  of  Korah.  1.  Son  of  Korah  (Ex.  6.24; 
1  Ch.  6.22).  2.  Son  of  Ebiasaph,  son  of 
Korah  (1  Ch.  6.37).  3.  Son  of  Ebiasaph,  son 
of  Elkanah,  Assir  being  thus  nephew  to 
Samuel  (1  Ch.  6.23).  4.  Son  of  Jeconiah 
(1  Ch.  3.17):  but  R.V.  "Jeconiah  the 
captive." 

As'sos. — A  town  and  seaport  of  the 
Roman  province  of  Asia,  in  the  district 
anciently  called  Mysia.  It  was  situated  on 
the  northern  shore  of  the  gulf  of  Adramyttium, 
and  was  only  about  seven  miles  from  the 
opposite  coast  of  Lesbos,  near  Methymna.  A 
good  Roman  road,  connecting  the  towns  of  the 
central  part  of  the  province  with  Alexandria 


Troas,  passed  through  Assos,  the  distance 
between  the  two  latter  places  being  about 
twenty  miles.  These  geographical  points 
illustrate  St.  Paul's  rapid  passage  through  the 
town,  as  mentioned  in  Acts  20.13,  14.  The 
ship  in  which  he  was  to  accomplish  his  voyage 
from  Troas  to  Coesarea  went  round  Cape  Lectum, 
while  he  took  the  much  shorter  journey  by  land. 
Thus  he  was  able  to  join  the  ship  without 
difficulty,  and  in  sufficient  time  for  her  to  anchor 
off  Mitylene  at  the  close  of  the  day  on  which 
Troas  had  been  left.  Many  remains  of  the 
ancient  city  still  exist,  including  the  citadel, 
which  commands  a  glorious  view.  The  Street 
of  Tombs,  leading  to  the  Great  Gate,  is  another 
most  remarkable  feature.  This  once  important 
place  is  a  small  village,  Bairam  Kalessi. 

[TBOAS.J 

Assy'ria,  Assh'ur.— Asshur  was  one  of  the 
grandsons  of  Noah  (Gen.  10.11,  22),  whom  the 
idolatry  of  later  times  raised  to  the  position  of 
a  god.  The  Assyrians  often  call  their  land 
"  the  land  of  the  god  Assur  "  ;  in  the  early  period 
the  capital  of  the  Empire  was  Assur  (Kileh- 
Shergat),  and  it  is  probable  that  from  this  city 
the  country  took  its  name  of  Assyria. 

Country  and  People. — In  ancient  geography 
Assyria  is  a  country  east  of  the  Tigris,  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Armenia,  on  the  east  by  Media, 
and  on  the  south  by  Susiana  and  Chaldea.  The 
country  is  watered  by  several  rivers,  the  chief  of 
which  is  the  Tigris  [see  HIDDEKEL].  The 
southern  and  northern  parts  are  mountainous, 
though  well  adapted  for  pasturage  and  the 
growth  of  fruit,  corn,  and  cotton.  In  these 
mountains  Shalmaneser  colonised  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Ephraim  and  Galilee,  when  he  conquered 
the  ten  tribes  (2  K.  17).  They  are  now  inhabited 
partly  by  Nestorians,  whose  forefathers  em- 
braced Christianity.  The  people  have  sunk 
into  a  rude  and  superstitious  ignorance. 

According  to  Professor  Sayce,  Assur  had 
originally  been  the  name,  not  of  a  country,  but 
of  a  city,  founded  in  remote  times  on  the  Tigris, 
which  gave  its  name  to  the  surrounding  district. 
It  was  built  by  a  people  akin  to  the  modern 
Turks,  afterwards  supplanted  by  the  Semitic 
Assyrians,  a  people  allied  in  blood  and  language 
to  the  Hebrews  and  Arabs.  The  name,  which 
originally  signified  44  water  boundary,"  was 
slightly  changed  by  the  Assyrians,  so  as  to 
assume  the  form  of  a  word  which  in  Assyria 
meant  "  gracious."  Thus  Assur  became  the 
Divine  impersonation  of  the  power  and  con- 
stitution of  Assyria. 

Assur  (Kileh  Sherghat)  did  not  always 
remain  the  capital,  the  seat  of  government 
shifting  to  Nineveh,  Calah,  and  Dur-Sargin, 
now  respectively  known  as  Konyunjik,  Nimrud, 
and  Khorsabad.  Instead  of  Dur-Sargin,  the 
Book  of  Genesis  mentions  Resen  44  between 
Nineveh  and  Calah  "  (Gen.  10.12).  Of  these 
towns  Nineveh  at  least  is  as  old  as  Assur.  The 
rise  of  Assyria  did  not  take  place  until  the 
Babylonian  monarchy  was  already  growing  old. 
Before,  the  country  had  been  called  Gutium 


ASSYRIA,  ASSHUR] 


40 


[ASSYRIA,  ASSHUR 


(Kurdistan),  a  name  that  has  been  identified 
with  the  Goyyim  or  "  nations  "  of  Gen.  14.1, 
over  which  Tidal  was  king.  There  seems  to 
have  been  a  time  when  the  rulers  of  Assur  were 
mere  governors  appointed  by  the  Babylonian 
monarchs,  for  the  earliest  of  whom  we  know 
anything  call  themselves  not  "  king,"  but 
"  viceroy." 

It  was  the  original  possessors  of  the  land, 
generally  termed  Accadian,  who  invented  the 
cuneiform  system  of  writing,  founded  the  chief 
cities  of  Babylonia,  and  erected  the  earliest 
Babylonian  monuments  known  [BABYLON]. 
Though  the  Semitic  invaders  overcame  the 
Accadians,  yet  the  latter  long  survived  in  their 
language,  which  took  the  place  that  Latin  does 
amongst  Europeans,  and  which  every  educated 
Babylonian  was  expected  to  know.  The  Baby- 
lonians were  agriculturalists,  the  Assyrians  a 
military  and  trading  people. 

The  Assyrian  was  simple  in  his  habits,  but 
was  cruel  and  ferocious,  impaling  and  burning 
alive  the  inhabitants  of  conquered  cities.  The 
Assyrians  were  purely  a  military  power,  and 
when  their  great  stronghold  of  Nineveh  was 
destroyed,  the  nation  itself  was  blotted  out. 
[  NINEVEH.] 

History  in  Brief. — For  detailed  history  see 
Sayce's  Assyria,  its  Princes,  Priests,  and  People; 
Layard's  Nineveh',  Brit.  Mus.  Guide  to  Assyrian 
Antiquities. 

We  know  little  of  the  early  rulers  of  Assyria 
except  their  names,  the  first  real  king  (not 
"  viceroy "  of  Babylonia)  being  Bel-Kapkapi 
(16th  century  B.C.).  For  some  centuries  their 
history  is  occupied  with  the  struggles  with 
Babylonia.  Rimmon-nirari  i.  (1320  B.C.)  has 
left  inscriptions  recounting  his  wars.  Calah 
was  founded  by  his  son,  and  six  generations  of 
his  descendants  followed  on  the  throne. 

Then  came  Tiglath-Pileser  n.,  the  founder  of 
the  first  Assyrian  empire,  who  extended  his 
borders  from  Cilicia  in  the  west  to  Kurdistan 
in  the  east.  When  this  conqueror  reached  the 
Mediterranean,  after  overcoming  the  Hittites, 
he  symbolised  his  subjection  of  the  sea  by 
embarking  in  a  ship  and  killing  a  dolphin.  He 
embellished  Nineveh,  and  in  1130  B.C.  be- 
sieged and  took  Babylon.  [TIGLATH-PILESER. 
Summary.] 

But  the  conquests  of  Tiglath-Pileser  were 
lost  during  the  following  reigns,  during  which 
time  the  kingdom  of  David  and  Solomon  arose 
and  expanded.  In  the  years  911-858  B.C., 
however,  the  Assyrian  empire  revived  once 
more,  the  paths  of  the  conquering  monarchs 
being  marked  by  pross  and  horrible  barbar- 
ities, such  as  impalements  and  pyramids  of 
human  heads.  The  armies  of  Assur-natsir- 
pal  overran  Armenia,  Mesopotamia,  Hindostan, 
Babylonia,  Phoenicia,  while  those  of  Shal- 
maneser  n.  (who  subdued  Hosh -a)  further 
extended  the  boundaries,  and  marked  the 
climax  of  the  first  Assyrian  empire.  On  one 
of  the  monuments  of  this  king  are  figured  the 
tribute-bearers  of  "  Jehu,  son  of  Omri."  To 


protect  themselves  from  Shalmaneser  n.  the 
neighbouring  kings  formed  a  confederacy  to 
resist  him.  Among  these  "  Ahab  of  Israel  " 
is  mentioned  as  furnishing  2000  chariots  and 
10,000  infantry.  [AHAB,  BENHADAD  n.] 

Twelve  years  after,  when  Hazael,  king  of 
Syria,  was  on  the  throne  of  Damascus,  Shal- 
maneser marched  against  him  and  besieged 
Damascus.  It  was  at  this  juncture  that  Jehu 
arrived  with  offers  of  tribute  and  submission 
[JEHU].  A  revolt  of  twenty-seven  cities, 
including  Nineveh  and  Assur,  kept  Shalmaneser 
II.  at  home,  and  also  his  son  and  successor. 
But  Rimmon-nirari  in.  (810-781  B.C.)  com- 
pelled the  Phoenicians,  Israelites,  Edomites, 
and  Philistines  to  pay  him  tribute.  From  this 
time  the  empire  decayed,  until  in  the  year 
745  B.C.  Pul  seized  the  crown  and  called  himself 
Tiglath-Pileser  iv.,  and  founded  the  second 
Assyrian  empire.  [PuL.] 

This  monarch  greatly  strengthened  Assyria, 
and  inaugurated  a  policy  of  extension  and 
consolidation  successfully  carried  on  by  his 
successors.  Such  was  the  terror  of  his  name, 
that  the  petty  kings  Eniel  of  Hamath,  Uzziah 
of  Judah,  Rezin  of  Syria,  Hiram  of  Tyre,  Pisiris 
of  Carchemish,  and  Menahem  of  Samaria, 
hastened  to  render  bim  homage  (see  2  K.  15.19). 

About  this  time  Ahaz  was  hard  pressed  by 
Rezin  arid  Pekah,  who  had  combined  to  over- 
throw the  house  of  Judah.  He  called  to  Tiglath- 
Pileser  for  aid,  with  the  result  that  Syria  became 
an  Assyrian  province,  the  tribes  beyond  the 
Jordan  were  carried  into  captivity,  and  Damas- 
cus destroyed.  Ahaz  attended  when  all  the 
defeated  kings  and  princes  were  doing  homage 
to  the  conqueror  (2  K.  16.10). 

The  next  great  Assyrian  monarch  was  Sargon 
(who  was  the  successor  to  Shalmaneser  iv.), 
whose  empire,  at  the  height  of  his  power, 
reached  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Persian 
Gulf,  local  kings  paying  tribute  and  doing 
homage.  Sargon  overran  Palestine,  captured 
Jerusalem,  and  burnt  Ashdod  (Isai.  20.1). 
Sargon  was  murdered,  and  succeeded  by  his  son 
Sennacherib.  [SAEGON,  HEZEKIAH.] 

Sennacherib  was  chiefly  occupied  in  retaining 
possession  of  the  territories  acquired  by  his 
predecessors.  We  have  a  long  inscription  of 
his  doings  against  Ilezekiah,  but  nothing  about 
the  disaster  which  befell  his  army  before  Jeru- 
salem (2  K.  19),  a  blow  so  severe  that  he  never 
recovered  from  it,  though  he  was  able  once 
more  to  recapture  revolted  Babylon,  and  give 
it  up  to  fire  and  sword.  In  681  B.C.  he  was 
murdered  by  his  two  elder  sons. 

Esar-haddon  had  to  fight  his  brothers  for 
the  throne.  He  was  a  military  genius,  though 
not  so  ruthless  as  his  predecessors.  He  con- 
quered Egypt,  rebuilt  Babylon,  whence 
Manasseh  (which  see)  of  Judah  was  brought  to 
him  a  prisoner  (2  Ch.  33.11).  He  occupied  the 
border  of  Media,  and  the  island  of  Cyprus  paid 
him  tribute. 

Assur-bani-pal  is  probably  the  "  great  and 
noble"  Asnapper  of  Ezra  4.10.  He  was 


ASSYRIA,  ASSHUR] 


41 


[ASSYRIA,  ASSHUR 


luxurious  in  his  habits,  fond  of  literature,  and 
left  the  conduct  of  his  troops  to  generals,  who 
extended  the  empire  to  its  widest  limits.  But 
a  rebellion,  headed  by  his  brother  (652  B.C.), 
ended  in  the  loss  of  Egypt  and  the  semi-in- 
dependence of  Babylonia,  the  governors  of 
which  acted  rather  as  sovereigns  than  viceroys, 
until  Nebopolassar  and  Nebuchadnezzar  (which 
see)  threw  off  all  semblance  of  submission. 
[BABYLON.] 

The  last  Assyrian  king,  Esar-haddon  u.,  saw 
his  empire  melt  away  until  the  doom,  pro- 
nounced so  long  before  by  God's  prophets 
against  Nineveh,  became  a  fact. 

Religion. — The  Assyrian  gods  were  of  Baby- 
lonish origin.  The  Accadians  believed  that 
every  object  and  phenomenon  of  Nature  had 
its  spirit,  nearly  always  malevolent,  and  only 
to  be  appeased  by  charm  and  exorcism,  the 
knowledge  of  which  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
priests,  so  that  priest  and  magician  were  almost 
synonymous  terms.  The  greater  gods  were 
Anu,  "  the  sky  "  ;  Bel,  "  the  earth  "  ;  Ea, 
"  the  deep."  Then  there  were  in  order  of  rank, 
the  moon-god,  the  sun-god,  the  evening  star, 
and  other  planets.  Later,  however,  the  sun- 
god  took  highest  rank,  and  was  addressed  as 
Bel  or  Baal,  the  supreme  "  lord."  Bettis,  or 
Bilat,  his  wife,  was  the  feminine  complement 
of  Bel  [ASHTOBETH].  Merodach  was  likewise 
known  as  Bel,  the  offspring  of  Sar  and  Kisar, 
the  upper  and  lower  firmaments.  Merodach 
was  a  beneficent  god,  ever  engaged  in  com- 
bating the  powers  of  evil.  Nebo  was  his  son, 
and  the  god  of  literature,  the  inventor  of  the 
cuneiform  writing.  His  worship  was  carried 
as  far  as  Canaan  [NEBO,  Ezra  2.29 ;  MOUNT 
NEBO,  Lent.  32.49]. 

Rimmon,  "  the  thunderer,"  was  the  god  of 
rain  and  storm,  armed  with  lightning.  Istar 
(Ashtoreth),  "  the  queen  of  heaven,"  was  adored 
under  many  titles  and  forms.  She  was  also 
the  Astarte  and  Aphrodite  of  the  Greeks.  Two 
other  principal  deities  were  Nergal  and  Adar, 
the  latter  being  the  god  referred  to  in  2  K.  17.31, 
under  the  name  of  Adram-melech,"  king  Adar." 

Both  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians  possessed 
a  liturgy,  containing  services  for  particular 
days  arid  seasons,  one  of  the  most  curious 
things  in  this  "  Prayer-book  "  being  a  prayer 
after  a  bad  dream.  They  also  possessed  a 
collection  of  penitential  psalms.  Fast  days 
were  observed,  and  days  of  humiliation 
for  times  of  national  disaster.  The  very  name 
Sabattu  was  employed  by  the  Assyrians, 
who  called  it  "  a  day  of  rest  for  the  heart," 
"  a  day  of  completion  of  labour." 

They  believed  in  a  future  life.  Hades,  the 
land  of  the  dead,  was  a  place  of  gloom  and 
darkness,  where  the  spirits  of  the  dead  flitted 
like  bats,  with  dust  for  their  food,  until  they 
had  drunk  of  the  waters  of  life,  which  bubbled 
from  the  golden  throne  of  Allat,  the  queen  of 
the  under  world,  when  they  were  restored  to 
life  and  the  upper  air. 

Assyrian  religion  arid   mythology   were    in- 


extricably mixed  together.  There  was  more 
than  one  legend  of  the  creation,  one  bearing  a 
remarkable  resemblance  to  that  in  Genesis. 
The  story  of  the  Deluge  was  a  favourite  theme 
among  the  Babylonians.  [BABYLONIA.] 

There  were  great  contrasts  in  Assyrian  religion. 
They  were  grossly  polytheistic,  having  hundreds 
of  gods,  and  even  worshipping  deified  spirits  of 
men.  Yet  there  was  a  strong  tendency  to 
monotheism,  the  supreme  god  being  Assur. 
The  Assyrian  confessed  his  sins  to  his  gods,  and 
begged  for  pardon  and  help,  yet  his  worship 
was  stained  with  the  foulest  excesses,  though 
the  higher  minds  struggled  towards  the  con- 
ception of  one  supreme  God. 

Art,  Literature,  Science, — Assyrian  palaces 
and  temples  were  built  of  brick  (a  practice 
copied  from  Babylon),  and  lined  with  sculptured 
slabs  of  alabaster.  (For  particulars  see  NINEVEH, 
etc.)  The  palaces  were  of  one  story,  built 
on  terraces,  and  surrounded  by  gardens  or 
parks. 

Sculpture  was  generally  in  relief,  figures 
being  drawn  in  profile,  and  often  showing  great 
spirit.  The  Assyrians  were  clever  carvers  in 
ivory,  and  the  richly  engraved  backgrounds 
of  their  sculptures  repeat  the  minute  and 
exact  work  found  on  the  ivory.  The  sculptures 
were  generally  richly,  if  crudely,  coloured  in  red, 
black,  blue,  and  white  tints. 

Literature  consisted  chiefly  of  translations 
from  Accadian  originals,  written  in  the  cunei- 
form character  on  clay  and  stone  (WRITING, 
BABYLON),  though  papyrus  was  used  as  well. 
Education  was  widely  spread,  and  there  seemed 
to  be  few  who  could  not  read  and  write  the 
simplified  script  in  use  for  all  ordinary  purposes. 
The  clay  books  were  small,  and  the  writing 
sometimes  so  minute  that  it  was  done  with 
the  aid  of  magnifying  lenses  of  crystal,  one  of 
which  has  been  found  on  the  site  of  the  library 
of  Nineveh.  All  the  great  cities  of  the  empire 
had  libraries,  which  afforded  occupation  to  a 
large  number  of  scribes.  In  later  time-! 
Aramaic  was  the  common  language  of  com- 
merce and  diplomacy,  a  fact  that  explains 
how  it  was  that  the  Jews,  after  the  Babylonish 
captivity,  gave  up  their  own  language  in 
favour  of  Aramaic,  a  tongue  that  was  known 
and  taught  all  over  the  neighbouring  countries. 

The  Assyrians  were  great  believers  in  astrology, 
and  many  were  skilled  astronomers.  These 
produced  an  original  work  on  astronomy  of 
seventy- two  books  in  3800  B.C.  A  longer  work 
on  omens  (one  hundred  and  thirty-seven  books) 
was  compiled  for  Sargon  i.  Treatises  on  agricul- 
ture, poems,  psalms,  and  songs  have  been  found 
in  the  library  of  Nineveh,  as  well  as  contracts 
and  other  trading  documents.  Mathematics 
and  medicine  were  well  advanced. 

Dress,  etc. — The  Assyrian  dress  differed  little 
from  that  of  the  Oriental  of  to-day  (DRESS). 
The  king's  tiara  resembled  the  triple  tiara  of 
the  Pope,  and  his  robe  was  richly  embroidered 
and  fringed.  The  dress  of  the  common  people 
was  simple,  consisting  of  a  tunic,  or  jacket 


ASSYEIA,   ASSHUE] 


[ASTAETE 


The  soldiers  in  addition  wore  kilts  and  sandals, 
the  cavalry  boots.  [SHOES,  ARMS,  ARMOUR.] 

The  Assyrians  made  use  of  tables,  chairs,  and 
couches.  They  were  fond  of  good  food,  though 
the  common  people  lived  mostly  on  bread, 
fruit,  and  vegetables.  Wine  was  widely  drunk. 
It  was  made  from  grapes,  grown  ne*r  Damascus, 
and  from  dates.  Beer,  milk,  ci<?am,  butter, 
and  oil  were  all  much  used. 

Polygamy  was  permitted,  though  ^»ot  general, 
and  slaves  were  plentiful,  being  provided  from 
the  captives  of  the  army.  A  camet  was  worth 
half  a  shekel  of  silver,  but  a  slave  much  less. 
Wives  could  sometimes  be  bought. 

Trade. — The  Assyrians  were  great  traders, 
and  their  monarchs  went  to  war  to  secure  the 
commerce  of  the  world  to  themselves.  The 
contract  tablets  that  have  been  found  in  such 
abundance  have  to  do  with  the  sale  and  lease 
of  houses,  slaves,  and  other  property,  and  also 
the  amount  of  interest  for  loans,  often  as  low 
as  four  per  cent.  All  these  deeds  were  attested 
by  witnesses,  who  used  seals  or  their  nail- 
marks.  The  document  was  then  enclosed  in  an 
outer  covering  of  clay.  Until  the  time  of 
Nebuchadnezzar  payments  were  by  weight,  as 
there  was  no  coinage  until  his  reign. 

For  more  of  detail  see  the  Assyrian  monarchs 
under  their  names,  also  the  various  towns, 
rivers,  etc. 

The  chief  references  to  Assyria  are  as  follows : — 
Famous  for  fertility  (2  K.  18.32 ;  Isai.  36.17) ; 
for  commerce  (Ezek.  27.23,  24) ;  idolatrous 
(2  K.  19.37) ;  oppressive  (Isai.  52.4) ;  instru- 
ment of  Divine  anger  (Isai.  10.5) ;  alliance 
therewith  condemned  (Jer.  2.18-36;  Ezek. 
16.28,  23  ;  Eos.  5.13,  7.11,  8.9) ;  impotent  to 
avert  Divine  judgments  (Eos.  5.13,  10.6,  14.3); 
fall  foretold  (Isai.  10.5-19;  Ezek.  31.3-17; 
Nah;  Zeph.  2.13-15).  Referred  to  in  Gen. 
2.14,  25.18)  ;  and  by  Balaam  (Num. 
24.22-24).  Shalmaneser's  march  of  conquest 
opposed  by  Hazael  and  Benhadad,  kings  of 
Damascus ;  Jehu,  king  of  Israel,  made  tri- 
butary ;  Menahem  made  tributary  by  Pul 
(2  K.  15.19) ;  tribes  east  of  Jordan  and  some 
of  northern  Israelites  carried  away  captive 
(2  K.  15.29;  1  Ch.  5.26).  Tiglath-pileser 
requested  by  Ahaz,  king  of  Judah,  to  aid  him 
against  Israel  (2  K.  16.7-10  ;  2  Ch.  28.16-21) ; 
Tiglath-pileser  refused,  but  took  Damascus  and 
destroyed  the  kingdom  of  Syria  (2  K.  16.9), 
as  foretold  (Isai.  8.4  ;  Amos  1.5).  Shalmaneser 
ii.  subdued  Hoshea,  king  of  Israel,  and  made 
him  tributary  ;  on  his  revolt,  after  three  years' 
siege  of  Samaria,  Sargon  carried  Israel  into 
captivity  (2  K.  17.3-6,  18.9-11),  as  foretold 
(Eos.  9.3,  10.6,  11.5).  In  Sargon's  reign  the 
Tartan,  or  general,  successfully  attacked 
Ashdod,  Egypt,  and  Ethiopia  (Isai.  20.1-4; 
Nah.  3.8-10) ;  and  (probably)  overran  Judah 
(see  Isai.  10.5-34,  22.1-14).  Under  Sen- 
nacherib, Hezekiah,  king  of  Judah,  refused 
tribute  (2  K.  18.7) ;  but  on  a  renewed  Assyrian 
invasion  submitted  (2  K.  18.14-16) ;  Jerusalem 
nevertheless  invested,  but  its  overthrow  averted 


by  the  rumour  of  the  approach  of  the  king  of 
Ethiopia,  and  by  destruction  of  a  great  part  of 
the  Assyrian  army  (2  K.  18.17-37,  19;  2  Ch. 
32.1-22  ;  Isai.  36  and  37) ;  Sennacherib  returned 
to  Nineveh,  where  he  was  killed  by  his  sons 
(2  K.  19.36,  37  ;  Isai.  37.37,  38).  Under 
Esarhaddon  (reigning  at  Babylon)  Manasseh, 
king  of  Judah,  was  taken  to  Babylon,  but 
ultimately  restored  to  his  throne  (2  Ch.  33.11- 
13) ;  idolatrous  colonists  from  distant  pro- 
vinces were  settled  in  Samaria  (2  K.  17.24  29  ; 
Ezra  4.2,  9, 10).  Return  of  Israel  from  Assyria 
foretold  (Isai.  27.13 ;  Eos.  11.11  ;  Zech.  10.10). 
Many  Biblical  names  occur  in  inscriptions  on 
remains  found  on  site  of  Nineveh,  among  others 
those  of  the  Jewish  kings  Jehu,  Menahem,  and 
Hezekiah. 
Astar'oth  (R.V.  Ashtaroth).  —  Deut.  1.4. 

[ASHTAROTH,  ASHTEBOTH-KABNAIM.] 

Astrologer.— The  practice  of  foretelling 
future  events  from  the  aspects,  influences,  and 
positions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  found  much 
favour  among  the  ancients,  with  perhaps  the 
exception  of  the  Hebrews.  The  word  is  com- 
pounded of  Aster  (a  star)  and  Logos  (a  word  or 
discourse).  Though  there  was  much  of  knavery 
and  quackery  amongst  the  astrologers,  especially 
when  they  pretended  to  forecast  the  future  from 
an  observation  of  the  stars,  which  they  supposed 
had  an  influence  upon  the  affairs  of  men,  yet 
they  have  transmitted  much  useful  knowledge 
to  later  centuries,  and  were  the  founders  of  the 
modern  science  of  astronomy. 

An  evidence  that  an  attempt  was  made  at  a 
very  early  period  to  regulate  the  year  by  the 
annual  revolution  of  the  sun  is  shown  in  the 
fact  that  the  Jewish  months  were  divided  into 
thirty  days  each  (Gen.  7.11,  8.4).  In  astronomy 
the  Egyptians,  Babylonians,  and  Phoenicians 
exhibited  great  superiority.  We  are  informed 
there  were  magicians  or  enchanters  in  Egypt 
(Er.  7.11 ;  Lev.  19.31,  20.27  ;  Deut.  18.20),  who 
computed  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon,  and 
pretended  to  the  people  that  they  produced 
them  by  enchantment.  Some  of  the  constella- 
tions are  mentioned  in  Job  (9.9,  38.31,  32), 
in  Isai.  (13.10),  in  Amos  (5.8) ;  and  in  2  K. 
(23.5). 

It  is  by  no  means  a  matter  of  wonder  that  the 
Hebrews  did  not  devote  greater  attention  to 
astronomy,  since  the  study  of  astrology,  which 
was  very  highly  developed  among  the  heathen, 
was  interdicted  to  them  (Lev.  20.27;  Deut. 
18.10;  Isai.  47.9;  Jer.  27.9  ;  Dan.  2.13,48). 
Daniel  indeed  studied  the  art  of  astrology  at 
Babylon,  but  he  did  not  practise  it  (Dan.  1.20 
2.2).  The  astrologers  (the  "  wise  men," 
"  Magi,"  of  Matt.  2,  were  such)  divided  the 
heavens  into  apartments  or  habitations,  to 
each  one  of  which  divisions  they  assigned  a 
ruler  or  president.  This  fact  may  perhaps 
explain  the  origin  of  the  word  Beelzebub,  or 
the  lord  of  the  (celestial)  dwelling  (Matt.  10.25, 
12.24-27;  Mk.  3.22;  Lk.  11.15-19).  [MAOi, 
SORCERERS,  WISE  MEN  OP  THE  EAST.] 

Astar'te. — [ASHTORETH.] 


ASUPPIM,  HOUSE  OF] 


[ATONEMENT,  THE  DAY  OF 


Asnp'pim,  House  of. — H.V.  The  storehouse :  it 
was  the  name  given  to  certain  store-chambers, 
probably  of  precious  things,  in  the  outer  court 
of  the  Temple  near  the  southern  gate  (1  Ch. 
26.15,  17). 

Asyn'critus. — Incomparable  :  a  Christian  at 
Rome,  saluted  by  Paul  (Rom.  16.14). 

A'tad. — Thorn  :    a   spot  beyond   Jordan  at 

'  which  Joseph  and  his  brethren,  on  their  way 

from  Egypt  to  Hebron,  made  their  seven  days' 

great  and  very  sore  mourning  over  the  body  of 

Jacob  (Gen.  50.10,  11).     [ABEL-MIZRAIM.] 

Ata'rah. — Crown:  wife  of  Jerahmeel,  and 
mother  of  Onam  (1  Ch.  2.26). 

Ata'roth. — Crowns :  the  name  of  several 
places  in  Palestine  :  1.  One  of  the  towns  in  the 
"  land  of  Jazer  and  land  of  Gilead,"  built  by 
the  tribe  of  Gad  (Num.  32.3  and  34).  2.  A  place 
on  the  south  boundary  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh 
(Josh.  16.7).  3.  Ataroth-Adar  or  Ataroth- 
Addar  ( Josh.  16.2, 5,  18.13),  on  the  west  border 
of  Benjamin.  4.  Ataroth,  the  house  of  Joab 
(1  Ch.  2.54). 

A'ter. — Bound :  1.  A  family  of  gate-keepers  of 
the  Temple  who  returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
2.42).  2.  Ancestor  of  a  family  who  came  up 
with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.16  ;  Neh.  7.21),  and 
who  signed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh. 
10.17). 

Ath'ach. — One  of  the  towns  in  the  south  of 
Judah.  One  of  David's  haunts,  to  which  David 
sent  a  portion  of  the  Amalekite  spoil  (1  Sam. 
30.30). 

Athii'ah. — A  descendant  of  Pharez,  who 
dwelt  at  Jerusalem  after  the  return  (Neh.  11.4). 
He  appears  as  Uthai  in  1  Ch.  9.4. 

Athali'ah.— Jah  is  great :  1.  Daughter  of 
Ahab  and  Jezebel,  who  married  Jehoram,  son  of 
Jehoshaphat,  king  of  Judah,  and  introduced 
into  the  south  kingdom  the  worship  of  Baal, 
which  had  already  overspread  Israel.  After 
the  accession  of  Jehu  to  the  throne  of  Samaria, 
she  killed  all  the  members  (save  one)  of  the  royal 
family  of  Judah  who  had  escaped  his  sword 
(2  K.  10.14).  That  one  was  an  infant  named 
Joash,  the  youngest  son  of  Ahaziah,  who  was 
rescued  by  his  aunt  Jehosheba,  daughter  of 
Jehoram  (probably  by  another  wife  than 
Athaliah),  who  had  married  Jehoiada  (2  Ch. 
22.11),  the  high  priest  (2  Ch.  22.11).  The  child 
was  brought  up  under  Jehoiada's  care,  and 
concealed  in  the  Temple  for  six  years,  during 
which  period  Athaliah  reigned  over  Judah. 
But  at  the  end  of  that  time  Jehoiada  produced 
to  the  people  their  lawful  king,  and  in  "the  house 
of  the  Lord  "  he  received  the  allegiance  of  the 
soldiers  of  the  guard.  On  the  Sabbath  day  a 
third  of  these  troops  did  duty  at  the  palace,  and 
the  remaining  two-thirds  restrained  the  crowd 
of  visitors  and  worshippers  who  thronged  the 
Temple.  The  Sabbath  day,  therefore,  was 
chosen  for  the  execution  of  the  design. 
Athaliah,  who  did  not  worship  in  the  house  of 
the  Lord,  was  first  roused  to  a  sense  of  her 
danger  by  the  shouts  and  music  which  accom- 
panied the  inauguration  of  her  grandson.  She 


arrived  on  the  scene  too  late,  and  was 
immediately  put  to  death  by  Jehoiada's  com- 
mand without  "  the  house  of  the  Lord  "  (2  £.11). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  a  son  of  Jeroham  (1  Ch.  8.26). 

3.  The  father  of  Jeshaiah  (Ezra  8.7). 
Atharim(R.V.)(ATttm.  21.1).— (?)  Tracks,  the 

caravan  route.  The  A.V.  translates  it  "the 
spies."  It  is  perhaps  the  way  going  up 
to  Hormah  (Num.  13.21-25). 

Athe'nians.— The  people  of  Athens  (Acts 
17.21). 

Ath'ens. — The  most  celebrated  city  of  ancient 
Greece.  St.  Paul  visited  it  in  his  journey  from 
Macedonia,  and  appears  to  have  remained  there 
some  time  (Acts  17).  In  his  days  Athens  was 
a  free  city  (i.e.  free  from  paying  tribute),  of  the 
Roman  province  of  Achaia.  During  St.  Paul's 
residence  there  he  delivered  his  memorable  dis- 
course on  or  before  the  Areopagus  (which  see) 
to  the  men  of  Athens.  The  remark  of  the  sacred 
historian  respecting  the  inquisitive  character 
of  the  Athenians  (Acts  17.21)  is  borne  out  by 
many  other  writers.  The  great  Athenian 
orator,  Demosthenes,  rebukes  his  countrymen 
for  their  love  of  constantly  going  about  in  the 
market  and  asking  one  another,  What  news  ? 
Their  natural  liveliness  was  partly  owing  to  the 
purity  and  clearness  of  the  atmosphere,  which 
also  allowed  them  to  pass  much  of  their  time 
in  the  open  air.  The  people,  as  St.  Paul  remarks, 
were  somewhat  superstitious  ;  and  the  city  was 
crowded  in  every  direction  with  temples,  altars, 
and  other  sacred  buildings.  [Tns  '  UNKNOWN 
GOD."] 

St.  Paul  disputed  with  the  Jews  in  a  synagogue 
of  the  city  (Acts  17.17).  Of  the  Christian 
Church  founded  by  the  apostle  in  Athens  we 
have  no  particulars  in  the  N.T.,  but  according 
to  tradition,  Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  who  was 
converted  by  the  preaching  of  St.  Paul,  was  the 
first  bishop  of  the  Church. 

Ath'lai. — One  of  the  sons  of  Bebai,  who 
married  a  strange  woman,  but  put  her  away 
at  the  bidding  of  Ezra  (Ezra  10.28). 

Atonement,  The  Day  of.— The  great  day  of 
national  humiliation  among  the  children  of 
Israel.  The  mode  of  its  observance  is  de- 
scribed in  Lev.  16.  The  victims  offered  are 
enumerated  in  Num.  29.7-11,  and  the  conduct 
of  the  people  is  emphatically  enjoined  in  Lev. 
23.26-32  and  Num.  29.7-11.  It  was  kept  on 
the  tenth  day  of  the  seventh  month,  five  days 
before  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  [FEASTS]. 
It  was  only  on  the  Day  of  Atonement  that  the 
high  priest  was  permitted  to  enter  into  the 
holy  of  holies.  A  significant  part  of  the 
ceremony  consisted  in  the  presentation  of 
two  goats  before  the  Lord  at  the  door  of  the 
Tabernacle.  Lots  were  cast ;  one  of  the  goats 
was  slain,  and  its  blood  sprinkled  before  the 
mercy-seat ;  the  other  goat,  the  scapegoat,  was 
led  away  to  the  wilderness.  But  before  that, 
according  to  theMishna,  the  high  priest  uttered 
the  following  prayer  over  its  head  :  "  0  Lord, 
I  have  committed,  trespassed,  and  sinned 
before  The«,  I  and  my  house  and  the  sons  of 


ATROTE] 


44 


[AZANIAH 


Aaron,  Thy  holy  people.  I  beseech  Thee,  O 
Lord,  forgive  now  their  trespasses,  rebellions, 
and  sins  which  I  have  committed,  trespassed, 
and  sinned  before  Thee,  I  and  my  house  and  (he 
sons  of  Aaron,  Thy  holy  people,  as  it  is  written 
in  the  law  of  Moses,  Thy  servant,  saying  'in 
that  day  there  shall  be  an  atonement  for  you 
to  cleanse  you,  that  ye  may  be  clean  from  all 
your  sins  before  the  Lord.'  "  In  the  law  itself 
no  express  mention  is  made  of  abstinence  from 
food  ;  but  fasting  is  most  likely  implied  in  the 
command  that  the  people  were  "  to  afflict  their 
souls."  In  later  days,  in  the  time  of  the  second 
Temple,  every  Jew  (except  invalids  and  children 
under  thirteen  years  of  age)  was  forbidden  to 
eat  anything  so  large  as  a  date,  to  drink,  or  to 
wash,  from  sunset  to  sunset. 

The  goat  which  was  slain  was  "  for  Jehovah," 
and  the  other  one  which  was  led  away  was  "  for 
Azazel"  (margin  of  Lev.  16.8).  There  has  been 
much  discussion  as  to  the  interpretation  of 
Azazel  (which  see),  but  it  is  clear  that,  in  this 
symbolic  act,  the  sins  of  the  people  were  banished 
into  the  wilderness.  The  peculiar  atoning  virtue 
of  the  day  was  symbolised  in  the  scapegoat. 
Further,  the  white  garments  of  the  high  priest 
and  his  entrance  into  the  Holy  of  Holies  have  a 
deep  evangelical  significance,  which  is  brought 
out  by  the  writer  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
(Heb.  9.7-28).  The  high  priest,  with  his  person 
cleansed  and  dressed  in  white  garments,  was 
himself  the  best  outward  type  which  a  holy 
man  could  present  in  his  own  person  of  that 
pure  and  holy  One  who  was  to  purify  His 
people  and  to  cleanse  them  from  their  sins. 
The  sins  were  laid,  symbolically,  on  the  back 
of  the  goat,  just  as,  in  days  to  come,  they  were 
to  be  laid  in  fact  and  reality  upon  Christ. 

At'roth  (R.V.  Atroth-Shophan).— A  city  of  Gad 
(Num.  32.35).  [ATAROTH,  SHOPHAN.] 

At'tai. — Reasonable :  1.  Grandson  of  Sheshan 
the  Jerahmeelite  (1  Ch.  2.35,  36).  His  grand- 
son, Zabad,  was  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(1  Ch.  11.41).  2.  One  of  the  lion-faced  warriors 
of  Gad,  captains  of  the  host.  He  forded  the 
swollen  Jordan  to  join  David  in  the  wilderness 
(1  Ch.  12.11).  3.  Second  son  of  king  Rehoboam 
(2  Ch.  11.20),  and  grandson  of  Solomon. 

Attali'a. — A  coast-town  of  Pamphylia  men- 
tioned in  the  N.T.  (Acts  14.25),  as  the  place  from 
which  Paul  and  Barnabas  sailed  on  their  return 
to  Antioch  from  their  missionary  journey. 
It  is  now  called  Adalia,  and  sometimes  Antalia. 
It  occupies  a  fine  site,  and  is  the  chief  port  on  the 
south  coast  of  Asia  Minor.  It  was  built  origin- 
ally by  Attalus,  king  of  Pergamos,  as  a  port 
for  the  trade  of  Egypt  and  Syria. 

Augury. — [DIVINATION.]  ' 

Augustus. — The  name  occurs  thrice  in  the 
N.T.  "  There  went  out  a  decree  from  Caesar 
Augustus,  that  all  the  world  should  be  taxed 
IOT  enrolled) "  (Lk.  2.1).  Augustus  here 
designates  Octavian.  the  grand-nephew  of 
Julius  Caesar,  who,  after  a  considerable  amount 
of  struggle  and  fighting,  became  emperor  of 
Rome  in  29  B.C.  He  was  the  first  of  the 


emperors  to  bear  the  name  Augustus,  which 
was  conferred  upon  him  by  the  Senate,  27  B.C., 
to  imply  that  he  was  worthy  of  religious  ven- 
eration. In  the  other  two  passages  (Acts  25.21, 
25)  Augustus  simply  signifies  the  emperor,  who 
was  at  that  time  Nero  (R.V.  "  the  emperor  "). 

Augustus'  Band  (R.V.  Augustan  Band).— 
Roman  soldiers  (Acts  27.1).  [ARMY.] 

Authorised  Version.— [VERSIONS.] 

A'va  (R.V.  Awa). — A  place  in  Assyria,  on 
the  Euphrates,  from  which  colonies  were  brought 
to  re-people  Samaria  after  the  Jews  had  been 
carried  into  captivity  (2  K.  17.24).  Probably 
the  same  as  Ivah  (R.V.  Ivvah),  18.34. 

A'ven.—  Nothingness :  l.The  "  plain  of  Aven  " 
is  mentioned  by  Amos  (1.5)  in  his  denunciation 
of  Aram  (Syria),  and  the  country  to  the  north 
of  Palestine.  It  has  been  identified  with  the 
great  plain  of  Lebanon,  Coelesyria,  in  which 
the  renowned  idol  temple  of  Baalbek  or 
Heliopolis  was  situated.  2.  Town  of  Samaria,  a 
contraction  of  Beth-aven,  that  is,  Bethel  (Eos. 
10.8).  3.  Identical  with  On,  Beth-shemesh, 
or  Heliopolis,  the  sacred  city  of  Egypt  (Ezek. 
30.17). 

Avenger  of  Blood.— [BLOOD.]  (See  Deut. 
19.6.) 

A'vim,  Av'vim,  A'vites  (R.V.  Awites). 
— 1.  An  early  people  among  the  inhabitants  of 
Palestine.  They  dwelt  in  villages  or  nomad 
encampments  in  the  south  part  of  the  Shefela,  or 
great  western  lowland,  as  far  as  Gaza.  In 
these  rich  possessions  they  were  attacked  by  the 
invading  Philistines,  "  the  Caphtorim  which 
came  forth  out  of  Caphtor,"  who  destroyed 
them  and  dwelt  in  their  stead  (Deut.  2.23).  The 
remnant  of  them  is  spoken  of  in  Josh.  13.3,4  as 
dwelling  south  of  the  Philistines.  They  have 
been  identified  with  the  Hivites  (which  see). 
2.  The  inhabitants  of  AVA  (2  K.  17.31). 

A'vith.— Ruins  :  the  chief  city  of  Hadad  ben- 
Bedad,  one  of  the  kings  of  Edom  before  there 
were  kings  in  Israel  (Gen.  36.35  ;  1  Ch.  1.46). 

Aul. — The  form  of  this  instrument  is  not 
known,  but  that  it  was  similar  to  our  brad -awl  is 
evident  from  the  use  made  of  it  in  Ex.  21.6  ; 
Deut.  15.17.  [BOND-SERVANT.] 

Axe. — Several  varieties  of  this  article  are 
mentioned  in  the  Bible.  One  variety  consisted 
of  a  head  of  iron  fastened  with  thongs  upon  a 
handle  of  wood  (Deut.  19.5  ;  2  K.  6.5),  liable  to 
slip  off.  Another  variety  seems  to  be  of  the 
pickaxe  order  (Ex.  20.25 ;  Ezek.  26.9).  The 
instrument  referred  to  in  the  margin  of  Isai. 
44.12,  and  in  Jer.  10.3,  seems  to  have  been  a 
curved  knife  or  bill,  used  both  by  the  ironsmith 
and  the  carpenter.  The  "  battle-axe  "  of  Jer. 
51.20  was  probably  a  heavy  mace  or  maul. 

A'zal  (R.V.  Azel).— Declivity,  slope:  the 
limit  to  which  the  ravine  or  cleft  of  the  Mount 
of  Olives  will  extend  when  Jehovah  shall  go 
forth  to  fight  (Zech.  14.5). 

Azali'ah. — Jehovah  hath  set  apart :  the  father 
of  Shaphan,  the  scribe  under  Josiah  (2  K.  22.3  ; 
2  Ch.  34.8). 

Azani'ah.— Jehovah  hath  heard :  see  Neh.  10.9. 


AZARAEL] 


45 


[AZMAVETH 


Aza'rael. — God  is  helper  :  a  Levite  musician 
who  assisted  in  the  solemn  dedication  of  the 
wall  (Neh.  12.36). 

Aza'reel  (R.V.  Azarel). — God  is  helper  :  1.  A 
Korhite  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Ch. 
12.6).  2.  A  Levite  musician  of  the  family  of 
Heman,  in  the  time  of  David  (1  Ch.  25.18).  3. 
Son  of  Jeroham,  and  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Dan 
when  David  numbered  the  people  (1  Ch.  27.22). 
4.  One  of  the  sons  of  Bani,  who  put  away  his 
foreign  wife  (Ezra  10.41).  5.  Father  of  Amashai, 
a  priest  who  returned  from  Babylon  (Neh. 
11.13). 

Azari'ah.— Whom  Jehovah  hath  helped:  a 
common  Hebrew  name,  specially  in  the  families 
of  Eleazar.  The  following  are  among  the 
principal  persons  who  bore  the  name  :  1.  The 
high  priest  who  succeeded  his  grandfather 
Zadok  (1  K.  4.2).  He  officiated  at  the  con- 
secration of  the  Temple,  and  was  the  first  high 
priest  that  ministered  in  it. 

2.  High  priest  in  the  reigns  of  Abijah  and 
Asa  (1  Ch.  6.10,  11). 

3.  High  priest  in  the  reign  of  Uzziah,  tenth 
king  of  Judah.     The  most  memorable  event 
of  his  life  is  recorded  in  2  Ch.  26.17-20.     When 
King    Uzziah   took  it  upon   himself   to   burn 
incense  upon  the  altar  in  the  Temple,  Azariah, 
accompanied  by  eighty  of  his  brethren,  boldly 
withstood  him.     For  his  presumption  Uzziah 
was  smitten  with  leprosy.      Azariah  was  con- 
temporary with  Isaiah,  Amos,  and  Joel. 

4.  The  high  priest  in  the  days  of  Hezekiah 
(2  Ch.  31.10-13).     He  specially  interested  him- 
self in  providing  chambers  in  the  Temple   in 
which  to  store  the  tithes    and  offerings  and 
consecrated  things  for  the  use  of  the  priests  and 
Levites.  The  attendance  of  these,  and  the  main- 
tenance of  the  services,  depended  entirely  upon 
the  supply  of  such  offerings,  and  whenever  the 
people  neglected  them  the  priests  and  Levites 
were  forced    to   disperse   themselves    to    their 
villages,  and  so  the  House  of  God  was  deserted 
(Neh.  10.35-39  ;  12.27-30,  44,47). 

5.  One  of  the  leaders  of  the  children  of  the  pro- 
vince who  went  up  with  Zerubbabel  from  Babylon 
(Neh.  7.7),  elsewhere  called  Seraiah  (Ezra  2.2). 

6.  One  of  the  priests  who  repaired  a  portion 
of  the  wall  (Neh.  3.23,  24). 

7.  A  Levite  who  assisted  Ezra  in  instructing 
the  people  in  the  knowledge  of  the  law  (Neh.  8.7). 

8.  One  of  the  priests  who  sealed  the  covenant 
with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  10.2),  and  probably  the 
same  as  the  Azariah  who  assisted  in  the  dedica- 
tion of  the  city  wall  (Neh.  12.33). 

9.  A  chief  officer   of   Solomon,   the  son  of 
Nathan,  perhaps   David's  grandson  (1  K.  4.5). 

10.  Son   of   Jehoshaphat,   king    of     Judah. 
(2  Ch.  21.2). 

11.  The  original  name  of  Abed-nego  (Dan.  1), 
selected  with  Daniel  and  others  for  a  special 
service  of  Nebuchadnezzar.    He  refused  to  coun- 
tenance idolatry,  and  was  cast  with  others  into 
a  fiery  furnace,  but  was  miraculously  delivered. 

12.  The  son  of  Oded,  and  a  prophet  in  the 
days  of  king  Asa.     He  persuaded  the  king,  with 


the  people  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  to  put 
away  idolatry  and  restore  the  altar  of  the  one 
true  God  before  the  porch  of  the  Temple.  Great 
numbers  of  ^Israelites  from  the  sister  kingdom 
joined  in  the* reformation,  and  a  season  of  peace 
and  great  prosperity  ensued  (2  Ch.  15). 

13.  The  son   of   Jeroham,  and   one   of   the 
captains   of    Judah   in   the  time   of    Athaliah 
(2  Ch.  23.1). 

14.  One  of  the  captains  of  Ephraim  in  the 
reign  of  Ahaz,  who  sent  back  the  captives  and 
spoil  that  were  taken  in  the  invasion  of  Judah 
by  Pekah  (2  Ch.  28.12). 

A'zaz.— Strong :  a  Reubenite,  Bela's  father 
(1  Ch.  5.8). 

Aza'zel  [ATONEMENT,  DAT  OF].— In  the 
ritual  of  the  Day  of  Atonement  one  goat  is  for 
Jehovah  and  the  other  "  for  Azazel "  (Lev. 
16.8,  10,  26).  The  A.V.  renders  this  "  for  the 
scapegoat,"  the  R.V.  retains  the  proper  name, 
with  marg.  "  for  dismissal."  The  contrast  with 
"  for  Jehovah  "  suggests  a  personal  name  of 
some  evil  spirit  haunting  the  wilderness.  Deriva- 
tion uncertain. 

Azazi'ah. — Whom  Jehovah  hath  strengthened  : 

1.  A  Levite  appointed  to  the  musical  service 
when  the  ark  was  brought  up  from  the  house  of 
Obed-Edom  (1  Ch.  15.21).     2.  The  father  of 
Hoshea,  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  when 
David  numbered  the  people  (1  Ch.  27.20).     3. 
One  of  the  Levites  in  the  reign  of    Hezekiah 
(2  Ch.  31.13). 

Az'buk.— Pardon :  father,  or  at  least  ancestor, 
of  Nehemiah,  a  prince  of  Bethzur  (Neh.  3.16). 

Aze'kah. — A  town  of  Judah,with  independent 
villages,  lying  in  the  Shefelah  or  rich  agricultural 
plain.  Joshua's  pursuit  of  the  Canaanites  after 
the  battle  of  Beth-horon  extended  to  Azekah 
(Josh.  10.10,  11).  Between  Azekah  and 
Shochoh,  the  Philistines  encamped  before  the 
battle  in  which  Goliath  was  killed  (1  Sam.  17.1). 
It  was  among  the  cities  fortified  by  Rehoboam 
(2  Ch.  11.9),  and  is  mentioned  as  one  of  the 
places  re-occupied  by  the  Jews  after  their 
return  from  captivity  (Neh.  11.30). 

A'zel.— -Noble :  a  descendant  of  Saul  (1  Ch. 
8.37,  38  ;  9.43).  [AZAL.] 

A'zem  (R.V.  Ezem).— A  city  in  the  extreme 
south  of  Judah,  afterwards  allotted  to  Simeon 
(Josh.  15.29  ;  19.3).  In  1  Ch.  4.29,  Ezem. 

Az'gad.— God  is  strong  :  the  children  of  Azgad 
were  among  "  the  men  of  the  people  of  Israel  " 
who  returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.12  ;  Neh. 
7.17).  A  second  contingent  of  one  hundred  and 
ten,  led  by  Johanan,  returned  with  Ezra  (Ezra 
8.12).  With  the  other  heads  of  the  people  they 
joined  in  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh. 
10.15). 

Azi'el.— God  is  might :  a  Levite  in  the  choral 
service  of  the  Tabernacle  at  the  time  the  ark  was 
brought  up  from  the  house  of  Obed-Edom 
(1  Ch.  15.20).  The  name  is  a  shortened  form  of 
Jaaziel  (ver.  18). 

Azma'veth.— Death  is  strong:  1.  One  of 
David's  mighty  men  (2  Sam.  23.31 ;  1  Ch.  11.33). 

2.  A  descendant    of  Mephibosheth   or   Merib- 


AZMON] 


46 


[BAALAH 


baal  (1  Ch.  8.36).  3.  The  father  of  Jeziel  and 
Pelet,  two  of  the  skilled  slingers  and  archers  who 
joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Ch.  12.3).  4.  Overseer 
of  the  royal  treasures  in  the  reign  of  David 
(1  Ch.  27.25).  5.  A  village  lying  on  the  con- 
fine ^  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  now  Hizmeh. 
Forty-two  of  the  Beni-Azmaveth  returned 
from  the  captivity  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
2.24).  The  name  elsewhere  occurs  as  Beth- 
Azmaveth. 

Az'mon. — Fortress ;  a  place  in  the  south  of 
Judah,  near  the  torrent  of  Egypt,  not  yet 
identified  (Num.  34.4,  5  ;  Josh.  15.4) 

Az'noth-Tabor. — Ears  or  -peaks  of  Tabor  : 
two  hills  on  the  borders  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  19.34). 

A'zor. — An  ancestor  of  our  Lord  (Matt. 
1.13,  14). 

Azo'tus.— Greek  form  of  Ashdod  (which  see). 
Now  Esdud  (Acts  8.40). 

Azri'el.— God  is  helper:  1.  The  head  of  a 
family  of  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh,  east  of  the 
Jordan  (1  Ch.  5.24).  2.  Ancestor  of  Jerimoth, 
the  head  of  the  tribe  of  Naphtali  at  the  time  of 
David's  census  (1  Ch.  27.19).  3.  The  father  of 
Seraiah,  an  officer  of  Jehoiakim,  who  was  sent  to 
take  Baruch  (Jer.  36.26). 


Azri'kam. — 1.  A  son  of  Neariah,  and  de- 
scendant of  David  (1  Ch.  3.23).  2.  A  son  of 
Azel,  and  descendant  of  Saul  (1  Ch.  8.38).  3.  A 
Levite  named  in  1  Ch.  9.14  ;  Neh.  11.15.  4. 
The  governor  of  the  palace  of  king  Ahaz,  who 
was  slain  by  Zichri,  an  Ephraimite  (2  Ch. 
28.7). 

Azu'bah.— Forsaken :  1.  Wife  of  Caleb,  son 
of  Hezron  (1  Ch.  2.18,  19).  2.  Mother  of  king 
Jehoshaphat  (1  K.  22.42  ;  2  Ch.  20.31). 

A'zur  (R.V.  Assur). — Helper:  1.  A  Benjamite 
of  Gibeon,  and  father  of  Hananiah  the  false 
prophet  (Jer.  28.1).  2.  father  of  Jaazaniah, 
one  of  the  princes  of  the  people  against  whom 
Ezekiel  was  commanded  to  prophesy  (Ezek. 
11.1). 

Az'zah.— Fortified ;  i.e.  Gaza  (so  R.V.) : 
A  Philistine  city  (Deut.  2.23  ;  1  K.  4.24  ;  Jer. 
25.20). 

Az'zan.— Strong :  the  father  of  Paltiel,  a 
prince  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar,  who  assisted 
in  the  division  of  the  promised  land  (Num. 
34.26). 

Az'zur. — Helper  :  a  chief  of  the  people  who 
sealed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh. 
10.17).  [AzuR.] 


B 


Ba'al  (Ba'alim).— Lord,  Master  :  this  name 
meant  originally  lord,  or  owner,  but  was  after- 
wards used  to  denote  the  relation  of  husband  to 
wife,  and  of  the  deity  to  his  worshipper.  It  was 
never  a  proper  name  strictly,  but  was  used  of 
the  god  of  each  place,  as  Baal-Peor  (Num.  25.3). 
Hence  the  plural,  Baalim.  Compare  the  per- 
sonal names,  as  Hasdrubal,  Baal-Hanan  (1  Ch. 
27.28).  In  his  "high  places,"  Baal  was 
worshipped  as  the  male  principle,  giving 
increase  to  the  flocks  and  the  soil.  The  rites 
were  conducted  with  much  pomp  and  ceremony, 
and  included  the  offering  of  the  products  of 
nature,  incense,  burnt  sacrifices,  and  human 
victims  (Flos.  2.8;  Jer.  19.5).  His  priests 
would  upon  occasion  work  themselves  into 
frenzy,  during  which  (like  other  heathen  priests 
mentioned  by  Herodotus  and  Plutarch)  they 
would  wound  themselves  with  knives  (lj6T.18.28). 

The  worship  of  Baal  was  spread  over  a  very 
wide  area,  and  existed  from  primitive  times 
(Num.  22.41).  It  was  prevalent  among  the 
Canaanites  and  Moabites,  whence  it  spread 
to  the  Israelites.  By  Ahab's  marriage  with 
Jezebel  the  worship  of  the  Tynan  Baal  became 
the  state  religion  of  the  Ten  Tribes  until  it  was 
rooted  out  by  Jehu.  Baal- worship  never 
wholly  obliterated  the  worship  of  Jehovah.  For 
a  time  the  two  religions  were  practised  side  by 
side  ;  and  afterwards  Jehovah  became  the 
Baal  (or  Lord)  of  Canaan,  worshipped  with  the 
hideous  rites  proper  to  Baal.  Thus  it  came 
about,  as  already  noticed,  that  the  Israelites 
readily  associated  the  name  of  Baal  with  their 


own  names,  just  as  they  did  the  name  of  Jehovah 
in     such     a     name     as     Isaiah.       [!SHBAAL, 

ISHBOS7\ETH.] 

The  prophets  of  God  fought  strenuously 
against  this  debasing  and  cruel  worship.  Elijah 
succeeded  in  arousing  the  national  conscience 
against  the  practice  (1  K.  18).  Hosea  also 
denounced  it  as  pure  heathenism  ;  while  Jehu 
had  blotted  out  with  extreme  harshness  the 
Baal-worship  introduced  by  Ahab.  Even  then 
it  was  not  suppressed,  for  later  on  Josiah  was 
compelled  to  use  violent  measures  to  check  its 
revival  among  God's  chosen  people,  who  erected 
temples  to  the  false  god,  and  set  up  his  images 
and  altars  everywhere  over  the  land,  and  main- 
tained his  priests  (2  K.  23.4,  5).  His  worship 
was  at  the  high  places  (1  K.  18.20),  or  even 
the  roofs  of  houses  (Jer.  32.29). 

So  widespread  was  the  worship  of  Baal,  that 
indications  are  to  be  found  in  names  as  far  apart 
as  Babylon  (Bel  or  Belun),  the  Phoenician 
colonies  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  even,  it  is 
said,  in  our  own  country,  where  the  Druids  are 
supposed  to  have  been  his  priests. 

Ba'al.— 1.  Reubenite  (1  Ch.  5.5);  2.  Gibeonite 
(1  Ch.  8.30,  9.36). 

Ba'al.— [BAALATH-BEER.!    (1  Ch.  4.33.) 

Ba'al,  House  of  (1  K.  16.32).— The  temple  of 
Baal. 

Ba'alah. — Mistress,  possessor :  1.  A  city  in  the 
north  of  Judah,  identified  with  Kirjath-jearim 
(Josh.  15.9,10  ;  1  Ch.  13.6).  Same  as  Baale  of 
Judah  (2  Sam.  6.2).  2.  An  eminence  or  ridge 
in  the  north  of  Judah,  between  Shier  on  and 


BAALATH] 


47 


[BAASHA 


Jabneel  (Josh.  15.11).  Probably  the  same  as 
Baalah  i.  3.  A  city  in  the  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  15.29).  [BALAH.] 

Baa'Iath. — Mistress,  possessor :  1.  A  town  in 
Dan,  now  identified  in  the  modern  Belain 
(Josh.  19.44).  Perhaps  identical  with  the 
following.  2.  A  town  built  or  rebuilt  by 
Solomon,  position  not  stated  (1  K.  9.18  ;  2  Ch. 
8.6). 

Baa'lath-Beer. — Baal  of  the  well:  this  place 
was  in  the  south  of  Judah,  south  or  south-east 
of  Beersheba.  The  name  implies  that  Baal  was 
worshipped  there,  and  that  it  had  a  well.  It 
was  among  the  towns  given  to  Simeon  (Josh. 
19.8).  It  is  called  also  Baal  (1  Ch.  4.33),  and 
Rarnoth  of  the  South  (1  Sam.  30.27),  as  in  Josh. 
19.8. 

Ba'al-Be'rith.— Lord  of  the  covenant  (Judg. 
8.33,  9.4) :  a  god  worshipped  by  the  men  of 
Shechem  after  the  death  of  Joshua.  The 
temple  of  Baal-Berith  had  a  treasury  from  which 
the  citizens  made  a  contribution  to  Abimelech 
(Judg.  9.4).  How  this  god  was  worshipped  is 
not  known. 

Ba'ale  ol  Judah.  —  [KIRJATH  -  JEARIM.] 
Another  form  of  Baalah,  now  Kuriet  el-Enab 
(2  Sam.  6.2). 

Ba'al-Gad. — Lord  of  fortune  or  destiny:  the 
name  of  a  presumably  sacred  place  in  the  valley 
of  Lebanon,  on  north-west  side  of  Hermon,  the 
northern  limit  of  Joshua's  conquests  (Josh. 
11.17,  12.7, 13.5).  Some  have  identified  it  with 
Banias,  on  the  south  side.  It  is  probably  the 
Baal-Hermon  of  Judg.  3.3  ;  1  Ch.  5.23. 

Ba'al-Ha'mon.— Lord  of  multitude  (Cant. 
8.11):  possibly  a  little  north  of  Samaria, 
where  Solomon  had  a  large  vineyard. 

Ba'al-Ha'nan.— The  Lord  is  gracious  :  1.  A 
king  of  Edom  (Gen.  36.38),  though  his  city  or 
district  is  not  given.  2.  One  of  David's  super- 
intendents of  olives  and  sycamores  (1  Ch.  27.28). 
He  belonged  to  the  town  of  Gederah  (Josh.  15.36), 
and  was  a  Canaanite. 

Ba'al-Ha'zor.— Lord  of  Eazor :  Absalom  had 
sheep-shearers  here  whom  he  commanded  to 
slay  his  brother  Ammon  (2  Sam.  13.23). 

Ba'al-Her'mon. — Lord  of  Hermon  :  generally 
considered  to  be  Mount  Hermon,  which  in  Judg. 
3.3  is  the  Mount  of  Baal-Hermon.  Mount 
Hermon  had  several  names  (Deut.  3.9),  and 
Baal-Hermon  is  but  one  of  them.  Apparently 
the  mountain  is  named  after  its  special  god, 
or  its  sacred  place. 

Ba'ali.— My  Lord,  my  Master  (Eos.  2.16) : 
a  title  rejected  by  God  in  favour  of  Ishi,  which 
see. 

Ba'alim.— [BAAL.]     (Judg.  2.11.) 

Ba'alis.— (?)  Son  of  delight :  king  of  the 
Ammonites  (Jer.  40.14),  when  Jerusalem  was 
taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 

Ba'al-Me'on. — Lord  of  the  habitation :  a  town 
built  by  the  Reubenites  (Num.  32.38),  and 
now  Main.  It  lies  on  the  Moabite  plateau  about 
3000  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  5  miles  S.W. 
from  Madaba.  It  is  identified  with  Beth-Baal- 
Meon,  mentioned  in  Josh.  13.17  ;  the  Beth-Meon 


of  Jer.  48.23  ;  and  the  Beon  of  Num.  32.3.  In 
the  time  of  Ezekiel  it  was  a  place  of  importance, 
being  classed  among  those  that  were  the  "  glory 
of  the  country  "  (Ezek.  25.9). 

Ba'al-Pe'or.— Lord  of  Peor  (opening) :  a 
Moabite  god,  which  Israel  was  enticed  to  worship 
(Num.  25.3-5  ;  Deut.  4.3).  In  several  passages 
it  is  simply  written  Peor.  The  nature  of  the 
worship  of  this  god  is  unknown,  though  it  was 
connected  with  licentious  rites.  The  name 
also  occurs  in  Eos.  9.10,  as  the  name  of  the  place 
where  Israel  was  enticed. 

Ba'al-Pera'zim.— Lord  of  the  breaches :  a  place 
on  the  hills  by  the  valley  of  Rephaim.  David, 
using  the  name  "  Baal  "  of  the  true  God,  called 
the  place  thus  when  he  defeated  the  Philistines, 
and  burned  their  idols  there  (2  Sam.  5.20 ; 
1  Ch.  14.11).  Possibly  it  had  been  sacred  to 
Baal  before,  and  David  gave  the  name  a  fresh 
significance.  It  is  called  Mount  Perazim  in 
Isai.  28.21. 

Ba'al-Shali'sha.—  Lord  of  the  third  or  the 
triangle :  a  place  near  Gilgal,  in  Ephraim, 
perhaps  Kefr  Thilth.  Its  crops  ripened  early 
(2  K.  4.42).  [SHALISHA.] 

Ba'al-Ta'mar. — Lord  of  the  palm :  near 
Gibeah  (Judg.  20.33).  It  was  the  scene  of  the 
battle  between  the  Benjamites  and  the  rest  of 
the  tribes.  The  exact  spot  has  not  been  identi- 
fied. 

Ba'al-ze'bub.— Lord  of  the  fly :  a  Philistine  god 
at  Ekron.  Ahaziah  consulted  it  (2  K.  1.2). 
The  name  is  supposed  to  be  a  contemptuous 
Jewish  modification  of  Baal-zebul,  "Lord  of 
the  high  house"  (Matt.  10.25),  but  also 
"  Lord  of  the  dung-fly."  [BEELZEBUB.]  There 
is  nothing  unnatural  in  such  a  designa- 
tion, seeing  how  numerous  flies  are  in  hot 
climates,  and  that  the  Egyptians  made  a  god  of 
a  beetle. 

Ba'al-ze'phon.—  Lord  of  the  watch-tower  :  a 
place  on  the  west  shore  of  the  Red  Sea,  near 
where  the  Israelites  crossed  (Ex.  14.2-9  ;  Num. 
33.7).  [RED  SEA.] 

Ba'ana,  Ba'anah.—  Son  of  grief:  1.  Solo- 
mon's commissariat  officer  in  Jezreel  and 
the  north  of  the  Jordan  valley.  The  son  of  Ahilud 
(1  K.  4.12).  2.  Solomon's  commissariat  officer 
in  Asher  (1  K.  4.16).  3.  Father  of  Heleb,  one  of 
David's  thirty  valiant  men  (2  Sam.  23.29 ; 
1  Ch.  11.30).  4.  A  captain  of  Ishbosheth's 
army  (2  Sam.  4.2-9).  With  his  brother  he  mur- 
dered Ishbosheth,  and  was  punished  with  death 
by  David.  The  bodies  of  the  murderers  were 
hung  up  over  the  Pool  of  Hebron.  5.  The 
father  of  Zadok,  who  came  up  with  Zerubbabel, 
and  helped  to  repair  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  3.4).  Perhaps  also  Ezra  2.2.  6.  A  chief 
who  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  10.27). 

Baa'ra. — A  wife  of  Shaharaim,  a  Benjamite 
(1  Ch.  8.8). 

Baasei'ah.  —  Perhaps  =  Maaseiah.  A  Ger- 
shonite  Levite,  ancestor  of  Asaph  the  musician 
(1  Ch.  6.40). 

Baa'sha. — Meaning  unknown.  A  man  of 
very  humble  origin  "  exalted  out  of  the  dust  " 


BABEL] 


48 


[BABYLONIA 


(1  K.  16.2).  The  son  of  Ahijah,  and  a  usurper 
of  the  throne  of  Israel.  To  secure  himself  he 
caused  King  Nadab  and  all  of  the  family  of 
Jeroboam  i.  to  be  put  to  death  at  Gibbethon,  and 
so  fuiailed  the  prophecy  (1  K.  14.10).  Neglect- 
ing God's  warning  (1  K.  16.1-5),  his  reign  was 
full  of  trouble,  for  he  was  continually  at  war 
with  Judah.  In  his  reign  Benhadad,  King  of 
Syria,  captured  several  towns  in  the  north  of 
Israel,  thus  compelling  him  to  desist  from  forti- 
fying Ramah  against  Judah  (1  K.  15.20-22; 
2  Ch.  16.4,5).  Yet,  after  a  reign  of  twenty-four 
years,  he  was  one  of  the  few  kings  who  died  a 
natural  death.  He  was  buried  at  Tirzah  (1  K. 
15.2,1)  and  his  dynasty  was  extirpated  by  Zimri 
(1  K.  16.9-13). 

Ba'bel.— In  Assyrian  Bab-ilu,  Gate  of  God\ 
the  Hebrew  verb  balal  =  confound  (Gen.  10.10, 
11.9).  A  city  in  the  plain  of  Shinar,  founded 
by  Nimrod.  After  the  Flood  the  survivors  kept 
together  until  they  reached  Shinar.  Here  they 
made  bricks  and  built  a  city,  which  they  hoped 
would  become  the  centre  of  a  world  empire 
(Gen.  11).  Perhaps,  as  remembering  the  Flood, 
they  also  thought  to  provide  against  a  like 
calamity  by  building  a  very  high  tower 
(identified  with  Birs,  now  Birs  Nimrud),  but 
their  plans  were  frustrated  by  God  (Gen. 
11.5-8),  who  confounded  their  language,  and 
caused  them  to  disperse  over  the  earth.  [BABY- 
LON, BABYLONIA.] 

Bab'ylon.— The  modern  Eillah.  [BABEL.] 
The  Greek  mode  of  spelling  the  Hebrew 
Babel.  Babylon  was  the  capital  of  the  Chaldean 
kingdom  of  Babylonia.  Though  not  the 
oldest  city  of  Babylonia,  Babylon  became, 
in  time,  the  most  important,  both  in  point  of 
size  and  influence.  Situated  on  the  Euphrates, 
about  50  miles  south  of  modern  Bagdad,  in  the 
midst  of  fertile  plains,  and  within  easy  reach  of 
the  Persian  Gulf,  Babylon  was  the  centre  of  the 
commerce  of  the  ancient  world.  Though  the 
date  of  its  foundation  is  uncertain,  yet  its  con- 
nexion (Gen.  10.10)  with  Accad  and  Calneh 
implies  a  great  age,  at  least  as  early  as  3000  B.C. 

The  history  of  Babylon  is  one  long  series  of 
struggles  by  various  rulers  and  military  com- 
manders for  its  possession  and  retention.  Be- 
sieged again  and  again,  its  walls  and  its  temples 
levelled  from  time  to  time,  its  inhabitants  ruth- 
lessly slaughtered,  its  treasure  carried  off,  this 
city  of  wonderful  magnificence  rose  each  time 
from  the  dust  more  splendid  than  ever,  until,  in 
the  days  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  we  find  it  the  wonder 
of  the  world,  with  huger  buildings  and  a  vaster 
population  than  probably  any  other  city  of 
ancient  times,  and  intersected  in  every  direction 
by  canals  and  navigable  waterways.  The 
present  ruins,  all  that  remain  of  the  city,  con- 
sist of  a  large  number  of  mounds,  extending  from 
north  to  south  a  distance  of  5  miles,  and  lie 
chiefly  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river.  These 
mounds  cover  the  sites,  and  consist  of  the  re- 
mains of  the  temples  and  kings'  palaces.  The 
one  farthest  north  has  generally  been  identified 
as  the  Tower  of  Babel,  and  is  still  64  ft.  high. 


Greater  than  this  is  the  series  of  mounds  of  the 
palace.  Remains  of  walls  and  ramparts  are 
numerous,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates 
can  still  be  seen  traces  of  huge  embankments. 
It  was  Nebuchadnezzar  who  diverted  the  river, 
and  lined  its  bed  through  the  city  with  brick. 

The  city  has  been  described  by  Herodotus 
and  other  eye-witnesses ;  and,  though  their 
accounts  differ  somewhat,  yet  they  all  agree  in 
their  wonder  at  its  vast  size  and  magnificence. 
The  city  was  built  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  and 
was  enclosed  by  a  double  wall  of  defence. 
According  to  the  measurement  of  Herodotus, 
these  walls  enclosed  a  space  56  miles  in  circum- 
ference, or  200  square  miles.  Nine-tenths  of 
this  space  consisted  of  gardens,  parks,  and  fields, 
while  the  people  lived  in  houses  two,  threer 
or  four  stories  high.  The  walls  were  exceed- 
ingly high,  and  wide  enough  on  the  top  to  allow 
a  four-horse  chariot  to  turn.  Two  hundred  and 
fifty  towers  were  built  at  intervals  on  the  walls, 
which  were  pierced  in  a  hundred  places,  and 
defended  with  gates  of  brass.  Other  walls  ran 
along  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates  and  its  quays. 
Ferry-boats  crossed  the  river  between  the  gates 
on  either  side,  and  there  was  one  bridge,  a  draw- 
bridge 30  ft.  wide,  connecting  the  two  portions  of 
the  city.  The  great  palace  of  Nebuchadnezzar 
was  at  one  end  of  this  bridge,  on  the  eastern  side. 
Another  palace,  "  the  Admiration  of  Mankind," 
commenced  by  Nabopolassar,  and  finished  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  stood  on  the  other  side  and 
protected  the  great  reservoir.  Within  the  walls 
of  this  palace  rose  to  a  height  of  75  ft.  the  cele- 
brated hanging  gardens,  which  were  built  in 
the  form  of  a  square,  400  ft.  each  way,  raised  on 
arches.  The  Temple  of  Bel,  or  Tower  of  Babel, 
was  four-square,  and  was  a  pyramid  of  eight 
stages,  the  lowest  being  600  ft.  each  way.  The 
top,  on  which  stood  the  shrine  of  Bel,  was 
reached  by  an  inclined  plane.  The  shrine  con- 
tained a  golden  image  of  Bel,  40  ft.  high,  a  large 
table  of  gold,  and  many  other  colossal  objects 
in  the  same  precious  metal.  The  corners  of  this 
temple,  like  all  other  Chaldean  temples,  corre- 
sponded with  the  four  cardinal  points  of  the 
compass.  The  materials  for  the  huge  struc- 
tures, as  for  the  walls  themselves,  consisted 
of  bricks  made  from  the  mud  excavated  from 
the  moat  which  surrounded  the  whole  city. 

The  political  history  of  Babylon  is  bound  up 
in  that  of  Babylonia,  and  its  final  fall  and  ruin 
were  included  in  that  of  the  whole  country 
though  the  worship  of  Bel  was  continued  in 
some  of  the  temples  down  to  as  late  as  29  B.C., 
long  after  Babylon,  as  a  city,  had  disappeared. 
[BABYLONIA,  BABEL,  NEBUCHADNEZZAR.] 

Babylonia. — The  importance  to  the  Bible 
student  of  knowledge  of  Babylonia  is  ceen 
when  we  find  that  there  are,  in  Holy  Scripture, 
about  three  hundred  references  to  the  country 
and  its  people.  In  the  O.T.  the  Hebrew  Babel 
may  mean  either  Babylon  or  Babylonia, 
though  the  name  Shinar  is  sometimes  used  to 
define  the  whole  country.  Shinar,  indeed,  was 
the  oldest  name  of  the  country  (Gen.  10.10,11.2). 


BABYLONIA] 


49 


[BABYLONIA 


In  the  later  Scriptures,  after  the  exile,  it  is  called 
Chaldea,  or  the  land  of  the  Chasclim  (Jer.  24.5  ; 
Ezek.  12.13).  The  Babylonians  had  no  name  for 
their  country  as  a  whole,  but  spoke  of  Akkad 
or  Sumer  when  they  meant  the  northern  or 
the  southern  portions.  These  names  they  had 
adopted  from  the  previous  inhabitants. 

Physically,  Babylonia  is  a  plain,  about  400 
miles  in  length,  by  100  in  breadth.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Persian  Gulf,  on 
the  west  by  the  Arabian  Desert ;  by  the  river 
Tigris  on  the  east,  and  on  the  north  by  Assyria, 
though  after  the  rise  of  Assyria  to  power  the 
position  of  this  boundary  was  frequently 
changed.  Owing  to  a  wise  system  of  irrigation, 
by  means  of  a  network  of  canals,  the  plains  of 
Babylon  were  exceedingly  fertile.  So  fertile  was 
it  that  even  wheat  grew  without  the  aid  of  the 
husbandman,  while  the  cultivated  lands  were 
cropped  twice  in  each  year,  and  then  afforded 
pasturage  in  plenty.  In  addition  to  their 
large  crops  of  grain  and  dates,  the  wealth  of  the 
Babylonians  consisted  of  horses,  camels,  oxen, 
sheep,  and  goats.  Birds  of  many  kinds  were 
plentiful,  and  the  rivers  were  full  of  fish.  How 
thoroughly  the  prophecies  of  Scripture  have 
been  fulfilled  is  seen  to-day  in  the  condition 
of  this  once  fertile  land,  now  a  desert,  swampy 
in  places,  inhabited  by  hyenas,  lynx,  panthers, 
and  wild  boars  ;  with  its  huge  temples  and  cities, 
once  the  homes  of  mighty  conquerors,  now 
heaps  of  rubbish.  What  a  fall  for  the  "  glory 
of  kingdoms  "  (Isai.  13.19),  now  a  wilderness, 
destitute  of  inhabitants  excepting  some  wander- 
ing tribes  of  Bedouin  (Isai.  14.22). 

Babylonia  was  "  the  desert  of  the  sea  "  of 
Isaiah  (Isai.  21.1) ;  and  by  Jeremiah,  Babylon 
was  said  to  "  dwell  upon  many  waters  "  (Jer. 
51.13),  an  allusion  to  the  overflowings  of  the 
Euphrates,  as  also  to  the  numerous  canals  dug 
to  carry  of!  the  floods,  and  for  purposes  of 
transit.  These  were  "  the  rivers  of  Babylon," 
beside  which  the  children  of  Israel  "  sat  down 
and  wept"  (Ps.  137.1). 

Babylonia  was  "  a  land  of  traffic,  a  city  of 
merchants "  (Ezek.  17.4).  The  kingdom  was 
one  of  the  four  "  thrones  "  described  by  Daniel, 
and  is  set  forth  under  the  symbol  of  a  lion  with 
eagle's  wings. 

Besides  Babylon,  the  country  had  other 
considerable  cities.  One  of  the  most  important 
of  these  was  Eridu  (modern  Abu-Shahrein). 
This  port  was  on  the  Persian  Gulf,  which,  in 
those  times,  extended  130  miles  farther  north 
than  it  does  now.  This  is  due  to  the  quantity 
of  soil  and  debris  brought  down  by  the  Euphrates. 
A  little  to  the  west  of  this  modern  place,  Abu- 
Shahrein,  there  is  a  mound  marking  the  site 
of  Ur,  which  is  almost  invariably  spoken  of  in 
the  Bible  as  "  Ur  of  the  Chaldees  "  (Gen.  11.28). 
In  early  times,  not  later  than  the  reign  of 
Gudaea,  who  conquered  as  far  west  as  Palestine, 
the  kings  of  Ur  held  practically  supreme  rule 
over  Babylonia.  One  King  of  Ur,  Ur-gur, 
had  a  great  zeal  for  religion,  and  built  temples 
in  most  of  the  Babylonian  cities.  His  son, 


Dungi  (about  2600  B.C.),  known  as  "  king  of  the 
four  quarters,"  was  also  a  zealous  temple- 
builder,  as  is  shown  by  the  inscriptions  on 
tablets  now  in  the  British  Museum.  It  was 
Dungi  who  erected  a  temple  to  the  god  Nergal 
at  Cuthah,  the  modern  Tell-Ibrahim,  or  Cuth 
(2  K.  17.24),  which  was  adjacent  to  Babylon 
and  inhabited  by  a  warlike  tribe  from  Persia, 
who  were  finally  subdued  by  Alexander  the 
Great.  For  a  time  Ur  suffered  eclipse,  while 
the  kings  of  Isin  held  sway  over  Babylonia  ;  but 
presently  we  find  it  holding  its  old  supremacy 
over  all  Babylonia. 

But  the  most  important  city  of  Babylonia  was 
in  the  north,  where,  holding  her  own  inde- 
pendent way  during  the  second  dynasty  of  Ur, 
Babylon  gradually  attained  an  importance 
which  she  held  for  nearly  two  thousand  years. 
After  the  decline  of  Ur,  Babel  gradually  assumed 
a  commanding  position  in  the  "  Land  of  the 
Chaldeans,"  the  best  known  of  her  kings  at 
that  time  (about  2000  B.C.)  being  Hammurabi, 
the  Amraphel  of  Gen.  14,  until  in  1700  B.C. 
it  became  the  fixed  seat  of  government. 
[BABYLON.! 

The  Babylonians  were  a  short,  thick-set 
people,  with  a  "  Jewish  "  nose,  thick  lips,  and 
oblique  eyes.  Their  hair  was  black,  thick, 
and  curly.  In  a  country  that  had  great  trade 
with  the  neighbouring  lands,  it  was  natural 
to  find  much  splendour  both  in  dress  and 
dwelling  (Ezek.  23.15).  Spices,  ivory,  gold, 
and  gems,  metals,  wool,  and  dyes  were  easily 
obtained.  The  pearl  fisheries  of  the  Persian 
Gulf  were  even  at  this  time  most  carefully 
cultivated.  But  luxury  brought  pride  and 
idleness  (Isai.  13.1 1 ;  Jer.  50.29).  A  low  morality 
sapped  the  foundations  of  the  nation's  strength, 
and  prepared  the  way  for  the  final  overthrow. 

The  contract  tablets  show  us  that  the  Baoy- 
lonian  had  two  names,  one  an  official  and  one 
private.  When  he  died  his  body  was  generally 
burnt,  and  it  has  been  suggested  that  it  was 
in  one  of  these  funeral  furnaces  that  the  "  three 
children  "  were  cast  after  it  had  been  made 
"  seven  times  hotter "  than  usual.  On  the 
death  of  the  Babylonian  his  soul  was  said 
to  go  to  the  "  land  of  the  silver  sky,"  and 
dwelt  with  the  heroes  of  bygone  times.  Isaiah 
knew  this,  and  made  use  of  his  knowledge  when 
he  prophesied  against  Babylon  (Isai.  14.4-10)> 

The  dress  of  the  Babylonians  was  a  linen 
shirt  reaching  to  the  knee,  with  a  short  cape 
or  cloak  over  it.  They  wore  a  species  of  sandal 
with  wooden  soles,  and,  like  the  Turks,  they 
wore  turbans.  The  lower  classes  wore  nothing 
but  a  tunic,  fastened  round  with  a  belt. 

In  a  country  where  the  chief  occupation 
was  war,  we  may  expect  to  find  the  arts  of  that 
science  brought  to  great  perfection.  They  had 
swords,  bows  and  arrows,  spears,  helmets  and 
shields.  In  besieging  cities  they  used  scaling 
ladders,  and  also  undermined  walls  and  towers. 
In  open  battle  they  employed  chariots  and 
horses  (Isai.  36.8).  In  fight  they  showed  no 
mercy,  slaying  all  they  were  unable  to  carry 


BABYLONIA] 


50 


[BABYLONIA 


away.  Such  captives  were  employed  in  build- 
ing, and  there  is  no  doubt  that,  as  in  Egypt, 
the  enormous  buildings  of  Babylon  were 
largely  the  result  of  slave  labour. 

After  war,  commerce  occupied  a  large  portion 
of  the  population,  for  the  Semite  was  always 
a  trader.  In  the  British  Museum  are  the 
records  of  a  firm  of  Babylonian  traders,  by 
name  Egibi  and  Son.  The  business  of  this  firm 
was  carried  on  throughout  all  the  wars  and 
civil  commotions  which  convulsed  Babylon. 
They  bought  and  sold  land,  lent  money  or  goods 
on  interest,  and  arranged  dowries  for  unwedded 
women.  Slaves  were  bought  and  sold,  and 
sometimes  branded  with  the  owner's  name. 

The  Babylonian  language  was  Eastern 
Semitic,  almost  the  same  as  Assyrian.  The  so- 
called  Chaldaean  language,  in  which  were  written 
Dan.  2.4-7,  28  ;  Ezra  4.8  to  6.18,  7.12-16  ;  Jer. 
10.11,  is  Western  Semitic,  a  form  of  Aramaic  or 
Syriac. 

Their  peculiar  "  cuneiform "  (i.e.  wedge- 
shaped)  writing  written  from  right  to  left,  is 
based  upon  a  simple  sign  of  an  arrow  or  wedge, 
which  is  repeated  in  various  positions  in  order 
to  form  words  and  sentences.  In  the  British 
Museum  there  is  a  whole  library  of  Babylonian 
books  and  documents,  written  in  this  character. 
They  are  not  books  in  our  sense  of  the  word, 
but  the  characters  have  been  impressed  upon 
tablets  and  cylinders  of  soft  clay,  which  were 
afterwards  dried  or  burnt  hard.  Many  inscrip- 
tions, dedications  of  temples,  etc.,  have  also 
been  discovered,  finely  engraved  upon  stone. 
The  mounds  of  Babylonia,  as  they  are  excavated, 
yield  many  tablets  and  sculptures  of  great 
interest,  and  it  is  certain  that  as  more  of  the 
tablets  are  discovered  and  deciphered,  not  only 
will  a  completer  history  of  Babylonia  be  pre- 
sented to  the  world,  but  also  many  more  side- 
lights be  thrown  on  certain  parts  of  the  Bible 
narrative. 

Of  their  writings  that  have  come  down  to  us, 
the  greater  part  consist  of  business  contracts, 
but  here  and  there  are  to  be  found  both  poetical 
and  prose  works,  many  connected  with  religion. 
Some  of  the  later  kings  were  in  the  habit  of 
recording  their  building  operations  by  inscrip- 
tions upon  bowls,  cups,  or  vases.  Monuments  of 
diorite,  marble,  and  alabaster  were  sometimes 
erected,  and  closely  engraved  upon  both  sides. 
The  huge  winged  bulls  and  lions  and  their 
inscriptions  belong  to  the  Assyrian  period.  It 
is  from  these  historical  inscriptions  engraved 
upon  the  public  monuments  and  buildings 
that  the  history  of  Babylonia  has  chiefly  been 
drawn. 

The  records  of  many  of  the  later  kings  of 
Babylon  were  impressed  upon  cylinders  or 
prisms  of  clay,  some  so  minutely  written  that  it 
is  thought  magnifying  glasses  (the  Babylonians 
were  acquainted  with  glass)  must  have  been 
used  both  to  produce  and  to  read  them.  Most 
of  the  cylinders  that  have  up  to  the  present  been 
deciphered  contain  accounts  of  the  building 
operations  of  Nebuchadnezzar  n.,  who  took 


Jerusalem  captive  (2  K.  24) ;  of  the  taking  of 
Babylon  (538  B.C.)  by  Cyrus  ;  and  of  the  siege 
of  Jerusalem  by  Sennacherib  (2  K.  18, 19),  on  a 
six-sided  prism.  A  beautifully  inscribed  ten- 
sided  prism  has  also  been  discovered  written  by 
Asur-Bani-Pal  (O.T.  Asnapper,  Ezra  4.10),  who 
settled  a  population  of  troublesome  Cuthseans 
in  the  cities  of  Samaria.  He  ascended  the 
throne  in  668  B.C.  Manassch,  king  of  Judah, 
paid  tribute  to  Asur-Bani-Pal  as  the  latter  was 
marching  with  a  great  army  to  the  re-conquest 
of  Egypt.  [MANASSEH.] 

In  the  literature  of  Babylonia  we  find  what  is 
probably  the  earliest  dictionary.  It  consisted  of 
grammatical  tablets  giving  lists  of  synonymous 
words. 

It  was  long  believed  that  even  the  early 
Babylonians  had  much  knowledge  of  astronomy. 
They  knew  some  of  the  planets  ;  had  figured 
the  zodiacal  constellations  ;  had  compiled  a  list 
of  the  fixed  stars,  and  had  invented  sundials. 
They  also  knew  the  true  length  of  the  solar 
year,  and  had  formed  a  calendar  harmonising 
the  solar  and  lunar  years.  They  could  also 
calculate  eclipses.  But  recent  investigations 
reveal  little  or  no  scientific  astronomy  until 
after  747  B.C.  Their  astronomy  was  debased 
by  a  large  admixture  of  astrology,  and  their 
learned  men  were  magicians,  soothsayers, 
and  sorcerers.  Thus  it  comes  about  that 
many  fragments  of  tablets  containing  observa- 
tions and  calendars  are  of  an  astrological 
rather  than  an  astronomical  character. 

In  religion  the  Babylonians  were  nature 
worshippers.  The  four  seasons,  the  ground,  the 
sea,  the  air,  rain,  wind,  thunder  and  lightning, 
etc.,  each  was  under  the  control  of  a  separate 
deity,  sometimes  friendly,  at  other  times  hostile 
to  man.  Like  man,  these  gods  were  subject 
to  human  passions.  They  thought  as  men, 
and  they  acted  as  men  ;  consequently  they  could 
likewise  be  cajoled  or  even  intimidated.  These 
gods,  moreover,  were  not  all  equal ;  some 
were  greater  than  others,  though  no  one  of 
them  exercised  lordship  over  the  others.  Some 
were  formed  like  men,  others  part  man  and 
part  beast,  while  other  gods,  again,  were  wholly 
bestial  both  in  appearance  and  attributes.  One 
peculiarity  of  the  Babylonian  deities  was  that 
the  power  and  influence  of  the  gods  of  the  cities 
waxed  and  waned  with  the  increasing  or 
decreasing  importance  of  the  towns  themselves. 
The  greater  gods  composed  a  double  trinity 
of  deities.  At  the  head  of  all  was  Anu,  the  god 
of  heaven,  then  Bel  (Jer.  50.2,  51.44),  the  god 
of  the  earth,  and  Ea,  the  god  of  the  lower 
world  and  of  hidden  knowledge.  The  second 
triad  consisted  of  Sin,  the  moon  god  ;  Samas,  the 
sun  god ;  and  Ramman,  the  god  of  storm, 
thunder,  and  lightning.  Each  god  had  his 
own  city,  and  was  the  greatest  of  all  the  gods 
there.  The  goddesses  were  of  minor  importance, 
and  in  fact  were  but  the  spouses  of  the  gods. 
But  there  was  one  important  exception  to  this 
rule.  This  was  Is  tar,  the  Ashtaroth  of  Scripture 
(Judg.  2.13),  a  goddess  who  belonged  to  the 


BABYLONIA] 


51 


[BADGER 


" 


front  rank.  She  was  the  goddess  of  battle 
and  of  love.  In  addition  there  were  a  multitude 
("uncountable")  of  minor  gods,  and  it  is 
from  this  Babylonian  pantheon  that  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  later  on  borrowed  their  divinities. 

These  gods  and  goddesses  were  worshipped 
by  the  performance  of  much  ritual  and  ceremony. 
The  priests  not  only  conducted  the  worship  of 
the  people,  but  practically  controlled  their  whole 
lives  ;  even  the  making  and  administration  of 
the  law  were  in  their  hands.  Not  only  did  they 
perform  the  public  acts  of  worship,  but  also  the 
necessary  acts  for  the  individual  worshipper. 
When  an  illness  or  any  evil  befell  a  man,  it  was 
put  down  to  the  act  of  some  demon  or  evil  spirit, 
of  whom  the  air  was  full.  If  his  own  personal 
god  was  not  able  to  right  him  the  man  would 
then  appeal  to  one  of  the  greater  gods,  of  course 
through  the  priest.  Many  of  the  priests  were 
also  given  to  soothsaying,  which  they  considered 
and  conducted  as  a  science ;  the  study  of 
omens  was  also  a  favourite  occupation  of  the 
Babylonians.  Naturally  this  meant  frequent 
journeys  to  the  priests,  who  pretended  to 
interpret  the  omens  (Ezek.  21.21)  to  their 
deluded  followers.  As  records  were  kept  of 
the  omens,  and  the  interpretations  of  them,  in 
course  of  time  a  library  of  tablets,  carefully 
separated  into  series,  grew  in  connexion  with 
each  temple.  It  was  a  reference  library,  in  fact. 

Amongst  the  tablets  that  have  been  dug  up 
from  the  ruins  of  Babylon  are  many  containing 
legends  relating  to  the  Babylonian  mythology. 
Among  these  legends  are  some  closely  resembling 
the  Bible  narratives  of  the  creation  and  the 
deluge.  The  story  of  Sargon  of  Agade,  or 
Akkad,  after  whom  the  late  Sargon, mentioned  in 
Isai.  20.1,  was  named,  describes  his  lowly  birth, 
and  goes  on  to  say  that  his  mother  placed  him 
in  an  ark  of  reeds,  smeared  over  with  pitch, 
and  then  set  him  afloat  on  the  river  Euphrates. 
He  was  rescued,  however,  by  Akki,  who  was 
employed  upon  the  irrigation  works.  Sargon 
served  Akki  in  the  capacity  of  a  gardener, 
and  while  in  this  employment  was  seen  and 
loved  by  the  goddess  Istar,  who  finally  made 
him  king  over  the  whole  country. 

During  its  history,  Babylonia  often  became 
tributary  to  Assyria,  though  in  703  Merodach- 
Baladan  (Isai.  39.1)  in  vain  tried  to  become 
independent.  Nabopolassar  took  Nineveh  in 
606  B.C.,  thus  destroying  the  Assyrian  Empire. 
Nebuchadnezzar,  after  conducting  several 
successful  warlike  expeditions  for  his  father, 
Nabopolassar,  besieged  Jerusalem,  among  other 
achievements,  and  took  it  (2K.24).  He  carried 
the  inhabitants  away  captive  to  Babylon,  set  up 
a  golden  image  in  the  plain  of  Dura  (Dan.  3)  ; 
put  three  young  men  into  the  fiery  furnace  (Dan. 
6)  ;  had  a  dream  which  Daniel  explained  ;  was 
out  of  his  mind  for  a  time,  and  wandered  in 
the  fields  ;  but  was  then  restored  to  his  reason 
and  his  throne,  and  praised  God  (Dan.  4.34). 
Pie  also  conducted  the  singe  of  Tyre,  which 
lasted  for  thirteen  years,  and  maintained 

veral    successful    campaigns    against    Egypt. 


During  his  reign  Babylon  was  rebuilt  with  great 
magnificence.  His  son  and  successor,  Evil- 
Merodach(2  K.  25.27),  released  King  Jehoiachin, 
who  had  been  kept  in  prison  for  37  years  by 
Nebuchadnez/ar.  Nabonidus,  the  next  king 
but  one  to  Evil-Merodach,  spent  his  time  in 
still  further  beautifying  the  chief  cities,  and 
in  perfecting  Babylonian  chronology.  But  he 
gained  the  ill-will  of  the  priests  by  making 
Babylon  the  central  home  of  all  the  gods.  In 
their  resentment  they  helped  Cyrus,  the  Persian 
conqueror,  in  his  conquest  of  the  country, 
and  especially  in  the  taking  of  Babylon.  The 
army  of  Nabonidus  was  commanded  by  Bel- 
shazzar,  his  son  (Dan.  5),  who  had  been  sum- 
moned by  his  father  to  participate  in  the  royal 
power. 

Thus,  according  to  prophecy,  Babylonia 
ceased  to  exist  as  an  independent  kingdom  (539 
B.C.)-  It  remained  a  province  of  Persia  until 
Alexander  the  Great  added  it  to  his  many 
triumphs.  [BELSHAZZAR,  NEBUCHADNEZZAR.] 

Babylon  in  the  N.T. — In  Matthew  and  Acts 
Babylon  means  the  Babylon  of  the  O.T. 
But  in  Revelation  it  is  used  symbolically  of 
the  great  antichristian  world-power,  repre- 
sented by  Rome.  Thus,  for  example,  the 
seven  heads  of  the  beast  carrying  the  woman 
called  Babylon  are  seven  mountains  (Rev.  17-5,9), 
with  clear  reference  to  the  seven  hills  of  Rome. 
There  is  little  doubt  also  that  in  I  Pet.  5.13 
Babylon  is  a  cryptic  term  for  Rome,  just  as 
later  Jews  called  Rome  by  the  name  of  Edom. 

Babylonians. — Where  this  word  is  used  in 
Scripture  the  inhabitants  of  the  whole  country 
are  meant  (Ezra  4.9  ;  Ezek.  23.15,  23). 

Babylonish  Garment.  —  A  mantle  of  Shinar 
(R.V.  marg.),  embroidered  in  the  Babylonian 
style,  very  costly  (Josh.  7-21). 

Ba'ca,  Vale  of. — Balsam  trees,  which  grow  in 
dry  and  barren  places  (Ps.  84.6).  A  valley  near 
Jerusalem,  the  exact  locality  of  which  is  uncer- 
tain. The  Psalmist  alludes  to  the  joy  of  the 
worshippers  on  their  way  up  to  Jerusalem  at 
finding  wells  provided,  where  nature  had  left  all 
barren  and  sandy.  From  these  wells  they 
drank,  and  then  went  on  their  way  rejoicing, 
until  they  arrived  at  Zion.  See  also  2  Sam.  5.23 
(R.V.  marg.). 

Bach'rite.— Belonging  to  the  family  of  Becher 
(Num.  26.35) ;  a  Benjarnite  clan. 

Backbite. — To  go  about  as  a  tale-bearer  and 
slanderer  (Ps.  15.3). 

Backbiter. — One  who  speaks  against  others 
(Rom.  1.30).  See  also  Prov.  25.23  ;  and  2  Cor. 
12.20. 

Backside.— I.e.  the  west  (Ex.  3.1).    [EAST.] 

Badger. — The  animal  whose  skins  were  used 
for  the  outer  covering  of  the  tabernacle  (Ear.  25. 5) 
to  protect  it  from  the  weather  is  unknown,  but 
the  likeliest  supposition  is  that  it  was  not  the 
badger,  but  the  dugong,  a  kind  of  sea-cow, 
plentiful  in  the  Red  Sea,  whose  skin  would 
answer  the  purpose  well.  See  also  Ex.  26.14, 
35.7,  36.19,  39.34;  Num.  4.6-25.  In  Ezek 
16.10,  "  Egyptian  leather  "  is  mennt. 


BAG] 


52 


[BALD,  BALDNESS 


Bag. — Several  Hebrew  words  are  so  trans- 
lated, but  the  specific  meaning  and  use  is  evident 
from  the  context  in  almost  every  case.  In 
Isai.  3.22,  "  crisping-pins  "  (A.V.)  should  pro- 
bably be  translated  "satchels"  (R.V.),  or 
"  purses."  The  "  bag  "  used  by  Judas  (John 
12.6,  13.29)  was  a  small  box,  the  word  originally 
meaning  a  box  for  the  mouthpiece  of  a  wind- 
instrument. 

Baharu'mite  (1  Ch.  11.33),  Barhumite 
(2  Sam.  23.31).— The  family  name  of  one  of 
David's  thirty  valiant  men.  An  inhabitant  of 
Bahurim. 

Bah'nrim. — Young  men's  village  :  lying  be- 
tween the  Jordan  and  Jerusalem.  The  name 
lives  only  because  of  the  interesting  stories  con- 
nected with  it.  Here  Michal  was  returned  to 
David  (2  Sam.  3.16).  Here  also  David  was 
cursed  by  Shimei  when  he  went  past  as  a  fugi- 
tive from  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  16.5-14).  And  it 
was  at  Bahurim  that  Jonathan  and  Ahimaaz 
hid  in  a  well  from  the  vengeance  of  Absalom 
(2  Sam.  17.18).  It  was  also  the  home  of  one  of 
David's  mighty  men  of  valour  (2  Sam.  23.31). 
Site  unknown. 

Ba'jith  (R.V.  Bayith).— House :  Isai.  15.2 
only.  Perhaps  not  a  place  name  but  the  house, 
or  temple,  is  meant.  "  He  is  gone  up  to  "  the 
house,  or  temple,  as  opposed  to  the  "  high 
places  "  in  the  same  passage. 

Bakbak'kar. — A  Levite  who  returned  from 
the  Babylonian  captivity  to  Jerusalem  (1  Ch. 
9.15). 

Bak'buk. — A  hollow  place  or  thing  :  a  family 
of  Nethinim,  who  returned  from  the  Babylonian 
captivity  (Ezra  2.51  ;  Neh.  7.53). 

Bakbuki'ah. — Jehovah  empties  :  a  member  of 
the  family  of  Asaph,  a  Levite,  and  a  leader  of  the 
temple  worship  on  the  return  from  exile 
(Neh.  11.17,  12.9,  25).  He  came  up  to 
Jerusalem  in  ZembbabeFs  band,  and  was  a 
member  of  one  of  the  guilds  of  temple  singers. 

Bakemeats.— White  bread:  Gen  40.17.  The 
bakers  of  old  were  not  behind  their  modern 
successors  in  the  variety,  both  in  form  and 
flavour,  of  the  loaves  and  cakes  of  bread  they 
made.  The  bread  in  Pharaoh's  chief  baker's 
dream  was  not  ordinary  household  bread,  but 
some  of  the  finer  delicacies  and  confections,  or 
cakes,  for  which  the  head  of  the  bakehouse  would 
himself  be  responsible.  [BREAD,  CAKES,  etc.] 

Baker,  Baking,  etc. — [BREAD.] 

Ba'laam. — Meaning  unknown,  perhaps  De- 
vourer.  A  soothsayer  or  prophet  whom  Balak, 
king  of  Moab,  commanded  to  curse  the  Israelites. 
He  was  a  son  of  Beor,  and  resided  at  Pethor,  in 
Mesopotamia  (Num.  22.5).  Instead  of  cursing 
Balak's  enemies,  he,  under  Divine  compulsion 
and  instruction,  blessed  them,  and  foretold  the 
future  greatness  of  Israel  (Neh.  13.2  ;  Mic.  6.5  ; 
2  Pet.  2.15  ;  Jude  11  ;  and  Rev.  2.14).  Though 
living  amongst  the  heathen,  Balaam  possessed 
some  knowledge  of  the  true  God,  and  was  besides 
a  man  of  high  intellect,  with  a  reputation  of 
sanctity  and  wisdom.  He  was  an  accepted 
prophet  among  his  own  people,  who,  with  many 


other  nations  of  antiquity,  had  a  curious  custom 
of  devoting  enemies  to  destruction  before  pro- 
ceeding to  war  with  them.  Balaam  had  been 
making  a  trade  of  his  special  gifts,  as  is  shown 
by  the  messengers  of  Balak  taking  the  rewards 
of  divination  with  them  when  they  went  to  him 
at  the  king's  request.  The  Israelites  had  begun 
their  career  of  conquest  in  the  Holy  Land,  and 
the  king  of  Moab,  with  his  allies  the  Midianites, 
sought  by  this  means  to  stay  their  progress. 
But  Balaam,  warned  by  God,  though  desiring  his 
personal  gain  (2  Pet.  2.15),  refused  to  do  the 
king's  bidding,  and  it  was  not  until  another  and 
more  important  deputation  waited  upon  him 
that  he  ventured  to  go.  But  it  was  against  the 
will  of  God,  who  opened  the  ass's  mouth,  and  in 
some  way  made  Balaam  understand.  The  im- 
mediate result  we  have  already  seen.  But  we 
are  not  led  to  suppose  that  he  became  a  true 
follower  of  God,  for  we  afterwards  find  him  en- 
deavouring to  compass  the  destruction  of  the 
Israelites  by  temptation  of  a  gross  and  vile 
character  (Num.  25)  ;  and  he  died  while  fighting 
for  the  Midianites  against  those  whom  he  had 
attempted  to  curse  (Num.  31.8,  16). 

Ba'lac.— Rev.  2.14.    [BALAK.] 

Bala'dan  (Merodach). — Has  given  a  son: 
father  of  Berodach-  (or  Merodach)  Baladan, 
king  of  Babylon,  in  the  time  of  Hezekiah 
(2  K.  20.12;  Isai.  39.1). 

Ba'lah.— Waste :  a  city  of  Simeon  ( Josh.  19.3), 
in  the  south  of  Judah.  It  is  the  same  as  Bilhah 
(1  Ch.  4.29).  Its  site  has  not  yet  been  identified. 

Ba'Iak. — Devastator  :  near  the  close  of  the 
journeyings  of  the  Israelites,  Balak,  king  of 
Moab,  hired  Balaam  to  curse  them.  They  were 
then  in  his  territory,  and  his  natural  fear  urged 
him  to  this  act  (Num.  22.2).  But  he  was 
frustrated  in  his  designs  in  the  manner  de- 
scribed in  Num.  22-24  (and  see  also  Josh.  24.9 ; 
Judg.  11.25  ;  Mic.  6.5).  [BALAAM.] 

Balance,  Balances.— To  weigh,  weighing 
machines  :  frequently  used  in  Scripture  of  a 
mental  attitude  or  moral  worthiness.  So  in 
the  case  of  Belshazzar  (Dan.  5.27).  In  7sai.40.15 
the  dust  of  the  balance  is  used  as  the  simile 
for  something  quite  insignificant.  Honour  and 
integrity  are  likened  to  just  balances  (Prov.  11.1). 
Then  also  there  was  the  further  idea  of  symmetry 
or  perfection  of  form,  as  expressed  in  Job  37.16. 
The  balance  was  a  cross-bar  fixed  to  an  upright, 
and  with  depending  hooks  or  slings  for  the 
weights  and  articles  to  be  measured  (-Prov.16.il ; 
Rev.  6.5).  The  steelyard  seems  not  to 
have  been  known  till  Roman  times.  The 
prophet  Micah  (6.11)  exposed  a  common 
fraud,  for  dishonest  traders  carried  two 
sorts  of  weights — heavier  than  the  standard 
for  buying,  and  lighter  for  selling.  These 
weights  were  generally  of  stone,  and  were  carried 
in  bags. 

Bald,  Baldness.— Natural  baldness  was  not 
very  common  in  the  East,  and  when  it  did 
occur  it  was  the  occasion  of  ridicule.  The 
insult  offered  to  Elisha  by  the  young  people 
(not  little  children)  of  Bethel  was  not  only 


BALM,  BALSAM] 


53 


[BANNER 


a  personal  affair  directed  at  himself,  but  was 
chiefly  directed  against  him  as  the  representative 
of  Jehovah,  for  Bethel  was  one  of  the  chief 
places  of  idolatry  in  Palestine. 

Baldness  was  also  a  sign  of  misery,  probably 
because  it  was  a  symptom  in  some  forms  of 
leprosy  (for  which  reason  it  was  also  a  dis- 
qualification for  the  priesthood).  In  Lev.  13.29 
directions  are  given  to  distinguish  Bohak,  "  a 
plague  upon  the  head  or  the  beard,"  from  mere 
natural  baldness,  which  was  pronounced  to 
be  clean.  But  the  very  suspicion  of  leprosy 
was  a  dreadful  infliction,  and  people  were  ready 
to  do  much  to  escape  it.  One  of  the  means 
they  took  to  this  end  was  frequent  shaving,  a 
custom  borrowed  from  Egypt.  During  periods 
of  mourning  the  hair  was  allowed  to  grow  long, 
when  the  wig  worn  by  the  Egyptians  in  ordinary 
was  discarded.  The  surrounding  nations,  and 
Arab  women  in  particular,  cut  off  their  hair 
as  a  sign  of  mourning.  It  was  therefore  for- 
bidden to  the  Israelites  (Lev.  19.27 ;  Deut.  14.1). 

Artificial  baldness  also  marked  the  con- 
clusion of  a  Nazarite's  vow  (Acts  18.18,  and  is 
often  alluded  to  in  Scripture  (Mic.  1.16;  Jer. 
47.5).  The  heathen  often  offered  their  hair  to 
their  gods  (compare  the  action  of  the  Nazarite 
in  Num.  6.18)  as  an  acceptable  gift,  for,  next 
to  the  blood,  the  hair  was  looked  upon  as 
the  seat. of  strength  and  life.  This  offering 
of  the  hair,  a  purely  personal  and  private  act, 
was  the  origin  of  the  monkish  tonsure.  Shaving 
the  head  was  forbidden  to  women  by  public 
opinion  in  the  time  of  St.  Paul  (1  Cor.  11.5). 

Balm,  Balsam  (Gen.  37.25).— A  resin  ob- 
tained from  a  kind  of  balsam  tree.  The  balsam 
that  produces  the  true  balm  is  a  native  of  the 
east  coast  of  Africa,  but  the  balm  was  prepared 
and  exported"  from  the  east  and  south  of 
Palestine,  Egypt  taking  the  largest  supply. 
To  obtain  the  balm,  the  tree,  which  is  an  ever- 
green about  14  ft.  high,  is  cut  or  gashed  with 
an  axe,  and  a  cup  or  bottle  hung  underneath 
the  wound,  to  catch  the  sap  as  it  slowly  exudes. 
The  quantity  gathered  from  each  tree  is  very 
little.  In  olden  times  this  odoriferous  balm 
was  celebrated  throughout  the  known  world, 
but  even  then  it  was  so  scarce  that  specimens 
of  it  were  thought  worthy  to  be  carried  as 
trophies  to  Home  when  Palestine  was  conquered. 

The  balm  of  Gilead  was  so  called  from  the 
fact  that  the  resin  was  chiefly  exported  from  the 
slopes  of  Gilead.  Its  production  was  indeed 
almost  peculiar  to  that  region.  It  was  very 
precious,  being  worth  twice  its  weight  in  gold, 
and  was  a  very  important  article  of  commerce 
because  of  its  healing  qualities  when  applied 
to  wounds  and  open  sores. 

There  is  an  interesting  story  that  the  original 
roots  of  the  balsam  shrub  were  brought  to 
Palestine  by  the  Queen  of  Sheba.  But  this  can 
hardly  be  so,  since  balm  was  exported  from 
Gilead  to  Egypt  even  in  patriarchal  times 
(Gen.  43.11),  when  Jacob  deemed  it  an  accept- 
able gift  to  his  unknown  son.  In  the  almost 
tropical  valley  of  the  Jordan  the  shrub  was  very 


extensively  grown  in  late  pre-Christian  times. 
The  family  of  balsams  (Balsamodendron)  includes 
several  kinds,  yielding  both  balm  and  myrrh. 
Although  the  Romans  took  great  pains  to 
protect  and  cultivate  the  groves  of  balsams, 
which  existed  until  the  times  of  the  crusades, 
they  have  now  quite  disappeared  from  Jericho 
arid  Gilead.  [BACA.] 

Ba'mah.— Highplace  (Ezek.  20.29) :  this  word 
is  applied  to  any  high  place  where  Israel  offered 
sacrifices  to  idols.  In  Josh.  13.17  its  plural 
form,  Bamoth,  is  used. 

Ba'moth. — High  places  :  the  plural  of  Bamah. 
A  spot  where  the  wandering  Israelites  halted 
near  Mount  Pisgah  (Num.  21.19).  It  had  been 
captured  from  the  Moabites  by  the  Ammonite 
king  Sihon.  See  the  next  article. 

Ba'moth-Baal.— High  places  of  Baal :  the 
same  town  as  Bamoth.  It  was  taken  from  the 
Moabites  by  Sihon,  king  of  the  Amorites,  but 
afterwards  became  a  city  of  Reuben  (Josh.  13.17). 
It  was  the  spot  from  whence  Balaam  and 
Balak  overlooked  the  encampment  of  the 
Israelites  (Num.  22.4).  See  also  Isai.  15.2.  The 
site  has  not  been  clearly  identified. 

Band.— 1.  Bond  or  fetter  (Judg.  15.14 ;  Eccles. 
7.26 ;  Job  38.31).  Sinful  customs  enslave. 
Peace  and  love  are  bonds  which  unite  (Eph.  4.3  ; 
Col.  3.  14).  2.  A  troop  of  men  or  soldiers 
(Ezek.  12.14;  1  Ch.  12.23).  A  "band "of 
Roman  soldiers  consisted  of  about  1000  men 
(Acts  21.31).  3.  In  Hos.  11.4  the  constraint 
of  authority  or  influence  is  intended.  Slavery, 
distress,  fears,  and  perplexity  are  called  bands, 
because  they  restrain  liberty  (Lev.  26.13;  Isai. 
28.22  ;  Ezek.  34.27). 

Ba'ni. — Posterity:  a  name  often  met  with 
after  the  exile.  1.  A  Gadite,  one  of  David's 
thirty  valiant  men  (2  Sam.  23.36).  2.  An 
Aaronite,  the  father  of  Amzi  (1  Ch.  6.46).  3. 
a  descendant  of  Pharez,  son  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  9.4). 
4.  The  "  children  of  Bani,"  returned  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.10).  The  same  as  Binnui 
(Neh.  7.15).  5.  A  Levite  who  regulated  the 
worship  of  the  people  after  Ezra  had  instructed 
them  in  the  Law  (Neh.  9.4).  6.  Ezra  10.38. 
7.  Neh.  3.17.  8.  One  who  sealed  the  covenant 
with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  10.14).  9.  Neh.  11.22. 

Banished,  Banishment.— Cast  out :  in  Ezra 
7.26  exile,  or  judicial  exclusion  from  one's 
kindred  and  country,  or  from  the  presence  of 
the  king  as  a  punishment.  Not  only  was 
banishment  the  punishment  for  crime  and  dis- 
order, but  those  afflicted  with  leprosy  were 
excluded  from  the  privileges  of  their  fellows. 

Banner  (Isai.  13.2,  49.22).  —  Banner, 
standard,  and  ensign  are  all  used  in  Scripture, 
and  are  interchangeable  terms.  The  chil- 
dren of  Israel,  in  their  wanderings  through 
the  desert,  marched  under  banners  that  indicated 
the  position  of  each  division.  These  banners 
had  distinctive  devices  embroidered  upon 
them,  a  necessary  precaution  is  such  a  large 
host.  A  standard  for  a  subdivision  was  not  a 
banner,  but  only  an  ordinary  spear  holding 
aloft  some  emblem.  The  Egyptian  and  the 


BANQUET,  BANQUETING] 


54 


[BAPTISM,  BAPTIZE 


Roman  standards  were  but  modifications  of 
the  spear  held  aloft,  each  surmounted  by  a 
solid  metal  emblem,  generally  of  gold.  [ENSIGN, 
BEACON,  STANDARD.] 

Banquet,  Banqueting. — The  banquet,  as 
distinguished  from  the  ordinary  meal,  figured 
largely  in  the  social  and  religious  life  of  the 
Hebrews.  The  religious  festivals,  accompanied 
by  feasting,  will  be  dealt  with  under  FEASTS, 
which  see. 

Banquets  were  given  to  celebrate  such 
occasions  as  marriages,  the  weaning  of  the  heir, 
farewells  or  reunions,  sheep-shearings,  etc.  ; 
but  although  refreshments  were  served  at 
funerals,  there  was  no  attempt  at  feasting, 
except  among  the  heathen.  Pharaoh  and 
Herod  are  each  recorded  as  having  birthday- 
banquets  (Gen.  40.20 ;  Matt.  14.6).  That 
drunkenness  and  gluttony  disgraced  some  of 
these  frequent  banquets  is  evident  from  the 
attitude  of  the  prophets,  who  were  compelled 
frequently  to  censure  the  participants  (Eccles. 
10.16  ;  Isai.  5.11 ;  Jer.  35.5).  Singers  and 
dancers  were  often  present.  From  the  banquet 
there  sprang  the  evil  custom  of  having  parties 
for  drinking  only. 

When  a  person  provided  a  feast  for  his 
friends  he  sent  a  servant  with  the  invitation, 
which  was  always  given  some  days  before. 
Then  on  the  evening  of  the  day  itself  messengers 
were  again  sent  to  bid  the  guests  come.  This 
custom  is  mentioned  in  Lk.  14.7  ff.  The 
guests  were  not  then  asked  for  the  first  time, 
but  had  all  been  invited,  and  had  accepted 
the  invitation,  and  were  therefore  pledged. 
To  refuse  after  this  was  a  gross  insult  to  the 
giver  of  the  feast,  and  worthy  of  punishment. 
The  guests  were  made  welcome  by  the  master, 
who  embraced  them  or  kissed  them  on  the  lips, 
hands,  knees,  or  feet,  according  to  the  amount 
of  honour  in  which  the  guest  was  held.  This 
was  a  general  custom  in  the  East,  and  common 
among  the  Jews  ;  for  our  Lord  complained  to 
Simon  that  he  had  given  him  no  kiss  of  respect 
(Lk.  7.45). 

The  custom  of  reclining  was  introduced  from 
the  Persians  ;  the  posture  in  early  times  was 
sitting,  and  the  guests  sat  in  order  of  importance 
(Gen.  43.33;  1  Sam.  9.22).  But  later  the 
Hebrews,  as  well  as  the  Greeks  and  llomans, 
adopted  the  luxurious  mode  of  reclining  while 
they  ate. 

The  tables  for  the  great  banquets  were  con- 
structed on  three  sides  of  a  square,  the  space 
inside  being  reserved  for  the  attendants.  Round 
these  tables  were  placed  beds  or  couches,  with 
their  heads  towards  the  centre  of  the  square. 
These  were  mounted  with  the  aid  of  footstools. 
The  framework  of  these  beds  was  highly  orna- 
mented, while  the  cushions  or  mattresses  were 
covered  with  elaborate  embroidery.  At  the 
feast  of  Ahasuerus,  when  he  entertained  the 
nobles  of  his  kingdom,  beds  or  couches  of  silver 
and  gold  were  used  ;  that  is  to  say,  they  were 
profusely  ornamented  with  the  precious  metals. 
Each  guest  reclined  upon  one  elbow,  leaving 


the  right  hand  free  to  convey  food  to  his  mouth. 
His  back  was  supported  by  cushions. 

It  was  customary  for  the  guests  to  wash 
off  the  dust  and  sweat  of  travelling  before 
sitting  down.  This  was  an  act  usually  done 
by  a  domestic,  and  was  considered  a  very 
undignified  office,  the  bearer  of  the  towel  being 
a  degraded  person.  Yet  the  Saviour  Himself 
did  not  hesitate  to  take  upon  Himself  this  lowly 
office  when  He  wished  to  teach  His  disciples 
lessons  of  love  and  humility  (John  13.1-2). 

The  banquet  and  accompanying  entertain- 
ment were  conducted  by  a  governor  of  the  feast 
(John  2.9).  He  was  chosen  from  among  the 
guests  as  the  pleasantest  and  most  diverting  in 
the  company.  He  was  to  rule  over  the  rest,  to 
forbid  disorder,  and  to  encourage  mirth,  and 
to  see  that  none  should  get  intoxicated.  This 
last  portion  of  his  duties  was  a  delicate  matter, 
for  the  master  had  to  watch  carefully  the  effect 
the  wine  had  produced  on  those  who  were  under 
his  charge.  If  they  showed  signs  that  the  wine 
was  taking  effect,  their  next  glass  was  liberally 
watered,  while  those  whose  conduct  showed 
that  they  were  free  from  intoxication  were 
allowed  to  have  undiluted  wine. 

Portions  or  messes  were  sent  from  the  en- 
tertainer to  each  guest  at  table  (Gen.  43.34  ; 
1  Sam.  1.5,  9.23,  24),  and  double  portions  to 
those  particularly  honoured.  A  more  pleasing 
custom  was  the  sending  of  portions  to  poorer 
friends  direct  from  the  banquet  (Neh.  8.10  ; 
Esth.  9.19,  22).  Perfumes  and  scented  oils  were 
offered  the  guests  and  sprinkled  on  head,  beard, 
and  garments.  [FEASTS,  EATING,  D SINKING, 
PASSOVER,  etc.] 

Baptism,  Baptize. — To  dip  :  John  was  intro- 
ducing no  new  custom  when  he  was  baptizing 
his  disciples  in  the  Jordan,  for,  among  the  Jews, 
the  immersion  of  the  whole  body,  in  running 
water  if  possible,  was  a  means  of  washing  awayall 
ceremonial  uncleanness  (/sat.1.16).  Forthebap- 
tism  of  Jesus,  see  Matt.  3.13-17,  and  references. 

Besides  their  ceremonial  washings,  the  Jews 
were  in  the  habit  of  baptizing  converts  to 
Judaism.  When,  therefore,  they  saw  John 
baptizing,  they  were  not  surprised  at  the  act 
of  baptism  but  by  his  baptizing.  Their  question, 
"  Why  baptizest  thou  then,  if  thou  be  not  that 
Christ,  nor  Elias,  neither  that  prophet  ?  "  (John 
1.25)  shows  this.  They  did  not  ask,  "What  new 
rite  is  this  ?  "  but,  "  Why  dost  thou  administer 
it  ?  "  The  baptism  of  proselytes  was  natural 
to  the  Jews,  as  they  considered  all  Gentiles 
to  be  impure  and  unclean. 

In  the  due  administration  of  Christian  baptism 
the  washing  became  the  sign  of  inward  purifica- 
tion from  sin.  When  a  Gentile  became  a 
Jewish  proselyte  he  was  necessarily  baptized, 
because  his  whole  previous  life  had  been  cere- 
monially unclean.  Christian  baptism  was  a 
sign  of  moral  purification,  while  that  of  John 
the  Baptist  was  intermediate  between  the 
ceremonial  act  of  the  Jews  and  the  spiritual 
and  emblematic  baptism  of  the  apostles.  But 
in  the  case  of  the  Jewish  and  of  the  Christian 


BAPTISM  FOR  THE  DEAD] 


55 


[BAB-JESUS 


ceremonies  immersion  was  not  essential ;  it  is 
not  probable  that  the  3000  of  Pentecost  were 
immersed,  though  apparently  the  followers  of 
John  the  Baptist  were.  John's  baptism  was 
more  allied  to  the  Mosaic  washings  than  to  the 
Christian  rite.  He  himself  belonged  neither  to 
the  prophets  nor  to  the  apostles.  Thus  those 
whom  John  or  his  disciples  baptized  were 
rebaptized  when  they  were  converted  to 
Christianity  (Acts  19.1-5).  Christian  baptism 
is  specially  connected  with  the  gift  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  (Matt.  28.19),  and  with  the  forgiveness 
of  sins  (Mk.  16.16).  The  proper  persons  to  be 
baptized  are  indicated  in  Acts  2.41.  In  whose 
name  the  right  should  be  performed  is  shown 
in  Acts  8.16,  22.16,  and  in  Rom.  6.3,4  Christ's 
followers  are  said  to  be  "  buried  with  Him  by 
baptism  into  death."  As  these  passages  show, 
we  do  not  need  to  go  beyond  the  N.T.  for 
the  origin  of  Christian  baptism,  though 
the  Saviour  Himself  did  not  baptize,  but  only 
His  disciples.  Among  Christians  it  took  the 
place  of  circumcision. 

Baptism  for  the  Dead  (1  Cor.  15.29).— 
Some  find  in  this  passage  an  allusion  to  a 
practice  (which  was  neither  extensive  nor 
lasting)  of  baptizing  persons  in  place  of  candi- 
dates who  died  before  baptism.  Others  take 
the  word  "  baptized  "  as  figurative,  referring 
to  the  overwhelming  trials  which  many  suffered 
for  the  sake  of  their  hope  beyond  death.  A 
popular  interpretation,  "  baptized  in  the  room 
of  the  dead,"  pressing  onward  to  take  the 
place  of  those  who  had  fallen  in  the  ranks, 
is  inconsistent  with  the  meaning  of  the  pre- 
position. But  perhaps  Christians  may  be  here 
said  to  be  "  baptized  on  behalf  of  the  dead," 
because  in  that  act  they  vindicate  their  pre- 
decessors, who  have  lived,  suffered,  and  died 
in  the  hope  of  resurrection  to  eternal  life, 
against  such  as  alleged  they  had  perished. 

Baptism  with  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  with  Fire 
(Matt.  3.11). — The  absence  of  the  second  preposi- 
tion in  the  Greek  shows  that  John  refers  to  two 
aspects  of  one  and  the  same  baptism.  It  is  to 
be  spiritual,  in  contrast  to  the  material  and 
external ;  and  it  is  to  be  purifying.  The 
question  has  been  raised  whether  "fire"  refers 
to  the  purification  of  the  godly  who  truly 
accept  the  baptism  of  the  Spirit,  or  to  the 
destruction  of  the  wicked,  as  in  vers.  10, 12. 
But  the  work  of  the  Divine  presence  is  always 
twofold,  as  the  soul  yields  to  it  willingly  or  the 
reverse  (Isai.  31.9,  33.14,  15). 

Baptist.— [JOHN  THE  BAPTIST.] 

Bar,  Bars  of  the  Pit  (Job  17.16).— By  this 
expression  is  meant  "  the  bars  of  the  gates  of 
Sheol,"  or  Hades,  the  place  of  departed 
spirits. 

Barab'bas.— Son  of  the  father  or  rabbi :  he 
whom  Pilate  released,  according  to  an  annual 
Passover  custom,  instead  of  Jesus.  The  accounts 
of  the  crime  for  which  Barabbas  had  been  put  in 
prison  differ  in  all  four  Gospels.  In  Matt.  27.16 
he  is  just  a  "  notable  "  prisoner  ;  Mark  says 
(15.7)  he  was  bound  with  others  who  had  raised 


I    an  insurrection  with  him,  and  that  he  had  also 

I    committed  murder  ;    Luke  corroborates  Mark's 

j    statement,  but  further  states  that  the  "  insur- 

!    rection  "  had  taken  place  in  Jerusalem  itself ; 

i    while  John  (18.40)  contents  himself  with  the 

j    statement  that  "  Barabbas  was  a  robber."     It 

!    will  be  observed  that  there  is  practical  agree- 

;    ment  between  these  accounts.     Barabbas  may 

have  been   the    son  of    an  Abba    or    Rabbi. 

The    contrast    between    his    release   and    the 

execution  of  Jesus  is  all  the  greater,  if  this  man, 

who  had  been  convicted  of  a  serious  political 

offence,  accompanied  by  murder,  was  set  free 

because  his   father   was   a    great    man,    while 

Jesus  suffered  the  extreme  penalty  of  the  law, 

though  no  offence  could  be  proved  against  Him. 

A  deeply   interesting    fact    is    that,  in  Malt. 

27.16,  on  the  testimony  of  some  MSS.,  Versions, 

and    Origen,   the    name    of    this  prisoner  was 

"  Jesus   Barabbas."     If  this    reading  be  true, 

the  excited    crowd  was    practically  asked   by 

Pilate,  "  Which   Jesus  shall  I   set   free  ?    and 

which  shall    undergo    the   full    rigour   of  the 

law  ?  " 

Bara'chel.— Blessed  of  God:  the  father  of 
Elihu,  who  contended  with  Job  after  the  other 
disputants  had  been  silenced  (Job  32.2-6). 

Barachi'ah.— Blessed  of  Jehovah  (Zech.  1.1,7) : 
the  father  of  the  prophet  Zechariah.  [BERE- 

CHIAn.] 

Barachi'as  (Matt.  23.35).— The  N.T.  form 
of  Barachiah.  [ZECHARIAH.] 

Ba'rak. — Lightning :  the  son  of  Abinoam, 
who,  assisted  by  Deborah,  was  active  in  the 
conquest  of  Sisera,  the  leader  of  the  northern 
Canaanites,  and  in  the  deliverance  of  Israel. 
Jezreel  (Esdraelon),  where  the  battle  was 
fought,  was  the  battlefield  of  Palestine  (Judg. 
4  and  5;  Heb.  11.32).  Barak's  victory  was 
decisive,  for  Harosheth  was  taken,  Sisera 
killed,  and  Jabin  ruined  (Judg.  4).  [DEBORAH, 
JABIN.] 

Barbarian,  Barbarous. —  A  term  imitating 
the  language  of  a  foreigner  (compare  oiir 
"  jabber  "),  given  by  Greeks  to  all  foreigners. 
Wherever  these  words  occur  in  the  N.T.,  they 
mean  generally  foreigner  or  alien  (Acts  28.2,  4  ; 
Rom.  1.14).  It  was  not  until  long  afterwards 
that  ideas  of  cruelty  and  savagery  were  associ- 
ated with  the  word. 

Barhu'mite. — [BAHARUMITE.] 

Bariah. — A  descendant  of  Zerubbabel  (1  Ch. 
3.22). 

Bar-jesus.— Son  of  Jesus  (Acts  13.6-12) :  a 
sorcerer  and  false  prophet  in  the  suite,  or  follow- 
ing, of  Sergius  Paulus,  a  high  Roman  official  at 
Paphos,  in  Cyprus.  When  Paul  and  Barnabas 
were  on  the  island,  Sergius  Paulus  desired  to 
receive  religious  instruction  from  them.  But 
Bar-jesus,  fearing  that  his  own  reputation  and 
position,  as  well  as  his  income,  were  in  jeopardy, 
because  of  their  teaching,  opposed  them  strongly. 
As  a  result  of  this,  God,  through  Paul,  smote 
him  with  blindness.  Bar-jesus  was  a  Jew,  but 
the  second  name  (ver.  8)  by  which  he  is  known, 
Elymas,  has  an  Arabic  origin,  and  is  derived 


BAR-JONA] 


56 


[BARUCH 


from  a  word  meaning  wise  or  able,  translated 
"  sorcerer"  in  the  N.T. 

Bar-Jo'na.— Son  of  Jona  (Matt.  16.17): 
the  family  or  surname  of  Simon  Peter  (see 
PETEE).  Perhaps  another  form  of  "  Son  of 
John."  See  R.V.  of  John  21.15. 

Bar'kOS  (Ezra  2.53).— A  family  of  Nethinim 
that  returned  from  exile  under  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  7.55).  The  name  signifies  a  son  or  wor- 
shipper of  the  god  Kos,  and  belongs  to  a  large 
class  of  such  theophorous  proper  names. 

Barley  (Ezek.  4.9).— This  grain  was  the  staple 
food  of  the  poorer  classes,  and  comes  next  to 
wheat  in  the  productions  of  Palestine.  It  was 
also  largely  used  as  a  food  for  horses,  etc. 
(1  K.  4.28).  In  Judg.  7.13  it  stands  as  the 
type  of  a  peasant  army,  and  not  as  denoting  the 
feebleness  of  Gideon's  three  hundred.  Barley 
was  prescribed  as  an  offering  under  the  ritual 
law,  in  certain  cases  involving  a  question  of  out- 
raged morals  (Num.  5.15).  Barley  was  sown 
in  October,  and  reaped  in  March  or  April.  As 
it  ripened  earlier  than  wheat,  there  was  some- 
times a  second  sowing.  Six-rowed  barley  is 
found  depicted  upon  Egyptian  monuments  and 
coins  600  years  B.C. 

Bar'nabas. —  Son  of  exhortation,  perhaps 
originally  son  of  Nebo  :  first  known  as  Joses 
or  Joseph  (Acts  4.36).  Barnabas,  who  was  a 
Levite,  and  a  native  of  Cyprus,  was  one  of  the 
earliest  believers  in  a  risen  Saviour,  and  seems 
to  have  had  special  skill  in  exhorting  and 
encouraging.  He  was  a  man  of  wealth,  but 
sold  his  possessions  and  laid  the  price  at  the 
feet  of  the  apostles.  When  the  Jewish 
Christians  hesitated  about  accepting  Paul,  it 
was  Barnabas  who  overcame  their  reluct- 
ance, and  introduced  Paul,  whom  he  must 
have  known,  to  the  Church  at  Jerusalem 
(Acts  9.27).  So  greatly  did  his  Christian 
brethren  esteem  him,  and  so  confident  were 
they  of  his  integrity  and  good  sense,  that  they 
sent  him  upon  several  missions  requiring 
delicate  treatment  (Acts  11.19-26,  30).  It 
is  in  reference  to  his  mission  to  Antioch  that 
Luke  uses  of  him  the  striking  words,  "  He  was  a 
good  man,  and  full  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  of 
faith"  (Acts  11.24).  He  accompanied  Paul  on 
his  first  missionary  journey  (Acts  13.2,  3).  At 
Lystra,  after  the  healing  of  the  cripple,  Bar- 
nabas was  worshipped  as  Jupiter  (Acts 
14.12). 

Differences  arose  between  Barnabas  and 
Paul  over  John  Mark,  cousin  (Col  4.10  R.V.) 
to  Barnabas,  and  he  was  not  with  Paul  on  the 
second  journey  (Acts  15.36  ff.).  The  breach 
was  afterwards  healed,  but,  in  the  providence 
of  God,  it  made  for  the  further  spreading 
of  the  Gospel.  Little  is  known  of  the 
later  history  of  Barnabas.  It  is  asserted  that 
he  suffered  martyrdom — not  an  unlikely  event, 
but  unproved.  His  life  was  full  of  disinterested 
goodness  and  zeal,  though  once  he  compromised 
in  a  matter  that  he  knew  to  be  wrong  (Gal. 
2.12, 13).  That  he  was  not  a  married  man  seems 
to  be  shown  in  1  Cor.  9.6,  a  passage  which 


also  suggests  that,  in  spite  of  the  early  quarrel, 
St.  Paul  evidently  esteemed  him  highly. 

Barrel  (1  K.  17.12-16,  18.33).  —  This 
"  barrel  "  was  a  large  earthenware  jar,  such 
as  was  carried  on  a  woman's  head  or  shoulder 
(Gen.  24.15).  [PITCHER,  POTTER.] 

Barsa'bas,  Barsabbas. — 1.  Sun  of  Saba,  or 
son  of  the  Sabbath,  as  born  on  that  day  (Acts 
1.23).  He  was  nominated  to  succeed  Judas 
in  the  apostolate,  but  rejected,  Matthias  being 
chosen.  The  organisation  did  not  seem  to  be 
complete  unless  the  number  of  the  twelve  (com- 
pare the  twelve  tribes)  was  made  up.  His 
full  name  was  Joseph  Barsabas  Justus,  and 
since  the  fifth  century  it  has  been  thought 
that  he  was  one  of  the  seventy  (Lk.  10.1). 

2.  Another  Barsabas,  or  Barsabbas,  is 
mentioned  in  Acts  15.22.  He  was  also  called 
Judas,  and  was  a  prominent  member  of  the 
Church  at  Jerusalem. 

Barthol'omew. — Son  of  Tolmai :  one  of  the 
twelve  apostles  (Matt.  10.3).  His  real 
name  is  not  known,  but  he  was  called 
Bartholomew,  the  son  of  Tolmai.  He  has  been 
identified  with  Nathanael  through  a  supposition 
based  upon  the  fact  that  Bartholomew  is  not 
in  John's  list  of  the  disciples,  and  Nathanael, 
regarding  whom  the  others  are  silent,  is.  Born 
at  Cana  of  Galilee,  Bartholomew  was  a  man  of 
fine  character,  and  received  the  commendation 
of  our  Lord.  It  is  said  that  Armenia  was  his 
mission  field,  but  that  he  wandered  as  far  as 
India,  preaching  and  teaching.  A  legend  says 
that  he  suffered  martyrdom  by  being  flayed 
alive  and  crucified  head  downwards. 

Bartimse'us.— Son  of  Timaus :  a  blind 
beggar  in  Jericho,  whose  sight  our  Lord  restored 
(Mk.  10.46).  Matthew  and  Luke  describe  the 
same  incident  (Matt.  20.30 ;  Lk.  18.35),  although 
Luke  has  it  that  the  miracle  was  performed 
when  Jesus  was  entering,  and  not  when  He 
was  leaving  the  city.  It  is  singular  that 
Bartimoeus  is  the  only  blind  man  healed  whose 
name  is  mentioned.  His  faith  was  so  strong 
that,  though  bidden  again  and  again  to  hold  his 
peace  and  not  trouble  the  Master,  he  continued 
his  efforts  to  attract  the  Saviour's  attention. 
From  the  time  of  his  healing  he  followed  our 
Lord  as  one  of  His  humble  disciples. 

Ba'ruch.—  Blessed  :  1.  The  son  of  Neriah, 
brother  of  Seraiah,  and  the  friend  and 
secretary  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah  (Jer.  36.4  fl."). 
He  was  a  learned  man,  of  noble  family  (Jer. 
51.59),  and  served  the  prophet  faithfully.  By 
the  instructions  of  Jeremiah,  Baruch  wrote 
down  the  former's  prophecies.and  communicated 
them  to  the  princes  and  rulers.  In  anger  the 
latter  accused  him  and  Jeremiah  of  treason, 
showing  the  king,  in  proof  of  their  statements, 
the  writings  which  they  had  managed  to  secure. 
When  the  king  had  read  the  documents,  his 
anger  was  grent.  He  ordered  the  arrest  of  both 
Baruch  and  Jeremiah,  but  they  escaped.  After 
the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Babylonians 
(586  B.C.),  Nebuchadnezzar  treated  Jeremiah 
well,  and  Baruch  was  accused  of  influencing 


BAKZiLLAI] 


57 


[BATHE 


Jeremiah  against  fleeing  to  Egypt  (Jer.  43.3). 
But  eventually  they  were  both  compelled  to 
go  there  with  the  remnant  of  Judah  (Jer.  43.6). 
During  his  imprisonment  Jeremiah  had  pre- 
sented Baruch  with  the  deeds  of  the  land 
purchased  from  Hanameel  (Jer.  32.12). 
Baruch  complained  much  to  God  because  of 
all  he  had  suffered,  but  was  appeased,  on  being 
assured  that  it  was  best  for  him  to  be 
contented  with  his  condition  (Jer.  45.2-5). 
[JEREMIAH,  NON-CANOXICAL  BOOKS.]  2.  The 
son  of  Zabbai,  who  helped  to  build  the  wall 
(Neh.  3.20).  3.  A  priest  who  signed  the 
covenant  (Neh.  10.6).  4.  The  son  of  Col- 
hozeh,  a  descendant  of  Pharez  (Neh.  11.5). 

Barzil'lai. — Meaning  unknown.  A  Gileadite. 
A  wealthy  man,  he  befriended  David  when  the 
latter  was  flying  from  his  rebellious  son  Absalom 
(2  Sam.  17-27).  Afterwards,  when  the  rebellion 
had  been  suppressed,  David  desired  Barzillai  to 
take  up  his  residence  at  court,  but  the  old  man 
pleaded  his  great  age,  arid  asked  to  be  excused, 
sending  his  son  Chimham  [which  see]  up  to 
Jerusalem  in  his  stead  (2  Sam.  19.32-39). 
David's  gratitude  to  this  faithful  subject  never 
wavered,  and  in  his  final  charge  to  Solomon 
he  enjoined  it  upon  hirn  to  be  still  the  friend  of 
Barzillai 's  family  (1  K.  2.7).  Compare  Eyra 
2.61 ;  Neh.  7.63. 

2.  Father  of  Adriel,  the  husband  of  Michal 
(2  Sam.  21.8). 

Ba'shan. — Fruitful  country  :  the  first  mention 
of  Bashan  occurs  in  Num.  21.33,  where  it  is 
recorded  that  the  Israelites  defeated  Og,  the 
king  of  Bashan,  at  the  border  town  of  Edrei, 
whither  he  had  hurried  to  resist  the  invading 
hosts  of  Israel.  It  is  a  broad  and  fruitful 
country,  lying  to  the  east  of  Jordan,  bounded 
on  the  south  by  the  mountains  of  Gilead,  on 
the  east  by  the  Jebel  Hauran,  a  line  of  extinct 
volcanoes,  on  the  west  by  Geshur  and  Ma'acah 
(Josh.  12.5),  and  on  the  north  by  Hermon.  The 
name  was  always  written  with  the  definite 
article,  as  the  Bashan,  or  the  land  of  Bashan. 
When  the  Amorites  were  conquered,  and,  with 
king  Og,  driven  out,  their  fat  and  fertile  land 
fell  to  the  portion  of  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh 
(Josh.  13.29),  who  entered  upon  possession  at 
once  (Deut.  31.3,  4,  compare  with  Num.  21.35). 
The  two  chief  cities  of  Bashan  were  Edrei  and 
Ashtaroth,  the  modern  Tell'Ashtera.  In  Deut. 
3.4  mention  is  made  of  threescore  "  fenced  " 
cities  in  Argob  in  Bashan,  and  under  the  rule 
of  Og.  [ARGOB.] 

It  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  locate  these 
ancient  towns,  for  though  abundant  remains 
of  stone-built  cities  are  to  be  found  in  Bashan, 
many  of  them  seem  to  belong  to  the  Grseco- 
Roman  period.  According  to  one  authority, 
there  are  300  sites  of  ancient  towns  on  the 
slopes  of  the  Jebel  Hauran  alone. 

From  whichever  point  of  view  we  regard 
it,  Bashan  is  a  remarkable  country,  and  full 
of  interest.  Its  extraordinary  fertility  is  proved 
by  the  density  of  its  population  (Deut.  3.4-14), 
and  by  the  enormous  number  of  ruins  scattered 


over  the  whole  country.  Upon  the  break-up 
of  the  empire  of  Alexander,  its  possession 
was  an  object  of  continual  contest.  Then  the 
central  portion  of  the  country  became  a  refuge 
for  robbers  and  outlaws,  a  character  which 
it  retains  to-day.  The  Arabs  regard  this 
district  as  the  original  possession  of  the  patriarch 
Job. 

Ba'shan-Ha'voth-Ja'ir. — Bashan  tent-villages 
of  Jair  (Deut.  3.14;  :  the  villages  of  Argob 
after  capture  by  Jair,  a  descendant  of  Manasseh 
(Num.  32.41). 

Basho'math. — Fragrance:  1.  A  wife  of  Esau 
(Gen.  26.34),  and  daughter  of  Elon  the  Hittite. 
2.  Another  wife  of  Esau,  and  daughter  of 
Ishmael  (Gen.  36.3).  Reuel,  her  son,  was  the 
founder  of  four  tribes  of  Edomites.  In  Gen. 
28.9  she  is  called  Mahalath. 

Bashmath. — [BASHEMATH,  BASMATH.] 

Basin. — [POTTERY,  BOWL.] 

Basket.— The  baskets  of  Palestine  were  of 
many  shapes  and  sizes,  and  made  of  osiers  and 
many  other  twigs,  as  well  as  canes  and  grasses. 
Generally  they  were  shallow,  but  were  some- 
times made  large  and  deep,  with  well-fitting 
covers  ;  these  were  for  storage  purposes. 
Panniers  for  carrying  goods  on  horse  or  donkey- 
back  were  sometimes  made  of  basket-work.  A 
basket  of  wicker-work  was  even  used  for  serving 
up  meat  (Gen.  40.16 ;  Ex.  29.3 ;  Lev.  8.2 ; 
Judg.  6.19).  The  baskets  referred  to  in  the 
miracle  of  feeding  the  5000  (Matt.  14.20 ; 
Mk.  8.19)  were  small ;  those  in  that  of  the  4000 
(Matt.  15.37  ;  Mk.  8.20)  were  large  our  "  flails." 
It  was  in  one  of  this  latter  kind  that  St.  Paul 
was  let  down  at  Damascus  (Acts  9.25).  The 
word  translated  basket  in  2  K.  10.7 ;  Jer.  24.2 
really  means  pot  or  jar.  In  Prov.  25.11,  for 
"  baskets  "  read  "  filigree  work,"  with  R.V. 
margin. 

Bas'math. — Solomon's  daughter,  who  became 
wife  of  Ahimaaz,  one  of  Solomon's  officers 
(1  K.  4.15).  The  name  is  the  same  as  Bashc- 
math  and  Bashmath. 

Bastard  (Deut.  23.2;  Zech,  9.6;  Ileb.  12.8). 
— One  of  mixed  or  alien  birth.  The  Rabbis 
rightly  applied  the  term  to  the  offspring  of 
those  married  within  the  prohibited  degrees. 

Bat  (Lev.  11.19). — Among  the  ancients,  in- 
cluding, of  course,  the  Israelites,  the  bat,  which 
is  classed  with  the  mammals,  was  thought  to 
partake  of  the  nature  of  both  bird  and  beast. 
In  Palestine  bats  inhabit  caves  and  ruins  of 
all  kinds,  avoiding  the  light  (Isai.  2.20). 
The  bat  was  unclean,  being  classed  with  fowls 
that  creep  (Lev.  11.19  ft.  ;  Deut.  14.18). 

Bath. — A  measure  of  capacity.  About  8 
gallons  (1  K.  7.26 ;  Isai.  5.10).  [WEIGHTS 
AND  MEASURES.] 

Bathe. — Bathing  was  a  cleansing  act  enjoined 
on  those  who  had,  or  were  suspected  of  having, 
leprosy,  or  who  were  otherwise  unclean  (L<v. 
15.16-28  ;  Num.  19.7  ;  2  K.  5.10).  It  was  also 
a  necessary  act  after  the  period  of  mourning, 
which  implied  defilement  (2  Sam.  12.20).  The 
high  priest  had  to  perform  ceremonial  bathings 


BATH-RABBIM] 


58 


[BEAR 


frequently — at  his  inauguration,  on  the  day 
of  atonement,  and  before  each  solemn  act  of 
propitiation  (Ex.  40.12 ;  Lev.  16.4).  There  were 
bathrooms  in  the  Temple  and  in  the  houses  of 
the  well-to-do.  It  was  customary  to  anoint 
and  perfume  the  body  after  the  bath 
(Esth.  2.12).  The  pools  (see  Siloam,  etc.) 
were  public  bathing  places  (Neh.  3.15,16  ;  Isai. 
22.11  ;  John  9.7),  with  shelters  surrounding 
them.  [PORCH.]  The  hot  baths  of  Emmaus 
and  of  the  neighbourhood  of  the  north-eastern 
end  of  the  Dead  Sea  were  much  resorted  to, 
and  in  the  times  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
became  centres  of  fashion  and  frivolity. 

Bath-Rab'bim. — Daughter  of  many  multitudes 
(Cant.  7.4):  agateof  the  ancient  city  of  Ileshbon, 
near  which  were  two  pools,  to  which  the  spouse 
compares  the  eyes  of  his  beloved. 

Bathshe'ba,or  Bathshu'a  (1CA.3.5).— Daughter 
of  the  Oath :  the  beautiful  wife  of  Uriah,  the  wife 
of  David  and  mother  of  Solomon  (2  Sam.  11.3, 
12.24  ;  1  K.  1).  David's  sin  with  her  was  made 
blacker  still  when  he  procured  the  death  of  Bath- 
sheba's  husband,  Uriah,  who  was  an  officer  in  his 
army,  and  devoted  to  his  king  (2  Sam.  ll.Gff.). 
When  this  foul  deed  was  accomplished  David 
made  the  widow  his  wife.  Prompted  by  Nathan 
the  prophet,  she  tells  the  aged  David  of  Adoni- 
jah's  conspiracy  to  gain  the  succession  (1  K. 
1.15-31).  Later  she  is  persuaded  by  Adonijah 
to  plead  with  Solomon  for  Abishag  as  wife. 
On  this  occasion  Solomon  expressly  honours 
her  as  the  Queen-Mother,  but  sees  through 
the  cunning  plan  of  Adonijah  (1  K.  2.13-25). 
Bathsheba  had  three  other  sons  besides  Solomon, 
viz.  Shimea,  Shobab,  and  Nathan  (Matt.  1.6 ; 
1  Ch.  3.5).  The  fact  that  she  was  grand- 
daughter of  Ahithophel  (2  Sam.  11.3,  23.34)  may 
explain  his  defection  from  David. 

Bathshu'a. — Daughter  of  prosperity:  daughter 
of  Shua,  and  wife  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  2.3  ;  see 
Gen.  38.2-12.  [BATHSHEBA.] 

Battering-Rain  (Ezek.  4.2,  21.22).— A  long 
beam  of  some  tough  wood,  such  as  oak.  One 
end  was  provided  with  a  heavy  metal  cap  in  the 
shape  of  a  ram's  head.  This  beam  was  then 
suspended  in  a  framework  of  thick  beams 
before  the  wall  or  gate  that  was  to  be  broken 
down,  and  the  ram's  head  swung  back,  and 
driven  against  it  with  great  force.  The  Romans 
made  great  use  of  this  weapon  when  besieging 
fortified  towns.  [WAB,  WEAPONS.] 

Battle.— [WAR.] 

Battle-Axe  (Jer.  51.20).— Rather  hammer 
or  club,  i.e.  "  battle  hammer,"  etc.  The 
spelling  "  ax "  is  old  English.  [WAR, 
WEAPONS.] 

Battlement  (Deut.  22.8).— ,4  restraint:  a  wall 
or  parapet  built  round  the  flat  roof  of  an  Eastern 
house,  its  use  being  obviously  to  prevent  acci- 
dents, as  roofs  are  used  in  the  East  much  as 
we  use  gardens,  and  also  to  divide  one  roof 
from  its  neighbour,  though  the  battlements  are 
so  low  that  one  can  step  over  them.  Also  used 
in  the  fortification  of  a  city  (Jer.  5.10). 

[FOBTBESS.] 


Bav'ai,  Bavvai.—  Wishing  :  son  of  Henadad, 
a  ruler  in  the  time  of  Nehemiah,  who  helped  to 
rebuild  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  3.18). 

Bay.— 1.  Tongue,  i.e.  oj  a  sea  :  (Josh.  15.2). 
2.  A  reddish  colour  (Zech.  6.3,  7). 

Bay-Tree  (Ps.  37.35).— Although  the  bay 
laurel  is  found  on  the  Carmel  range  and  other 
places  in  Palestine,  David's  simile  has  been 
correctly  interpreted  as  having  a  more  general 
reference,  the  Hebrew  word  meaning  simply 
"  home-born,"  as  of  Israelites  (Lev.  23.42). 
If  the  Psalmist  had  designed  to  mention  any 
particular  tree,  he  would  probably  have  chosen 
the  stately  cedar,  which,  with  spreading  ever- 
green branches,  stands  for  centuries,  and  not 
the  comparatively  humble  though  fragrant 
evergreen.  The  11. V.  has  "  a  green  tree  in  its 
native  soil." 

Bayith.— [BAJITH.] 

Baz  lith,  Baz'luth.— Stripping  :  a  family  of 
Nethinim  who  returned  from  exile  with  Zerub- 
babel  (Ezra  2.52  ;  Neh.  7.54). 

Bdell'imn  (Gen.  2.12). — An  aromatic  gum 
common  in  the  East,  and  a  production  of  the 
land  of  Havilah.  Some  authorities  suppose 
the  word  to  mean  the  pearl,  or  some  other 
precious  stone.  In  Num  11.7  manna  is  said 
to  be  the  colour  of  bdellium,  which,  as  in 
Ex.  16.14  manna  is  likened  to  hoar  frost,  must 
have  had  the  same  pearly  lustre  applicable 
both  to  the  pearl  and  to  some  kinds  of  gum  as 
they  exude  from  the  tree. 

Beacon.—^t  mast  or  pole  (Isai.  30.17) :  "  As 
a  beacon  upon  the  top  of  a  mountain."  Em- 
ployed in  a  double  sense,  as  a  sign  of  desolation, 
and  secondly  as  a  signal  for  direction.  The 
Jews  were  like  a  beacon  and  ensign  on  a  hill, 
when  the  judgments  of  God  had  reduced  their 
number,  and  in  other  ways  distressed  them,  to 
warn  others  to  avoid  like  sins.  [BANNER.] 

Beali'ah.— Jehovah  is  Lord  (1  Ch.  12.5): 
He  joined  David  at  Ziklag.  The  conjunction 
of  Baal  and  Jehovah  in  this  name  is 
remarkable. 

Bea'loth.— Ladies,  mistresses  (Josh.  15.24): 
the  feminine  form  of  Baal.  A  city  in  the  south- 
east of  Judah.  [ALOTH.] 

Beam. — In  Judg.  16.14  this  means  the 
whole  of  a  weaver's  handloom  ;  in  1  Sam.  17.7 
and  similar  passages  only  the  actual  beiftn  of 
the  loom,  to  which  the  heddles  are  attached. 

Bean. — Mentioned  twice  in  the  Bible  as 
an  article  of  food  (2  Sam.  17.28  ;  Ezek.  4.9), 
to  be  cooked  and  mixed  with  other  ingredients 
in  the  form  of  bread.  Beans  were  one  of  the 
very  earliest  vegetables  used  in  Europe,  and 
known  to  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Palestine 
and  Egypt,  where  the  peasantry  used  them 
largely,  though  the  Egyptian  priests  were  not 
allowed  to  eat  them.  In  modern  Palestine 
beans  are  sown  in  November  and  reaped  in 
time  of  the  wheat  harvest. 

Bear.— That  which  glides  softly:  formerly 
Palestine  was  covered  with  forests  which  pro- 
vided shelter  and  food  for  numerous  bears  and 
other  large  wild  animals.  The  frequency  of 


BEAKD] 


59 


[BED 


its  mention  shows  that  at  one  time  the  bear 
was  common,  though  now  very  rare.  The 
ferocity  of  the  bear  is  used  as  a  simile  several 
times  (2  Sam.  17.8  ;  Prov.  17.12  ;  Hos.  13.8). 
The  Syrian  bear  is  different  from  the  brown 
bear  of  Europe,  in  that  it  is  shorter  in  the  limb 
and  of  a  dirty  yellowish  hue,  with  smaller  claws. 
It  eats  animal  food  only  when  hard  pressed. 
In  the  vision  of  Daniel  it  symbolised  the  Medo- 
Persian  kingdom,  and  foretold  the  destructive- 
ness  of  the  conquerors.  The  prophet  Isaiah, 
in  a  striking  picture,  to  show  the  change  of 
heart  that  would  be  produced  by  the  coming 
of  Christ,  makes  the  bear  a  ferocious  animal, 
living  partly  on  flesh,  feed  in  the  same  pasture 
with  the  cow  (Isai.  11.7 ;  1  Sam.  17.34-37  ;  Prov. 
28.15 ;  Lam.  3.10  ;  Dan.  7.5  ;  Amos  5.19  ;  Rev. 
13.2).  [ELISHA.] 

Beard.— Among  the  Jews,  and  generally  in 
the  East,  great  importance  has  always  been 
attached  to  the  beard  as  a  sign  of  dignified 
manhood,  and  no  greater  offence  could  be  offered 
to  a  man  than  to  treat  it  with  indignity.  For 
a  stranger  to  handle  it  contemptuously  was  con- 
sidered a  gross  insult (1  Ch.  19.4;  2  Sam.  10.4,  5, 
20.9).  At  the  same  time  it  was  the  object  of 
salutation,  the  person  wishing  to  exhibit 
great  partiality  for  another  lifting  it  to  his  lips 
and  kissing  it.  Except  among  the  Egyptians 
(Gen.  41.14),  who  did  honour  to  the  dead  by 
letting  the  beard  grow,  shaving  it  off,  or  plucking 
it  out,  were  expressions  of  mourning  and  grief 
(2  Sam.  19.24  ;  Ezra  9.3  ;  Isai.  15.2  ;  Jer.  41.5, 
48.37).  A  common  method  for  a  man  to  assure 
another  of  his  good  faith  and  honourable 
conduct  was  to  swear  by  his  beard.  The 
Arabs  still  solemnly  swear  by  their  beards,  and 
when  they  want  to  honour  a  friend  particularly 
they  exclaim,  "  May  God  preserve  your  blessed 
beard."  The  idea  of  manliness  embodied  in  a 
well-grown  beard  is  illustrated  by  the  Jewish 
law  which  forbade  the  shaving  of  it  after  the 
manner  of  the  Egyptians  (Lev.  19.27),  and  also 
by  Ps.  133.2.  Unlike  the  surrounding  nations, 
the  Egyptians  shaved  all  the  face,  with  the 
exception  of  the  point  of  the  chin,  where  a 
tuft  of  hair  was  allowed  to  grow,  and  was  kept 
trimmed.  Sometimes  instead  of  their  own  hair 
they  wore  a  false  beard  of  plaited  hair,  differing 
in  form  according  to  the  rank  of  the  individual. 
That  there  was  something  of  ceremonial  meaning 
in  the  cut  of  the  Jewish  beard  seems  to  be 
implied  in  Lev.  19.27,  21.5,  though  it  is  not 
clear  what  is  meant  by  the  corners  of  the  beard, 
unless  it  is  that  the  Jews  retained  their  whiskers, 
which  were  shaved  off  by  the  Arabs.  The  care 
of  the  beard  was  a  matter  of  prime  consideration 
by  persons  of  rank  and  consequence  (Ps.  133.2), 
and  a  carelessly  kept  beard  was  a  subject  of 
scorn  and  ridicule.  Lepers,  or  suspected  lepers, 
were  shaved,  to  expose  the  bare  skin  or  for 
cleanliness'  sake  (Lev.  14.9). 

Figuratively  the  people  of  God,  or  perhaps 
their  honour  and  dignity,  are  spoken  of  as 
"  beards  "  which  Jehovah  will  shave  with 
the  "  razor  the  king  of  Assvria  "  (Isai.  1.20). 


Beast. — When  this  word  is  used  in  opposition 
to  man,  any  brute  creature  is  signified  (Ps.  36.6) ; 
when  to  creeping  things,  as  in  Lev.  11.2-7,  29,30, 
four-footed  animals  as  distinct  from  bipeds. 
Paul  speaks  of  fighting  with  beasts  (1  Cor.  15.32), 
by  which  he  does  not  mean  his  having  been 
exposed  in  the  amphitheatre  to  fight  as  a 
gladiator,  but  that  he  had  to  contend  at  Ephesus 
with  men  who  were  as  wild  (he  does  not  refer 
to  the  uproar  in  the  theatre,  for  this  took  place 
later).  There  are  several  other  passages  in  which 
the  term  is  used  to  represent  the  savage  conduct 
of  lawless  and  persecuting  men  (Ps.  22.12 ; 
Eccles.  3.18  ;  Isai.  11.6-8,  etc.).  In  Revelation 
mention  is  made  of  four  "  beasts."  This  word, 
as  more  correctly  given  in  Ezek.  1,  signifies 
"  living  ones,"  and  so  the  word  might  have 
been  more  justly  interpreted  by  the  translators. 
Under  the  king  of  Nineveh  beasts  took  part  in 
the  fast  of  the  people  (Jon.  3.7,  8).  The  law 
of  Moses  protected  them  from  the  injurious 
treatment  of  cruel  masters,  though  they 
suffered,  with  guilty  man,  the  judgments  of 
God  (Ex.  9.6  ;  Ps.  135.8).  [For  the  Beast  as 
St.  John's  term  for  Rome,  see  REVELATION, 
BOOK  OF.] 

Beaten  Work  (Num.  8.4).— Metal  hammered 
into  the  shape  required,  as  distinguished  from 
cast  (Ex.  25.18,  31,  36,  37.17,  22). 

Beatitudes. — [SERMON  ON  THE  MOUNT.] 

Beautiful  Gate  (Acts  3.2,  10).— A  gate  of 
the  Temple.  [TEMPLE.] 

Be'bai. — An  ancestor  of  some  of  those  who 
returned  from  exile  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.11, 
8.11 ;  Neh.  7.16).  The  name  is  also  given 
among  those  who  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh. 
10.15). 

Be'cher.— Young  camel :  1.  The  second  son 
of  Benjamin.  He  was  one  of  the  fourteen 
descendants  of  Rachel  who  settled  in  Egypt 
(Gen.  46.21;  1  Ch.  7.6,8).  To  this  family 
belonged  that  Sheba  (2  Sam.  20)  who  rebelled 
against  David  after  Absalom's  death  [SHEBA]. 
Becher  was  the  ancestor  of  Saul  and  Abner, 
the  generations  following  in  this  order — Becher, 
Abiah  (1  Ch.  7.8)  or  Aphiah  (1  Sam.  9.1), 
Bechorath,  Zeror,  Jehiel  (1  Ch.  9.35),  Ner, 
Kish,  Saul.  Abner  was  a  younger  brother  of 
Kish,  and  so  uncle  to  Saul.  2.  A  son  of 
Ephraim  (Num.  26.35).  [BERED.] 

Becho'rath.— Grandson  of  Becher  (1)  and  son 
of  Aphiar,  or  Abiah. 

Bed.— Beds  in  the  East  have  always  been 
of  a  much  simpler  character  than  in  Europe. 
Mattresses,  or  thick  cotton  quilts,  were  used 
for  sleeping  upon.  These  were  laid  on  the 
dais  or  divan,  a  part  of  the  room  elevated 
above  the  level  of  the  floor,  covered  with  a 
carpet  in  winter  and  a  fine  mat  in  summer. 
Cushions  served  instead  of  pillows  and  bolsters. 
These  beds  were  not  kept  made,  but  the  mat- 
tresses were  rolled  up  and  placed  in  a  cupboard 
until  nightfall.  Hence  our  Lord's  words  to  the 
cured  paralytic,  "  Take  up  thy  bed  "  (Matt.  9.6). 
The  divan  had  an  ascent  of  several  steps.  It 
was  used  as  a  seat  in  the  daytime,  the  corner 


BED-CHAMBER] 


60 


[BEER 


being  the  place  of  honour  (A  mo»  3.12).  For  a 
covering  a  thin  blanket,  or  ercn  the  outer 
garment  worn  in  the  day,  sufliced  in  the  summer 
(1  Sam.  19.13).  In  the  case  of  the  poor  this 
garment  was  generally  the  only  bed  and  covering. 
Hence  the  law  provided  that  it  should  not  be 
kept  in  pledge  after  sunset  (Deul.  24.13). 
[BEDSTEAD.] 

Bed-chamber.— Bed-chambers  were  occasion- 
ally built  on  the  roofs  of  the  houses  of  wealthy 
people,  either  for  extra  accommodation  or  for 
the  sake  of  the  air  in  hot  weather.  The  murder 
of  Ishbaal  took  place  in  such  a  room  (2  Sam. 
4.7).  The  chamber  built  for  Elisha  was  not 
only  for  sleeping  purposes  (2  K.  4.10).  But  the 
roof  itself,  without  any  shelter,  was  frequently 
used  in  hot  weather  as  the  family  sleeping- 
place.  The  bed-chamber  where  Joash  was  hidden 
in  the  temple  (2  K.  11.2;  2  Ch.  22.11)  was 
not  a  sleeping- place,  but  a  storeroom  in  which 
the  beds  or  mattresses  were  kept  during  the 
daytime.  Such  a  room  would  have  been 
in  the  most  remote  part  of  the  palace,  a  good 
place  in  which  to  hide. 

Be'dad.— Son  of  Adad  :  father  of  the  fourth 
king  of  Edom,  Hadad  ben-Bedad  (Gen.  36.35  ; 
1  Ch.  1.46). 

Be' dan. — Son  of  Judgment  or  of  Dan 
(1  Sam.  12.11) :  1.  One  of  the  Judges  of  Israel, 
though  his  name  is  omitted  in  the  history 
of  the  Book  of  Judges.  Some  think  it  means 
Abdon  (Judg.  12.13,)  others  Samson  (Judg. 
13.2-24).  2.  Descendant  of  Machir  (1  Ch.  7.17). 

Bedei'ah — A  servant  of  Jehovah  :  a  member 
of  the  family  of  Bani,  whose  name  occurs  in  the 
list  of  those  who  had  taken  strange  wives  during 
the  captivity  (Ezra  10.35). 

Bedsteads. — Bedsteads,  as  we  understand 
them,  were  not  in  use  in  Palestine,  but  some- 
thing of  the  kind  is  implied  in  2  Sam.  3.31 ;  see 
also  Gen.  47.31.  But  the  divan  or  couch, 
instead  of  being  built  with  the  house,  was 
sometimes  a  separate  article  of  furniture,  and 
made  of  costly  materials.  The  Book  of  Esther 
(1.6)  mentions  beds  of  gold  and  silver,  together 
with  hangings  and  marble  pillars,  in  describing 
the  splendours  of  the  court  of  Ahasuerus  at 
Shushan  (see  also  Cant.  3.9,  10).  Then  again 
the  intercourse  that  existed  between  Egypt 
and  Palestine  must  have  made  bedsteads 
familiar  objects  to  many  Jews,  and  that  they 
did  not  adopt  them  shows  incidentally  how 
strong  a  hold  custom  and  habit  had  upon  this 
conservative  people.  During  the  long  centuries 
of  Bible  history  the  bed  and  bedstead  of  the  mass 
of  the  people  remained  unchanged.  It  is  very 
singular  that  the  only  use  of  the  word  bedstead 
in  the  Bible  is  where  Og,  king  of  Bashan 
(Deut.  3.11),  is  described  as  having  a  bedstead 
of  iron.  In  the  light  of  our  present  knowledge 
this  should  be  iron-stone  or  basalt,  a  rock  which 
contains  20  per  cent,  of  iron.  This  rock  was 
commonly  used  east  of  the  Jordan  for  the 
"  couch  of  death,"  or  sarcophagus,  which  it  is 
thought  this  giant  king  used  for  his  couch. 
These  basaltic  sarcophagi  were  often  ten  feet 


and  more  long,  and  proportionately  wide,  and 
would  undoubtedly  form  even  for  the  living 
comfortable  resting-places  when  well  padded. 

[BED.] 

Bee  (Deut.  1.44).— In  this  passage  the  well- 
known  pugnacity  of  the  bee  is  alluded  to,  as 
also  in  Ps.  118.12.  Though  the  Palestine  bee  is 
regarded  asadistinct  species  by  some  naturalists, 
its  true  place  seems  to  be  as  a  sub-species  of  the 
common  honey-bee,  Apis  mellifica.  It  is  lighter 
in  colour  and  more  clearly  marked  than  the 
British  bee.  It  is  also  smaller  and  far  more 
venomous.  As  honey  is  an  important  article 
of  food  in  the  East,  the  bee  is  carefully  cultivated, 
the  hive  consisting  of  a  tube  of  clay,  something 
after  the  style  of  a  drain-pipe,  or  a  cluster  of 
them,  piled  one  on  another.  These  pipes  are 
about  8  ins.  in  diameter  and  3  ft.  long,  the  ends 
being  closed,  with  the  exception  of  a  small 
opening.  It  is  a  singular  fact,  however,  that 
the  only  honey  spoken  of  in  the  Bible  is  "  wild 
honey,"  many  Arabs  making,  even  at  the 
present  time,  a  living  by  gathering  it.  That 
the  carcase  of  the  lion  which  Samson  slew 
should  contain  honey  is  not  surprising.  The 
flesh  of  the  dead  animal  would  quickly  be 
consumed  by  other  wild  beasts,  and  then 
the  bees  would  find  the  "  hive,"  formed  of  the 
dried  ribs,  a  convenient  place  in  which  to  store 
the  wild  sweetness  gathered  from  the  profusion 
of  flowers  growing  all  around.  The  curious 
expression  used  in  Isai.  7.18,  "  The  Lord  shall 
hiss  ...  for  the  bee  that  is  in  the  land  of 
Assyria,"  is  an  allusion  to  the  practice  of 
calling  the  bees  from  their  hives  by  a  sharp 
hissing  sound.  [HONEY.] 

Beeli'ada.— Baal  knows  (1  Ch.  14.7) :  a  son 
of  David.  The  original  form  of  this  name 
became  hateful  to  the  Israelites  because  of  its 
association  with  the  worship  of  Baal,  and  so 
we  find  it  altered  to  Eliada,  "  God  knows  " 
(2  Sam.  5.16;  1  Ch.  3.8). 

Beel'zebub. — [BAAL/EBUB.  J 

Beer.  —  A  well  (Num.  21.16):  a  station 
of  the  Israelites  beyond  the  Arnon,  so-called 
because  of  the  "  well  "  dug  by  the  princes  of 
the  people.  We  may  identify  it  with  the 
"  Beer-elim,"  "  Well  of  heroes,"  of  Isai.  15.8,  in 
which  "  the  heroes  "  may  refer  to  princes  and 
nobles  who  dug  it,  or  rather,  no  doubt,  ordered 
it  to  be  dug.  "  Digging "  was,  of  course, 
symbolical.  When  a  new  well  had  been  found 
and  prepared  for  use,  the  chief  of  the  tribes 
went  through  the  form  of  digging,  during  the 
performance  of  which  the  tribal  poet  extolled  the 
virtues  of  the  well  with  a  song  (Num.  21.17, 18). 
The  spot  has  recently  been  identified  as  being 
near  ruins  now  called  el-Modeyne.  "  In  the 
shingle  and  gravel  of  the  wady,  which  is  almost 
bare  of  vegetation,  the  Bedouin  dig  out  with 
their  hands  pits,  from  0'3  to  1  metre  deep,  in 
which  water  gathers  from  0'2  to  0*3  metre 
deep.  Such  water-pits  are  called  Bir,  Biyar. 
Since  they  are  regularly  filled  up  by  the  winter 
rains,  they  have  to  be  freshly  dug  every  spring. 
.  .  .  It  is  the  only  place  north  of  the  town 


BEERA] 


61 


[BEL 


where  the  water  comes  to  the  surface  in  the 
manner  described  in  Num.  21.16-18  "  (Expositor, 
August,  1908). 

2.  A  place  to  which  Jotham,  son  of  Gideon, 
fled,  for  fear  of  his  brother  Abimelech.  It 
lies  eight  miles  west  of  Hebron  (Judg.  9.21). 

Bee'ra. — A  member  of  the  tribe  of  Asher 
(1  Ch.  7.37). 

Bee'rah  (1  Ch.  5.6).— A  prince  of  the  Reu- 
benites,  carried  away  captive  by  Tiglath-pileser. 
[BBSBI.] 

Beer-E'lim.— [BEEB.] 

Bee'ri.— (?)  The  man  from  Beer:  1.  The 
Hittite  father  of  Judith,  one  of  Esau's  wives 
(Gen.  26.34).  In  Gen.  36.2  she  bears  the  name  of 
Aholibamah. 

2.  Father  of  Hosea  the  prophet  (Eos.  1.1). 
He  has  been  identified  with  Beerah  (1  Ch.  5.6), 
by  the  Rabbins. 

Beer-Lahai'-roi. — The  well  of  the  living  one 
who  sees  me  :  the  name  of  the  fountain  where 
an  angel  of  the  Lord  appeared  to  Hagar  when 
the  latter  had  fled  from  the  anger  of  Sarai, 
Abraham's  wife  (Gen.  16.14).  That  its  position 
was  in  the  wilderness  of  Beersheba,  lying  west- 
ward of  the  Dead  Sea,  is  shown  in  Gen.  21.14-21. 
This  North  Arabian  district  seems  to  have  been 
Hagar's  native  land,  and  not  Egypt.  It  was 
natural,  therefore,  for  her  to  return  to  her  own 
people  when  sent  away  by  Abraham.  Isaac 
also  dwelt  here  (Gen.  24.62,  25.11).  [HAGAR, 

ISHMAEI,,   MlZRAIM.] 

Bee'roth.—  Wells  (Deut.  10.6) :  1.  One  of  the 
four  cities  of  the  Hivites  that  secured  a  treaty 
of  peace  from  Joshua  (Josh.  9.17),  given  to 
Benjamin  (Josh.  18.25).  It  was  the  home 
of  the  murderers  of  Ishbosheth  (2  Sam.  4.2),  and 
also  of  one  of  David's  heroes  (2  Sam.  23.37  ; 
1  Ch.  11.39).  See  also  Ezra  2.25  and  Neh.  7.29. 
Beeroth,  or  rather  El-Bireh,  about  8  miles 
north  of  Jerusalem,  is  still  the  first  halting- 
place  for  caravans,  though  it  is  but  a  poor 
village  of  less  than  1000  inhabitants.  Accord- 
ing to  tradition  it  was  there  that  Jesus  was 
missed  by  Mary  and  Joseph  (Lk.  2.43). 

2.  A  place  of  the  same  name  was  also  a  station 
of  the  Israelites,  and  is  called  Beeroth  Bsne- 
jaakan  (Deut.  10.6  ;  Num.  33.31). 

Beeroth'ite.  —  An  inhabitant  of  Beeroth 
(2  Sam.  4.2-9,  23.37  ;  1  Ch.  11.39). 

Beer-she'ba. —  Well  of  the  Oath,  but  according 
to  others,  Well  of  Seven  (Gen.  21.22-33, 
26.26-33).  At  one  time  a  place  of  some 
size  and  consequence,it  is  now,  under  its  modern 
name  of  Bir-es-Seba,  only  a  place  of  ruins,  the 
site  of  two  immense  wells,  surrounded  by  stone 
drinking-troughs  for  the  use  of  cattle  and 
sheep.  Though  not  on  the  border  of  Judah, 
being  indeed  some  60  miles  within  it,  yet  being 
on  the  verge  of  the  cultivated  territory  of 
Simeon,  it  was  used  in  colloquial  speech  to 
signify  the  southern  limit  of  the  whole  country  ; 
hence  the  frequent  phrases  from  "  Dan  to 
Beersheba"  (2  Sam.  17.11),  from"  Geba  to 
Beersheba  "  (2  K.  23.8). 

At  this  well  (or  wells)  Abraham,  Isaac,  and 


Jacob  all  resided  and  watered  their  flocks.  Situ- 
ated about  20  miles  south  of  Hebron,  the  town 
fell  finally  into  Simeon's  hands  (Josh.  15.28, 
19.2).  At  Beersheba  also  resided  the  sons  of 
Samuel  (1  Sam.  8.2),  and  in  later  times  the 
place  had  idolatrous  images  of  the  true 
God  (Amos  5.5,  8.14).  Some  of  the  returned 
exiles  settled  there  in  Nehemiah's  time  (Neh. 
11.27,30).  In  addition  to  the  two  circular 
wells  mentioned  above,  50  ft.  deep,  there  are 
indications  that  other  wells  existed  here,  but 
whether  the  full  number  of  seven  can  be  traced 
is  open  to  doubt.  In  later  history  its  name 
occurs  in  ecclesiastical  lists  as  an  episcopal 
city  under  the  Bishop  of  Jerusalem  (620  A.D.). 

Be'eshte'rah. — House  of  Ashtaroth  (Josh. 
21.27) :  a  Levitical  city  in  Manasseh,  west 
of  the  Jordan.  It  was  allotted  to  the  Gershon- 
ites,  and  is  identical  with  Astaroth.  [ASH- 
TAROTH.] 

Beetle  (Lev.  11.22).— Not  a  beetle  at  all, 
but  almost  certainly  (see  ver.  21)  a  member  of 
the  family  of  grasshoppers,  a  species  of  locust. 
The  wording  of  ver.  21  shows  that  the  animal 
intended  had  high  projecting  legs,  and  was  in 
the  habit  of  leaping.  In  addition  the  beetle  was 
not  an  article  of  diet,  though  the  locust  was. 
The  Egyptian  beetle  is  included  in  Ex.  8.21,  in 
the  term  "  swarms  of  flies." 

Beeves.—  The  plural  of  beef,  cattle  :  the  word 
is  old  English,  and  rarely  used  now  (Lev.  22.19). 

Beggar.— See  1  Sam.  2.8;  Lk.  16.20-22. 
[ALMS.] 

Behe'moth.— Beasts :  the  same  word  that  is 
translated  "beast"  in  Job  35.11;  Ps.  73.22, 
"  cattle,"  or  "  any  large  quadruped  "  (Gen.  6.7  ; 
Ex.  9.25;  Lev.  11.2).  There  have  been  many 
conjectures  as  to  the  creature  meant  by  the 
term  behemoth,  though  doubtless  it  is  a  vigorous 
portrait  of  the  hippopotamus,  the  plural  express- 
ing the  idea  of  magnitude,  as  often  in  Hebrew. 
The  description  in  Job  is  close  to  the  points  of 
the  hippopotamus,  with  the  notable  exception 
of  the  tail,  which  the  writer  likens  to  a  cedar  ; 
whereas,  of  course,  the  hippopotamus  has  a 
very  small  tail. 

There  are  two  closely  allied  species  of  the 
hippopotamus,  which  is  found  only  in  Africa. 
In  spite  of  their  enormous  size,  they  are  capable 
of  swift  motion  on  land.  They  are  nocturnal 
in  their  habits,  leaving  the  rivers  and  lakes, 
where  they  are  most  at  home,  chiefly  at  night, 
when  they  commit  great  havoc  upon  the 
standing  crops.  Their  favourite  food  is  young 
herbage,  grass,  and  especially  green  corn.  The 
animal  was  in  great  demand  among  the  Romans 
for  exhibition  at  their  games  in  the  circus, 
and  was  obtained  from  Egypt. 

Be'kah.— Breaking :  half  a  shekel,  a  sum 
about  equal  to  one  shilling.  The  contribution 
of  every  Israelite  over  twenty  years  of  age 
(Ex.  30.12-16,  38.26;  of.  Matt.  17.24-27). 

Bel. — Lord  :  the  Babylonian  equivalent  of 
Baal  (Isni.  46.1),  used  both  as  a  proper  name 
and  as  a  title.  It  was  the  name  of  two  gods 
in  the  Babylonian  pantheon,  but  is  used  ir. 


BELA,  BELAH] 


62 


[BELTESHAZZAR 


Isaiah  of  Bel-Merodach,  the  tutelar  god  of 
Babylon  itself.  It  is  mentioned  also  in  Jer. 
50.2,  51.44,  where  the  prophet  is  foretelling 
the  downfall  of  Babylon.  [BAAL.] 

Be'la,  Be'lah. — That  which  w  consumed : 
1.  Two  forms  of  the  same  word.  One  of  the  five 
cities  of  the  plain  which  resisted  the  supremacy 
of  the  king  of  Shinar  (Gen.  14.2-8).  It  was 
somewhere  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  Dead 
Sea  (Zoar,  Jer.  48.34),  not  far  from  Sodom. 
It  was  spared  at  the  overthrow  of  Sodom  and 
Gomorrah  at  the  intercession  of  Lot,  and  was 
thenceforth  called  Zoar  (Gen.  19.22).  [NON- 
CANONICAL  BOOKS,  ZOAR.] 

2.  The   first   king    of    Edom,  son  of    Beor. 
He  reigned  over  Edom  eight  generations  before 
Saul,  or  about  the  time  of  the  Exodus.      His 
capital  city  was  Dinhabah  (Gen.  36.32  ;    1  Ch. 
1.43,  44). 

3.  Eldest    son     of     Benjamin,    and      head 
of  the  Belaites,  of  whom  the  house  of   Ehud 
was  the  most  remarkable.     He  was  one  of  the 
left-handed  heroes,  and  slew  the  king  of  Moab, 
thus   freeing    his   people   from    the   Moabitish 
yoke,    and    ensuring    peace    for    eighty    years 
(Judg.  3.14-30);     Gen.  46.21;     Num.  26.38; 
1  Ch.  7.6,  7,  8.1,  3). 

4.  A  son  of   Azaz,  of  the  tribe  of  Reuben 
(1  Ch.  5.8). 

Be'laites.— [BELA  3  (Num.  26.38).] 

Be'lial. — Worthlessness  :  a  word  frequently 
used  in  the  Scriptures.  In  its  common  use  it 
represents  what  is  vile,  worthless,  and  useless, 
whether  a  thing  (Ps.  41.8  marg.),  or  a  person 
or  class  of  persons,  as  "  children  of  Belial  " 
(Deut.  13.13),  "  son  of  Belial  "  (1  Sam.  25.17), 
"  wicked  men  of  Belial  "  (1  Sam.  30.22).  But 
it  is  never  employed  in  the  O.T.  strictly  as  a 
proper  name  ;  appearing  once  in  the  N.T.,  where 
it  is  used  as  a  personification  of  wickedness,  or 
perhaps  even  as  a  title  of  Satan  (2  Cor.  6.15). 

Bell. — Bells  in  the  form  of  discs  or  cymbals 
of  metal  were  a  very  early  invention,  though 
we  find  the  first  mention  of  them  in  Scripture 
in  the  time  of  Moses  (Ex.  28.33),  where  it  was 
enjoined  on  the  high  priest  that  the  lower  edge 
of  his  robe  should  be  ornamented  with  golden 
bells,  that  his  presence  might  be  known  when 
he  went  into  the  Holy  Place  before  the  Lord, 
and  when  he  came  out,  that  he  might  not  die. 
The  evident  purpose  of  this  ordinance  was  that 
the  public  might  have  notice  of  his  intention, 
and  to  prevent  his  being  put  to  death  by  the 
watchers,  none  but  the  high-priest  being  per- 
mitted to  enter  into  the  Holy  Place.  A  bell 
was  also  the  signal  of  victory,  and  in  process 
of  time  became  part  of  the  equipment  of  the 
war-horse.  To  this  custom  the  prophet  Zechariah 
alludes  when,  in  announcing  the  change  to  be 
wrought  by  the  universal  prevalence  of  true 
religion,  he  says,  "  In  that  day  shall  there  be 
upon  the  bells  of  the  horses,  HOLINESS  UNTO 
THE  LORD  "  (Zech.  14.20). 

Among  the  heathen  the  use  of  bells  in  their 
religious  ceremonies  was  common.  The  sound 
was  thought  to  be  good  for  all  kinds  of  expiation 


and  purification,  and  it  had  influence  over  the 
spirits  of  the  departed.  Bells  were  struck  also 
to  exorcise  or  frighten  away  demons.  It  was 
also  the  custom  in  some  heathen  temples  to 
call  the  people  together  to  sacrifice  by  the 
sounding  of  a  bell.  This  was  done  regularly 
by  the  priests  of  Persephone  at  Athens.  From 
this  arose  the  use  of  bells  in  our  churches. 
[CYMBALS.] 

Bellows. — The  use  of  bellows  was  a  very 
ancient  practice,  probably  coeval  with  the  art 
of  smelting  (Jer.  6.29).  What  the  shape  of  the 
first  bellows  was  is  not  known,  probably  a  sort 
of  blow-pipe ;  but  the  Egyptian  monuments 
show  forms  of  bellows  not  greatly  differing 
from  some  in  use  at  the  present  time.  They 
were  in  two  parts,  worked  by  the  feet,  the 
operator  standing  upon  them  and  working  each 
foot  alternately. 

Bclshaz'zar.  —  Bel,  protect  the  king :  in 
Dan.  5,  Belshazzar  is  described  as  being  king 
when  that  city  was  captured  by  the  Medes  and 
Persians  under  Cyrus.  He  is  often  mentioned 
in  the  Babylonian  inscriptions.  He  was  not 
sole  monarch  of  Babylonia,  but  rather  the 
commander  of  the  army  and  governor  of 
Babylon.  He  thus  could  only  appoint  Daniel 
third  (not  second)  ruler  in  the  kingdom  (5.29). 
After  the  fall  of  that  city,  we  read  that 
Nabonidus,  the  real  king,  and  fatherof  Belshazzar, 
surrendered  to  the  conquerors  at  Borsippa,  upon 
the  death  of  Belshazzar,  during  the  tumult  of 
that  awful  night  (Dan.  5).  Between  the  events 
in  chap.  4  and  the  opening  of  chap.  5,  historians 
tell  us  that  there  was  considerable  lapse  of  time. 
That  Belshazzar  was  not  the  actual  son  of 
Nebuchadnezzar  is  certain,  but  he  was  prob- 
ably a  grandson  through  his  mother.  His 
father,  Nabonidus,  is  said  to  have  been  a  usurper. 
The  writers  of  the  Scriptures  frequently  call 
a  man  "son  "  when  they  really  mean  descendant. 
Belshazzar's  last  offence  was  the  profanation  of 
the  sacred  vessels  belonging  to  the  temple  of 
Jerusalem,  which  Nebuchadnezzar  and  even 
Evil-Merodach  had  respected.  On  that 
very  night,  while  he  and  his  associates 
feasted  and  drank  out  of  the  holy  vessels,  the 
city  was  taken  by  surprise  by  Darius  the  Mede, 
and  Belshazzar  was  put  to  death.  The  char- 
acter of  the  handwriting  on  the  wall  of  the  ban- 
queting chamber  was  possibly  ancient  Hebrew, 
and  therefore  familiar  to  Daniel,  the  language 
itself  being  Aramaic.  The  three  words 
"  numbering,"  "  weighing,"  "  dividing,"  were 
Divinely  translated  and  amplified  to  Daniel, 
who  was  thus  enabled  to  warn  and  pass  sentence 
upon  the  wicked  king.  The  foundations  of  the 
great  hall  in  which  the  feast  took  place  were 
excavated  in  1909.  [DANIEL,  BABYLON,  EVIL- 
MERODACH,  MENE.] 

Belteshaz'zar.— Protect  his  life!:  this  was 
the  name  given  to  Daniel  by  Nebuchadnezzar's 
chief  eunuch  (Dan.  1.7).  The  first  syllable  of 
the  name  appears  to  have  no  connection  with 
Belshazzar,  save  in  sound  (Dan.  4.8).  [DANIEL, 
NEBUCHADNEZZAR.] 


BEN] 


63 


[BENHADAD 


Ben. — 1.  Son,  or  perhaps  Intelligent:  a 
Levite  set  over  the  service  of  song  in  the 
time  of  David  (1  Ch.  15.18).  2.  Son : 
a  word  frequently  prefixed  to  names,  as 
Ben-hadad  (the  son  of  Hadad),  Benjamin,  etc. 

Ben-abinadab. — [ABTNADAB  4.] 

Benai'ah. — Jah  hath  built  up:  1.  One  of 
David's  officers  (2  Sam.  23.22,  23),  the  son  of 
Jehoiada,  bore  this  name.  He  was  a  man  of 
heroic  mould,  and  distinguished  himself  on 
several  occasions.  He  was  an  adherent  of 
Solomon  against  the  pretensions  of  Adonijah 
(1  K.  1.8  ff.),  and,  after  putting  Adonijah  and 
Joab  to  death,  succeeded  to  the  command  of 
the  army  (1  AT.  2.25,  4.4-35).  On  king  David's 
roll  of  honour  he  was  considered  next  in  valour 
to  "  the  three  mighty  men,'-  ranking  above  the 
"  thirty  "  (2  Sam.  23.20-23).  His  son,  called 
Jehoiada  after  his  grandfather,  was  also  a 
personal  attendant  of  the  king  (1  Ch.  27.34). 

2.  One  of    David's    valiant   men,   a    Pira- 
thonite  (2  Sam.  23.30  ;    1  Ch.  11.31). 

3.  A  prince  of  Simeon  (1  Ch.  4.36). 

4.  One    of    David's    priests    in    Jerusalem, 
a   singer,  and  one  of    those  who    played  'with 
psalteries  (1  Ch.  15.18,  20,  24  ;    16.5,  6). 

There  are  about  eight  others  bearing  this 
name  in  the  O.T.,  but  we  know  hardly  anything 
of  them. 

Benam'mt. — Son  of  my  people  :  father  of 
the  Ammonites  (Gen.  19.38).  He  was  a  grand- 
son of  Lot. 

Benches. — The  seats  on  which  the  rowers 
sat.  The  ships  of  Tyre  were  famed  throughout 
the  Mediterranean,  and,  like  all  ships  of  those 
days, were  propelled  partly  by  sails  and  partly  by 
oars.  That  the  seats  of  the  rowers  should  be 
inlaid  with  ivory  showed  great  wealth  on  the 
part  of  the  owners  (Ezek.  27.6).  [Snips.] 
Ben-deker. — [DEKER.] 

Bene'-Berak. — Sons  of  lightning :  when 
Joshua  cast  lots  for  the  division  of  the  Promised 
Land  amongst  the  Israelites,  Bene-Berak 
was  one  of  the  places  that  fell  to  the  tribe  of 
Dan.  It  is  called  now  Ibn  Ibrak,  and  lies 
about  four  miles  to  the  south-east  of  Joppa 
(Josh.  19.45). 

Benediction. — 1.  The  Jewish  consciousness 
of  the  power  and  love  of  God  found  natural 
expression  in  words  of  praise  acknowledging 
His  goodness  and  mercy.  "  Blessed  be  the 
Lord  God  of  Israel  "  (1  Sam.  25.32,  etc.)  is  an 
O.T.  phrase  frequently  associated  with  special 
or  general  mercies.  The  adaptation  of  the 
blessing  to  N.T.  circumstances  is  instructive. 
Zacharias,  in  his  vision  of  the  coming  glory, 
uses  the  old  phrase — "  Blessed  be  the  Lord  God 
of  Israel"  (Lk.  1.68).  Christ  is  "blessed" 
as  coming  "  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  "  (Matt. 
21.9,  etc.).  The  Lord  is  "  blessed  "  as  "  the 
God  and  Father  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ " 
(Eph.  1.3,  etc.).  2.  As  God  is  "  blessed,"  so 
also  are  those  who  trust  in  Him  and  walk  in  His 
ways.  Compare  the  Beatitudes  of  the  Psalms 
(1.1,  etc.)  and  the  Beatitudes  of  the  Sermon  on 
the  Mount  (Matt.  5.3,  etc.).  3.  The  blessing 


of  food  at  meal-times — the  giving  thanks  to 
God  for  the  provision — carefully  recognised 
in  Jewish  custom,  is  noted  on  four  occasions 
in  the  Gospels — at  the  miracles  of  feeding  the 
five  thousand  and  the  four  thousand,  at  the 
Last  Supper,  and  at  the  Emmaus  meal.  4. 
The  last  recorded  action  of  our  Lord  on  earth 
was  that  of  blessing  the  disciples  (Lk.  24.51). 

Benedictus.— The  Song  of  Zacharias  (Lk. 
1.68-79)  is  so  called  from  its  first  word  in 
Latin.  The  use  of  this  canticle  in  liturgies 
dates  from  a  very  early  period  in  the  Western 
Church. 

Benefactor. — Only  found  in  oui  Lord's  words 
(Lk.  22.25),  "They  that  exercise  authority 
upon  them  are  called  benefactors."  The 
reference  is  to  the  title  assumed  by  certain 
kings.  Thus  Ptolemy,  king  of  Egypt,  was 
called  "  Euergetes,"  or  Benefactor. 

Bene-JaaTcan. — Sons  of  intelligence.  [See 
BEEROTH,  a  place  between  Moseroth  and  Hor- 
hagidgad.]  There  were  several  wells  at  this  spot, 
which  was  the  twenty-seventh  station  of  the 
Israelites  (Num.  33.31,32).  The  place  was 
named  after  the  descendants  of  Jaakan  the  son 
of  Ezer  (1  Ch.  1.42),  whose  name  also  appears 
as  Akan.  [AKAN,  JAAKAN.] 

Ben-Geber.— [GEBER.  ] 

Benba'dad. — Son  of  Hadad  :  a  religious  title 
of  the  kings  of  Damascus,  Hadad,  or  Adad, 
being  the  storm  god  of  Syria  ;  it  was  custom- 
ary to  add  his  name  to  the  names  of  individuals. 

1.  The    son    of    Rezon,    who,    as    lord    of 
Damascus,    gradually    acquired    influence    and 
dominion   over   the   neighbouring   chiefs   until 
he   became  a  powerful    monarch,   his   alliance 
being  courted  by  Baasha,  king  of  Israel,  and 
Asa,  king  of  Judah.     Having  received  a  large 
payment    from    Asa,   he    allied    himself   with 
him,  and  then  overran  the    northern  part  of 
Israel,   which  he  harassed   until   the   time  of 
Omri  (1  K.  20.1-34). 

2.  Son  of   the   above,   whom  he   succeeded 
on    the     throne     of     Damascus.       When    he 
fought  at  Karkar    against    the    Assyrians,  in 
854  B.C.,  Ahab  was   one  of  his  allies,  but  he 
was   more  often  warring  against   the   king  of 
Israel.   [AHAB.]     Benhadad   besieged  Samaria, 
and    on    this    occasion    was    accompanied    by 
thirty-two    tributary   kings.     After    the   death 
of  Ahab,  he  besieged  Samaria  a  second  time, 
and    held    the    unfortunate     city    so     closely 
(2  K.  7)  that  famine  reduced   the  inhabitants 
to  dreadful  straits,  in  which  they  resorted  to 
human    flesh    as    food.     [ELISHA.]     Jehoram, 
the  Israelite  king,  was  at  his  wits'  end,  when 
the  investing  force  suddenly  vanished,  having 
been   seized    with    panic.      So    complete    was 
the  relief  that  Jehoram  was  able  to  recover 
territory    as     far    south     as    Ramoth  -  Gilead 
(2  K.  9).     Soon  after  his  return  to  Damascus 
Benhadad  was  taken  ill,  and  consulted  Elisha 
as  to  the  issue  of  his  malady.     He  got  little 
comfort   from  the    prophet,  who  told  him  he 
should  surely  die  soon,   though   not  from  his 
present   disease.     Hazael,   who    had   consulted 


BEN-HAIL] 


64 


[BEOR 


the  prophet  as  the  king's  messenger,  was 
informed  by  Elisha  that  he  was  the  man 
divinely  appointed  to  succeed  Benhadad.  The 
prophecy  brought  its  own  fulfilment,  for 
Benhadad  was  murdered  by  Hazael,  who  then 
seized  the  throne  (2  K.  8.15).  [HAZAEL, 
AHAB,  ELISHA,  DAMASCUS,  SAMAHIA.] 

3.  The  son  of  Hazael,  and  his  successor  on 
the  throne.  He  lacked  his  father's  great 
qualities  as  king  and  commander,  and  speedily 
lost  to  Jehoash  in  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  the 
possessions  won  from  the  Israelites  by  Hazael 
(2  K.  13.25).  Tn  Amos  1.4  the  destruction  of 
all  Benhadad's  palaces,  and  his  other  mis- 
fortunes, is  foretold.  [JEHOASH,  ESDRAELON, 
AKHEK.] 

Ben-Ha'il. — Son  of  might :  a  prince  of  Judah, 
and  one  of  the  commissioners  appointed  to 
teach  the  Law  (2  Ch.  17.7). 

Ben-Ha'nan. — Son  of  the  gracious  :  a  son  of 
Shimon,  a  Judahite  (1  Ch.  4.20). 

Ben-he 'sed.— [HESED.  ] 

Beni'nu. — Our  Son  :  one  of  the  signatories 
to  the  solemn  covenant  made  by  the  Levites 
on  behalf  of  the  people  (Neh.  10.13). 

Ben-Hur.— [Hun.] 

Benjamin. — Son  of  the  right  hand:  1.  The 
name  given  by  his  father  Jacob.  His  dying 
mother  had  previously  given  her  new-born 
child  the  name  of  Benoni,  son  of  my  sorrow 
(Gen.  35.18).  Of  the  twelve  sons  of  the  Patriarch 
Jacob,  Benjamin  was  the  youngest,  and  with 
Joseph,  his  brother  by  the  same  mother,  Rachel, 
shared  the  tenderest  affections  of  his  father. 
Benjamin  wos  a  great  comfort  to  his  aged 
father,  and  returned  the  natural  affection  of  his 
elder  and  full  brother  Joseph  with  peculiar 
warmth  (Gen.  45.14).  He  was  born  in  Palestine, 
between  Bethel  and  Bethlehem,  his  life  costing 
his  mother  her  own  (Gen.  35.16  ft). 

Nothing  more  is  heard  of  Benjamin  until  the 
visits  of  his  brothers  to  Egypt  for  the  purpose 
of  buying  corn.  Then  his  character  peeps  out 
as  an  anr'able  and  well-loved  son  and  brother. 
He  is  the  favourite  with  the  whole  family, 
and  though  himself  the  father  of  a  numerous 
offspring  (Gen.  46.21),  he  is  evidently  looked 
upon  as  one  whom  the  rest  must  carefully  tend 
and  nourish  (Gen.  44.20).  From  this  point  his 
history  is  merged  in  that  of  the  tribe  to  which 
he  gave  a  name.  He,  who  seems  to  have 
been  the  least  manly  of  the  twelve, 
became  the  founder  of  a  tribe  of  the  fiercest 
fighters.  But  their  strength  and  warlike 
qualities  were  the  natural  result  of  their  rugged 
country,  one  also  exposed  to  attack  from  outside 
enemies.  That  this  should  be  so  was  foretold 
by  the  dying  Jacob  (Gen.  49.27). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Harim  (Ezra  10.32). 

3.  One  of  those  who  took  part  in  the  repairing 
of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  3.23).     Probably 
identical  with  4  and  5. 

4.  (Neh.  12.34).     See  3 

5.  (1  Ch.  7.10) 

Benjamin,  Gate  of  (Jer.  20.2,  37.13,  38.7 ; 
Zech.  14.10).  [JERUSALEM.] 


Benjamin,  The  tribe. — Though  small  in 
numbers,  it  was  singularly  energetic  and 
bellicose.  Even  in  the  desert  its  warriors 
numbered  over  35,000  (Num.  1.37),  which, 
by  the  time  the  Israelites  had  obtained 
an  entrance  into  the  Promised  Land,  had 
grown  to  be  45,600  fighting-men  (Num.  26.41). 
After  the  settlement  the  same  fierce 
temper  involved  the  Benjamites  in  a  war 
with  the  rest  of  the  tribes,  because  they  would 
not  deliver  up  to  justice  certain  evil  men, 
the  result  being  that  of  their  brave  army  all 
were  put  to  the  sword  excepting  only  600, 
who  took  refuge  in  the  wilderness  of  Rimmon 
(Judg.  20.47).  But  though  nearly  exter- 
minated, the  tribe  recovered  so  quickly  that 
by  the  time  David  was  on  the  throne  they 
could  muster  an  army  of  nearly  60,000,  and 
during  Asa's  reign  280,000,  all  armed  and  trained 
warriors.  That  the  continued  friendship  of 
the  Benjamites  with  the  tribe  of  Judah  was  of 
mutual  benefit  is  certain.  The  ties  that  united 
these  two  warlike  peoples  were  drawn  still 
closer  by  the  fact  that  David,  having  driven 
the  Jebusites  out  of  Zion,  made  that  strong- 
hold his  own  capital  (for  he  was  now  king  of 
all  Israel).  Now  Zion,  or  Jerusalem,  formed 
part  of  the  territory  of  Benjamin,  which  lay 
alongside,  indeed  almost  within,  the  larger 
territory  of  Judah. 

When  Solomon  died  Judah  and  Benjamin 
alone  remained  faithful,  and  formed  a  separate 
kingdom  (1  K.  12.21),  usually  called  simply 
by  the  name  of  Judah.  Saul,  the  first  king 
over  all  Israel,  was  a  Benjamite.  [SAUL, 
DAVID.] 

Benjamin,  The  territory.— This  lay  between 
Ephraim  and  Judah,  and  is  historically  connected 
with  Joseph  through  his  brother  Benjamin. 
Owing  to  its  position  it  was  exposed  to  frequent 
attacks  from  the  Moabites  and  the  Philistines. 
It  was  a  compact  country,  being  six  miles  long 
by  twelve  broad.  Its  altitude  was  great — 
2000  feet  above  the  Mediterranean,  and  3000 
above  the  Jordan  valley,  its  eastern  boundary. 
It  was  a  land  of  crags  and  mountains,  with 
exceeding  fertile  valleys  and  plains  between 
them.  In  the  defiles  much  of  the  fighting 
during  the  wars  of  occupation,  and  after- 
wards, took  place.  [BETH  HORON,  SAUL, 
JONATHAN,  JOSHUA,  KISH,  PAUL.] 

Benjamite.— A  member  of  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin  (Judg.  3.15). 

Be'no.— His  Son  :  a  Levite  (1  Ch.  24.26,  27). 

Beno'ni.— [BENJAMIN.] 

Benzo'heth. — A  descendant  of  Judah 
(1  Ch.  4.20). 

Be'on. — A  town  in  Reuben  on  the  east  of 
the  Jordan  (Num.  32.3).  Beon  may  be  a 
contraction  of  Baal-Meon  (Num.  32.38). 
[  BETH-  R  AAL-MEON.  ] 

Be'or.— A  burning:  1.  The  father  of  Bela, 
an  early  king  of  Edom  (Gen.  36.32  ;  1  Ch.  1.43). 
2.  The  father  of  Balaam  the  prophet.  In 
2  Pet.  2.15  he  is  called  Bosor  (Num.  22.5, 
24.3,  15;  Deut.  23.4,  etc.). 


BERA] 


65 


[BERYL 


Be'ra. — Gift :  king  of  Sodom  in  the  time 
of  Abram.  He  joined  the  league  against 
Chedorlaomer  (Gen.  14.2). 

Bera'cah,  Bera'chah. — Blessing  :  1.  A  Ben- 
jamite  warrior  attached  to  David  (1  Ch.  12.3). 
He  joined  the  Litter's  force  at  Ziklag.  2.  A 
valley  near  Tekoah,  in  the  south  of  Judah,  and 
identified  with  the  modern  Bereikut,  near 
Tekua,  lying  off  the  main  road  from  Bethlehem 
to  Hebron.  This  Valley  of  Blessing  was  the 
scene  of  the  great  rejoicing  and  thanksgiving 
festival  of  Jehoshaphat  and  his  people  after 
the  overthrow  of  the  Ammonites  and  Moabites 
by  the  immediate  intervention  of  God  (2  Ch. 
20.26). 

Berach'iah.— [BERECHIAH  2.] 

Berai'ah. — Jehovah  hath  created:  a  son  of 
Shimhi,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  (1  Ch.  8.21). 

Bere'a,  Beroea. — A  town,  now  called  Verria  or 
Kara  Verria,  on  the  east  slope  of  the  Olympian 
range  at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Bermios,  in  Lower  Mace- 
donia. Doubtless  the  fact  that  it  was  off  the  main 
track  of  travel  accounts  for  its  being  chosen 
as  the  refuge  for  Paul  and  Silas  when  they 
had  escaped  from  Thessalonica  (Acts  17.10). 
The  town  contained  a  number  of  Jews,  and 
the  "  nobler  "  spirit  mentioned  was  probably 
due  in  part  to  their  isolated  position.  It  was 
the  birthplace  of  Sopater,  one  of  Paul's  com- 
panions (Acts  20.4).  Both  the  Jews  and 
Greeks  of  Berea  were  ready  to  receive  the 
gospel  (Acts  17.12),  but  that  they  were  of  a 
higher  social  level  than  the  rest  of  the  inhabitants 
does  not  follow  from  the  use  of  the  term 
"noble"  (Acts  17.11).  Here,  then,  Paul  sat 
watching  over  his  converts  at  Thessalonica, 
until  the  Jews  of  that  place,  once  more  raising 
a  public  disturbance,  drove  him  away  again. 
In  his  journey  to  Athens  he  was  conducted 
part  of  the  way  by  some  of  the  Berean  converts. 
Its  present  inhabitants  (15,000  or  20,000)  are 
Turks  and  Greeks,  and  its  products  rice,  fruit, 
marble,  and  manufactured  cotton  goods. 

Berechi'ah. — Jehovah  blesses  :  1.  A  son  of 
Zerubbabel,  and  a  descendant  of  Jehoiakim, 
king  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  3.20).  2.  Father  of 
Asaph  the  chief  of  the  singers  (1  Ch.  15.17), 
called  Berachiah  in  the  A.V.  of  1  Ch.  6.39. 
3.  A  Levite  who  lived  near  Jerusalem  (1  Ch.  9.16, 
15.23).  He  was  the  son  of  Asa.  4.  An 
Ephraimite  (2  Ch.  28.12).  He  was  one  of  the 
chief  men  in  his  tribe  in  the  time  of  Ahaz. 
5.  The  father  of  Meshullam,  and  included  in 
the  list  of  those  who  repaired  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem  (Neh.  3.4,  30,  6.18).  6.  The  father 
of  Zechariah  the  prophet  (Zech.  1.1,  7). 
[BAKACHIAH,  BABACHIAS.] 

Be'red.— 1.  A  division  of  the  Ephraimites 
(1  Ch.  7.20),  called  Becher  in  Num.  26.35. 
Though  Becher  is  a  Benjamite  name,  yet  the 
close  relationship  of  the  two  tribes  renders  the 
transference  of  the  name  natural.  2.  A  place 
in  the  south  of  Canaan,  between  which  and 
Kadesh  lay  Beer-Lahai-Roi  (Gen.  16.14). 

Be'ri. — One  of  the  sons  of  Zophah,  an 
Asherite  (1  Ch.  7.36). 


Beri'ah.—  1.  This  doleful  name,  which 
sounded  like  "  in  evil,"  was  bestowed  upon  a 
son  of  Ephraim  because  of  a  domestic  tragedy 
(1  Ch.  7.21-23).  Ephraim's  sons  had  been 
lifting  cattle,  and  had  been  killed  by  the  men  of 
Gath  in  the  act.  When  his  next  son  was  born 
Ephraim  called  him  Beriah,  "  because  it  went 
evil  with  his  house."  2.  A  son  of  Asher,  from 
whom  descended  the  family  of  the  Beriites 
(Gen.  46.17  ;  Num.  26.44,  45  ;  1  Ch.  7.30,  31). 
3.  A  son  of  Elpaal,  a  Benjamite  by  adoption, 
because  of  services  rendered  to  the  Benjamites 
when  the  inhabitants  of  Gath  were  driven  away. 
He  and  his  brother  Shema  were  originally 
chiefs  of  Ajalon  (1  Ch.  8.13).  4.  A  son  of 
Shimei,  a  Levite  and  a  Gershonite,  who  lived 
in  the  time  of  David  (1  Ch.  23.10,  11). 

Ber'ites.— 1.  [BERIAH  2.]  2.  A  people 
settled  in  the  north  of  Canaan  who  followed 
Joab  in  his  pursuit  of  Sheba,  the  son  of 
Bichri,  who  had  rebelled  against  David  (2  Sam. 
20.14). 

Berith. — Covenant :  [BAAL-BERITH.]  An  idol 
worshipped  by  the  Israelites  at  Shechem 
(Judg.  8.33,  9.46). 

Berni'ce,  Bereni'ce.— This  woman,  who  was 
present  at  the  hearing  of  Paul  before  Festus 
(Acts  25  and  26),  was  a  daughter  of  Herod 
Agrippa  I.,  and  sister  of  Herod  Agrippa  II. 
She  was  of  an  abandoned  and  licentious 
character,  and  noted,  even  in  that  period  of 
loose  morals,  as  one  whose  life  was  more  than 
ordinarily  evil.  She  eventually  became  the 
mistress  of  the  Emperor  Titus.  Her  appear- 
ance in  the  presence  of  Paul  was  an  interesting 
occasion,  for  the  Apostle  had  already  preached 
of  sin  and  the  judgment  to  come  before  her 
adulterous  sister  Drusilla  (Acts  24.24).  Bernice 
was  a  woman  of  great  political  importance, 
and  in  later  years  struggled  to  replace  the 
Herods  on  the  Judaean  throne.  But  her  plans 
failed. 

Berodach  -  Bala'dan.  —  [MERODACH-BALA- 
DAN.] 

Bercea. — [BEREA.] 

Bero'thah.— According  to  Ezekiel,  this  place 
lay  between  Hamath  and  Damascus  (Ez.  47.16), 
and  formed  part  of  the  northern  boundary  of 
the  Promised  Land.  [BEROTHAI.] 

Bero'thai.— The  city  of  Hadadezer,  king  of 
Zobah,  taken  by  David  (2  Sam.  8.8).  It  has 
been  identified  with  the  modern  Beirut,  where 
are  still  to  be  seen  ancient  wells  cut  in  the  solid 
rock.  Perhaps  the  same  as  BEROTHAH. 

Bero'thite. — Belonging  to  Beroth  :  identified 
with  Beeroth,  which  see  (1  Ch.  11.39). 

Beryl.— This  jewel  was  the  tenth  stone,  or 
the  first  on  the  fourth  row,  on  the  high  priest's 
breastplate  (Ex.  28.20,  39.13).  But  what 
stone  is  intended  is  very  doubtful.  It  was  also 
the  eighth  of  the  precious  stones  that  formed 
the  foundations  of  the  heavenly  Jerusalem 
(Rev.  21.20),  where  probably  it  represents  the 
modern  beryl,  which  is  very  like  the  emerald. 
Pliny  describes  it  as  of  a  sea-green.  Observe 
that  the  high  priest  alone  wears  all  the  colours 


BESAI] 


60 


[BETH-BAAL-MEON 


on  his  breast,  but  each  part  of  the  foundation 
of  the  Holy  City  keeps  its  own  peculiar  colour 
and  shade  of  cojour.  The  apostles,  that  is 
to  say,  retained  each  his  own  capacity  and 
character. 

Be'sai. — One  of  the  Nethinim  who  returned 
from  exile  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.49 ; 
Neh.  7.52). 

Besodei'ah. — One  in  the  secret  of  Jehovah  : 
father  of  Meshullam ;  found  in  the  list  of 
the  repairers  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem,  being 
especially  engaged  upon  the  gates  (Neh.  3.6). 

Besom.— A  broom  (Isai.  14.23).  The  besom 
of  death  occurs  in  heathen  mythology. 

Be'sor. — Good  news :  a  wady  (i.e.  the  bed  of  a 
torrent)  in  the  extreme  south  of  Palestine. 
The  brook  which  is  now  called  Ghazza  falls 
into  the  Mediterranean  south  of  Gaza.  Saul 
presumably  crossed  this  brook  when  he  smote 
the  Amalekites  (1  Sam.  15.5),  and  it  is  also 
mentioned  in  the  account  of  David's  pursuit 
of  the  same  warlike  people  (1  Sam.  30.9-21). 

Be'tah. — Confidence :  a  city  belonging  to 
Hadadezer  out  of  which  David  took  a  great 
booty  of  brass  (2  Sam.  8.8).  In  1  Ch.  18.8  we 
find  another  spelling  of  this  name,  viz.  Tibhath, 
which  is  correct. 

Be'ten. — Depression,  lasin  :  a  city  of  Asher 
situated  eight  miles  east  of  Ptolemais.  It  has 
been  identified  with  el-B'aneh  (Josh.  19.25). 

Betha'bara.— House  of  the  ford :  one  of  the 
principal  north  fords  of  the  Jordan,  on  the 
road  descending  through  the  wady  Jalud,  and 
leading  to  Gilead,  north  of  Bethshean.  The 
name  of  the  place,  however,  would  more 
properly  be  Bethany  (not  to  be  confused  with 
the  Bethany  of  Mary  and  Martha).  John  was 
baptizing  here  when  Jesus  went  to  him  to 
receive  the  rite  (John  1.28  R.V.).  The  wrong 
traditional  site  is  at  Beth-nimrah  (Tell-Nimrin), 
north-east  of  Jericho,  on  the  opposite  side  ot 
the  river.  It  must  not  be  confused  with 
Betharabah  or  Bethbarah. 

Beth-a'nath.— Temple  of  the  goddess  Anath  : 
a  fortress  or  "  fenced  city  "  in  Naphtali,  in 
which  the  original  inhabitants  remained  after 
the  rest  of  the  country  was  conquered  by  the 
Israelites  (Josh.  19.38),  and  were  subjected  to 
their  conquerors  only  to  the  extent  of  furnishing 
labour  for  public  works  (Judg.  1.33).  It  is 
the  modern  Aenitha  in  Upper  Galilee. 

Beth-A'noth. — Same  meaning  as  preceding: 
an  ancient  stronghold  amongst  the  mountains 
of  Judah.  It  is  four  miles  north-east  of  Hebron, 
now  Beit-'Ainun  (Josh.  15.59). 

Bethany. — The  house  of  dates  :  it  is  most 
interesting  to  note  that  this  village,  so  intimately 
connected  with  the  life  of  our  Saviour,  is  now 
called  el-Azeriyeh,  the  "  town  of  Lazarus." 
It  lies  on  the  south-east  slope  of  the  Mount  of 
Olives,  2200  feet  above  the  sea,  about  a  mile 
from  the  summit,  and  two  miles  from  Jerusalem 
(John  11.18),  near  the  road  from  Jericho 
(Mark  10.46).  It  was  the  scene  of  the 
hospitality  of  the  family  of  Lazarus  to  our 
Lord ;  of  the  resurrection  of  Lazarus 


(John  11.1-46,  12.1);  the  residence  of  Simon 
the  leper  (Matt.  26.6) ;  and  the  starting-place 
of  Christ's  triumphal  progress  to  Jerusalem 
(Mark  11.1).  It  was  also  His  nightly  resting- 
place  the  week  prior  to  His  crucifixion 
(Matt.  21.17),  and  the  scene  of  His  ascension 
(Lk.  24.50). 

Apart  from  its  connexion  with  our  Saviour, 
Bethany  has  no  importance  whatever.  It  is 
now  a  tiny  village  of  about  twenty  families, 
with  scarcely  a  trace  of  its  ancient  history, 
and  it  is  very  doubtful  if  the  houses  of  Lazarus 
and  of  Simon  the  leper  now  pointed  out 
to  travellers  are  authentic.  The  tomb  of 
Lazarus,  as  shown  by  the  monks,  is  a  deep 
vault  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock.  The  bottom 
is  reached  by  a  flight  of  twenty-six  steps,  and 
the  tomb  consists  of  a  chamber  about  nine 
feet  square,  with  recesses  for  the  reception  of 
the  dead. 

Beth-Aratah.— House  of  the  desert-plain: 
one  of  the  six  cities  in  the  territory  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  situated  in  the  Arabah  or  sunk 
valley  of  the  Jordan  and  Dead  Sea  (Josh.  15.6,61 ). 
It  is  included  among  the  towns  of  Benjamin 
in  Josh.  18.22. 

Beth-A'ram  (R.V.  Beth-Haram).— House  of 
the  upland :  a  town  of  Gad  on  the  east  of 
Jordan  (Josh.  13.27).  The  same  place  as  that 
named  Beth-Haran  in  Num.  32.36.  Originally 
an  Amorite  city,  it  was  strengthened  by  Gad. 
Its  modern  name  is  Tell-er-Rameh,  673  feet 
above  the  sea,  nearly  opposite  Jericho,  between 
Heshbon  and  the  Jordan.  Near  it  were  hot 
springs,  said  to  be  efficacious  against  leprosy, 
and  it  was  therefore  a  favourite  watering-place. 
Herod  the  Great  had  a  palace  there,  and  Herod 
Antipas  walled  it. 

Beth-Ar'bel.— House  of  God's  ambush: 
Shalman  (Shalmaneser)  destroyed  this  place, 
sacking  the  town  and  massacring  its  inhabit- 
ants (Hos.  10.14).  Its  exact  position  is  not 
known.  It  may  be  near  Pella,  east  of  Jordan, 
or  in  Galilee. 

Beth-A'ven. — House  of  iniquity  or  idolatry 
or  nought:  1.  A  place  east  of  Bethel  (Josh. 
7.2),  lying  between  that  place  and  Michmash 
(1  Sam.  13.5).  Its  site  has  not  been  identified, 
though  it  was  on  the  border  of  the  wilderness 
(Josh.  18.12).  2.  A  reproachful  synonym  for 
Bethel  (Hos.  4.15,  5.8,  10.5). 

Beth-Azma'veth. — House  of  Azmaveth  :  a 
town  of  Benjamin,  reoccupied  after  the 
Captivity  (Neh.  7.28).  It  is  also  called 
Azmaveth,  and  in  the  Apocrypha  Bethsamos. 
It  has  been  located  at  Hizmeh,  a  hill  village, 
about  five  miles  north-north-east  of  Jerusalem. 

[AZMAVETH  5.] 

Beth-Ba'al-Me'on.— House  of  Baal-Meon  :  a 
Moabite  town  given  to  Reuben.  It  was  on 
the  north  of  the  Arnon,  a  little  south  of  Mount 
Nebo,  on  the  east  of  Jordan  (Josh.  13.17). 
At  first  it  was  called  Baal-Meon  (Num.  32.38), 
to  which  the  Israelites  prefixed  Beth.  It  was 
also  called  Beth-Meon  ( Jer.  48.23),  and  Beon,  a 
condensed  form  (Num.  32.3).  It  is  one  of  the 


BETH-BAEAH] 


67 


[BETHEL 


places  mentioned  on  the  "  Moabite  Stone," 
where  king  Mesha  is  said  to  have  either  built 
or  rebuilt  it.  [BAAL-MEON.]  Its  site  is 
marked  by  a  few  ruins  bearing  the  name 
"  Fortress  of  Mi'un." 

Beth-Ba'rah. — House  of  the  ford :  a  place 
in  Gad,  on  the  east  sideof  the  Jordan  (Judg.  7.24), 
the  scene  of  Gideon's  victory  against  Midian, 
and  their  utter  rout  by  the  men  of  Ephraim. 
The  "  waters  "  referred  to  in  the  text  were  the 
streams  coming  from  the  heights  of  Ephraim 
and  emptying  into  the  Jordan.  [BETHABARA.] 

Beth-Bir'ei,  Beth-Biri. — House  of  my  creation : 
a  town  of  Simeon  (1  Ch.  4.31),  the  same  place 
that  is  called  in  Josh.  19.6  Beth-Lebaoth.  Its 
position  was  in  the  extreme  south  of  the 
Holy  Land,  somewhere  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Beersheba. 

Beth-Car. — The  sheep-pasture,  or  house  of  a 
lamb  :  this  place  is  where  the  Israelites  stayed 
their  pursuit  of  the  Philistines,  whom  they  had 
chased  westward  from  Mizpeh  (1  Sam.  7.11). 
From  the  expression  "  under  "  it  is  evident 
that  the  town  or  stronghold  was  perched  on 
the  top  of  a  hill.  Here  also  the  stone  Ebenezer 
(ver.  12)  was  erected  by  Samuel,  in  commemora- 
tion of  the  signal  way  in  which  the  Lord  had 
helped  the  men  of  Israel,  and  also  to  mark 
the  end  of  the  pursuit. 

Beth-Da'gon. — House  of  Dagon  :  1.  A  town 
of  Judah,  the  name  of  which  shows  how  the 
Dagon  worship  of  the  Philistines  had  spread 
beyond  the  borders  of  their  own  country.  Its 
position  was  in  the  low-lying  parts  of  Judah, 
but  the  exact  locality  cannot  be  identified, 
except  that  it  was  near  Gederoth  (Josh.  15.41). 
2.  A  border  town  of  Asher,  and  near  the  coast. 
It  was  a  possession  of  the  Philistines  (Josh.\9.21). 
It  is  now  known  as  Tell  D'Auk. 

Beth-Diblatha'im. — House  of  two  cakes  of 
figs,  or  house  of  two  collections :  a  Moabite 
town,  also  called  Almon  -  Diblathaim  (Num. 
33.46,  47;  Jer.  48.22).  King  Mesha  built  and 
fortified  this  place,  as  he  tells  us  on  the  Moabite 
Stone. 

Beth'-eL — House  of  God  :  the  importance  of 
Bethel  in  the  Bible  story  is  roughly  measured  by 
the  many  times  it  is  mentioned  there,  viz.  sixty- 
five.  It  is  in  central  Canaan,  twelve  miles  north 
of  Jerusalem,  near  Luz ;  and  two  accounts  are 
given  of  its  origin.  According  to  Gen.  28.19, 
Jacob,  filled  with  awe  by  what  had  just  occurred 
on  the  spot,  gave  the  place  the  name  of  Bethel. 
The  commemorative  pillar  he  erected  was  not 
in  Luz  itself,  but  some  little  distance  away  on 
the  hillside  where  the  vision  had  appeared  to 
him.  The  second  account  says  that  Jacob 
named  the  place  Bethel  as  a  thanksgiving  to 
God  for  blessings  bestowed  upon  him  after  his 
return  from  Padan-Aram  (Gen.  35.1-15).  At 
this  time  he  received  his  second  name  of  Israel. 
In  Hos.  12 A,  5,  we  find  the  only  after  reference 
in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  to  this  event.  In 
all  the  earlier  references,  Bethel  and  Luz  are 
always  kept  separate,  the  "city"  of  Luz 
being  one  place,  and  Bethel,  the  holy  "  place," 


another  near  by  (Josh.  16.1,  2).  It  was  not 
until  its  capture  by  Ephraim  that  the  name 
of  Luz  disappeared,  and  that  of  Bethel  covered 
the  whole  site  (Judg.  1.22). 

Bethel  was  already  known  as  a  sanctuary 
when  Palestine  was  divided  into  the  kingdoms 
of  Israel  and  Judah,  and  Jeroboam  made 
Bethel  one  of  the  two  shrines  which  he 
established  in  Israel,  to  prevent  his  people 
going  up  to  Jerusalem  to  worship.  Here  it 
was  that  he  set  up  one  of  the  golden  calves, 
establishing  a  priesthood,  ordainirig  feasts  and 
encouraging  pilgrimages  to  the  altar  he  had 
erected  (1  K.  12.28).  In  consequence  of  this 
idolatry,  first  the  man  of  God  from  Judah 
(1  K.  13.1-3),  and  afterwards  Amos,  was 
directed  by  God  to  prophesy  against  Bethel. 
Amos  faithfully  carried  out  the  command,  and 
was  warned  by  the  high  priest  of  Jeroboam 
to  flee  the  city,  if  he  "  would  eat  bread," 
a  scarcely  veiled  hint  that  he  was  in  danger 
of  his  life.  Hosea  also  prophesied  against 
Bethel.  The  prophecies  were  fulfilled  when 
Josiah,  king  of  Judah,  destroyed  its  altars 
and  idols,  burning  upon  them  dead  men's 
bones  (2  K.  23.15,  16).  Previously  to  this 
destruction  Bethel  had  been  the  "  sanctuary  of 
the  king,"  and  the  "  house  of  the  kingdom  " 
(Amos  7.13).  The  position  of  Bethel  was 
eminently  suitable  for  such  a  purpose,  as  it  lay 
near  the  junction  of  the  great  roads  from  the 
coast  and  from  Jericho  to  Michmash.  From 
Amos  8.5  sqq.  we  know  that  it  was  an  import- 
ant market,  and  had  amongst  its  inhabitants 
a  number  of  wealthy  merchants.  That  these 
men  of  business  were  dishonest  traders  is  most 
emphatically  stated,  and  it  was  because  of 
these  things,  as  well  as  for  its  idolatry,  that 
it  was  to  suffer.  Its  wealth  led  to  other  forms 
of  wickedness  and  "vanity"  or  "idolatry," 
so  that  Amos  had  said  it  should  come  to 
"  nought "  (Hebrew,  "Aven,"  Amos  5.5),  and 
Hosea  nicknamed  it  "  Beth-aven  "  alternately 
with  Bethel  (Hos.  4.15). 

Among  other  references  to  Bethel  we  find 
that  in  the  disturbed  times  of  the  Judges  the 
people  were  in  the  habit  of  going  to  Bethel, 
the  "  House  of  God,"  to  consult  and  ask  counsel 
of  God  (Judg.  20.18,  26,  31,  21.2),  because  here 
was  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  in  charge  of 
Phinehas,  and  all  the  appliances  for  the  due 
performance  of  the  "  peace  "  and  "  burnt  " 
offerings.  Samuel  also  went  to  Bethel  during 
his  visitation  of  the  holy  cities  (1  Sam.  7.16). 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  worship  of  Jehovah 
continued  in  Bethel  alongside  of  the  worship 
of  Baal,  and  of  the  curious  form  of  idolatry 
set  up  by  Jeroboam.  This  was  the  condition 
of  things  when  Elijah  visited  the  "  sons  of  the 
prophets  "  (2  K.  2.2,  23),  and  was  mocked  by 
the  children.  Then  Jehu  seized  the  throne, 
and,  destroying  the  Baal  worship,  restored 
to  its  place  of  supremacy  the  calf-worship  of 
Jeroboam  (2  K.  10.29).  Then  commenced  a 
period  of  increased  prosperity  for  Bethel,  until, 
in  the  time  of  the  second  Jeroboam,  we  read 


BETHEL,  MOUNT] 


68 


[BETH-JESHIMOTH 


that  it  was  again  a  royal  residence,  with  palaces 
of  "  stone  "  and  "  ivory  "  for  winter  and  summer 
use,  with  great  luxury  in  living  (Amos  3.15,7.13). 

But  when  the  kingdom  of  Israel  had  been 
overrun  by  the  king  of  Assyria  and  laid  waste, 
the  golden  calf  was  carried  off  from  Bethel  by 
Shalmaneser,  though  the  priests  remained,  that 
they  might  teach  the  people  to  fear  Jehovah, 
"  the  God  of  the  land  "  (2  K.  17-27,  28). 
This  corrupt  worship  was  finally  swept  away  by 
the  drastic  methods  of  Josiah  (see  above). 

Among  the  ruins,  in  the  midst  of  which  is  the 
modern  Beitln,  may  be  seen  the  remains  of  a 
Byzantine  church,  standing  on  the  "  mountain  " 
on'  which  Abram  built  the  altar,  and  on  which 
he  and  Lot  stood  when  they  divided  the  land 
between  them  (Gen.  12.8,  13.10). 

2.  Town  in  the  south  of  Judah ;  one  of 
David's  haunts  when  fleeing  from  Saul  (1  Sam. 
30.27).  Perhaps  also  mentioned  in  Josh.  12.16. 

Bethel,  Mount. — The  hill  on  which  Bethel 
stood  (1  Sam.  13.2).  In  Josh.  16.1  read  "  the 
hill  country  to  Bethel  "  with  the  R.V. 

Beth/elite. — Belonging  to  Bethel :  Hiel,  who 
rebuilt  Jericho,  was  a  Bethelite,  or  native  of 
Bethel  (1  K.  16.34). 

Beth-e'mek.— House  of  the  valley  :  a  border 
town  of  Asher,  on  the  edge  of  the  Phoenician 
plain  (Josh.  19.27).  Perhaps  the  modern 
Amka,  seven  miles  north-east  of  Akko. 

Be'ther. — Cloven  mountains  :  a  mountain 
land  cut  up  by  ravines  (Cant.  2.17).  If  a 
specific  place  is  intended,  it  may  be  identified 
with  Bittir,  a  high  cliff  south-west  of  Jerusalem. 

Bethes'da. — House  of  mercy :  the  name  of  a 
pool  or  reservoir  in  Jerusalem  near  the  sheep 
market  (John  5.2-7).  The  supply  of  water  was 
intermittent,  hence  the  "  moving  of  the  water  " 
(ver.  3),  and  the  impotent  man's  reply  to  Jesus, 
and  his  use  of  the  word  "  troubled  "  (ver.  7). 
The  mention  of  five  porches  may  show  that  the 
pool  was  in  reality  two  pools,  for  the  porches  con- 
sisted of  cloisters,which  were  erected  on  the  four 
sides,  with  a  connecting  one  dividing  the  pool 
into  two  parts.  These  cloisters  would  afford 
ample  accommodation  for  a  large  number  of 
invalids,  who  would  gather  to  benefit  by  the 
moving  of  the  waters.  It  was  rediscovered  in 
1888  near  the  Church  of  Si.  Anne,  and  consists 
of  two  pools,  each  about  60  feet  long  by  12 
feet  broad,  placed  end  to  end. 

Beth-e'zel. — Meaning  unknown  :  a  city  in  the 
north  of  Judah,  not  yet  identified  with  any 
modern  town  or  ruin.  Micah  foretells  the 
captivity  of  its  inhabitants,  and  the  mourning 
for  them  (Mic.  1.11). 

Beth-ga'der. — The  House  of  the  wall  or 
walled  place  :  a  village  founded  (?)  by  Hareph, 
a  son  of  Caleb  (1  Ch.  2.51).  Perhaps  the  same 
as  Geder  (which  see). 

Beth-ga'mul.  —  House  of  recompense  :  a 
Moabite  town  east  of  Jordan  (Jer.  48.23) ;  not 
found  in  the  earlier  catalogues  of  place  names  in 
Num.  32  and  Josh.  13,  and  so  doubtless  of  later 
foundation.  It  has  been  identified  with  the 
modern  Jemail,  which  lies  eastward  from  Dibon. 


Beth-gilgaL— [GiLG  AL.  ] 

Beth-hacce'rem. — House  of  the  vineyard  : 
a  beacon  station  between  Tekoa  and  Jerusalem, 
under  the  rule  of  Rechab  (Neh.  3.14  ;  Jer.  6.1). 
It  has  been  identified  with  Ain-Karim,  a  little 
south-west  of  Jerusalem.  As  a  military  station 
it  was  well  placed,  for  its  height  above  all 
the  surrounding  district  would  render  a  fire  on 
the  summit  visible  to  all  the  country  round 
about.  (See  Jer.  6.1  :  "  Blow  the  trumpet  in 
Tekoa,  and  set  up  a  sign  of  fire  in  Beth-Hac- 
cerem.")  It  was  also  a  fruitful  place,  worth 
protecting.  Cairns,  one  of  which  is  40  feet 
high  and  130  feet  in  diameter,  on  which  the 
beacon  fires  may  have  been  lighted,  are  still  to 
be  found  on  the  summit  of  the  ridge. 

Beth-Ha'ram,  Beth-Ha'ran.—  A  high  or  strong 
place:  the  same  place  as  Beth-Aram  (which  see). 

Beth-Hog'la,  Beth-Hog'lah.— House  of  Vie 
partridges :  a  border  town  between  Judah  and 
Benjamin,  but  belonging  to  the  latter  (Josh. 
15.6, 18.19,  21).  A  spring  and  ruin  named  Ain 
Hajlah  are  pointed  out  to-day  as  the  site  of 
Beth-Hoslah. 

Beth-Ho'ron. — House  of  the  hole  or  cavern  : 
there  were  two  places  of  this  name  in  Ephraim, 
called  respectively  "  Upper "  arid  "  Lower," 
near  the  borders  of  Benjamin  (Josh.  10.10). 
The  modern  representatives  of  these  two 
villages  are  called  Beit-Ur  el  Foka  and  Bet-Ur 
el  Tahta,  the  one  epithet  meaning  "  Upper," 
and  the  other  "  Nether."  The  founder  of  these 
twin  villages  was  Sherah,  daughter  of  Beriah, 
who  in  1  Ch.  7.24  is  described  as  their  builder. 
The  reference  in  2  Ch.  8.5  implies  that  Solomon 
rebuilt  and  turned  them  into  fortified  camps 
(see  below).  The  position  of  Beth-Horon, 
on  the  edge  of  the  plateau  just  before  the  de- 
scent into  the  fertile  plain  of  Sharon,  and  on  the 
great  high  road  from  Jerusalem,  caused  it  to  be 
a  place  of  great  importance  from  a  military 
point  of  view.  When  Gibeon  was  threatened 
by  the  Canaanites  from  the  low  country,  Joshua 
defeated  them  and  chased  them  up  the  ascent 
to  Upper  Beth-Horon,  and  then  down  past  the 
Lower  (Josh.  10.10,  11).  Then  later,  in  the 
troublous  timeswhen  Saul  was  king, the  Philistines 
at  Michmash  threatened  them  (1  Sam.  13.16). 
Afterwards  Solomon  refortified  both  Beth- 
Uorons,  the  nether  and  upper,  and  Gezer  (1  K. 
9.17  ;  2  Ch.  8.5).  It  was  through  the  pass  of 
Beth-Horon  that  the  Egyptians  invaded  Judah 
during  Rehoboam's  reign.  The  road  is  now  little 
used,  though  from  some  remains  of  pavement 
we  know  that  the  Romans  did  not  neglect  so 
important  a  point,  which  guarded  their  main 
line  of  communication  between  Jerusalem  and 
the  coast. 

Beth- Jeshi 'moth.  —  House  of  wastes:  a 
Moabite  city  close  to  the  Dead  Sea  (Num.  33.49). 
The  Israelites  encamped  here  before  crossing 
the  Jordan.  Before  passing  into  the  possession 
of  Moab,  Beth-Jeshimoth  had  formed  part, 
of  the  territory  of  Reuben  (Josh.  12.3).  Later 
it  is  named  as  one  of  the  cities  which  were  "  the 
glory  of  the  country  "  (Egtk.  25.9).  It  is  the 


BETH-LE-APHRAH] 


69 


[BETHPHAGE 


modern  Es-Suweimeh,  at  the  north-east  corner 
of  the  Dead  Sea. 

Beth-le-Aphrah.— [APHRAH.] 

Beth-Leba'oth.— House  of  lionesses:  a 
town  in  Simeon  (Josh.  19.6)  situated  in  the  wild 
and  rugged  country  in  the  south  of  Judah. 
In  1  Ch.  4.31  it  is  called  Beth-Birei. 

Beth'-lehem. — House  of  bread  or  place  of  food: 
originally  called  Ephrath,  Bethlehem  was  one 
of  the  very  oldest  towns  of  Palestine  (Gen. 
35.19).  The  modern  name  is  Beit-Lahm. 
Lying  between  five  and  six  miles  south  of  Jeru- 
salem, the  position  of  the  town  is  very  beautiful, 
standing  as  it  does  on  an  eminence  over  2000 
feet  above  the  sea,  surrounded  by  hills  and  rich 
fertile  valleys  (Ruth  2  ;  Ps.  65.12,  ]3),  near  the 
main  road  from  Jerusalem  to  Hebron.  There 
is  no  water  except  what  can  be  gathered  during 
the  rains  in  cisterns,  and,  by  means  of  an  aque- 
duct, from  the  Pools  of  Solomon. 

No  locality  in  Palestine  has  more  interesting 
and  momentous  associations.  Yet  it  is  strange 
that  this  place,  the  birthplace  of  David  and  of 
"  David's  Greater  Son,"  as  well  as  being  the 
scene  of  numerous  other  important  events, 
should  have  remained  in  obscurity  during  the 
whole  of  its  long  existence. 

Its  earliest  name  of  Ephrath  (which  see) 
occurs  in  the  history  of  Jacob.  Rachel  was 
buried  near  it.  Salma,  a  son  of  Caleb,  is  regarded 
as  its  "  father  "  in  1  Ch.  2.51,  54.  Later  it 
had  a  very  special  connexion  with  the  land  of 
Moab,  which  continued  until  the  time  of  Saul 
(1  Sam.  22.3,  4).  The  story  of  Ruth  familiarises 
us  with  its  people  and  their  manner  of  life. 
Though  David  was  born  in  Bethlehem,  the  town 
did  not  gain  anything  from  its  connexion  with 
the  great  king.  He  neither  built  monuments  in 
it  nor  raised  its  status  among  the  other  towns 
of  the  kingdom.  Yet,  when  hard  pressed 
by  foes,  his  greatest  longing  was  for  a  drink 
of  water  from  the  old  well  (2  Sam.  23.15).  The 
place  was  fortified  more  than  once.  The 
Philistines  occupied  it  with  a  garrison  (2  Sam. 
23.14),and  in  after  years  Rehoboam  is  described 
as  having  "  built  "  Bethlehem  (2  Ch.  11.6) ; 
that  is  to  say,  Bethlehem  was  one  of  the  towns 
he  fortified  and  strengthened  for  the  defence 
of  his  position  in  Jerusalem.  From  Ezra  2.21  we 
learn  that  one  hundred  and  twenty-three 
children  of  Bethlehem  returned  from  the 
captivity  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  7.26). 

Close  to  Bethlehem  was  the  inn  or  "  khan  " 
of  Chimham  (which  see).  It  did  not  differ 
materially  from  other  inns  in  Palestine,  but  it 
was  notable  as  being  the  starting-point  for  the 
long  and  toilsome  journey  into  Egypt  (Jer. 
41.17).  It  was  at  this  inn,  outside  Bethlehem 
the  obscure,  that  the  most  memorable  event 
in  the  world's  history  occurred,  in  accordance 
with  the  prophecy  of  Mic.  5.2 — the  Saviour 
of  man  was  born — not  in  the  town,  not  even  in 
the  inn,  but  in  the  stable  of  the  inn.  From 
here  also  began  that  flight  into  Egypt  to  save 
the  life  of  the  young  child  (Matt.  2.1-15  ;  Lk. 
2.4-15;  John  7.42).  The  subsequent  history 


of  Bethlehem,  with  one  or  two  exceptions, 
was  as  obscure  as  its  past.  The  Roman  Emperor 
Hadrian  planted  an  idolatrous  grove  on  the  site 
of  the  Nativity ;  the  Empress  Helena  after- 
wards built  a  church  on  the  same  spot,  which 
still  remains.  This  building  is  now  surrounded 
by  three  convents  belonging  to  the  Greek, 
Roman,  and  Armenian  Churches.  In  the 
eleventh  century  Bethlehem  was  captured 
from  the  Turks  by  the  Crusaders,  and  made 
an  episcopal  see. 

Beit-Lahm  to-day  has  a  Christian  population 
of  about  5000,  and  is  clean  and  rather  attractive 
in  appearance,  even  apart  from  its  beautiful 
setting  among  the  hills. 

2.  A  town  in  Zebulun  mentioned  only  in  Josh. 
19.15.  It  is  six  miles  to  the  west  of  Nazareth, 
and  is  called  Beit-Lahm — like  its  famous  name- 
sake. 

Bethlehemite. — Belonging  to,  or  an  inhabitant 
of  Bethlehem  (1  Sam.  16.1,  18,  17.58 ;  2  Sam. 
21.19). 

Beth-maa'chah.— Place  of  oppression:  iden- 
tical with  Abel-Bethma'achah,  which  see. 

Beth-marca'both.—  House  of  chariots :  a 
Simeonite  town  at  the  south  of  Judah  (Josh. 
19.5 ;  1  Ch.  4.31.  Its  exact  position  is  un- 
known. 

Beth-me'on. — House  of  habitation :  a  city 
of  Moab  (Jer.  48.23).  The  name  is  the  same  as 
Beth-Baalmeon,  which  see. 

Beth-merhak  (1  Sam.  15.17  R.V.).— Probably 
an  outlying  house  of  Jerusalem  on  the  way 
to  Jericho. 

Beth-millo.— [MILLO.] 

Beth-nim'rah.— Place  of  a  leopard :  the  same 
as  Nimrah,  one  of  the  "  fenced  cities  "  of  Gad 
(Num.  32.3,  36;  Josh.  13.27),  east  of  Jordan. 
It  is  now  represented  by  the  mound  Tell- 
Nimrin,  where  a  brook  runs  through  the  lower 
end  of  the  Wady  Shoaib  into  the  Jordan  at  a 
ford  north  of  Jericho.  It  was  down  this  valley 
that  the  children  of  Israel  descended  to  the 
Jordan.  (NIMRIN.)  The  whole  surroundings 
of  the  place  make  it  remarkably  appropriate 
to  the  description  of  Bethabara. 

Beth-pa'let.  Beth-pelet,  Beth-phelet.— 
House  of  escape :  a  place  on  the  southern 
border  of  Judah.  Its  site  has  not  been 
identified  (Josh.  15.27  ;  Nehll.2Q).  [PALTITB.] 

Beth-paz'zez. — House  of  dispersion :  a  town 
of  Issachar  (Josh.  19.21). 

Beth-pelet.— [  BBTH-PALET.  ] 

Beth-pe'or.— House  of  Peor  :  a  Moabite  town 
on  the  east  of  Jordan ;  allotted  to  Reuben 
(Josh.  13.20).  It  is  six  miles  above  Beth-haram 
on  the  slopes  of  Mount  Pisgah,  and  was  originally 
dedicated  to  Baal,  whose  impure  rites  were 
practised  there.  It  was  also  a  stopping-place 
of  the  Israelites  (Deut.  3.29).  In  the  ravine 
"  over  against  Beth-peor  "  it  is  said  that  Moses 
was  buried  (Deut.  34.6). 

Beth/phage. — The  House  of  unripe  figs  : 
(the  word  translated  "  green  figs  "  in  Cant.  2.13 
is  "phagim").  Near  Bethany,  on  the  Mount 
of  Olives,  on  the  road  between  Jericho  and 


BETH-PHELET] 


70 


[BETH-TAPPUAH 


Jerusalem  (Matt.  21.1  ;  Mk.  11.1 ;  Lk.  19.29). 
The  relative  positions  of  Bethphage  and  Bethany 
and  of  both  to  Jerusalem  Lave  been  variously 
understood.  In  coming  from  Jericho  our 
Lord  appears  to  have  entered  it  before  reaching 
Bethany;  and  it  probably,  therefore,  lay  a  little 
below  that  town  towards  the  east.  Its  site 
has  not  been  found. 

Beth-phelet—  [BETH-PALET.] 

Beth-ra'pha. — (?)  House  of  the  giant:  a  name 
in  the  genealogy  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  4.12).  There 
is  also  a  Rapha  in  the  line  of  Benjamin  and 
elsewhere. 

Beth-reTiob. — Broad  -place  (as  for  a  market), 
or  House  of  Rehob  :  a  petty  Syrian  kingdom 
near  Laish  (Judg.  18.28),  whose  inhabitants 
were  hired  by  the  Ammonites  to  fight  against 
David  (2  Sam.  10.6,8).  See  Rehob  (Num.  13.21). 
It  still  exists  under  the  name  of  Hunin,  a  fortress 
commanding  the  plain  of  Huleh. 

Bethsaida.  —  House  of  the  fishing :  there 
seem  to  have  been  two  places  of  this  name  : 
one,  the  native  place  of  Andrew,  Peter,  and 
Philip  ;  the  other,  near  the  scene  of  the  feeding 
of  the  5000.  1.  The  first  of  these,  Bethsaida 
of  Galilee,  was  on  the  north-west  side  of  the 
Lake  of  Gennesareth,  close  to  the  water's  edge, 
and  not  far  from  Capernaum  (Matt..  11.21 ; 
Mk.  6.45;  Lk.  10.13;  John  1.44).  The 
existence  of  this  Bethsaida  is,  however,  denied 
by  many  scholars.  2.  The  other  Bethsaida, 
the  scene  of  the  miracle  of  the  feeding  of  the 
5000  (Lk.  9.10-17),  was  on  the  east  side  of 
the  Lake,  not  far  from  the  entrance  of 
the  Jordan  into  it.  Near  here  also  was  the 
wilderness  of  Bethsaida  (Matt.  14.15-21; 
Lk.  9.10).  The  place,  formerly  but  a  village, 
was  rebuilt,  beautified,  and  raised  to  the 
status  of  a  town  by  Philip  the  Tetrarch, 
who  renamed  it  "  Julias,"  after  Julia,  the 
daughter  of  the  Roman  Emperor  Augustus. 
It  is  said  that  Philip  died  and  was  buried  here. 
The  ruin  of  et-Tell  on  a  hillside  east  of  the 
Jordan  has  been  identified  as  Bethsaida  Julias. 
If  there  was  only  one  Bethsaida,  as  many  main- 
tain, this  was  the  place,  which  was  at  one  time 
included  in  Galilee,  and  at  another  in  Gaulonitis. 
(See  map  of  Palestine  in  the  time  of  our 
Saviour.) 

Beth-shan.— [BETH-SHEAN.] 

Beth-she'an. — House  of  quiet:  the  same  as 
Bethshan.  A  town  four  miles  west  of  Jordan, and 
eighteen  miles  south  of  the  Sea  of  Tiberias,  which 
was  long  known  as  Scythopolis,  presumably 
as  having  been  conquered  by  the  Scythians 
about  620  B.C.  It  was  situated  on  the  border 
of  Galilee  and  Samaria,  upon  the  edge  of  the 
great  plain  of  Jordan,  within  the  boundaries 
of  Issachar,  but  allotted  to  Manasseh  (Josh. 
17.11 ;  Judg.  1.27).  The  Philistines  when 
they  had  defeated  Saul  at  the  battle  of  Gilboa 
hung  his  body,  according  to  their  custom,  on 
its  walls  (1  Sam.  31.10).  Evidently  Beth- 
shean  was  then  in  their  possession,  though 
afterwards  we  find  it  belonging  to  Judah  (1  K. 
4.12).  Solomon  drew  his  household  supplies 


from  Bethshcan,  which  at  this  time  embraced 
the  whole  of  the  surrounding  district,  and  was 
under  the  charge  of  an  officer  of  his  commis- 
sariat. From  the  fact  that  the  Philistines 
held  it  with  a  garrison,  and  that  it  had  a  popula- 
tion of  Canaanites  (Judg.  1.27),  it  is  thought 
that  it  fell  into  the  possession  of  the  Israelites 
during  David's  reign. 

After  the  exile,  and  when  the  Greeks  held 
sway,  it  was  called  Scythopolis,  a  name  which 
afterwards  faded  away,  and  the  old  designation 
was  revived.  In  the  early  centuries  of  Chris- 
tianity it  was  famous  as  the  seat  of  a  Christian 
school.  Its  present  name  of  Beisan  but  desig- 
nates some  fine  ruins,  though  in  the  time  of  our 
Saviour  it  was  one  of  the  most  important 
places  of  Decapolis. 

Beth-she'mesh.— House  of  the  sun :  1.  A  border 
town  on  the  north-west  slope  of  the  mountains 
of  Judah,  though  it  was  a  Danite  possession 
(Josh.15.10).  It  is  now  known  as  Ain-shems,near 
the  lower  country  of  Philistia.  That  its  position 
was  on  low  ground,  or  in  a  hollow,  is  clearly 
shown  by  the  request  to  the  people  of  Kirjath- 
jearim  to  "  come  down "  and  fetch  the  ark 
away  (1  Sam.  6.21).  The  Philistines  were 
too  terror-stricken  to  keep  possession  of  the  ark, 
and  when  they  sent  it  away  from  Ekron,  the 
field  of  "  Joshua  the  Bethshemite  "  was  chosen 
as  its  resting-place.  Bethshemesh  was  the 
scene  of  a  battle  between  Jehoash,  king  of 
Israel,  and  Amaziah,  king  of  Judah  (2  K. 
14.11-13).  It  was  also  captured  by  the  Philis- 
tines (2  Ch.  28.18)  when  they  made  a  raid  upon 
this  and  other  places  during  the  reign  of  Ahaz. 
Bethshemesh  was  also  one  of  Solomon's  com- 
missariat districts  (1  K.  4.9).  Both  in  Beth- 
shemesh and  its  neighbouihood  the  sun  was 
extensively  worshipped — a  statement  attested 
by  the  ruins  still  existing.  2.  A  city  on  the 
border  of  Issachar  (Josh.  19.22),  perhaps  Ain 
esh-Shemslyeh,  seven  miles  south  of  Bethsheanin 
the  Jordan  valley.  3.  A  fenced  city  of  Naphtali, 
the  Canaanite  inhabitants  of  which  were  not 
expelled  by  the  Israelites,  but,  instead,  were 
held  to  tribute  (Josh.  19.38).  4.  A  city  in 
Egypt  called  On  (which  see),  where  the  sun 
was  worshipped,  called  in  Greek  Heliopolis, 
which  in  the  Middle  Ages  was  still  called  Ain- 
Shems  (Jer.  43.13). 

Beth-shem'ite.— An  inhabitant  of  Beth-she- 
mesh,  Joshua  (1  Sam.  6.14,  18),  into  whose  field 
the  cart  bearing  the  ark  came  after  the  Philistines 
in  their  fear  had  sent  it  away  from  their  own 
country. 

Beth-shit 'tab. — House  of  the  acacia :  this  wu& 
on  the  line  of  flight  of  the  Midianites  after 
Gideon  had  routed  them  (Judg.  7.22).  Beth- 
shittah  was  near  the  Jordan,  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Zererath  and  Abel-meholah,  but  its 
exact  position  has  not  been  discovered. 

Beth-tappu'ah.  —  House  of  apples  :  near 
Hebron,  in  the  mountainous  country  of  Judah, 
five  miles  west  of  Hebron.  Its  modern  name 
is  Taffuh.  It  is  still  a  very  fruitful  place, 
with  traces  of  ancient  cultivation  ( Josh.  15.53). 


BETHUEL] 


7i 


[BIDKAE 


Bethu'el.— Man  of  God:  1.  A  son  of  Nahor, 
Abraham's  brother,  and  father  of  Rebekah 
(Gen.  22.22,  23;  24.15,  24).  He  was  called 
(Gen.  25.20)  "  Bethuel  the  Syrian."  Though 
his  name  occurs  several  times,  yet  he  makes  his 
appearance  but  once  (Gen.  24.50),  and  it  is 
supposed  that  his  death  occurred  immediately 
after.  2.  A  Simeonite  town  (1  Ch.  4.30).  In 
Josh.  15.30  it  is  called  Chesik,  and  Bethul 
in  Josh.  19.4. 

Beth' -zur. — House  of  rock:  a  town  in  the 
mountains  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.58),  commanding 
the  main  road  from  Beersheba  and  Hebron  to 
Jerusalem.  It  was  fortified  by  Rehoboam 
(2  Oh.  11.7);  and  its  inhabitants  assisted 
Nehemiah  in  rebuilding  the  walls  of  Jerusalem 
after  the  captivity  (Neh.  3.16).  Originally  the 
strongest  place  in  all  Judaea,  it  is  represented 
to-day  by  a  mere  village,  in  the  midst  of  ancient 
ruins  four  and  a  half  miles  from  Hebron, 
Beit-sur. 

Beto'nim. — Pistachio  nuts  :  u  town  on  the 
northern  boundary  of  Gad,  east  of  the  Jordan 
(Josh.  13.26).  Perhaps  Batne,  west  of  Es-salt. 
A  similar  word  is  to  be  found  in  Gen.  43.11,where 
it  is  translated  "  nuts." 

Betroth,  Betrothed.— Good  faith  or  promise  : 
the  betrothal  of  a  couple  was  accompanied 
among  the  Jews  by  a  payment  in  money  or 
kind,  or  even  of  both,  and,  though  there  were 
occasional  exceptions,  without  consulting  the 
betrothed.  The  betrothal  often  took  place  in 
childhood,  about  twelve  months  before  marriage, 
though  the  marriage  itself  was  not  completed 
until  the  bride  had  reached  the  age  of  twelve. 
Unlike  the  marriage  ceremony,  betrothals  were 
simple  affairs.  Abraham's  servant  stated  the 
object  of  his  journey  to  the  parents  of  Rebekah. 
These  called  their  daughter  and  asked,  "  Wilt 
thou  go  with  this  man  ?  "  Her  reply  was  as 
brief,  and  as  much  to  the  point,  "  I  will  go  " 
(Gen.  24.57,  58).  David's  manner  in  choosing  a 
wife  was  equally  abrupt  (1  Sam.  25.40-42). 
Jacob's  method  was  somewhat  different,  though 
the  principle  was  the  same.  He  was  too  poor 
to  buy  Rachel,  so  he  offered  his  services  as  an 
equivalent,  and  even  submitted  to  the  hard 
bargain  driven  by  his  father-in-law.  When 
it  came  to  Jacob's  own  turn  to  bargain  with 
a  prospective  son-in-law,  we  find  Shechem 
asking  him  as  a  matter  of  course  what  he 
wanted  as  purchase-money  for  his  daughter 
(Gen.  34.11,  12). 

Among  the  ancient  Jews,  the  betrothing  was 
performed  either  by  a  writing  or  by  the  giving 
of  a  piece  of  silver  to  the  bride  in  the  presence 
of  witnesses,  and  by  giving  a  ring  (this  last  not 
in  Biblical  times).  After  the  marriage  was  con- 
tracted, the  young  people  had  the  liberty  of 
seeing  each  other,  which  was  not  allowed  them 
before,  and  the  woman  was  considered  a  lawful 
wife,  and  any  trespass  against  her  betrothed 
was  punished  as  though  they  were  fully 
married.  Moreover,  the  betrothal  could  not 
be  broken  off  without  a  formal  bill  of  divorce. 
In  later  times  the  betrothal  became  an  elaborate 


affair,  accompanied  with  a  lengthy  and  formal 
written  legal  contract. 

Betrothal  is  used  to  symbolise  relations 
between  God  and  His  people.  God  betroths 
men  to  Himself  when  He  leads  them  by  faith 
into  union  with  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  He 
betroths  them  for  ever  by  an  everlasting  covenant, 
and  in  everlasting  kindness  (Hos.  2.19,  20 ; 
2  Cor.  11.2).  [ESPOUSE,  MARRIAGE.] 

Beu'lah.  —  Married  :  from  a  root  -  word 
meaning  "  to  be  lord  of,"  and  beautifully 
bestowed  by  Isaiah  on  the  Jewish  Church  when 
he  would  describe  the  intimacy  of  its  relation 
to  God  as  husband  and  Sovereign  Lord 
(Itai.  62.4). 

Bezaanan'nim.— [ZAANANNIM.] 

Be'zai. — Meaning  unknown :  1.  The  ancestor 
of  a  family  of  323  exiles  who  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel  (Ezra  2.17 ;  Neh.  7.23).  2.  A  chief  who, 
with  Nehemiah,  signed  the  covenant  (Neh. 
10.18)  with  God  after  the  return  from  exile. 

Bezale'el,  BezaleL— In  the  shadow  of  God:  1. 
The  son  of  Uri,  the  son  of  Hur,  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah,  i.e.  descendant  of  Caleb  (1  Ch.  2.18-20, 
50),  a  clever  craftsman  and  designer,  charged 
to  execute  the  works  of  art  required  for  the 
Tabernacle  in  the  wilderness.  He  had  associ- 
ated with  him  Aholiab,  who  dealt  with  the 
textile  fabrics.  BezaleePs  personal  work  was 
in  metal,  wood,  and  stone,  but  he  was 
Aholiab's  chief,  and  superintended  the  latter's 
work  (Ex.  31.2;  35.30;  36.1,  2;  I  Ch.  2.20; 
2  Ch.  1.5).  See  further  under  HUE.  2.  The  son 
of  Pahath-moab,  one  of  those  who  had  married 
a  foreign  wife  (Ezra  10.30). 

Be'zek.—  Flash  of  lightning :  1.  The  residence 
of  Adonibezek,  lord  of  Bezek.  A  place  allotted 
to  Judah,  where  the  Canaanites  and  Perizzites 
were  slaughtered,  and  their  king  taken  prisoner 
with  the  aid  of  Simeon  (Judg.  1.4,  5).  [ADONI- 
BEZEK.] 2.  The  place  where  Saul  numbered 
the  army  before  going  to  the  relief  of  Jabesh- 
gilead  (1  Sam.  11.8).  Its  present  name  is  Ibzik, 
fourteen  miles  north  from  Nablus. 

Be'zer. — Strong  fortress :  1.  A  city  of  Reuben 
that  had  "  suburbs  "  and  was  set  apart  by  Moses 
as  one  of  three  cities  of  refuge  on  the  east  of 
Jordan  (Dent.  4.43).  It  was  allotted  to  the 
Merarites  (1  Ch.  6.78),  and  is  now  known  as 
Besheir,  a  ruin  south-west  of  Dhiban.  The 
same  as  Bozrah  (2),  which  see.  2.  A  son  of 
Zophah,  and  one  of  the  heads  of  the  house  of 
Asher  (1  Ch.  7.37). 

Bible.  —  [CANON  OF  HOLY  SCRIPTURE, 
CRITICISM,  NEW  TESTAMENT,  NON-CANONICAL 
BOOKS,  OLD  TESTAMENT.] 

Bich'ri. — First-born,  youthful :  ancestor  of 
Sheba,  who  revolted  against  David  (2  Sam. 
20.1-22). 

Bid'kar. — Meaning  unknown :  a  captain  of 
Jehu,  and  originally  his  companion  in  arms  and 
fellow-officer  (2  K.  9.25).  He  executed  the 
sentence  (ver.  26)  passed  on  Jehoram,  son  of 
Ahab,  after  Jehu  had  pierced  him  with  an  arrow, 
by  flinging  his  body  into  the  field  of  Naboth  the 
Jezreelite. 


BIER] 


72 


[BIRDS 


Bier.  —  A  low  wooden  frame  for  carrying  the 
dead  ;  that  on  which  something  is  borne.  In 
the  O.T.  the  word  is  the  same  as  that  used  for 
bed.  It  is  curious  to  find  that  though  burials 
are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  Bible  yet  the 
bier  is  only  twice  spoken  of  (2  Sam.  3.31  ;  Lk. 
7.14).  [BURIAL.]  In  2  Ch.  16.14  the  word 
"  bed  "  is  used. 

Big'tha.  —  A  Persian  word  meaning  perhaps  a 
gift  of  God  :  one  of  the  chamberlains  or  eunuchs 
of  King  Ahasuerus,  placed  over  his  harem 
(Esth.  1.10). 

Big'than,  Bigtha'na.  —  Same  meaning  as 
preceding  :  a  chamberlain  (eunuch)  who  con- 
spired against  Ahasuerus.  Mordecai  was  instru- 
mental in  saving  the  king's  life,  and  afterwards 
received  great  honour,  while  the  conspirators 
were  put  to  death  (Esth.  2.21,  6.2)  by  hanging, 
i.e.  by  crucifixion  or  impalement,  for  no  rope 
was  used.  The  same  fearful  death  overtook 
Haman  (Esth.  7). 

Big'vai.  —  Happy  :  1.  One  of  the  families  that 
returned  from  captivity  with  Zerubbabel 
(Ezra  2.2,  14).  In  this  passage  we  read  that 
the  tribe  numbered  2056,  but  in  Neh.  7.19  their 
number  is  stated  to  be  2067.  A  further  de- 
tachment of  72  followed  later  on  with  Ezra. 
See  (2).  2.  A  family  of  72  persons  who  re- 
turned from  Babylon  with  Ezra  (Ezra  8.14). 
3.  The  chief  of  a  family  that  with  Nehemiah 
sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  10.16). 

Bil'dad.—  (?)  Bel  has  loved  :  one  of  Job's  three 
friends  (Job  2.11).  He  was  a  Shuhite,  a  direct 
descendant  of  Abraham,  and  an  inhabitant  of 
the  east  of  Arabia.  As  a  comforter  he  was  a 
failure,  being  blunt  and  unfeeling.  He  attri- 
butes the  deaths  of  Job's  children  to  their  own 
evil  lives,  and  tells  Job  himself  that  he  also 
must  have  committed  great  sins,  to  be  punished 
so  severely.  He  fitly  represents  worldly  wisdom 
and  want  of  feeling.  Job  silences  him  finally 
by  argument,  and  then  reproves  him  for  his 
want  of  charity  (Job,  chaps.  8,  18,  25).  [Jos.] 

Biream.  —  Destruction  of  the  people  :  a 
Levitical  town  which,  with  its  suburbs,  was 
given  to  the  Kohathites  (1  Ch.  6.70).  It  is  the 
same  place  that  is  called  Ibleam  (Josh.  17.11). 
It  lay  north  of  Samaria,  a  little  to  the  west  of 
Mount  Gilboa,  and  was  included  in  the  western 
half  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh.  It  is  identified 
with  Bel'ame,  six  hours  north  of  Nablus. 


Bil'gah.  —  Cheerfulness  :  1.  A  priest  in  David's 
time,  who  was  the  head  in  the  fifteenth  course 
in  the  Tabernacle  service  (1  Ch.  24.14).  2.  A 
priest  who  returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh. 
12.5,  18). 

Bil'gai.  —  The  same  meaning  as  Bilgah  :  a  priest 
who  signed  the  covenant  (Neh.  10.8). 

Bil'hah.—  Meaning  unknown  :  1.  The  hand- 
maid of  Rachel,  Laban's  younger  daughter, 
and  mother  of  Dan  and  Naphtali  (Gen.  29.29, 
35.25)  by  Jacob,  whose  concubine  she  was.  Her 
sin  with  Reuben  led  to  Jacob's  prediction  of 
evil  for  his  descendants  (Gen.  35.22,  49.4). 
2.  A  town  in  Simeon  (1  Ch.  4.29).  It  was  also 


called  Balah  in  Josh.  19.3  and  Baalah  in  Josh. 
15.29.  Its  position  is  unknown. 

Bil'han.— 1.  One  of  the  children  of  Ezer 
the  Horite,  whose  home  was  on  Mount  Seir,  in 
Edom  (Gen.  36.27).  2.  A  son  of  Jediael,  de- 
scendant of  Benjamin  (1  Ch.  7.10).  The  occur- 
rence of  this  presumably  Edomi'te  name  in  the 
tribe  of  Benjamin  is  remarkable. 

Bill.— [DIVORCE.] 

Bil'shan. — Searcher  :  a  prince  of  the  Jews 
who  came  up  with  Zerubbabel  from  Babylon 
(Ezra  2.2). 

Bim'hal. — Circumcised:  a  son  of  Japhlet 
(1  Ch.  7.33). 

Bind  and  Loose.— The  terms  "  bind  "  and 
"  loose  "  (Matt.  16.19)  were  frequently  used  by 
the  Jews  in  the  sense  of  forbid  and  allow, 
as  applied  to  the  authoritative  teaching,  both 
doctrinal  and  practical,  of  their  Rabbis.  On 
the  promotion  of  their  teachers,  the  Jews  put 
a  _key  into  their  hands,  with  these  words: 
"  Receive  the  power  of  binding  and  loosing  "  ; 
whence  the  allusion,  "  Ye  have  taken  away  the 
key  of  knowledge,"  in  Lk.  11.52.  Note  also 
the  Saviour's  words  in  Matt.  5.19,  where 
"  break "  is  the  same  word  in  the  Greek  as 
"loose"  in  16.19.  Peter,  on  account  of  his 
earnest  and  prompt  avowal,  is  the  first  to 
receive  that  authority,  which  was  afterwards 
also  given  to  his  colleagues,  and  for  the 
exercise  of  which  they  were  endued  with 
power  from  on  high  (Matt.  18.18 ;  John 
20.23).  Of  him,  too,  God  made  choice,  that 
he  should  first  admit  Gentiles  to  the  faith  as 
well  as  Jews  (Acts  2.14,  38,  10.45). 

The  Jews  interpreted  the  expression  "  to  bind 
the  laws  upon  one's  hand  "  literally,  and 
hence  arose  the  custom  of  wearing  phylacteries 
on  the  wrist.  Rolls  or  volumes  of  writing  were 
tied  up  with  bands.  Hence  the  expression  in 
Isai.  8.]  6,  "  Bind  up  the  testimony  .  .  .  among 
my  disciples." 

Bin'ea. — A  descendant  of  Saul  through 
Jonathan  (1  Ch.  8.37). 

Binnu'i. — Building  or  founding  a  family : 
1.  Father  of  Noadia,  a  Levite  appointed  to 
weigh  the  gold  and  silver  brought  up  by 
Ezra  from  Babylon  (Ezra  8.33).  2.  A 
son  of  Pahath-moab,  who  had  married  a 
foreigner  (Ezra  10.30).  3.  A  member  of  the 
family  of  Bani.  He  is  noted  as  having  married  a 
foreign  wife  (Ezra  10.38).  4.  One  of  the  family 
of  Henadad  (Neh.  3.24).  He  helped  to  repair 
the  walls  of  Jerusalem  under  Nehemiah.  Per- 
haps identical  with  Bavai,  ver.  18.  5.  A  family 
that  came  up  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  7.15).  In 
the  list  in  Ezra  2.10  the  name  occurs  as  Bani. 
6.  A  Levite  (Neh.  12.8).  Perhaps  Nos.  4  and  6 
are  identical. 

Birds. — Birds  were  divided  into  clean  and 
unclean  under  the  Mosaic  law.  The  "  unclean," 
and  consequently  forbidden  as  food,  were  those 
that  fed  on  flesh,  fish,  and  carrion.  All  those 
that  fed  on  insect  food  as  well  as  on  grain  and 
fruits  were  "  clean."  This  classification  would 
fairly  well  agree  with  modern  ideas  on  the  sub- 


BIRSHA] 


73 


[BISHOP 


ject.  Another  clause  in  Jewish  law  forbade  the 
taking  of  a  mother-bird  from  the  nest,  though 
her  young  or  the  eggs  might  be  taken. 

There  are  references  to  the  habits  of  birds. 
The  times  of  the  arrival  of  the  stork,  crane, 
and  swallow  are  referred  to  in  Jer.  8.7,  and 
in  Cant.  2.11,  12  the  time  of  the  singing 
of  birds  and  the  voice  of  the  turtle  are  descrip- 
tive of  spring.  [TURTLE.]  In  Eccles.  12.4 
the  "  voice  of  the  bird  "  is  spoken  of.  This  was 
the  bul-bul,  which  abounds  along  the  banks  of 
the  Jordan  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  It  is  a  sweet  singer,  and  an  easily 
tamed  bird.  Such  birds  are  in  great  request  in 
the  East,  and  we  find  a  reference  to  this  custom 
in  Job  41.5,  "  Wilt  thou  play  with  him  as  with  a 
bird  ?  "  The  great  majority  of  birds  found  in 
Palestine  belong  to  the  migratory  orders.  In 
the  lower  parts  of  the  Jordan  valley  are  to  be 
found  sub-tropical  birds  not  elsewhere  found 
so  far  north.  Besides  these  there  are  some 
fifteen  species  peculiar  to  Palestine. 

Birds  were  used  largely  for  food  by  the  inhabit- 
ants, and  still  are.  In  early  days  these  were 
caught  chiefly  by  snares  and  nets  (Ps.  124.7 ;  Prov. 
7.23),  but  nowadays  immense  numbers  are  shot 
by  gunners  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Jerusalem. 
Another  method  of  fowling  was  the  hunting  of 
partridges  and  bustards  with  a  short  throwing- 
stick.  It  is  this  sort  of  sport  that  is  alluded 
to  in  1  Sam.  26.20.  In  one  passage  Bildad  men- 
tions four  different  methods  of  catching  birds(7o& 
18.8-10).  Sea-birds  and  water-fowl  are  scarce 
in  Palestine,  but  birds  of  prey,  such  as  vultures, 
hawks,  etc.,  are  numerous,  and  there  are  many 
references  to  them  in  the  Bible.  In  Deut. 
32.11  God  is  said  to  have  taught  Israel  as  the 
eagle  trains  her  young.  [EAGLE.] 

Bir'sha. — The  king  of  Gomorrah  at  the 
time  of  Chedorlaomer's  invasion  (Gen. 
14.2). 

Birthday. — Three  times  only  is  this  term  used, 
once  in  the  O.T.  where  in  Gen.  40.20  reference 
is  made  to  Pharaoh's  birthday,  always  a  "  holy 
day,"  and  twice  in  the  N.T.  where  in  Matt.  14.6 
and  Mk.  6.21  Herod's  birthday  is  mentioned. 

In  the  East,  as  elsewhere,  the  custom  of  ob- 
serving birthdays  is  very  ancient,  and  they  were 
celebrated  with  great  rejoicings.  In  Job  1.4 
by  the  reference  to  "  every  one  his  day  "  of 
the  children  of  Job  is  meant  their  natal  days, 
and  in  feasting  on  such  occasions  they  were  but 
following  the  general  custom.  Afterwards  the 
Jews  came  to  look  upon  these  feastings  with 
disfavour,  owing  to  the  idolatrous  customs 
often  practised  during  their  continuance ;  but 
in  the  early  days  of  the  Church  of  Christ  the 
days  when  martyrs  ascended  to  their  Lord  were 
celebrated  as  birthdays,  the  entrance  to  the  life 
eternal. 

Birthright. — In  the  East  the  first-born  or 
eldest  son  enjoyed  certain  privileges  over  the 
rest  of  the  children.  This  was  especially  the 
case  among  the  Hebrews.  The  first-born  son 
was  consecrated  to  the  Lord  (Ex.  22.29)  To 
him  belonged  the  "  excellency  of  dignity,  and 


the  excellency  of  power  "  (Gen.  49.3).  On  the 
father's  death  a  double  portion  of  the  family 
estate  was  allotted  to  him  (Deut.  21.17),  and  in 
royal  families  he  succeeded  to  the  throne 
(2  Ch.  21.3).  The  right  of  primogeniture,  and 
the  privileges  belonging  to  it,  might  be  forfeited 
by  improper  conduct,  as  in  the  instance  of  the 
sons  of  Isaac,  and  the  rights  of  the  position 
transferred  (Gen.  27.37).  David,  by  Divine 
appointment,  excluded  Adonijah  in  favour 
of  Solomon,  marking  the  preference  by  the 
act  of  anointing.  Great  respect  was  paid  to 
the  eldest  son  in  the  family,  and  as  the  family 
grew  into  the  tribe  he  gradually  obtained  more 
authority,  and  hence  became  the  "  prince  of 
the  congregation  "  (Num.  7.2,  21.18,  25.14). 
The  "  double  portion  "  of  the  family  inheritance 
allotted  by  the  Mosaic  law  explains  the  request 
of  Elisha  for  a  double  portion  of  Elijah's  spirit 
(2  K.  2.9).  In  the  earlier  scriptural  genealogies 
the  first-born  of  a  line  is  often  specially  noticed 
(Gen.  22.21,  25.13).  Also  a  special  sacredness 
was  attached  by  the  Jews  to  the  titles 
"  first  -  born  "  and  "  first  -  begotten,"  and 
thus  these  terms  seem  applied  to  the  Messiah 
(Rom.  8.29  ;  Col.  1.18  ;  Heb.  1.6  ;  Rev.  1.5),  and 
it  is  as  joint  heirs  with  Him  that  the  redeemed 
claim  their  inheritance  (Lk.  22.29  ;  Rom.  8.17 ; 
Col.  3.24).  [HEIB,  FIRST-BORN.] 

Birza'ith,  Birza'vith.— A  grandson  of  Beriah, 
son  of  Asher  (1  Ch.  7.31). 

Bish'lam. — Son  of  peace,  or  in  peace :  an 
officer  of  Artaxerxes  stationed  in  Canaan  at 
the  time  of  Zerubbabel's  return  from  captivity. 
He  and  the  other  officers  successfully  opposed 
those  engaged  in  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple 
(Ezra  4.7), 

Bishop  (Greek,  episkopos,  whence  episcopal). — 
Overseer,  superintendent :  before  its  application 
towan  officer  in  the  Christian  Church  the  Greek 
word  was  in  general  use  to  designate  the  office  of 
superintendent.  Thus  the  workmen  employed 
by  Josiah  in  the  repair-of  the  Temple  had  certain 
overseers  (2  Ch.  34.12),  and  in  our  English 
Bible  the  word  overseer  is  rightly  applied  to 
Joseph,  who  was  overseer  of  Potiphar's  house- 
hold (Gen.  39.4).  In  the  Jewish  portion  of  the 
Christian  Church  there  were  "  elders  "  or  "  pres- 
byters "  (Acts  11.30,  15.2;  cf.  14.23).  The 
elders  in  Acts  20.17  are  called,  with  reference 
to  their  office,  "  bishops  "  or  superintendents 
in  Acts  20.28.  In  1  Tim.  3.2-7  the  Apostle 
Paul  particularises  the  qualifications  for  the 
office.  "  Prayer  "  and  the  "  laying  on  of  hands  " 
were  features  of  their  ordination.  The  bishops 
discharged  functions  which  included  pastoral 
supervision  (1  Tim.  5.17).  When  the  organisa- 
tion of  the  Christian  Churches  in  Gentile  cities 
involved  the  assignment  of  the  work  of  pastoral 
superintendence  to  a  distinct  order,  the  title 
(episkopos)  presented  itself  as  at  once  convenient 
and  familiar,  and  was  as  readily  adopted  by 
the  Greeks  as  the  word  "  elder  "  (presbuteros) 
had  been  in  the  Mother  Church  at  Jerusalem. 
There  is  no  doubt,  therefore,  that  the  terms 
"  elder  "  and  "  bishop  "  were  originally  con- 


BIT] 


74 


[BLAINS 


sidered  equivalents.  Episcopalian  Churches  see 
a  form  of  the  work  of  a  bishop  in  the  modern 
sense  in  the  position  of  Timothy  at  Ephesus 
and  Titus  in  Crete.  Once  (in  1  Pet.  2.25)  the 
term  is  applied  to  Christ. 

Bit.— [HARNESS.] 

Bithi'ah. — Daughter  of  Jehovah  :  daughter  of 
a  Pharaoh,  or  perhaps  it  would  be  more  correct 
to  say,  a  princess  of  the  house  of  Pharaoh.  She 
was  also  the  wife  of  Mered,  a  man  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah  about  the  time  of  the  Exodus  (1  Ch. 
4.18).  According  to  a  legend  of  the  Jews, 
Bithiah  was  the  foster-mother  of  Moses. 
Whether  that  be  so  or  not,  the  name  is  interesting 
in  that  it  is  the  only  case  of  a  non- Jewish  name 
compounded  with  Jah  or  Jehovah.  It  is  thus 
perhaps  a  Judaised  word,  implying  the  con- 
version of  the  owner  to  the  worship  of  Jehovah. 

Bith'ron. — The  broken  or  divided  place:  a 
district  on  the  east  side  of  the  Jordan  valley 
(2  Sam.  2.29),  near  the  place  where  Abner's 
party  crossed  the  river,  in  the  country  of  Gad 
between  Mahanaim  and  the  Jordan.  The 
name  itself  indicates  the  rugged  character  of 
the  country.  Compare  BETHER. 

Bithy'nia. — A  district  and  a  Roman  province 
in  Asia  Minor,  now  a  portion  of  the  modern 
Anatolia.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Black  Sea,  on  the  east  by  the  provinces  of 
Pontus  and  Galatia,  on  the  south  by  that  of 
Asia,  and  on  the  west  by  the  present  sea  of 
Marmora.  There  were  probably  Christians 
here  at  an  early  date,  for  dwellers  in  Pontus 
are  mentioned  in  Acts  2.9.  St.  Paul  desired 
to  go  there  on  his  second  missionary  journey 
(Acts  16.7).  It  is  included  in  the  provinces  to 
which  1  Pet.  was  sent  (1  Pet.  1.1).  The  younger 
Pliny,  who  was  governor  there  in  111  A.D., 
witnesses  to  the  purity  and  firmness  of  the 
Christians  in  Bithynia  (or  Pontus)  in  a  remark- 
able document  addressed  to  his  master, 
the  Emperor  Trajan.  In  the  course  of 
this  he  said :  "  I  have  taken  this  course 
with  all  who  have  ever  been  brought 
before  me,  and  have  been  accused  as  Christians. 
I  have  put  the  question  to  them,  Whether  they 
were  Christians  ?  Upon  their  confessing  to  me 
that  they  were,  I  repeated  the  question  a  second 
and  a  third  time,  threatening  also  to  punish 
them  with  death.  Such  as  still  persisted  I 
ordered  away  to  be  punished  ;  for  it  was  no 
doubt  with  me,  whatever  might  be  the  nature 
of  their  opinion,  that  contumacy  and  inflexible 
obstinacy  ought  to  be  punished.  There  were 
others  of  the  same  infatuation  whom,  because 
they  are  Roman  citizens,  I  have  noted  down 
to  be  sent  to  the  city. 

"  In  a  short  time,  the  crime  spreading  itself, 
even  whilst  under  persecution,  as  is  usual  in  such 
cases,  divers  sorts  of  people  came  in  my  way.  .  .  . 
They  affirmed  that  the  whole  of  their  fault  or 
error  lay  in  this,  that  they  were  wont  to  meet 
together  on  a  stated  day,  before  it  was  light,  and 
sing  among  themselves,  alternately,  a  hymn  to 
Christ  as  God  ;  and  to  bind  themselves  by  a 
solemn  oath,  not  to  the  commission  of  any 


wickedness,  but  not  to  be  guilty  of  theft,  or  rob- 
bery, or  adultery,  never  to  falsify  their  word,  nor 
to  deny  a  pledge  committed  to  them  when  called 
upon  to  return  it.  When  these  things  were 
performed,  it  was  their  custom  to  separate,  and 
then  to  come  together  again  to  a  meal,  which 
they  ate  in  common  without  any  disorder  ;  but 
this  they  had  forborne  since  the  publication  of 
my  edict,  by  which,  according  to  your  com- 
mands, I  prohibited  assemblies.  After  receiving 
this  account,  I  judged  it  the  more  necessary  to 
examine,  and  that  by  torture,  two  maid-servants 
which  were  called  ministers  (deaconesses).  But 
I  have  discovered  nothing  but  an  evil  and 
excessive  superstition.  .  .  .  Nor  has  the  con- 
tagion of  this  superstition  seized  cities  only, 
but  the  lesser  towns  also,  and  the  open  country." 

Bithynia  was  an  independent  state  until 
Nicomedes  in.,  the  last  of  its  kings,  left  it  by 
will  to  the  Romans  in  74  B.C.  Nearly  one 
hundred  years  later,  when  the  Sultan  of  Pontus 
had  been  expelled,  Bithynia  was  joined  to 
Pontus  and  Paphlagonia,  and  firmly  settled 
under  a  Roman  governor,  who  bore  the  title 
"  Proconsul."  At  the  time  when  Pliny  wrote, 
Christianity  had  made  great  progress,  so  great, 
indeed,  that  the  pagan  temples  and  worship 
were  almost  neglected,  while  the  priesthood 
and  those  who  made  a  living  from  the  sacrifices, 
etc.,  suffered  from  the  waning  of  their  religion. 
This  was  the  reason  of  the  bitter  persecution 
of  the  Christians. 

Bitter  Herbs.— [PASSOVER.] 

Bitter  Water.— [JEALOUSY.] 

Bittern. — The  word  translated  "bittern"  (Isai. 
14.23,  34.11 ;  Zeph.  2.14)  has  been  the  subject 
of  many  conjectures.  In  all  about  twenty 
different  creatures,  including  the  hedgehog  and 
the  porcupine,  have  been  suggested  for  the 
"bittern"  of  Isai.  34.11.  Doubtless  a  bird  is 
meant.  The  bittern,  classed  among  the  cranes, 
is  a  bird  of  solitary  habits,  frequenting  ruins 
and  desolate  marshy  places,  where  its  deep 
hoarse  cry  is  often  heard  at  twilight.  In  size  it  is 
about  as  large  as  a  goose,  though  longer  in  body, 
and  having  longer  legs.  It  was  formerly 
common  in  the  eastern  counties  of  England. 

Bizjoth'jah. — (?)  Contempt  of  Jehovah:  a  place 
in  the  south  of  Judah,  which  seems  to  have  been 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Beersheba(  Josh.  15.28). 

Biz'tha. — Eunuch :  the  second  of  the  seven 
eunuchsof  Ahasuerus(£stf*.  1.10)  who  had  guard- 
ianship over  his  harem.  The  name  is  Persian, 
and  applies  to  his  office  rather  than  to  himself. 

Blains. — The  eruption  with  which  the 
Egyptians  were  smitten  in  the  sixth  plague. 
Possibly  the  "  blains  "  were  small  carbuncles, 
intensely  hot  and  painful.  The  malady  has 
been  identified  with  the  "  black  leprosy,"  a  kind 
of  elephantiasis,  which  struck  the  magicians 
with  peculiar  intensity,  so  that  they  were 
unable  to  stand  before  Moses.  The  "  botch  of 
Egypt  "  (Deut.  28.27)  may  have  been  the  same 
disorder.  From  a  very  early  period  Egypt 
has  been  troubled  with  the  bubo  plague,  in 
which  the  boils  break  out  singly  or  in  groups, 


BLASPHEME,  BLASPHEMY] 

and  appear  under  the  arms,  in  the  groins  and  the 
neck,  when  the  glands  are  inflamed  and  swollen 
(Ex.  9.9,  10).  [LEPKOSY,  PESTILENCE,  BOTCH, 
BOILS.  1 

Blaspheme,  Blasphemy.— To  "  curse  "  God 
and  to  "  blaspheme  the  name  of  the  Lord," 
is  in  Lev.  24.16  made  punishable  by  death, 
even  in  the  case  of  a  resident  alien.  The 
offender  in  Lev.  24.11  was  the  son  of  a  Hebrew 
mother  and  an  Egyptian  father.  Special 
direction  from  God  was  awaited  before  dealing 
with  him.  Then,  when  "  the  mind  of  the 
Lord  "  (Lev.  24.12),  was  known  through  Moses, 
he  was  taken  outside  the  camp  ;  the  hearers 
of  the  offence  laid  their  hands  on  him,  and 
all  the  congregation  stoned  him  (Lev.  24.14,  23). 
On  Lev.  24.16  the  Rabbins  based  their  belief 
that  it  was  not  lawful  to  utter  distinctly  the 
name  of  the  Lord.  [JEHOVAH.] 

Blasphemy  is  dealt  with  by  our  Lord  as  an 
offence  of  peculiar  gravity.  To  gain  a  clear 
idea  of  His  meaning  in  Matt.  12.31,  32;  Mk. 
3.28,  29,  observe :  1.  That  among  the  spectators 
on  this  occasion  there  might  be  many  who 
denied  the  Divine  mission  of  "  the  Son  of  Man," 
but  who  yet  might  yield  to  further  evidence  ; 
while  there  were  others,  acute  and  well-in- 
formed, who  were  determined  not  to  believe, 
and  malignantly  ascribed  to  Satanic  power 
works  which  showed  the  presence  of  "  the 
Spirit  of  God  "  (ver.  28).  To  these  latter  our 
Lord  evidently  refers  ;  though  He  may,  perhaps, 
be  understood  rather  as  warning  them  against 
a  sin  to  which  they  were  very  closely  approach- 
ing, than  as  declaring  that  they  had  already 
committed  it.  2.  That  the  sin  which  shall  not 
be  forgiven  is  not  so  much  the  'particular  act 
which  gave  occasion  to  the  remark,  as  a  state 
of  heart,  the  result  of  a  long  course  of  wilful  and 
malignant  opposition  to  known  truth.  3. 
That  unpardonable  sin  is  not  confined  to  attri- 
buting Christ's  miracles  to  Satanic  agency 
(comp.  Heb.  6.4-6) ;  nor  is  it  the  only  sin  which 
ensures  final  destruction.  4.  That  its  very 
nature  is  to  destroy  all  fear  of  displeasing  God, 
and  anxiety  respecting  His  favour,  making  men, 
like  these  Pharisees,  either  blind  to  their  sin, 
or  hardened  in  it.  5.  At  the  same  time, 
it  is  certain  that  every  sin  of  which  men  truly 
repent  will  be  pardoned.  No  forgiveness, 
therefore,  implies  no  repentance.  [THE  UN- 
PARDONABLE SIN.] 

Blasted.—  Scorched,  blighted,  blackened:  this 
word,  used  in  relation  to  growing  crops,  denotes 
the  withering  and  blighting  effects  produced 
by  a  strong  and  dry  wind,  the  sirocco.  The 
llebrew  word  is  connected  with  an  Arabic 
root  meaning  blackness.  In  Gen.  41.6  the  effect 
produced  was  perhaps  caused  by  a  species 
of  "  smut,"  a  fungus  growth.  A  blighting  wind 
alone  would  not  account  for  the  "  thin  "  ears 
of  corn. 

Blastus. — A  chamberlain  (who  was  over  the 
bed-chamber)  of  Herod  Agrippa  I.  (Acts  12.20). 
He  was  persuaded  by  some  people  from  Tyre 
and  Sidon  to  gain  them  an  audience  with  the 


75  [BLIND,  BLINDNESS 


king  ;  thus  showing  him  to  have  been  a  man 
of  considerable  influence. 

Blemish.— As  applied  to  the  priests.  The 
word  implied  bodily  defect  disqualifying  for  the 
office.  Such  defects  are  specified  in  Lev. 
21.18-20.  Thus  the  bodily  perfection  of  the 
priests  pointed  to  Christ,  the  perfect  priest. 
So  also  of  the  sacrifices  ;  there  must  be  no 
blemish  in  them  (Lev.  22.20-24).  This  was 
fulfilled  in  Christ's  offering  of  Himself  (1  Pet. 
1.19). 

Bless,  Blessed,  Blessing.  —  When  Moses 
blessed  Israel  (Dent.  33)  he  prophesied 
a  continual  progression  of  good  things  and 
Divine  favour  for  him.  It  was  a  patriarchal 
form  of  blessing  and  a  religious  ceremony 
fashioned  after  that  of  the  Heavenly  Father, 
who  continues  I  not  spasmodic  acts,  be  it  noted) 
to  shower  benefits  upon  His  creatures.  When 
men  are  said  to  bless  God,  as  in  Ps.  103,  they 
ascribe  to  Him  that  praise  and  honour  which 
it  is  equally  the  duty  and  joy  of  His  creatures 
to  render.  But  when  God  is  said  to  bless 
His  people,  as  in  Gen.  1.22;  Eph.  1.3,  He 
confers  upon  them  benefits,  either  temporal 
or  spiritual,  and  so  communicates  to  them  some 
portion  of  that  infinite  blessedness  which  dwells 
in  Himself  (1  Tim.  1.11). 

Blessing  was  a  custom  very  generally 
observed  among  the  Hebrews,  and  is  often 
mentioned  in  Scripture.  Thus  Jacob  blessed 
his  sons  (Gen.  49),  and  Moses,  tha 
children  of  Israel  (Deut.  33).  Melchisedek 
blessed  Abraham.  So  important  a  place  did 
the  act  of  blessing  occupy  in  the  religion  and 
life  of  the  Jews,  that  even  the  method  of  its 
bestowal  formed  a  part  of  their  ritual  (Num. 
6.23).  The  blessing  was  given  standing  with  the 
hands  lifted  to  Heaven.  [BENEDICTION.] 

Blessing,  Cup  o!.— It  was  the  practice  of 
the  Jews,  in  their  thank-offerings,  for  the 
master  of  the  feast  to  take  a  cup  of  wine  in  his 
hand  and  solemnly  bless  God  for  it,  and  for  the 
mercies  that  were  then  acknowledged,  and  then 
to  pass  the  cup  to  all  the  guests,  each  of  whom 
drank  in  turn.  The  Psalmist  refers  to  this 
custom  in  Ps.  116.13;  the  Saviour  continued 
the  practice  at  the  farewell  feast.  In  1  Cor. 
10.16  it  is  referred  to  as  the  "  cup  of  blessing." 
It  is  sometimes  an  euphemism  for  "  curse," 
and  is  so  translated  in  Job  1.5, 11,  2.5,  9. 

Blessing,  Valley  of.— This  was  the  scene  of 
Jehoshaphat's  thanksgiving  (2  Ch.  20.26). 

Blind,  Blindness. — Blindness  is  of  distressing 
frequency  in  all  parts  of  the  East.  Physical 
causes  produce  the  evil,  which  neglect  and 
improper  treatment  aggravate.  It  was  a 
blemish  disqualifying  for  the  priesthood  (Lev. 
21.18).  Misleading  the  blind  was  solemnly 
cursed  (Lev.  19.14,  and  comp.  Deut.  27.18). 
Blindness  was  threatened  as  one  of  the  punish- 
ments of  apostasy  (Deut.  28.28).  It  was 
miraculously  inflicted  (Gen.  19.11 ;  2  K. 
6.18) ;  and  was  used  as  a  cruel  form  of  vengeance 
or  punishment  (Judg.  16.21  ;  2  K.  25.7). 
Figuratively,  the  opening  of  the  eyes  of  th«' 


BLOOD] 


76 


[BOAZ 


blind  is  presented  by  Isaiah  as  one  of  the  works 
predicted  of  our  Lord  (29.18,  35.5,  42.7). 

In  the  N.T.  the  prevalence  of  blindness 
is  indicated.  Our  Lord's  miracles  wrought 
upon  the  blind  doubtless  attracted  special 
attention  (see  John  10.21).  There  is  a 
spiritual  blindness  (John  12.40  ;  2  Cor.  4.4), 
with  a  manifest  influence  on  character  (2  Pet. 
1.9;  Rev.  3.11). 

Blood. — First  noticed  in  the  case  of  Abel's 
murder  (Gen.  4.10).  The  eating  of  flesh  with 
the  blood  in  it  was  forbidden  (Gen.  9.4),  and  the 
prohibition  was  set  forth  in  detail  in  the  Law 
(Lev.  17.10-12),  and  dealt  with  by  the  Christian 
Church  (Acts  15.20-29).  The  shedding  of  blood 
in  sacrifice  abounded  in  Hebrew  ritual.  The 
use  of  blood  at  the  Passover  (Ex.  12.7-13)  was 
the  most  significant  of  these  acts  in  relation  to 
the  work  of  our  Lord.  In  H eb.  9,  10,  the  old 
sacrifices  are  contrasted  with  the  "  one  sacrifice 
for  sins  "  offered  by  Him.  There  is,  elsewhere, 
frequent  emphasis  on  the  shed  "  blood  "  of  our 
Lord  (e.g.  Rom.  5.9;  Eph.  1.7;  Col.  1.20; 
1  Pet.  1.19  ;  1  John  1.7  ;  Rev.  1.5). 

The  term  "  blood  "  has  a  number  of  secondary 
meanings.  "  Flesh  and  blood  "  signifies  human 
nature  in  itself,  in  contrast  with  higher  or 
spiritual  body  given  to  believers  (1  Cor.  15.50) ; 
or  mankind  in  contrast  with  God  (Gal.  1.16). 
The  cause  "  between  blood  and  blood  "  (Deut. 
17.8)  is  one  involving  capital  punishment,  if  it 
be  satisfactorily  established. 

Blood  and  Water.— When  the  side  of  the 
Saviour  was  pierced  by  the  spear  of  the  Roman 
soldier  "  forthwith  came  there  out  blood  and 
water"  (John  19.34).  This  peculiar  phenom- 
enon has  excited  much  discussion.  By  some 
it  has  been  regarded  as  miraculous  and  sym- 
bolic— the  blood  an  emblem  of  pardon,  the  water 
of  purification.  There  was  something  unusual 
in  the  death  of  the  Saviour.  Crucifixion  is  a 
lingering  death,  the  victim  generally  having 
to  be  killed  by  some  more  quickly  lethal  act,  or 
else  suffer  long  days  of  intease  agony.  Now, 
Jesus  died  very  quickly,  though  the  union  of 
His  soul  and  body  was  by  no  weaker  bond  than 
that  which  ordinarily  belongs  to  mankind.  The 
theory  has  been  propounded  by  Dr.  Stroud, 
and  supported  by  other  physicians,  such  as 
Dr.  Walshe  and  Sir  J.  Y.  Simpson,  that  Christ's 
heart,  already  weakened  by  the  intense  agony 
at  Gethsemane,  broke  under  the  tremendous 
mental  strain  of  the  crucifixion.  Dr.  Walshe, 
who  was  Professor  of  Medicine  in  University 
College,  London,  and  Professor  Simpson,  say 
that  in  the  case  of  heart  rupture,  "  the  hand  is 
suddenly  carried  to  the  front  of  the  chest,  a 
piercing  shriek  is  uttered.  .  .  .  Usually  death 
very  speedily  ensues,  in  consequence  of  the 
blood  escaping  into  the  cavity  of  the  large 
surrounding  heart-sac  or  pericardium  ;  which 
sac  has,  in  cases  of  rupture  of  the  heart,  been 
found  on  dissection  to  contain  two,  three,  four, 
or  more  pounds  of  blood  accumulated  within 
it,  and  separated  into  red  clot  and  limpid  serum, 
or  '  blood  and  water ' — as  is  seen  in  blood 


when  collected  out  of  the  body  in  a  cup 
or  basin  in  the  operation  of  blood-letting. 
.  .  .  The  effect  of  the  wounding  and  piercing 
of  the  side  was  escape  of  this  blood  and  water, 
visible  to  the  Apostle  John,  standing  some 
distance  off." 

Blood,  Avenger  of. — The  person  who  pursued 
a  murderer  or  manslayer ;  and  was  allowed 
under  the  Jewish  law  to  kill  him,  unless  the 
spiller  of  blood  had  got  within  one  of  the  six 
cities  of  refuge  (Num.  35.11,  12).  [CITY  OF 
REFUOB.]  The  avenging  of  shed  blood  by  a 
member  of  the  injured  family  was  the  custom 
of  uncivilised  or  semi-civilised  people ;  and 
the  blood-feud  still  survives  amongst  many 


Blue. — Royal  apparel  was  usually  of  a  blue 
or  purple  colour  (Ex.  25.4),  corresponding  to 
the  tint  we  know  as  violet,  the  Hebrews 
having  no  term  to  denote  real  blue.  Like 
purple,  the  blue  colour  was  derived  from  a 
species  of  shell-fish,  the  pigment  being  obtained 
from  a  particular  gland  in  the  animal  itself, 
and  not  from  the  shell.  [COLOURS.] 

The  word  translated  "  blue  "  is  also  used  to 
denote  a  certain  kind  of  marble  (Esth.  1.6). 

Boaner'ges. — Sons  of  rage,  or  of  thunder :  an 
epithet  bestowed  upon  James  and  John,  the 
sons  of  Zebedee,  because  of  their  fiery  and 
jealous  natures  (Mk.  3.17).  For  illustrations 
of  this  see  Mk.  9.38  ;  Lk.  9.54.  Scholars  have 
not  been  able  to  determine  with  exactness  the 
source  or  sources  of  the  word. 

Boar. — This  word  occurs  only  once  in  the 
English  Bible  (Ps.  80.13),  and  the  Hebrew  woid 
used  there  has  the  sense  of  the  Arabic,  for 
elsewhere  it  is  invariably  used  to  denote  the 
domestic  "  swine."  The  wild  boar  has  always 
been  plentiful  in  Palestine  and  the  East  generally. 
The  Psalmist  accurately  describes  the  state  of 
things  when  the  Jordan  has  overflowed  its 
banks,  and  driven  the  wild  boars  from 
their  usual  haunts.  Then  the  husbandman 
has  to  watch  his  fields  day  and  night,  to  prevent 
them  being  altogether  destroyed  by  the  de- 
predations of  this  fierce  and  hungry  animal. 
It  is  said  that  in  a  single  night  a  family  of  wild 
boars  will  uproot  a  whole  field  of  barley  or  root 
crops. 

Boat. — Very  little  is  known  about  the  boats 
of  Galilee,  except  that  they  were  numerous, 
and  comprised  both  fishing  and  pleasure  boats, 
using  either  oars  or  sails.  In  the  Scripture 
narrative  the  best  and  most  technical  account 
of  the  boat  is  to  be  found  in  Lk.  8.22-25. 
[SHIPS  AND  SHIPPING.] 

Bo'az. — Strength,  firmness  :  1.  A  native  of 
Bethlehem,  a  descendant  of  Judah,  and  an 
ancestor  of  Jewish  kings  (Matt.  1.5),  and  finally 
of  our  Lord.  He  was  a  man  of  considerable 
means,  of  upright  character,  as  was  shown 
in  his  just  treatment  of  his  young  kinswoman, 
Ruth,  the  Moabite,  whose  cause  he  upheld, 
and  whom  he  married.  In  the  N.T.  his  name 
appears  as  Bo'oz  (Matt.  1.5 ;  Lk.  3.32).  2.  One 
of  the  brazen  pillars  erected  in  the  porch  of 


BOCHERU] 


77 


[BOOK 


Solomon's  Temple.  It  was  18  cubits  high  (1  K. 
7.15-21  ;  2  Ch.  3.17),  was  hollow,  and  sur- 
mounted with  an  ornamental  capital  5  cubits 
high.  The  different  measurements  in  the  vari- 
ous accounts  are  due  to  the  inclusion  or 
exclusion  of  the  capital. 

Boche'ru.— Youth :  a  son  of  Azel  and  a 
descendant  of  Saul  (1  Ch.  8.38,  9.44). 

Bo'chim.— The  Weepers:  this  is  a  place, 
west  of  the  Jordan  and  north  of  Gilgal,  where 
the  Israelites  wept,  on  being  reproved  for  making 
league  with  the  Canaanitcs  (Judg.  2.1,  5). 

Bo'han. — Thumb  :  a  borderstone  or  landmark 
between  Judah  and  Benjamin  (Josh.  15.6). 
The  position  of  this  place  is  unknown.  It  was 
named  after  a  Reubenite,  to  commemorate 
some  achievement  in  the  conquest  of  Palestine. 

Boil. — The  irritation  produced  by  dust  and 
heat  causes  many  purulent  diseases  in  Egypt 
(Ex.  9.9).  Leprosy,  in  some  cases,  seems  to 
have  been  caused  by  a  long-continued  succession 
of  boils  (Lev.  13.18),  where  a  constitutional 
tendency  to  the  disease  already  existed.  The 
opinion  that  the  dreadful  eruptive  skin  disease 
that  drove  Job  (2.7)  from  his  fellows  was  of  a 
leprous  nature  is  held  by  Sir  Risdon  Bennett 
(see  Diseases  of  the  Bible),  and  other  medical 
authorities.  The  Hebrew  word  used  to  express 
the  sixth  plague  of  Egypt  and  the  "  botch  of 
Egypt  "  means  an  inflammation,  and  is  derived 
from  a  Syrian  root  "  to  be  hot."  [BOTCH.] 

Boiled. — Cup-shaped  :  the  calyx  of  flowers 
(Ex.  9.31).  The  expression,  "  the  flax  was 
boiled,"  means  that  it  was  in  bud  or  blossom, 
well  advanced  in  growth,  or  nearly  in  a  state 
to  be  gathered.  Thus  the  date  of  the  plague 
of  hail  is  approximately  placed  in  March,  and 
the  damage  done  at  this  time  meant,  of  course, 
not  only  the  loss  of  the  plant,  but  also  of  all  the 
care  and  toil  spent  on  it. 

Bolster.— The  place  of  the  head  :  the  word  has 
the  same  meaning  in  Hebrew  that  it  has  in 
English  (Gen.  28.11 ;  1  Sam.  19.13,  16),  and  the 
article  itself  is  put  to  the  same  uses.  It  is  not, 
however,  certain  that  the  Hebrew  word  should 
not  be  translated  "  the  part  about  the  head," 
without  any  direct  reference  to  a  bolster. 

Bond,  Bondage. — [BAND,  JUBILEE,  SERVANT, 
SLAVERY.] 

Bondman,  Bondmaid,  Bondservant.— [SER- 
VANT, SLAVERY.] 

Bonnet.—  Turban,  Headgear  :  when  the  Bible 
was  translated  into  English,  bonnet  was  a 
common  name  for  masculine  headgear.  This  is 
why  we  find  this  now  feminine  term  applied 
to  men  only  (Ex.  39.28;  Ezek.  44.18).  The 
bonnet  or  turban  worn  by  the  ordinary  priests 
consisted  of  several  rounds  of  linen  turned  in 
and  sewn  together,  so  as  to  appear  like  a  crown. 
The  whole  was  entirely  covered  with  another 
piece  of  linen,  which  came  as  low  as  the  forehead 
(Ex.  28.40).  The  high  priest's  bonnet  did  not 
greatly  differ  (Ex.  39.28  ;  Ezek.  44.18). 

Book. — The  first  books  were  in  the  form  of 
blocks  and  tablets  of  stone,  of  which  we  find 
frequent  mention  u>  th«  Scriptures.  The  writ- 


ings, generally  memorials  of  great  or  heroic  deeds, 
were  engraved  or  cut  into  the  substance  of  the 
stone.  Job  wished  for  some  such  permanent 
record  of  his  words  when  he  cried,  "  Oh  that 
they  were  graven  with  an  iron  pen  and  lead  in 
the  rock  for  ever "  (Job  19.24).  Other  sub- 
stances used  to  record  thoughts,  or  com- 
municate with  a  distant  friend,  were  sheets 
of  lead,  tablets  of  wood,  plates  of  thin 
wood  or  ivory  covered  with  a  coating  of  wax, 
easily  inscribed  with  the  stylus,  and  as  easily 
obliterated. 

The  most  durable  of  all  books  are  those  which 
have  been  excavated  from  the  ruins  of  ancient 
Babylonia.  These  are  in  the  form  of  clay 
bricks  and  tablets,  some  cylindrical,  some  with 
flat  sides,  and  others  of  an  oval  shape.  Some 
are  enclosed  in  an  outer  case  of  clay ;  all  of 
them  are  covered  with  minute  writing 
[WRITING]  impressed  into  the  clay  with  a  stylus 
while  it  was  soft,  and  then  burnt  hard.  These 
books  vgry  in  size  from  an  inch  or  so  in  height 
to  several  inches,  and  every  part  of  the  surface 
is  utilised.  On  them  were  written  poems, 
legends,  accounts  of  battles  and  acts  of 
kings,  business  transactions,  and  contracts. 
[BABYLON.] 

Another  early  form  of  book  was  the  roll. 
This  was  constructed  either  of  papyrus, 
linen,  or  of  skins  specially  beaten  and  prepared. 
Papyrus  was  manufactured  in  Egypt  from  the 
stalk  of  a  reed  which  grew  largely  on  the 
banks  of  the  Nile.  It  was  a  brittle  substance, 
even  after  all  the  care  taken  in  its  making,  and 
though  there  are  specimens  in  our  museums 
of  a  very  ancient  date,  yet  these  have  been 
preserved  only  by  being  hermetically  sealed  in 
tombs,  or  buried  deep  beneath  the  dry  sand  of 
the  desert.  This  paper,  made  from  the  papyrus, 
was  in  use  until  the  Middle  Ages. 

But  among  the  Hebrews  the  substance  chiefly 
in  use  for  the  making  of  their  books  or,  rather, 
rolls,  was  parchment.  These  rolls  were  of  all 
lengths  and  breadths,  though  generally  about 
twelve  inches  wide.  The  big  rolls,  such  as 
those  of  the  Law,  were  wound  on  two  rods, 
one  being  rolled  up  while  the  other  was 
unwound.  When  not  in  use,  the  rolls  were 
carefully  put  into  outer  cases  for  preservation. 
The  parchment  used  for  these  books  was  very 
carefully  prepared  from  skins,  and  was  often 
obtained  from  Pergamos  (hence  the  name), 
where  the  manufacture  was  brought  to  great 
perfection.  The  industry  had  not  reached  its 
height  until  some  two  centuries  before  Christ, 
though  the  art  was  known  as  early  as  the  time 
of  Moses  (Ex.  26.14).  Sometimes  these  parch- 
ment rolls  were  coloured,  though  generally  it 
was  only  the  most  costly  parchments,  known 
as  vellum,  that  were  so  treated.  The  libraries 
containing  these  books  were  not,  of  course,  like 
our  modern  ones,  with  their  rows  of  shelves. 
Indeed,  books  were  so  rare  and  costly  that 
individuals  had  but  few,  and  these  were  easily 
kept  in  boxes  and  round  cases.  Yet  here  and 
there  wer#  to  be  found  libraries  of  considerable 


BOOK  OF  LIFE] 


78 


[BOW 


size,  containing  many  valuable  works  and  public 
records  [ALEXANDRIA,  BABYLON],  Private 
books  wero  sometimes  closed  with  a  seal  (Isai. 
20.11  ;  Rev.  5.1-3)  impressed  with  the  stamp 
of  the  owner. 

Book  of  Life. — Jewish  Registers :  when  a 
person  died  his  name  was  blotted  out  from  the 
list  kept  by  the  authorities,  which  was 
supposed  to  contain  only  the  names  of  the 
living  (Isai.  4.3  ;  Rev.  21.27). 

Book  of  Judgment. — An  allusion  to  the 
record  kept  by  some  Eastern  monarchs  of  the 
good  or  bad  deeds  of  their  subjects.  At  certain 
seasons  these  were  consulted,  and  rewards  or 
punishments  meted  out  according  to  deserts 
(Esth.  6.1-3). 

Booth.— In  the  East,  gardens  were  often 
unfenced,  protected  only  by  a  watchman 
seated  in  a  hut  on  top  of  a  hillock.  This  shelter 
was  just  sufficient  to  protect  a  single  person 
from  the  weather  (Job  27.18).  Such  a  guard 
was,  of  course,  only  sufficient  to  protect  the 
crops  from  animals,  etc.  If  depredation  by 
raiders  was  attempted,  it  was  his  duty  to  give 
the  alarm  (Isai.  1.8).  The  difference  between 
a  tent  and  a  booth  was  that  while  the  first  was 
covered  with  a  cloth  the  latter  had  but  boughs 
of  trees.  This  was  frequently  erected  as  a  shelter 
from  the  heat  of  the  sun  (Neh.  8.16),  and  was 
put  up  beneath  the  shade  of  trees  by  a  flowing 
stream,  or,  in  towns  and  villages,  on  the  house- 
tops. In  the  hot  weather  townsfolk  frequently 
retired  to  their  gardens  in  the  fields,  and  lived 
there  in  just  such  temporary  and  slight  struc- 
tures. [FEAST  OP  TABERNACLES,  TENT.] 

Sooty.— Spoils  taken  in  war  (Num.  31.27-32). 
According  to  the  law  of  Moses,  the  booty  was  to 
be  divided  equally  between  those  who  were 
in  the  actual  battle  and  those  kept  at  home 
and  in  camp.  The  law  further  required  that 
the  Lord's  share  should  come  from  the  spoils 
assigned  to  the  fighting  men ;  and  that  for 
every  five  hundred  men,  oxen,  asses,  sheep,  etc., 
they  were  to  take  one  for  the  high  priest,  as 
being  the  Lord's  "  first-fruits  "  ;  and  that  out 
of  the  spoil  belonging  to  the  people  of  Israel 
they  were  to  give  for  every  fifty  men,  etc., 
one  to  the  Levites.  David  decided  that  in  the 
army  the  baggage-troops  should  share  equally 
with  those  actually  engaged  (1  Sam.  30.24). 
But  even  in  the  time  of  Abraham  a  portion  of  the 
spoils  was  reserved  for  religious  purposes  under 
the  name  of  tithes  (Gen.  14.20).  In  this  parti- 
cular instance  Abraham  shows  a  splendidly 
disinterested  action  in  refusing  his  share  of  the 
spoils  of  war.  From  Dent.  20.14-17,  we  find  that 
while  captives  taken  in  war  were  considered 
lawful  spoil,  yet  such  captures  were  not  to  be 
made  in  Canaan  itself.  [SPOIL,  TITHE.] 

Bo'oz.— (Matt.  1.5  ;  Lk.  3.32).     [BoAZ.] 

B  orr  o  w . — [  Lo  AN.  ] 

Bos'cath.— [BOZKATH]  (2  K.  22.1). 

Bo'sor.— The  father  of  Balaam  (2  Pet.  2.15). 
This  is  the  N.T.  form  of  Beor  (which  see), 
though  how  the  corruption  came  about  is  un- 
certain. It  seems  that  it  does  not  occur  in  any 


manuscript  of  the  Septuagint  version  of  the 
O.T. 

Botch. — A  swelling  or  eruptive  discoloration 
of  the  skin.  It  can  scarcely  be  described  as  a 
medical  term.  As  derived  from  the  Italian 
bozza  (English  "  boss  "),  the  word  would  imply 
either  a  swelling  or  a  rough  unfinished  piece  of 
sculpture.  If  this  is  what  our  translators 
meant  when  using  the  word,  it  might  be  held  as 
an  appropriate  description  of  some  of  the 
cutaneous  signs  of  elephantiasis,  in  other 
words,  of  a  form  of  leprosy  (Deut.  28.27,  35). 

[BOILS.] 

Bottle. — In  nearly  every  instance  where  a 
bottle  is  mentioned  in  Scripture  the  leather  or 
skin  bottle  is  the  vessel  spoken  of,  though  of 
course  earthenware,  alabaster,  metal,  and  even 
glass  bottles  must  have  been  known,  for  the 
Egyptians  manufactured  and  exported  glass 
from  a  very  early  period  ;  while  glass  bottles 
of  many  shapes  and  sizes  were  found  by  Sir 
A.  Layard  among  the  ruins  of  Babylon.  In 
Jer.  19  an  earthenware  bottle  is  used  as  a  strik- 
ing illustration  foreshadowing  the  desolation  of 
the  Jews  for  their  sins.  The  leathern  bottles 
were,  and  indeed  still  are,  made  of  the  skins  of 
animals,  properly  dressed  and  tanned  for  the 
purpose.  The  skins  are  most  carefully  re- 
moved from  the  animals,  being  drawn  off, 
after  the  head  and  extremities  are  removed, 
like  a  tight- fitting  glove,  then  the  openings 
are  stitched  up,  excepting  the  neck,  which  is 
fastened  by  a  piece  of  whipcord  like  a  bag. 
These  bottles  are  of  various  sizes,  according  as 
the  skins  are  large  or  small.  While  the  skin 
is  still  fresh  it  is  given  to  a  professional  tanner, 
by  whom  it  is  rendered  fit  for  holding  not  only 
water,  but  wine,  milk,  and  other  liquids.  The 
tanning  is  done  with  oak  bark  or  acacia  bark, 
and  the  hair  is  left  on  the  outside.  Pig  skins 
are  never  employed  by  the  Jews  for  this  purpose, 
because  the  animal  is  "  unclean." 

During  the  long  marches  in  the  desert  these 
leathern,  chiefly  goat-skin,  bottles  become 
dried  up  and  crack,  like  the  "  old  and  rent  " 
bottles  brought  to  Joshua  by  the  Gibeonites, 
when  they  deceived  him  as  to  the  length  of  their 
journey  (Josh.  9.4).  Such  "  broken  "  bottles 
are  mended  by  being  patched  and  plugged,  but 
are  never  very  useful  afterwards  (Matt.  9.17). 

Bottles  of  skin  were  used  not  only  by  the 
Arabs,  but  very  generally  in  Europe,  Asia,  and 
Africa.  Even  to  this  day  the  Spanish  borrachas, 
for  holding  wine,  is  very  like  the  Arabian  gerba. 
Such  wine-skins  were  used  for  the  same  purpose 
by  the  Greeks,  Romans,  and  Egyptians.  In 
Persia  the  skins  were  preserved  by  being  satur- 
ated with  pitch. 

"  A  bottle  in  the  smoke."  This  passage 
(Ps.  119.83)  is  a  reference  to  the  drying 
and  cracking  effect  of  external  heat  upon 
the  skin  ;  while  the  expansion  produced  by 
the  fermentation  of  new  wine  is  spoken  of  in 
Matt.  9.17. 

Bottomless  Pit.— [Pix.] 

Bow. — To  bend   the  body  has  always 


BOW] 


79 


[BRASS 


a  usual  form  of  salutation,  being  expressive 
at  once  of  respect  and  reverence  for  the  person 
saluted,  and  of  humble  deference  on  the  part 
of  the  one  saluting  (Gen.  24.26,  48  ;  1  K.  1.53, 
2.19).  Jacob  bowed  before  Esau  seven  times 
(Gen.  33.3). 

Bow. — The  weapon.     [ARMY.] 

Bowels. — Sometimes  referred  to  in  Scripture 
as  the  seat  of  the  emotions  (Col.  3.12). 

Bowl.  — The  word  that  is  translated 
"  bowl  "  is  also  translated  "  cup,"  "  charger," 
and  is  derived  from  the  cup-shaped  calyx  of  a 
flower.  Few  earthen  or  metal  manufactures 
of  the  ancient  Jews  survive.  The  bowls  and 
basins  in  common  use  amongst  their  neighbours 
were  chiefly  of  pottery  or  wood.  Hiram  cast 
for  Solomon  a  great  many  bowls  of  gold,  silver, 
and  brass,  among  them  being  the  great  sea 
used  in  the  Temple  services  (2  Ch.  4.8).  At 
the  ceremony  of  purification  in  the  wilderness 
(Ex.  24.6,  8)  Moses  received  half  the  blood  of 
the  sacrifices  in  bowls  and  sprinkled  it  on  the 
people.  Round  and  ornamental  objects  are 
called  bowls  (Eccles.  12.6),  and  so  also  the  globe- 
shaped  capitals  of  the  pillars  of  Jachin  and 
Boaz  (1  K.  7.41).  The  basins  for  feet- washing 
were  larger  and  deeper  than  those  used  for 
holding  food,  and  were  frequently  made  of  wood 
(John  13.5). 

Wooden  bowls  were  used  at  meals  for  liquids 
and  broth  (2  K.  4.40),  just  as  they  are  to-day 
by  the  Arabs.  In  the  British  Museum  are  to  be 
seen  some  terra-cotta  bowls  of  Chaldean  make, 
having  inscribed  upon  them  charms  against 
sickness  and  evil  spirits.  Possibly  Joseph's 
divining-cup  was  a  vessel  of  this  character 
(Gen.  44.5).  These  bowls  were  filled  with  a 
liquid  which  was  drunk  off  as  a  charm  against 
evil.  [POTTERY.] 

Box.— A  flask  or  bottle  for  oil  (2  K.  9.1,  3). 
[ALABASTER.] 

Box-tree.— Tliis  was  the  sherbin  cedar,  a 
species  of  juniper  tree,  generally  resembling  the 
cypress  (/sat.  60.13).  In  Isai.  41.19  the  prophecy 
is  that  the  desert  shall  become  like  the  slopes  of 
Lebanon,  covered  with  trees  ;  for  the  box  was 
a  familiar  growth  in  that  region,  though  it 
was  but  small,  rarely  exceeding  twenty  feet 
high,  of  perpendicular  growth,  the  branches 
inclining  upwards,  and  with  very  small  cones. 

Bo'zez. — (?)  Shining  :  one  of  two  sharp  rocks 
(the  other  is  called  Seneh)  between  which 
Jonathan  and  his  armour-bearer  entered  the 
Philistine  garrison  (1  Sam.  14.4).  These  rocks 
must  have  been  close  to  Michmasb,  where  there 
are  still  two  crags  which  would  answer  to  them. 

BozTsath. — High  stony  region :  a  town  in 
the  lowlands  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.39).  It  was  the 
natice  place  of  Jedidah,  the  mother  of  King 
Tosiah  (2  K.  22.1).  The  name  signifies  not 
mly  a  high  place  but  a  stony  region.  It  has  not 
yet  been  identified.  In  2  K.  22.1  the  word  is 
spelled  Boscath. 

Boz'rah. — Shcepfold :  1.  The  royal  city  of 
Jobab,  king  of  Edom  (Gen.  36.33  ;  1  Ch.  1.44), 
situated  in  the  mountainous  district  near  the 


northern  border  of  the  country,  half-way 
between  Petra  and  the  Dead  Sea.  It  was 
renowned  for  its  sheep  (Isai.  34.6 ;  Mic. 
2.12),  and  was  the  subject  of  prophetic 
denunciation  (Isai.  34.6,  63.1  ;  Jer.  49.13,  22 ; 
Amos  1.12).  The  modern  representative  of 
Bozrah  is  el-Buseirah,  south-east  of  the  Dead 
Sea.  "  Goats  "  such  as  Isaiah  mentions  are 
still  to  be  found  in  the  neighbourhood.  2.  A 
city  of  Moab  on  the  high  downs  on  the  east 
of  the  Dead  Sea.  It  suffered  in  the  general 
desolation  of  the  country  (Jer.  48.24).  It  is 
the  same  as  Bezel  (1).  King  Mesha  states  on 
the  Moabite  Stone  that  he  rebuilt  it. 

Bracelet. — Different  words  in  the  Hebrew 
are  rendered  bracelet  in  our  translation. 
Thus  in  2  Sam.  1.10  an  armlet  is  meant.  In 
Ex.  35.22  the  word  has  reference  to  the  ring 
form  of  the  bracelet.  In  Gen.  38.18  the  word 
signifies  a  thread  or  cord  for  suspending  a  signet 
ring.  The  fourth  form  of  the  word  occurs  more 
frequently,  and  as  in  Gen.  24.22  the  usual 
form  of  bracelet  is  indicated  ;  while  in  Isai.  3.19 
the  twisted  or  chain-like  character  of  the  orna- 
ment is  shown.  Bracelets  were  made  of  gold 
and  other  precious  metals,  studded  with  jewels, 
and  also  of  iron  and  earthenware.  Both  men 
and  women  wore  bracelets.  Among  Eastern 
princesses  it  was  a  badge  of  royalty,  and  was 
probably  regarded  as  such  in  the  time  of  David 
(2  Sam.  1.10).  The  royal  bracelet  was  of  rich 
material,  and  jewelled,  and  was  worn  above 
the  elbow,  while  the  common  bracelet  was  worn 
on  the  wrist  (Ezek.  16.11).  Bracelets  were  also 
worn  as  charms  against  disease  and  evil  spirits. 
[ARMLET.] 

Bramble. — In  Judg.  9.14,  the  buckthorn.  In 
Isai.  34.13  the  word  is  the  same  as  that  translated 
"  thorn  "  in  Job  41.2,  Prov.  26.9,  and  elsewhere. 

Branch. — In  Isai.  11.1  the  word  is  used 
figuratively  and  as  a  title  for  the  Messiah. 
44  And  there  shall  come  forth  a  rod  out  of  the 
stem  of  Jesse,  and  a  BRANCH  shall  grow  out 
of  his  roots."  When  Christ  is  represented  as  a 
slender  twig,  shooting  from  the  trunk  of  an  old 
tree  lopped  to  the  very  root  and  decayed, 
this  branch  itself  becoming  a  mighty  tree, 
reference  is  made  to  the  kingly  dignity  of 
Christ,  springing  from  the  decayed  house  of 
David  ;  and  to  the  exaltation  which  was  to 
succeed  His  humbled  condition  on  earth 
(Jer.  23.5,  33.15 ;  Zech.  3.8,  6.12). 

The  "abominable  branch"  of  Isai.  14.19 
is  a  branch  thrown  on  one  side  and  neglected. 
The  allusion  in  Ezek.  8.17  is  to  an  idolatrous 
custom  in  which  peculiarly  shaped  twigs  were 
carried  about. 

Brasen  Sea.— [TEMPLE  SERVICE,  LAYER.] 

Brass. — Where  in  the  Bible  the  word  brass 
is  used,  copper  or  bronze  is  probably  meant. 
Mining  the  metal  is  spoken  of  in  Deut.  8.9,  and 
smelting  it  in  Job  28.2.  The  alloy  which  we 
now  call  brass  was  invented  in  the  thirteenth 
century  A.D.  Copper  was  mined  in  the  hills  of 
Canaan,  and  was  used  for  a  variety  of  purposes 
(Judg.  16.21  ;  1  Sam.  17-5  ;  2  K.  25.7).  Bronze, 


BRAVERY] 


80 


[BREASTPLATE 


an  alloy  of  copper  and  tin,  was  made  at  a  very 
early  date,  and  weapons,  mirrors,  and  ornaments 
were  manufactured  of  it.  Copper  was  used 
for  money  (Matt.  10.9).  The  word  is  often 
employed  also  in  an  emblematic  fashion,  as 
in  Lev.  26.19,  where  "I  will  make  .  .  .  your 
earth  as  brass"  is  a  picture  of  utter  hard- 
ness and  a  glaring  dryness  ;  for  invulnerability 
'  flesh  of  brass"  (Job  6.12) ;  for  un worthiness 
(Jer.  6.28) ;  and  of  strength  (Zech.  6.1). 

Bravery. — Only  in  Isai.  3.18,  in  the  old  sense 
of  display  or  show  of  finery. 

Bray. — 1.  As  an  ass  (Job  6.5).  2.  To  pound 
or  bruise  in  a  mortar  (Prov.  27.22). 

Brazen  Serpent.— [SERPENT.] 

Bread. — At  all  times,  even  the  earliest,  bread 
was  the  chief  food  of  the  Hebrews.  Wheat  and 
barley,  by  themselves  or  mixed  with  other  grains 
and  pulse,  were  pounded  between  stones  or 
in  a  mortar,  mixed  with  water,  sometimes  a 
little  salt,  and  then  baked.  The  art  of  using 
leaven  and  flavouring  substances  came  later. 

In  making  bread,  the  flour  was  mixed  in 
wooden  troughs  or  bowls  (Gen.  18.6)  with  the 
hands  or  feet,  just  as  the  Arabians  carry  on 
the  operation  now.  Sometimes  the  kneading 
was  done  on  a  circular  sheet  of  leather,  which 
could  be  gathered  up  like  a  satchel  and  carried 
with  ease  from  place  to  place,  a  convenient 
plan  for  a  nomadic  people.  The  loaves  were 
shaped  like  a  plate,  sometimes  of  wafer-like 
thinness,  but  generally  about  the  thickness  of  a 
finger.  The  process  of  baking  was  gone  through 
with  great  rapidity.  Corn  was  ground  every 
morning,  and  in  twenty  minutes  from  the 
commencement  of  this  operation  it  was  baked 
into  bread.  This  was  unleavened  bread,  and  was 
only  used  in  an  emergency  (Gen.  19.3)  or  for 
ceremonial  purposes.  The  fermented  bread  was 
a  longer  process,  because  of  the  time  occupied 
in  fermentation.  A  little  of  the  dough  from 
the  previous  day's  baking  was  broken  up  in 
water,  and  then  the  flour  or  meal  was  mixed 
with  this,  thoroughly  kneaded,  and  set  aside 
tintil  the  leaven  had  spread  through  the  whole 
mass.  In  the  O.T.  three  different  methods 
of  baking  bread  are  spoken  of.  In  1  K.  19.6 
we  read,  "And  he  looked,  and,  behold,  there 
was  a  cake  baken  on  the  coals."  This  is 
descriptive  of  the  method  pursued  by  the  Arabs 
to-day.  A  fire  of  sticks,  straw,  and  camel's 
dung  was  lit  over  some  flat  stones.  When  the 
latter  were  hot  the  ashes  were  removed,  the  thin 
cake  of  bread  put  on  the  hot  stones,  and  the 
ashes  replaced.  In  a  few  minutes  these  were 
swept  of!  again,  the  bread  turned,  and  the  ashes 
once  more  put  on  top.  In  the  towns 
regular  bakeries  were  established,  with  a  class 
of  professional  bakers.  But  generally  each 
household  had  its  own  oven,  a  deep  earthen  jar, 
at  the  bottom  of  which  a  fire  was  lighted.  When 
heated,  the  loaves  were  baked  by  being  flattened 
on  the  outside  or  inside  of  the  oven.  Ovens  in 
the  country  places  were  holes  dug  in  the  ground 
and  plastered  with  clay,  which  would  become 
burnt  hard  and  smooth,  presenting  a  good 


heating  surface  for  the  reception  of  the  cakes 
of  bread. 

As  a  rule  it  was  the  women  of  the  household 
who  were  the  breadmakers,  but  professional 
bakers  were  always  men.  In  Jerusalem  they  had 
a  quarter  of  the  town  to  themselves  (Jer.  37.21). 
[LEAVENED,  UNLEAVENED,  CAKES.] 

Bread*  Daily. — It  has  been  supposed  that  the 
use  of  the  word  "  daily  "  in  the  Lord's  Prayer 
is  a  reference  to  the  fact  that  the  thin  loaves 
soon  got  dry  and  tasteless,  and  so  had  to  be 
made  freshly  each  day.  It  was  for  this  reason 
that  only  just  enough  was  baked  for  the  family 
consumption.  Bread  that  was  required  for  a 
journey  was  in  reality  a  species  of  biscuit.  In 
itself  the  word  "  daily  "  is  difficult.  For  it 
occurs  only  in  the  Lord's  Prayer.  It  probably 
means  the  "  ever-coming,"  "  continual  "  bread, 
or  perhaps  bread  for  the  "  on-coming  "  day. 

Bread,  Shew. — The  shewbread  consisted  of 
twelve  loaves  (one  for  each  of  the  twelve 
tribes),  presented  hot  each  Sabbath,  and 
placed  on  the  golden  table  in  the  Tabernacle 
(Ex.  25.30).  It  was  a  thank-offering,  and 
derived  its  name  because  it  was  shown,  or 
placed,  before  the  face  of  the  Lord  continually. 
The  stale  loaves  were  eaten  lawfully  only  by  the 
priests,  and  only  in  the  court  of  the  sanctuary 
(Lev.  24.9).  An  exception  was  made,  however, 
by  Ahimelech  when  he  supplied  David  and  his 
followers  with  the  shewbread  that  had  been 
removed  from  before  the  Lord  (1  Sam.  21.1-6 ; 
Matt.  12.4). 

Bread,  Unleavened. — Made  with  flour  or  meal 
and  water  only,  and  baked  in  very  thin  cakes. 
It  was  not  to  be  cut  when  eaten,  but  broken  with 
the  fingers  (Matt.  14.19).  [CAKE,  BAKE, 
OVEN,  etc.] 

Breastplate. — A  piece  of  embroidery  about 
ten  inches  square  of  very  rich  workmanship 
(Ex.  39.8),  which  the  high  priest  wore  on  his 
breast.  It  was  made  of  two  pieces  of  the  same 
rich  stuff,  having  a  front  and  a  lining,  and 
forming  a  kind  of  purse,  or  bag,  in  which, 
according  to  the  Rabbins,  the  Urim  and 
Thummim  were  enclosed  (Lev.  8.8).  The  front 
was  set  with  twelve  precious  stones,  on  each  of 
which  was  engraved  the  name  of  one  of  the 
twelve  tribes.  They  were  placed  in  four  rows, 
and  divided  from  each  other  by  the  little  golden 
partitions  in  which  they  were  set.  The  names 
of  the  jewels  were  sardonyx,  topaz,  emerald, 
carbuncle,  sapphire,  jasper,  ligure,  agate, 
amethyst,  chrysolite,  onyx,  beryl. 

The  breastplate  was  fastened  at  the  four 
corners,  those  on  the  top  to  the  shoulders  by 
hooks  and  chains  of  gold ;  those  below  to  the 
girdle  of  the  ephod  by  two  strings  or  ribands, 
furnished  also  with  hooks  and  rings.  This 
ornament  was  never  to  be  severed  from  the 
priestly  garment ;  and  it  was  called  "  the 
memorial "  (Ear. 28. 29),  being  designed  to  remind 
both  the  priest  that  he  represented  the  tribes 
whose  names  he  bore  on  his  breast,  and  God 
of  His  covenant  promises  towards  them.  It 
was  also  called  the  "  breastplate  of  judgment  " 


BREASTPLATE] 


81 


[BRICK,  BRICK-KILN 


(Ex.  28.15),  because  the  high  priest  wore  it 
when  he  exercised  his  judicial  capacity  in 
matters  which  concerned  the  whole  nation. 
[EPHOD,  UEIM,  THUMMIM.] 

Breastplate.  —  Defensive  armour.  [ARMS, 
WEAPONS.]  It  is  used  figuratively  in  Isai. 
59.17  and  other  passages. 

Breeches.— On  certain  occasions,  especially 
on  the  Day  of  Atonement,  the  officiating  priest 
had  to  wear  breeches  or  drawers  "  from  the 
loins  even  unto  the  thighs"  (Ex.  28.42)  when 
he  entered  the  holy  place.  They  were  also 
worn  by  the  priests  when  sacrificing. 

Brethren. — In  the  N.T.  not  only  those  who 
were  connected  by  blood  (as  in  Matt.  1.2), 
but  also  Jewish  hearers  (Acts  2.29) ;  and  the 
general  body  of  believers  in  the  Christian 
Church  (Rom.  1.13).  [BROTHER.] 

Brethren  of  the  Lord. — Were  those  who  are 
spoken  of  (e.g.  Matt.  12.46,  and  13.55)  as  our 
Lord's  "  brethren  "  the  children  of  Joseph  and 
Mary  ?  An  opinion  dating  from  the  second 
century  at  least  regards  them  as  Joseph's 
children  by  a  prior  marriage.  A  later  view  repre- 
sented them  as  cousins  of  our  Lord.  They  may, 
however,  have  been  children  born  to  Joseph  and 
Mary.  In  every  place,  except  one,  where  they 
are  mentioned  in  the  Gospels  they  are  found 
associated  with  Mary.  If  they  were  Joseph's 
elder  children,  Jesus  would  not  be  the  heir  to 
David's  throne,  according  to  our  notions  of 
primogeniture;  but  there  are  many  examples 
in  Scripture  of  younger  sons  succeeding  to  the 
throne.  It  appears  that  they  did  not  believe 
in  Jesus  (John  7.5)  for  some  time  after  the 
appointment  of  the  Apostles ;  and  therefore 
they  could  not  be  of  the  number  of  the  Twelve ; 
from  whom,  indeed,  they  are  particularly 
distinguished  when,  at  a  later  period,  they  are 
found  in  company  with  them  (Acts  1.14).  They 
must  therefore  not  be  confounded  with  the  sons 
of  Alphaeus,  although  bearing  the  same  names. 
[JAMES,  EPISTLE  OP.]  Further,  the  words 
"  son  "  and  "  mother "  being  used  in  this 
passage  (Matt.  13.55)  in  their  natural  and 
primary  sense,  the  words  "  brother "  and 
"  sister  "  should  be  so  taken,  at  least  so  far  as 
to  exclude  "  cousin."  That  the  sons  of  Alphaeus, 
like  our  Lord's  brethren,  were  named  James, 
Joses,  and  Judas,  proves  nothing,  these  names 
being  among  the  most  common  in  Jewish 
families.  That  these  brethren  were  passed  by 
when  Jesus  committed  His  mother  to  John's 
care  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  they 
did  not  believe  on  Him  at  the  time.  Their 
conversion  appears  to  have  been  brought  about 
by  our  Lord's  appearance  to  James  after  His 
resurrection  (1  Cor.  15.7). 

Bribe,  Bribery. — The  giving  of  presents  was, 
and  is,  so  universal  a  custom  in  the  East 
that  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  say  where  the 
compliment  ended  and  the  bribe  began.  In 
Ex.  23.8,  however,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the 
gift  was  for  the  purpose  of  escaping  punish- 
ment, and  so  is  more  correctly  described  as  a 
bribe.  Bribes  were  also  made  to  a  conqueror 


(2  K.  16.8).  The  present  to  a  prophet  was  a 
fee,  and  had  nothing  of  the  nature  of  a  bribe 
about  it  (1  Sam.  9.7).  In  Ezek.  22.12,  however, 
we  find  false  prophets  receiving  bribes.  That 
bribery  was  common  amongst  certain  classes 
of  the  people  is  shown  in  Job  15.34  where 
"  tabernacles  of  bribery  "  is  evidently  descrip- 
tive of  the  corruption  prevalent  in  the  courts 
of  justice. 

Brick,  Brick-Kiln.— The  bricks  used  by  the 
Jews  for  building  were  usually  sun-dried,  with 
burnt  bricks  for  wet  or  marshy  sites,  and  for 
ornamentation.  The  art  of  brick-making  was 
known  at  the  building  of  Babel  (Gen.  11.3). 
It  was  acquired  by  the  Israelites  during  the 
time  they  were  forced  to  labour  for  the  Egyptians 
(Ex.  1.14).  Stone  had  to  be  fetched  from  a 
distance,  but  the  clay  for  brick-making  was  near 
at  hand  and  plentiful.  Thus  the  making  of 
bricks,  both  sun-dried  and  burnt,  was  a  finished 
art  in  Egypt;  and  when  the  rulers  of  that 
land  found  themselves  in  the  possession  of  a 
vast  slave  population  of  foreigners,  nothing 
was  more  natural  than  that  these  slaves  should 
be  put  to  brick-making.  The  hardships  the 
Hebrews  endured,  as  narrated  in  Exodus,  is 
fully  borne  out  by  sculptures  on  Egyptian 
monuments,  which  represent  them  as  engaged 
in  this  laborious  work.  The  taskmaster  with 
his  rod  is  also  frequently  depicted. 

Chopped  straw  and  rushes  or  any  fibrous 
refuse  was  used  to  give  consistency  and  strength 
to  the  Nile  mud  used  in  sun-dried  brick-making. 
As  we  know  (Ex.  5.18),  the  Egyptians  increased 
the  burden  of  the  Hebrews  by  refusing  to 
supply  them  with  the  chopped  straw  necessary 
to  their  craft.  Thus  they  were  compelled  to 
hunt  about  in  the  fields  or  farmyards  for  straw 
themselves.  As  the  same  tale  of  bricks  was 
expected  of  them  as  before,  the  hardship  of  this 
can  easily  be  imagined.  They  were  made  to 
serve  "  with  rigour." 

The  bricks  the  Hebrews  were  forced  to  make 
were  about  double  the  size  of  those  in  use 
to-day.  Of  the  bricks  intended  for  public 
buildings,  each  one  was  stamped  with  the 
king's  name,  and  sometimes  the  name  of  the 
building  Tor  which  it  was  intended. 

Babylonia,  like  Egypt,  was  a  stoneless  region. 
Here,  in  all  probability,  the  making  of  bricks 
first  began,  and  the  remains  of  numerous 
buildings  that  have  been  examined  bear  testi- 
mony to  the  great  skill  and  taste  shown  by 
the  Babylonian  brick-makers.  The  majority 
of  the  bricks  found  bear  the  name  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and  many  might  better  be  called  tiles 
rather  than  bricks  (Ezek.  4.1),  for  they  were 
often  decorated  and  enamelled.  The  ruins 
of  Nineveh  have  also  yielded  many  finely 
enamelled  bricks. 

Brick-kilns  were  used  in  Egypt,  the  bricks 
made  in  these  being  smaller  than  the  sun- 
dried  varieties,  which  latter  varied  from  20  to 
10  in.  in  length,  9  to  6£  in.  wide,  and  7  to  3  in. 
in  thickness.  Jeremiah  mentions  one  of  these 
kilns  (Jer.  43.9)  in  Egypt,  and  in  2  Sam.  12.31 


BRIDE,  BRIDEGROOM] 


82 


[BULRUSH 


we  find  them  in  use  in  Palestine  in  David's  time ; 
while  Isaiah  (65.3)  complains  of  the  people  build- 
ing altars  of  brick  instead  of  unhewn  stone 
as  directed  by  the  law  (Ex.  20.25).  [HOUSES, 
BUILDING,  POTTERY.] 

Bride,  Bridegroom.  —  [BETROTHED,  MAR- 
RIAGE, and  the  next  article.] 

Bridechamber. — In  Palestine,  a  few  days 
before  marriage  both  bride  and  bride- 
groom shut  themselves  up  in  their  respective 
homes,  during  which  period  the  bridegroom 
receives  visits  from  parties  of  his  young 
male  friends.  This  is  called  the  "  nuptial 
joy  "  feast,  and  the  young  men  the  "  children 
of  the  bridechamber "  (Matt.  9.15),  a  fact 
which  casts  light  upon  the  words  of  our  Lord, 
"  Can  the  children  of  the  bridechamber  fast, 
while  the  bridegroom  is  with  them  ?  "  (Mk.  2.19). 

Bridle. — Some  four  or  five  different  words 
have  been  translated  "bridle."  In  Ps.  39.1 
the  word  used  means  "  muzzle,"  and  in  other 
passages  "  rein,"  "  bit,"  "  guard,"  and  "  bridle  " 
(Job  30.11,  41.13;  Ps.  32.9;  Prov.  26.3; 
Jas.  1.26 ;  Eev.  14.20). 

Brier. — In  /sat.  55.13  the  word  "  brier " 
carries  a  reference  to  the  nettle,  which  burns 
when  touched.  Then  in  Ezek.  28.24  a  prick- 
ing plant,  the  thorn,  is  implied  ;  and  in  Eeb. 
6.8  a  leaf  with  sharp  spines  on  its  edges,  though 
exactly  what  this  last  is,  is  not  known.  The 
word  translated  brier  in  Judg.  8.7,  16  tells  of 
a  terrible  form  of  punishment  in  use  among  the 
ancients.  This  was  the  punishment  of  lacerating 
the  flesh  of  the  victim  with  thorns  or  thistles, 
from  the  latter  of  which  the  word  "  carding  " 
is  derived  (carduus,  a  thistle). 

In  other  instances  the  reference  is  to  prickly 
wilderness  plants,  of  which  there  are  many 
varieties  in  Palestine.  [BRAMBLE,  THORN.] 

Brigandine. — A  coat  of  mail  that  covered 
the  body  both  in  front  and  at  the  back.  It  con- 
sisted of  two  parts  fastened  together  at  the  sides 
(Jer.  46.4 ;  51.3).  It  was  so  called  in  English 
because  used  by  brigands  or  robbers.  This 
was  the  "  breastplate  "  of  Rev.  9.9. 

Brimstone. — Burning  stone:  first  used  in 
Gen.  19.24  in  the  account  of  the  destruction 
of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah.  Sulphur  is  plentiful 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Dead  Sea  (Deut. 
29.23).  Some  hot  springs  that  were  much 
resorted  to  by  the  Romans,  and  where  Herod 
built  elaborate  baths,  deposit  so  great  a  quantity 
of  sulphur  that  the  baths  have  been  entirely 
covered  from  sight.  The  word  brimstone  does 
not,  however,  always  signify  sulphur,  but  is 
used  in  the  sense  of  "  fire,"  and  is  descriptive 
of  lightning,  which  leaves  a  sulphurous  smell 
behind  it  during  a  thunderstorm  (Isai.  30.33). 

Broidered.  —  (Ex.  28.4).  [EMBROIDERER.] 
Broidered  (R.V.  braided)  is  used  of  the  hair  in 
1  Tim.  2.9. 

Brook. — Generally  where  the  word  is  used 
it  denotes  an  intermittent  stream,  dry  in  the 
hot  weather  and  full  at  other  times — a  tcady. 
However,  this  distinction  is  not  always  observed, 
for  the  Euphrates,  the  Nile,  and  the  Jordan 


are  sometimes  called  brooks.  The  chief  brooks 
mentioned  are  Arnon,  Besor,  Cherith,  Eshcol, 
Kidron,  Kishon,  Zered,  the  Willows,  which 
see.  By  the  "  brooks  of  defence "  in  Isai. 
19.6  the  Nile  is  meant.  [RIVER,  RIVER  OF 
EGYPT.] 

Broom. — [JUNIPER.  ] 

Brother. — There  are  several  senses  in  which 
the  word  "  brother  "  appears  in  the  Scriptures. 
It  is  often  used  for  a  near  kinsman  (Gen.  29.12) ; 
for  nephew  (Gen.  14.16) ;  for  a  fellow-tribesman 
(2  Sam.  19.12) ;  for  one  of  the  same  race  (Ex. 
2.11) ;  and  metaphorically  for  any  similarity 
(Lev.  19.7;  Job  30.29;  Pro??.  18.9).  It  is  also 
used  for  a  friend,  a  fellow- worker,  a  disciple 
(Matt.  25.40).  It  was  commonly  employe,! 
among  Christians  when  speaking  of  each  other 
(Acts  9.17,  22.13).  By  the  Jews  "  brother  " 
was  reserved  to  distinguish  an  Israelite,  but 
Christ  and  His  apostles  extended  the  term  to 
all  the  world  (Lie.  10.29,  30;  1  Cor.  5.11). 
[BRETHREN,  LOVE.] 

Bruit. —  A  word  that  occurs  but  twice  in 
the  Bible  ( Jer.  10.22 ;  Nah.  3.19).  It  is  an 
old  English  word  now  seldom  used,  and  means 
rumour  or  noise.  (See  Shakespeare,  Much 
Ado,  v.  i.  65.) 

Buckler. — By  this  word  is  conveyed  the 
idea,  sometimes  (as  in  Ezek.  26.8)  of  armour, 
but  generally  of  a  shield  (2  Sam.  22.31). 
[SHIELD,  ARMS.]  The  English  word  is  as  old 
as  Chaucer. 

Buildings. — [DWELLINGS,  HOUSES.] 

Buk'ki. — Proved  of  Jehovah :  1.  Son  of  Abishua 
and  father  of  Uzzi.  Fourth  from  Aaron  in  the 
line  of  the  high  priests  (1  Ch.  6.5;  Ezra 
7.4).  2.  A  prince  of  Dan,  amongst  the  ten  chosen 
to  apportion  the  land  (Num.  34.22). 

Bukki'ah. — Proved  of  Jehovah:  a  Kohathite 
Levite,  of  the  sons  of  Heman;  a  musician 
in  the  temple,  and  leader  in  the  sixth  course 
(1  Ch.  25.4, 13). 

Bui. — The  eighth  month  in  the  sacred  year, 
answering  to  our  October  or  November.  It 
was  the  second  month  in  the  civil  year,  and 
commenced  from  the  first  new  moon  in  October. 
The  name  is  of  Canaanitish  origin,  apparently 
a  name  of  a  god,  and  was  adopted  by  the 
Israelites  (1  K.  6.38).  [MONTH.] 

Bull,  Bullock.  —  The  bullock  was  used  in 
Hebrew  sacrifices  and  offerings.  Bulls  in  the 
rich  pastures  of  Bashan,  being  well  fed,  were 
strong  and  ferocious  animals.  Hence  they  are 
chosen  as  symbols  of  cruel  and  persecuting 
enemies  (Ps.  22.12). 

The  "  wild  ox  "  in  Isai.  51.20  is  the  antelope, 
wild  and  untamable,  but  not  too  powerful  to 
be  caught  in  nets.  [BASHAN,  Ox,  ANTELOPE.] 

Bulrush. —  A  species  of  reed  found  on  the 
Nile  and  other  Mediterranean  rivers  (Ex. 
2.3,  5).  It  was  called  papyrus,  from  which  our 
word  paper  is  derived,  the  inner  bark  being 
peeled  off  and  the  edges  gummed  together  with 
its  own  juices  and  dried.  The  height  of  the 
plant  is  from  12  to  15  feet.  The  stalks  being 
pliable  are  used  for  many  purposes— ropes. 


BUNAH] 


83 


[BURY,  BURIAL 


baskets,  etc.  That  it  could  be  interwoven  very 
closely  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  the  ark  in 
which  Moses  was  exposed  was  made  from 
it.  Even  vessels  of  large  capacity  were  made 
from  it  and  used  for  storing  goods  (Isai,  18.2). 
The  fact  that  the  juicy  roots  were  used  for  food, 
and  the  upper  part  of  the  stalk  for  writing 
upon  when  prepared,  perhaps  explains  Jer. 
15.16.  [BOOK.] 

In  Isai.  58.5,  as  also  in  Matt.  11.7,  the  refer- 
ence is  clearly  to  a  very  tall  cane  that  grows 
quite  freely  in  the  country,  and  lies  flat  on 
the  ground  during  a  strong  wind,  to  rise 
instantly  the  pressure  is  removed. 

Bu'nah. — Understanding:  son  of  Jerah- 
meel,  of  the  family  of  Pharez  (1  Ch.  2.25). 

Bnn'ni. — Meaning  unknown :  1.  A  Levite  of 
Nehemiah's  time,  who  taught  the  people  the 
Law  of  Moses  (Neh.  9.4).  2.  A  Levite,  an 
overseer  of  the  Temple,  ancestor  of  Shemaiah 
(Neh.  11.15).  3.  A  chief  who,  with  Nehemiah, 
sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  10.15). 

Burden. — The  word  in  the  prophets  often 
precedes  a  disastrous  prophecy  ;  the  burden 
of  Babylon  (Isai.  21.1),  the  burden  of  Nineveh, 
of  Moab,  of  Egypt.  But  properly,  as  used  by 
the  prophets  of  their  utterance,  it  means  an 
utterance  solemnly  taken  upon  the  lips,  an 
oracle.  The  ill-natured  question  the  Jews 
asked  of  Jeremiah,  "  What  was  the  burden  of 
the  Lord  ?  "  was  answered  by  him,  "You  are 
that  burden  "  (Jer.  23.33-38),  the  implication 
being  that  they  were  insupportable  to  the 
Lord. 

Burial.— [BURY.] 

Burning  Ague.— Or  fever,  by  which  malarial 
fever,  frequent  in  Egypt  and  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  Jordan,  is  probably  indicated 
(Lev.  26.16).  The  "  great  fever  "  that  fell  upon 
Simon's  wife's  mother  at  Capernaum  was 
probably  of  the  same  nature  (Lk.  4.38).  Some 
writers  think  that  the  "  thorn  in  the  flesh  " 
which  troubled  Paul  (2  Cor.  12.7)  was  the  burn- 
ing headache  which  follows  an  attack  of 
malarial  fever.  [DISEASES,  AGUE,  FEVER.] 

Burning  Bush.— [BUSH.] 

Burning  Coal. — Coal  (charcoal)  was  the  name 
given  to  wood  already  burned  and  blackened 
in  the  fore.  [COAL.] 

Burnt  -  Off  ering.— The  original  is  derived 
from  a  root  signifying  "  to  ascend,"  and  was 
applied  to  the  offering  that  was  wholly  con- 
sumed and  ascended  in  the  smoke  to  God. 
A  detailed  account  of  burnt-offerings  is  found 
in  the  opening  chapters  of  Leviticus.  They 
were  in  the  nature  of  expiatory  offerings,  i.e. 
they  were  offered  as  atonements  for  sins  com- 
mitted by  those  sacrificing;  they  were  also 
thank-offerings  ;  and  finally  they  were  expres- 
sions of  adoration. 

The  altars  for  burnt-offerings  were  invari- 
ably built  of  uncut  stones,  with  the  exception 
of  that  one  constructed  to  accompany  the 
Israelites  in  their  wanderings,  covered  with 
plates  of  brass.  [Ai/TAB.] 

Burnt-offerings,  as  well  as  "meat  offerings" 


and  "  peace  offerings,"  were  voluntary  offerings 
(unlike  "  sin  "  and  "  trespass  "  offerings,  which 
were  compulsory)  and  had  to  be  presented  in  a 
uniform  and  systematic  manner,  as  laid  down  in 
Lev.  1-3.  The  first  three  express  generally  the 
idea  of  homage,  self-dedication,  and  thanks- 
giving, the  latter  two  that  of  propitiation. 

The  animals  used  for  burnt- offer  ings  might 
be  from  the  flock  or  herd,  or  birds,  but  whether 
young  bullock,  ram,  or  goat,  or  turtle-dove, 
the  animals  were  to  be  males,  without  blemish, 
and  were  to  be  entirely  burnt,  their  blood 
sprinkled  on  the  altar,  and  their  skins  given  to 
the  priests  for  clothing.  Burnt- offerings  were 
to  be  offered  every  morning  and  evening,  every 
Sabbath  day,  the  first  day  of  every  month,  the 
seven  days  of  unleavened  bread,  and  the  Day  of 
Atonement.  The  animal  was  presented  by  the 
offerer,  who  laid  his  hands  upon  it,  and  afterwards 
slew  it,  the  priest  doing  the  rest.  Burnt-offerings 
were  made  at  the  consecration  of  the  priests 
(Ex.  29.15),  Levites,  kings,  sacred  places 
(1  K.  8.64) ;  the  purification  of  women  (Lev. 
12.6),  Nazarites  (Num.  6),  lepers  (Lev.  14.19) ; 
before  war,  and  with  sounding  of  trumpets  at 
feasts.  [ALTAR,  SACRIFICES,  OFFERINGS.] 

Burnt  Sacrifice.  —  Alternative  rendering  of 
burnt-offering  (Lev.  1.3). 

Bury,  BuriaL— With  the  Jews,  burial  followed, 
as  a  rule,  as  soon  as  possible  after  death.  From 
the  earliest  times  the  favourite  method  of 
burial,  among  the  more  wealthy,  was  entomb- 
ment. Cremation  was  denounced  as  a  heathen 
practice  and  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  the  law. 
The  reason  given  for  this  preference  was  the 
statement,  "  Dust  thou  art,  and  unto  dust  shalt 
thou  return."  Their  respect  for  orderliness  and 
decorum  was  so  great  that  burial  was  accorded 
even  to  the  slain  enemy  and  malefactor  (1  K. 
11.15;  Deut.  21.23).  Interment  was  the 
only  alternative  to  entombment,  and  was  the 
method  adopted  by  the  poorer  sorts  of  people. 
Great  respect  was  paid  to  the  dead,  and  to 
disturb  a  grave  was  looked  upon  as  a  barbarity, 
only  justifiable  in  the  case  of  those  who  had 
themselves  outraged  religion  (2  K.  23.16,  17  ; 
Jer.  8.1,  2). 

Owing  to  the  rugged  nature  of  the  soil  of 
Palestine,  caves  were  numerous,  and  were  natur- 
ally used  as  tombs.  In  these  caves,  enlarged 
and  otherwise  altered  to  serve  as  tombs,  the 
bodies  of  the  dead  were  laid  to  rest  with  simple 
rites  and  little  ceremony.  Jacob  and  Joseph, 
who  died  in  Egypt,  are  the  only  known  instances 
hi  which  the  elaborate  Egyptian  methods 
were  used.  These  cave  or  hillside  sepulchres 
were  often  prepared  in  the  owner's  lifetime,  and 
are  frequently  to  be  found  in  private  gardens 
by  the  roadside,  but  always  outside  the  cities 
and  towns.  It  seems  likely  that  none  but  kings 
and  prophets  were  buried  in  towns  (1  Sam.  25.1 ; 
1  K.  2.10;  2  K.  10.35 ;  2  Ch.  16.14).  Families 
clung  to  their  ancestral  burial-places  with  great 
devotion  and  tenacity,  and  it  was  considered  an 
indignity  to  be  deprived  of  burial  in  the  family 
vault  (1  K.  13.22).  Similarly  it  was  a  mark 


BURY,  BURIAL] 


84 


[BUTTER 


of  a  profound  feeling  towards  a  person  not  of 
one's  family  to  wish  to  be  buried  with  him 
(Ruth  1.17  ;  1  K.  13.31),  or  to  give  him  a 
place  in  one's  own  sepulchre  (Gen.  23.6). 

The  common  people  were  buried  in  cemeteries 
outside  the  city  walls.  One  such  public  burial- 
place  is  mentioned  in  2  K.  23.6,  where  we  find 
"  the  graves  of  the  children  of  the  people  " 
situated  in  the  valley  of  the  Kedron,  outside 
Jerusalem.  Such  was  also  the  "  potter's 
field  "  (Matt.  27.7).  In  these  cemeteries  the 
bodies  were  interred  in  pits,  with  no  other 
covering  than  the  grave-clothes.  Neither 
stream  of  water  nor  public  road  was  allowed 
to  cross  the  burial-places,  nor  were  sheep  per- 
mitted to  graze  there.  It  was  the  practice  to 
visit  the  graves  (John  11.31),  partly  to  mourn, 
and  partly  to  pray ;  and  it  was  unlawful  to 
eat,  drink,  read,  or  even  to  walk  purposelessly 
among  them. 

The  bodies  of  cliildren  of  less  than  a  month 
were  carried  to  the  burying  by  their  mothers, 
all  others  being  borne  on  biers,  as  was  the 
case  at  the  funeral  at  Nain.  It  is  an  interest- 
ing fact  that  most  of  the  burials  mentioned  in 
the  O.T.  are  the  obsequies  of  patriarchs, 
kings,  prophets,  or  other  prominent  persons ; 
while  in  the  N.T.  it  is  those  of  a  private 
station  in  life  whose  burials  are  recorded. 
But  in  both  cases  the  "  manner  of  the  Jews  " 
included  the  use  of  spices,  where  they  could  be 
afforded  (2  Ch.  16.14).  The  "  great  burning  " 
made  for  King  Asa  is  descriptive  of  the  burning 
at  his  funeral  of  bed,  furniture,  and  other 
articles  used  by  him. 

In  the  public  cemeteries  it  was  obligatory  that 
eighteen  inches'  space  should  intervene  between 
one  grave  and  another.  The  caves,  or  rock-hewn 
sepulchres,  consisted  of  an  ante-chamber,  in 
which  the  bier  was  deposited,  and  an  inner  or 
lower  cave,  in  which  the  bodies  were  deposited, 
in  a  recumbent  position,  in  niches  hollowed 
out  of  the  rock.  These  abodes  of  the  dead 
were  usually  six  feet  long,  nine  feet  wide,  and 
ten  feet  high.  Here  there  were  niches  for 
eight  bodies.  This  was  the  general  form ; 
there  were  larger  and  smaller  sepulchres  (but 
see  TOMBS).  The  entrance  to  this  sort  of 
sepulchre  was  closed  by  a  large  stone,  in  the 
shape  of  a  large  grindstone,  rolling  in  grooves, 
or  by  a  door.  This  structure  of  the  tombs 
will  explain  how  it  was  that  the  women,  coming 
early  to  Christ's  grave,  had  been  astonished  in 
finding  the  "  very  great  stone  "  rolled  away, 
and  then,  when  they  entered  the  outer  cave, 
were  affrighted  to  see  what  seemed  a  young 
man  sitting  on  the  right  side  (Mk.  16.4,  5  ; 
John  20.1-12). 

It  was  the  office  of  the  next-of-kin  to  preside 
over  the  whole  burial  function,  but  a  company 
of  public  buriers,  originated  at  a  time  of  urgent 
necessity,  had  become  customary  in  N.T.  times 
(Acts  5.6,  10).  Coffins  were  but  seldom  used, 
and  if  used  were  open ;  but  fixed  stone  sarco- 
phagi were  common  in  tombs  of  rank. 

So  long  as  the  body  was  actually  in  the  house, 


it  was  forbidden  to  eat  or  drink  or  to  put  on 
phylacteries.  All  necessary  food  was  prepared 
and  eaten  if  possible  outside.  [MOURNING, 
DEATH,  TOMB,  GRAVE.] 

Burying-Place.— [BURY.] 

Bush. — Several  words  are  translated  bush. 
The  "  burning  bush "  of  Ex.  3.2  implies  a 
dense  bush,  such  as  a  bramble,  with  thorns, 
though  the  bramble  is  not  found  on  Mount 
Sinai.  It  is  therefore  thought  more  than  prob- 
able that  the  acacia  bush  is  indicated  by  the 
'Hebrew  word  used  in  the  account  of  the 
"  burning  bush."  In  Gen.  21.15  the  word 
used  implies  any  low-growing  and  bushy  shrub  ; 
while  in  Isai.  7.19  bushes  growing  near  the 
water  are  intended  (Lk.  6.44;  Acts  7.30). 
[THORN,  BRAMBLE.] 

Bushel— The  Greek  word  translated  bushel 
(Matt.  5.15)  is  the  same  as  the  measure  or 
seah  (Gen.  18.6;  Matt.  13.33  ;  Lk.  13.21),  which 
was  one-third  of  an  ephah,  or  twenty  pints. 
The  Roman  bushel  was  of  very  nearly  the  same 
capacity  as  the  English  peck. 

Butler.  —  Bottler :  an  officer  of  the  king's 
household.  In  Neh.  1.11  he  is  called  the  cup- 
bearer (Gen.  40.1-13).  The  service  rendered 
by  the  butler,  or  cupbearer,  was  personal,  for 
he  had  not  only  to  supervise  certain  table 
arrangements,  but  it  was  also  his  duty  to  hand 
the  wine-cup  to  his  master.  In  primitive 
times  it  was  a  guarantee  that  the  wine  was 
not  poisoned. 

Butter. — Butter-making  in  the  East  is  rather 
laborious,  and  when  done  the  finished  article 
is  by  no  means  appetising  until  it  has  been 
filtered  and  clarified.  Women  do  the  churning. 
A  goatskin  "  bottle  "  is  half-filled  with  milk 
and  tied  by  the  neck  to  a  fastening  in  the  wall. 
It  is  then  lustily  jerked  backwards  and  for- 
wards until  the  butter  sets.  Sometimes  two 
women  will  take  the  skin  between  them, 
alternately  beating  it,  as  if  fighting  with  each 
other,  or  the  skin  is  rocked  on  the  woman's 
knees  as  a  child  is  hushed  to  sleep,  until  the 
butter  is  separated  from  the  whey.  When  this 
takes  place  it  is  taken  out,  boiled  or  melted, 
and  then  poured  into  smaller  bottles.  In 
winter  this  samen,  as  it  is  called,  has  a  curdled 
appearance  ;  in  summer  it  is  mere  oil.  Some- 
times it  is  clarified  and  then  stored  away  in. 
jars,  taking  rank  as  an  important  article  of 
commerce. 

When  Abraham  entertained  the  three  angels, 
and,  with  other  refreshment,  gave  them"  butter," 
we  are  to  suppose  that  he  really  offered  them 
a  most  refreshing  drink  of  sour-milk  or  of 
butter-milk  ("  leban  "),  still  preferred  to  new 
milk  by  the  Arabs.  The  words  of  Job  29.6, 
"  I  washed  my  steps  with  butter,"  are 
intended  to  give  an  idea  of  great  wealth ; 
but  they  indicate  a  pretty  general  method  of 
churning,  viz.  treading  the  filled  goatskin 
with  the  feet  until  the  butter  arrived.  Again, 
the  "  butter  "  of  Judg.  5.25  was  a  preparation 
of  butter  or  cream  served  as  a  delicacy.  Another 
great  delicacy,  indeed  emblematic  of  extreme 


BUYER] 


85 


[CAIAPHAS 


happiness,was  made  by  mixing  honey  with  butter 
(Isai.  7.15,  22).  [MILK,  CREAM,  CHEESE.] 

The  method  of  making  butter  in  the  East 
explains  the  conduct  of  Jael  when  she  opened 
a  bottle  of  milk.  In  the  Song  of  Deborah, 
the  statement  is  repeated,  "  He  asked  water, 
and  she  gave  him  milk ;  she  brought 
forth  butter  in  a  lordly  dish "  (Judg. 
4.19,  5.25).  The  word  here  rendered  butter 
is  properly  cream,  not  simple  cream,  but  cream 
produced  by  simmering  fresh  sheep's  milk 
over  a  slow  fire.  Jael  therefore  gave  Sisera 
sour-milk  diluted  with  water  to  drink,  and  a 
"  lordly,"  that  is,  rich  dish  prepared  with 
butter  or  cream. 

Buyer. — [TRADE  AND  COMMERCE.] 


Buz.— (?)  Contempt:  I.  Second  son  of  Milcah 
and  Nahor  the  brother  of  Abraham  (Gen.  22.21). 
His  family  settled  in  Arabia  Petraea  (Jer.  25.23). 
Elihu  was  a  Buzite,  one  of  Job's  comforters, 
and  had  his  home  in  this  region  (Job  32.2). 
This  name  is  interesting  because  it  supplies 
another  instance  of  a  peculiar  Jewish  custom  to 
give  to  relatives  rhyming  names,  thus — Huz  and 
Buz,  Ishua  and  Ishui  (Gen.  46.17) ;  Uzziel  and 
Uzzi  (1  Ch.  7.7).  It  is  said  that  so  fond  are 
the  Arabs  of  this  rhyming  custom  that  they 
even  call  Cain  and  Abel,  Kabil  and  Habil. 
2.  A  Gadite  (1  Ch.  5.14). 

Bu'zi. — (?)  Contemned  of  Jehovah :  father  of 
Ezekiel  the  prophet  (Ezek.  1.3). 

Buzite.— [Buz  1.] 


S2 

line 
can 
buil 
and 

Hoi 


Cab. — Measure  containing  about  three  pints 
(2  K.  6.25). 

Cab'bon.— A  town  in  Judah  (Josh.  15.40). 

Cabin. — (Jer.  37.16)  Jeremiah's  dungeon  was 
probably  a  deep  pit  (see  38.6)  in  the  midst  of 
the  inner  court  of  the  house,  having  vaulted 
recesses  round  it  near  the  bottom,  in  which  the 
prisoners  were  lodged.  [PRISON.] 

Ca'bul. —  Unpleasing:  1.  Now  Kabul.  Town 
eight  or  nine  miles  south-east  of  Accho  (Akka), 
on  the  confines  of  the  plain  ;  one  of  the  land- 
marks on  the  boundary  of  Asher  (Josh.  19.27). 
2.  The  name  was  given  by  Hiram,  king  of 
Tyre,  to  the  twenty  cities  in  the  land  of  Galilee 
given  to  him  by  Solomon,  which  "  pleased  him 
not  "  (1  K.  9.12, 13). 

Caesar. — In  the  N.T.  the  Roman  Emperor. 
To  him  the  Jews  paid  tribute,  and  to  him  those 
Jews  who  were  "  Roman  citizens "  had  the 
right  of  appeal.  It  was  the  family  name  of  Julius 
Caesar,  and  was  adopted  by  successive  emperors 
as  a  title.  Four  "  Caesars  "  are  referred  to  in 
the  N.T. :  Augustus  (Lk.  2.1),  Tiberius  (Matt. 
22.17  and  parallels;  John  19.1 2),  Claudius  (Acts 
17.7),  and  Nero  (Acts  25;  Phil.  4.22). 

Caesar's  Household. — The  entire  staff  of 
officials  and  servitors,  includ'ng  the  slaves. 
The  "  saints  "  of  "  Caesar's  household  "  (Phil. 
4.22)  were  probably  among  the  humbler  servants. 
Some  who  had  been  converted  before  Paul's 
arrival  in  Rome  are  mentioned  in  Rom.  16. 

Caesarea.— (Not  to  be  confounded  with 
Caesarea  Philippi. )  Now  Kaisarieh,  a  city  on  the 
shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  about  twenty-one 

iles  south  of  Carmel,  just  above  the  boundary 
between  Samaria  and  Galilee,  on  the  great 
caravan  routes  from  Tyre  to  Egypt.  It  was 
built  by  Herod  the  Great  with  much  beauty 

:  magnificence,  and  named  by  him  Caesarea 
lonour  of  the  Roman  Emperor.  It  was  the 
nan  metropolis  of  Juduea,  and  olVu  ial 
residence  of  the  Herodian  kings,  and  of  Felix, 
Festus,  and  other  Roman  procurators.  There 
Agrippa  I.,  grandson  of  Herod  the  Great, 


was  smitten  with  a  loathsome  fatal  disease 
(Acts  12.19;  23.23;  25.1,  4,  6,  13;  12.21-23). 
Caesarea  was  the  home  of  Philip  the  evangelist 
and  deacon  (Acts  8.40;  21.8);  the  port  of 
departure  to  Tarsus  when  Paul  escaped  from 
Damascus  ( Acts  9.30) ;  the  residence  of  Cornelius, 
the  Roman  centurion,  and  scene  of  his  conver- 
sion (Acts  10.1,  24  ;  11.11) ;  the  port  of  landing 
when  Paul  returned  from  his  second  and  third 
missionary  tours  (Acts  18.22  ;  21.8) ;  when  he 
went  up  to  Jerusalem,  seventy  miles  ( Acts  21.15) ; 
whither  he  was  brought  back  as  a  prisoner,  and 
where  he  was  kept  in  bonds  two  years  by  Felix 
before  he  was  sent  by  Festus  to  Rome  (Acts 
23.23,  33;  24.27;  25.4).  Caesarea  possessed 
a  large  and  splendid  harbour.  Conspicuous 
from  the  sea  was  a  temple  dedicated  to  Caesar 
and  to  Rome,  and  containing  colossal  statues 
of  the  emperor  of  the  imperial  city. 

Caesarea  Philippi. — (i.e.  "  Philip's  Caesarea," 
so  called  to  distinguish  it  from  Caesarea  on  the 
coast),  now  Banias.  A  town  built  in  a  pictur- 
esque position  at  the  base  of  the  south  ridge  of 
Mount  Hermon,  overlooking  the  rich  plain  of 
the  Upper  Jordan  (Huleh).  Here  was  one  of 
the  chief  sources  of  the  river.  The  place  was 
anciently  known  as  Paneas  (from  the  god  Pan), 
but  when  it  became  part  of  the  territory  of 
Philip,  tetrarch  of  Trachonitis,  he  enlarged 
and  adorned  it,  and  called  it  Caesarea  in 
honour  of  the  emperor.  It  was  included  in 
our  Lord's  journeys ;  there  Peter  acknow- 
ledged His  Messiahship  (Matt.  16.13-16 ;  Mk. 
8.27-29) ;  and  there  our  Lord  probably  ascended 
the  Mount  of  Transfiguration,  one  of  the  peaks 
of  Hermon  (Matt.  17.1 ;  Mk.  9.2). 

Cage. — The  term  is  found  in  Jer.  5.27,  and 
indicates  a  trap  in  which  decoy  birds  were  used 
to  attract  their  wild  relatives.  In  Ilev.  18.2  the 
word  rendered  "  cage "  is  more  properly  a 
prison.  The  R.V.  has  "  hold,"  marg.  "  prison." 

Cai'aphas. — Son-in-law  of  Annas  (which 
see)  and  high  priest  from  18  A.D.  to  36  A.D. — 
an  unusually  long  term  of  office.  After  the 


CAIN] 


86 


[CALVARY 


raising  of  Lazarus,  he  uttered  before  the  San- 
hedrim the  unconscious  prediction  tbat  Jesus 
"  should  die  for  the  nation  "  (John  11.50).  He 
was  privy  to  the  plot  for  seizure  of  our  Lord 
by  stratagem  (Matt.  26.3).  After  examination 
before  Annas,  Jesus  was  sent  bound  to  Caiaphas 
(John  18.24),  to  whom  He  confessed  that  He 
was  the  Son  of  God.  Caiaphas  thereupon 
demanded  sentence  of  death  (Matt.  26.66). 
Caiaphas  was  also  at  the  examination  of  the 
apostles  Peter  and  John  (Acts  4.6). 

Cain. — Meaning  unknown  ;  possibly  smith, 
but  connected  in  Gen.  4.1  with  qanah,  acquire: 

1.  Eldest  son  of  Adam  and  Eve,  who,  in  a  fit 
of  jealousy,   roused   by   the  reception  of  bis 
brother's    sacrifice    and  the   rejection   of  his 
own,  on  account  of   the   temper  in  which  it 
was  offered,    murdered    Abel.    He   went  into 
exile,    married,   and    settled   in   the    land    of 
Nod.      The   words,    "  The   Lord   set  a   mark 
upon  Cain  "  (Gen.  4.15),  are  better  rendered, 
as  in  the  R.V.,  "  The  Lord  appointed  a  sign  for 
Cain,  lest  any  finding  him  should  smite  him." 
Cain  founded  the  first  city  (named  after  his 
son    Enoch).      Of    his    descendants,    Lamech 
instituted  polygamy ;     Jabal   introduced    the 
nomadic  life  ;    Jubal  invented  musical  instru- 
ments ;    and  Tubal-cain  was   the   first  smith. 
The   N.T.    references   are  Eeb.   11.4;    1  John 
3.12;  Jude  11.     2.  A  city  in  the  hill-country 
of  Judah  ( Josh.  15.57),  now  Yuktn. 

Cai'nan,  Ke'nan. — 1.  Son  of  Enos,  aged 
seventy  years  when  he  begat  Mahalaleel 
his  son.  He  died  aged  nine  hundred  and 
ten  (Gen.  5.9-14;  1  Ch.  1.2;  Lk.  3.37). 

2.  Son  of  Arphaxad  and  father  of  Sala  (Lk. 
3.35,  36). 

Ca'lah. — Firmness  :  one  of  the  most  ancient 
cities  of  Assyria,  founded  by  Asshur  (Gen.  10.11), 
identified  with  Nimrud,  the  ruins  of  which  are 
situated  about  twenty  miles  south  of  Konyunjtk 
(Nineveh).  Tiglath-pileser,  Esarhaddon,  and 
other  monarchs  erected  at  Calah  royal  build- 
ings of  considerable  extent  and  great  magni- 
ficence. The  Assyrian  remains  in  the  British 
Museum  are,  for  the  most  part,  from  this 
Calah. 

Cal'amus. — A  sweet-smelling  reed  brought 
from  the  East,  used  in  compounding  the 
boly  anointing  oil.  It  came  from  Arabia  or 
India  (Ex.  30.23  ;  Cant.  4.14  ;  Ezek.  27.19). 

Cal'coL— -A  man  of  Judah,  son  or  descendant 
of  Zerah  (I  Ch.  2.6).  Probably  identical  with 
Chakol,  one  of  the  four  wise  men  whom  Solomon 
excelled  in  wisdom  (1  K.  4.31). 

Caldron.— A  vessel  for  boiling  flesh  for 
either  ceremonial  or  domestic  use  (1  Sam. 
2.14  ;  2  Ch.  35.13  ;  Job  41.20  ;  Mic.  3.3). 

Ca'leb.— Son  of  Jephunneh  (Num.  13.6). 
One  of  the  twelve  spies  who,  one  for  each  tribe, 
were  sent  to  search  the  land  of  Canaan  in  the 
second  year  of  the  Exodus.  Caleb  represented 
the  tribe  of  Judah.  He  and  Joshua  were  the 
only  two  who  brought  back  good  reports,  and 
this  so  displeased  the  people,  who  were  anxious 
to  find  an  excuse  for  not  attempting  the  con- 


quest of  Canaan,  that  they  narrowly  escaped 
being  stoned  to  death.  God  punished  the 
obduracy  of  the  people  by  decreeing  that  of 
all  those  who  were  twenty  years  of  age  and 
upwards,  only  two,  Caleb  and  Joshua,  would 
be  permitted  to  enter  the  promised  land. 
When  Caleb  was  eighty-five  years  old  he 
claimed  possession  of  the  land  of  the  Anakim, 
Kirjath-arba  or  Hebron,  and  the  neighbouring 
hill-country  (Josh.  14).  He  drove  out  the 
three  sons  of  Anak  from  Hebron,  and  gave  his 
daughter  Achsah  to  his  younger  brother  Othniel 
as  a  reward  for  taking  Kirjath-sephir  (i.e. 
Debir)  ( Josh.  15.14-19  ;  Judg.  1.11-15).  It  is 
believed  that  Caleb  was  a  Canaanite  by  birth, 
the  tribe  of  the  Kenezites  to  which  he  belonged 
(Josh.  14.6)  being  incorporated  into  the  tribe 
of  Judah  (Josh.  14.14.) 

Caleb,  The  South  of. —The  portion  of  the 
south  country  of  Palestine,  occupied  by  Caleb 
and  his  descendants  (1  Sam.  30.14). 

Caleb-Ephratah. — A  place  near  Bethlehem- 
Judah,  supposed  to  have  been  named  after 
Caleb  and  ius  wife  Ephratah  (1  Ch.  2.24). 

Calf. — Aaron,  during  the  absence  of  Moses 
on  the  mount,  made  a  molten  calf  or  young 
bull  out  of  the  golden  earrings  of  the  people, 
at  their  demand,  and  this  the  people  wor- 
shipped (Ex.  32.4).  Moses,  when  he  returned, 
burnt  the  calf  and  ground  it  to  powder.  By 
this  calf  and  the  calves  which  Jeroboam  set 
up  (1  K.  12)  the  Jews  intended  a  symbol  of 
Jehovah.  They  "  likened  their  Maker  to  the 
graved  ox  "  and  so  broke  the  second  command- 
ment, not  the  first.  But  it  is  to  be  noted  that 
the  offerings,  dancings,  and  rejoicings  practised 
before  Aaron's  calf  were  similar  to  those  which 
the  Israelites  must  hare  witnessed  in  honour 
of  Mnevis,  one  of  the  sacred  bulls  of  Egypt. 
The  sins  of  Aaron  and  Jeroboam  rapidly  cul- 
minated in  grosser  forms  of  idolatry.  Hosea 
is  full  of  denunciations  against  the  Northern 
worship  of  the  calves  (Eos.  8.5,6;  10.5),  and 
mentions  the  curious  custom  of  kissing  them 
(13.2).  The  calf  at  Dan  was  carried  away  by 
Tiglath-pileser,  and  that  of  Bethel  ten  years 
after,  by  "the  king  of  Assyria,"  probably 
Sargon  (2  K.  15.29;  17.3).  The  expression, 
to  render  "  the  calves  of  our  lips  "  (Hos.  14.2) 
means,  "  We  will  render  to  Thee  sacrifices  of 
our  h'ps  "  (i.e.  the  tribute  of  thanksgiving  and 
praise),  or  "  We  will  offer  to  Thee  the  sacri- 
fices which  our  lips  have  vowed."  "  Calves  " 
is  used  as  symbolical  of  sacrifice. 

Cal'neh,  Cal'no. — One  of  the  cities  of  Nimrod 
(Gen.  10.10),  taken  by  Sargon,  the  Assyrian 
(Isai.  10.9  ;  Amos  6.2). 

Calvary. — Three  of  the  Evangelists  preserve 
the  Aramaic  name  of  the  place  where  our  Lord 
was  crucified,  Golgotha  (a  skull),  and  add  the 
interpretation,  "  the  place  of  a  skull  "  (Matt. 
27.33;  Mk.  15.22;  John  19.17).  Luke  omits 
this,  and  says  more  simply,  "  They  came  unto  the 
place  which  iscalled  The  Skull"  (Lk.  23.33,  R.v.); 
the  A.V.  adopts  the  Latin  term  for  "  skull  " 
(calvaria)  used  in  the  Vulgate,  and  treats  it  as 


CAMEL] 


87 


[CANAANITES 


a  proper  name,  "  The  place  which  is  called 
Calvary."  It  follows  that  the  name  which 
has  gathered  round  it  such  sacred  associations 
is  found  in  the  N.T.  only  in  the  A.V.  text  and 
R.V.  marg.  of  Lk.  23.33.  [GOLGOTHA.] 

Camel. — The  most  valuable  of  all  animals  in 
the  desert  regions  of  the  East.  Camels  served 
for  riding  (1  Sam.  30.17),  for  carrying  burdens, 
and  for  draught  (Isai.  21.7).  Small  camels  are 
loaded  up  to  800  lb.,  large  ones  to  half  a  ton. 
With  this  load  they  will  travel  thirty  to  thirty- 
five  miles  a  day  at  a  uniform  space  of  about 
three  miles  an  hour.  A  valuable  property  of  the 
camel  is  its  power  of  subsisting  without  food 
or  drink  for  comparatively  long  periods  without 
injury.  They  have  been  known  to  travel  as 
many  as  ten  days  without  water.  The  Arabian 
camel  is  furnished  with  a  series  of  water-cells 
lining  the  first  stomach,  which  are  capable  of 
carrying  as  much  as  a  gallon  and  a  half  of  water 
as  a  reserve.  The  "  bunch  "  or  hump  on  the 
back  is  composed  of  fatty  cells,  and  is  a  reserve 
of  food — fat  and  plump  when  the  animal  is  well 
fed  and  lightly  worked,  shrivelling  to  nothing 
after  hard  work  and  bad  feeding.  Camel's 
flesh  was  forbidden  as  food,  because,  though 
the  camel  chews  the  cud,  it  does  not  divide 
the  hoof  (Lev.  11.4  ;  Deut.  14.7).  The  milk  is 
much  used.  Jacob  took  a  present,  including 
thirty  milch  camels,  for  Esau  (Gen.  32.15). 
The  camel's  hair  woven  into  cloth  was  used 
for  making  saddle-bags,  tents,  and  the  simple 
clothing  of  the  desert.  John  the  Baptist  was 
clothed  with  camel's  hair,  the  dress  of  the 
prophet  (Matt.  3.4;  Mk.  1.6;  cf.  2  K.  1.8, 
R.V.  marg. ;  Zech.  13.4).  Of  the  camel's  skin 
are  made  tents,  shields,  harness,  and  trunks. 
The  camel's  furniture  (Gen.  31.34)  is  described 
as  consisting  of  a  huge  wooden  framework  or 
saddle  upon  and  round  the  hump,  over  which 
carpet  and  woollen  cloth  is  fastened.  On  the 
top  of  the  pile,  men  sit  cross-legged,  but  women 
and  children  are  carried  in  cages  or  light  wooden 
framework,  slung  as  panniers  on  either  side 
of  the  saddle.  The  riding  camels  ar«  fre- 
quently decorated  with  bands  of  bright- coloured 
cloth  or  leather,  on  which  are  stitched  cowrie 
bells,  little  bells,  and  sometimes  silver  crescent- 
shaped  ornaments  (Judg.  8.21).  The  proverbial 
expression,  "It  is  easier  for  a  camel  to  go 
through  the  eye  of  a  needle"  (Matt.  19.24)  is 
quite  in  Eastern  fashion  :  there  is  no  sufficient 
evidence  either  that  the  word  here  rendered 
"  camel "  really  means  "  rope,"  or  that  the 
term  "  eye  of  a  needle "  was  applied  to  a 
small  postern  gate. 

Ca'mon. — Standing-place  :  a  city  of  Gilead, 
where  Jair  the  judge  was  buried  (Judg.  10.5). 

Camp.— [ENCAMPMENT,  ENTRENCHMENTS.] 

Camphire.— The  plant  referred  to  in  Cant. 
1.14  and  4.13  (R.V.  henna)  is  the  henna 
plant,  universally  esteemed  in  the  East  for  the 
fragrance  of  its  flowers  and  the  colouring  pro- 
perty of  its  leaves.  It  is  a  shrub  six  or  eight  feet 
in  height,  with  pale  green  foliage  and  clusters 
of  white  and  yellow  blossoms  which  emit  a 


delightful  perfume.  It  is  still  to  be  found 
near  the  Dead  Sea  at  Engedi,  as  in  Solomon's 
time.  In  the  East,  houses  are  perfumed  with 
it,  the  blossoms  are  presented  to  guests  as  a 
marked  compliment,  and  women  use  the  henna 
flower  as  a  personal  ornament.  It  is  used  as  a 
dye  for  the  hands,  feet,  and  nails.  The  leaves 
are  dried  and  pounded  and  made  into  a  paste, 
which,  when  applied  to  the  skin,  produces  an 
orange  or  reddish  tint.  No  reference  to  this 
practice  occurs  in  Scripture,  unless  the  phrase 
in  Deut.  21.12,  "  Pare  her  nails,"  may  bear  that 
meaning. 

Ca'na  of  Galilee. — A  village  or  town  memor- 
able as  the  scene  of  Christ's  first  miracle  ( John 
2.1-11 ;  4.46),  as  well  as  of  a  subsequent  one 
(John  4.54),  and  also  as  the  native  place  of  the 
Apostle  Nathanael  (John  21.2).  No  one  of  these 
passages  affords  a  clue  to  the  situation  of  Cana. 
All  we  can  gather  is,  that  it  was  not  very  far 
from  Capernaum  ( John  2.12 ;  4.46).  Recent 
investigation  tends  to  identify  it  with  Khurbet 
Kana,  some  nine  miles  north  of  Nazareth, 
rather  than  Kefr  Kenna,  only  some  three  miles 
north-east.  « 

Ca'naan.—  Low,  flat :  1.  The  fourth  son  of 
Ham  (Gen.  10.6  ;  1  Ch.  1.8),  the  progenitor  of 
the  Phoenicians  (Zidon)  and  of  the  various 
nations  who  before  the  Israelite  conquest 
peopled  the  seacoast  of  Palestine,  and  generally 
the  whole  of  the  country  westward  of  the  Jordan 
(Gen.  10.15).  A  curse  was  pronounced  on 
Canaan  for  the  disrespectful  conduct  of  Ham 
towards  his  father  Noah  (Gen.  9.20-27).  2. 
The  name  Canaan  is  sometimes  employed 
for  "  the  land  of  Canaan." 

Canaan,  The  land  of.— In  Zeph.  2.5  and  Matt. 
15.22  the  meaning  is  restricted  to  the  low 
maritime  plains  of  Philistia  and  Phoenicia, 
and  this,  as  its  derivation  shows  (low),  is  its 
proper  significance ;  but  its  application  was 
extended  to  all  the  country  west  of  the  Jordan 
and  the  Dead  Sea,  and  between  these  waters 
and  the  Mediterranean.  The  language  of 
Canaan  (Isai.  19.18),  that  is  Phoenician,  was 
virtually  identical  with  Hebrew. 

Canaanite,  The. — The  name  wrongly  given 
by  the  A.V.  (following  a  faulty  text)  to  Simon, 
one  of  the  apostles,  in  Matt.  10.4 ;  Mk.  3.18. 
The  R.V.  there  has  "  Canansean,"  a  name  which 
has  no  connexion  with  Canaan  or  Cana,  but  is 
the  Aramaic  equivalent  of  the  Greek  word  "  Ze- 
lotes  "  (Lk.  6.15  ;  Acts  1.13),  which  the  R.V 
translates  "  the  Zealot."  Either  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Jewish  sect  of  the  Zealots, 
the  extremists  in  repudiation  of  Roman 
dominion,  or  the  name  was  given  to  suit  his 
fiery  zeal  (cf.  Acts  22.3 ;  Gal.  1.14,  where  the 
same  word  "  Zelotes  "  is  used). 

Ca'naanites,  The. — The  designation  is  used 
in  a  narrow  and  in  a  wider  sense.  It  implies 
either  the  tribe  which  inhabited  a  particular 
locality  of  the  land  west  of  the  Jordan  before 
the  conquest ;  or  the  people  who  inhabited 
generally  the  whole  of  that  country.  To  take 
the  restricted  signification  first.  The  low- 


CANDACE] 


88      [CANON  OF  HOLY  SCRIPTURE 


lands  of  the  western  country  included  the 
plains  lying  between  the  shore  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  foot  of  the  hills  of  Benjamin, 
Judah,  and  Ephraim,  the  plain  of  Philistia 
on  the  south,  that  of  Sharon  between  Jaffa 
and  Carmel,  the  great  plain  of  Esdraelon  in  the 
rear  of  the  bay  of  Akka,  the  plain  of  Phoenicia, 
containing  Tyre,  Sidon,  and  all  the  other  cities 
of  that  nation,  and,  lastly,  the  Jordan  valley, 
which  extended  from  the  Sea  of  Gennesareth 
to  the  south  of  the  Dead  Sea,  about  one 
hundred  and  twenty  miles  in  length  and  from 
eight  to  fourteen  miles  wide.  The  seats 
of  the  Canaanite  tribe  were  on  the  sea- 
shore from  Sidon  to  Gaza,  and  thence  as  far  as 
the  south  end  of  the  Dead  Sea  (Gen.  10.18,19). 
The  chariots,  which  formed  a  prominent  part 
of  their  armies  ( Josh.  17.16  ;  Judg.  1.19,  4.3), 
could  be  driven  nowhere  but  in  the  lowlands. 
These  plains  were  the  richest  parts  of  the 
country.  The  wider  application  of  the  term, 
Canaanites,  includes  all  the  non-Israelite  in- 
habitants of  the  land  in  the  days  before  the 
conquest. 

Canda'ce.— The  royal  title  (cf.  Pharaoh, 
Ccesar)  borne  by  the  Queens  of  Ethiopia 
(Acts  8.27). 

Candlestick. — Moses  was  commanded  to 
make  one  for  the  Tabernacle,  as  described 
in  Ex.  25.31-37,  37.17-24.  The  candlestick 
or,  rather,  lamp-stand,  with  its  appurten- 
ances, is  calculated  to  have  been  worth 
£5076,  exclusive  of  workmanship.  The  candle- 
stick of  Moses  was  a  type  of  the  light  of 
the  law,  as,  similarly,  candlesticks  are  made 
types  of  the  Spirit,  of  the  Church,  of  witnesses 
(Zeck.  4 ;  Rev.  2.5,  11.4).  The  candlestick 
was  placed  on  the  south  side  of  the  first  apart- 
ment of  the  Tabernacle,  this  side  being  sym- 
bolical of  the  light  of  the  sunny  region  of 
heaven.  In  Solomon's  Temple,  instead  of  the 
Tabernacle  candlestick,  there  were  ten  golden 
candlesticks  similarly  embossed,  five  on  the 
right  and  five  on  the  left  (1  K.  7.49  ;  2  Ch.  4.7). 
They  were  taken  to  Babylon  (Jer.  52.19). 

When  our  Lord  cried,  "  I  am  the  Light  of 
the  world  "  (John  8.12),  the  allusion  was  prob- 
ably suggested  by  the  two  large  golden  chande- 
liers, lighted  in  the  court  of  the  women  during 
the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  which  illuminated  all 
Jerusalem. 

Canker. — Modern  "cancer." 

Cankerworm. — The  larva  or  caterpillar  stage 
of  locust  (Joel  1.4,  2.25  ;  Nah.  3.15,  16).  After 
the  winged  locusts  have  passed  on,  says  Canon 
Tristram,  the  young  larvae  appear,  and  con- 
sume all  that  has  escaped  the  former. 

Canon  of  Holy  Scripture.  —  The  application  of 
the  term  Canon  to  the  sum  of  the  Books  con- 
stituting the  Scriptures  of  the  O.T.  or  N.T.  does 
not  appear  till  the  long  process  of  determining 
the  contents  of  the  N.T.  reached  its  final  stage, 
toward  the  close  of  the  fourth  century.  But 
the  idea  was  derived  from  the  collection  of  the 
Je \vish  sacred  Scriptures,  already  fixed  and 
complete  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era. 


Canon,  a  Greek  word,  with  cognates  in  Hebrew 
and  other  languages,  means  properly  a  straight 
rod  for  measuring  or  ruling  :  hence,  in  many 
connections,  that  which  rules  or  regulates.  It 
is  used  by  St.  Paul  in  Gal.  6.16,  "As  many 
as  walk  by  this  rule,  peace  be  on  them " 
(see  also  2  Cor.  10.13,  15,  16).  Such  usage 
might  suggest  that  the  term  was  applied  to  the 
Scriptures  as  constituting  the  rule  of  faith  and 
conduct,  i.e.  as  ruling  or  regulating.  The 
evidence,  however,  points  another  way.  The 
"  canon  "  of  Scripture  is  not  that  which  rules, 
but  that  which  is  ruled  :  the  books  which  are 
admitted  (in  contrast  with  those  rejected  as 
apocryplial)  are  declared  by  Church  authority 
to  be  Divine  writings.  To  canonise  a  book  was 
to  seal  it  with  Church  approval  :  the  book 
became  thereby  canonical,  and  the  closed  col- 
lection of  the  approved  books  formed  the 
Canon.  But  though  these  words  belong  to  the 
decrees  of  Church  Councils,  the  decrees  were 
only  the  formal  ratification  of  decisions  long 
since  arrived  at,  in  part  instinctively  by  the 
collective  Christian  consciousness,  in  part 
through  the  spiritual  insight  and  influence  of 
individual  leaders  of  the  Church.  It  is  in  that 
spontaneous  judgment,  inspired  and  directed  of 
God,  that  we  find  the  real  spiritual  authority 
which  determined  the  Canon  of  Jewish  and 
Christian  Scriptures,  an  authority  which  decrees 
of  Councils  might  accept  and  endorse,  but  could 
neither  strengthen  nor  change. 

A.  The  Canon  of  the  O.T.—L  Its  Contents. 
— The  English  O.T.  contains  thirty-nine  books, 
grouped  according  to  subject  matter  (law,  five; 
history,  twelve;  poetry, fire;  prophecy,seventeen). 
This  arrangement  comes  from  the  Latin  Vulgate, 
which  in  turn  is  based  upon  the  Greek  Septuagint, 
so  called  from  its  traditional  seventy  translators, 
and  generally  referred  to  as  the  LXX.  The 
Hebrew  Scriptures,  however,  comprise  only 
twenty-four  books,  the  groups  1  and  2  Sam., 
1  and  2  K.,  1  and  2  Ch.,  Ezra  and  Neh.,  and  the 
twelve  "  Minor  Prophets  "  being  each  reckoned 
as  a  single  book  (a  later  enumeration  reduced 
this  to  twenty-two,  evidently  to  correspond  with 
the  number  of  letters  in  the  Hebrew  alphabet, 
by  linking  Ruth  with  Judges,  Lam.  with  Jer.). 

Moreover,  the  Hebrew  grouping  is  different, 
and  is  probably  significant  for  the  history  of  the 
O.T.  Canon. 

1.  Law  (Torah)  Gen.,  Ex.,  Lev.,  Num.,  Deut. 

2.  Prophets  (Nebhiim). 
Former. — Josh.,  Judg.,  Sam.,  K. 

Latter.—  Isai.,  Jer.,  Ezck.,  and  the  "  Twelve." 

3.  Writings     (Kethubhim,      in      the     LXX 
Hagiographa,  or  sacred  writings). 

a.  Poetical  Books :    Ps.,  Prov.,  Job. 
1.  Mcgittoth  (Rolls,  read  severally  at  the 
five   great   festivals) :    Ruth,   Cant.,    Eccles., 
Lam.,  Esth. 

e.  Dan.,  Ezra  and  Neh.,  Chronicles. 

It  will  be  noted  that  only  the  first  division, 

the    "  Law,"    corresponds    with    the     English 

grouping.      The      "  Prophets "      include     four 

historical  books,  and  the  very  title  of  the  third 


CANON  OF  HOLY  SCRIPTURE]      89       [CANON  OF  HOLY  SCRIPTURE 


division,  the  "  Writings,"  suggests  the  mis- 
cellaneous character  of  its  contents. 

The  Canon  of  the  LXX,  the  version  which,  in 
general,  is  quoted  by  the  N.T.  writers,  contains 
fourteen  books  in  addition  to  those  of  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures.  Tliis  surplusage  of  the  Greek  over 
the  Hebrew  constitutes  the  "  Apocrypha,"  books 
which  "  the  Church  doth  read  for  example  of  life 
and  instruction  of  manners  ;  but  yet  doth  it  not 
apply  them  to  establish  any  doctrine  "  (Article 
vi). 

2.  7/5  History. — The  date  of  the  Canon  must  be 
clearly  distinguished  from  the  date  of  the 
literature  which  it  contains.  A  book  was,  of 
course,  in  existence  before  it  could  be  "  canon- 
ised," and  might  have  been  for  many  ages  the 
prized  possession  of  the  nation.  Moreover,  the 
books  of  the  O.T.  bear  evident  marks  of  having 
been  compiled  and  edited,  especially  in  their 
incorporation  of  earlier  literature,  the  primitive 
records  in  song,  law,  history,  prophecy,  of  the 
national  life  and  faith.  A  long  literary  history 
often  lies  behind  the  book  as  it  was  finally 
received  into  the  Canon.  But  our  concern  now 
is  with  the  formation  of  the  Canon  itself :  the 
evidence  is  scanty  and  fragmentary,  and  it 
must  suffice  to  indicate  the  leading  facts. 

(1)  The  earliest  mention  of  a  look  regarded  as 
of  Divine  authority  belongs  to  the  year  621  B.C., 
thirty-five  years  before  the  Exile.     The  impres- 
sive story  of  the  rinding  of  the  "  book  of  the  law  " 
in  the  eighteenth  year  of  king  Josiah,  of  the 
effect  produced  on  king  and  people,  and  of  the 
reforms  which  followed,  is  told  in  2  K.  22  and  23. 
From  indications  in  the  narrative  it  would  seem 
clear  that  this  book,  also  called  "  the  book  of  the 
Covenant,"   is   not   to   be  identified    with   the 
Pentateuch,  but,  in  substance  at  least,  with  the 
Book  of  Deuteronomy.     Its  previous  history  can 
only  be  conjectured. 

(2)  But   the   actual   beginnings   of   a   sacred 
Canon  are  to  be  ascribed  to  Ezra  and  Nehemiah. 
In  458  B.C.,  Ezra  left  Babylon  for  Jerusalem, 
having  as  his  one  purpose  "  to  seek  the  law  of  the 
Lord,  and  to  do  it,  and  to  teach  in  Israel  statutes 
and  judgments"   (Ezra  7.10).     Thirteen  years 
later,  on  the  arrival  of  Nehemiah  as  governor, 
there  was  read  to  the  assembled  people  "  the  book 
of  the  lawof  Moses  which  the  Lord  had  commanded 
to   Israel"   (Neh.   8-10).     These  books  of  the 
Pentateuch  may  have   been  long  in  existence 
and  held  in  high  regard,  but  in  this  acceptance 
of  them  as  a  sacred  code  of  absolute  and  Divine 
authority   we  may  see   the   first  stage  hi   the 
actual    formation    of    the    O.T.    Canon.     It    is 
probably  the  fact  that  among  the  sacred  writings 
of  the  Jews  the  Pentateuch  was  the  first  to  be 
recognised   in   the   full   sense   as   "  Scripture," 
which   accounts   for   the   exceptional  reverence 
paid  to  the  "  law  "  in  the  after  O.T.  books  and 
by  the  later  Jews  (e.g.  Ps.  119,  Mai  4.4).     Even 
in  the  N.T.  the  "  law  "  is  used  as  a  designation 
of  the  whole  O.T.  (John   10.34,   12.34,   15.25; 
1  Cor.  14.21).     And  the  fact  that  the  Bible  of  the 
modern  Samaritan  community  is  limited  to  the 
Pentateuch  suggests  that  this  was  the  extent  of 


the  Canon  at  the  time  of  the  expulsion,  by 
Nehemiah,  of  Eliashib,  whose  grandson, 
Manasseh,  founded  the  Samaritan  temple  on 
Mount  Gerizim. 

(3)  At  what    later    time    the  great   second 
division  of  the  Canon,   the  "  Prophets,"  was 
recognised  cannot  be  determined.     The  voice 
of  prophecy  was  still  a  living  voice  in  the  days 
of  Ezra,  and  the  time  for  a  closed  collection  of 
prophetic  writings  was  not  yet.     The  compila- 
tion of  the  historical  books  which  are  grouped 
along  with  the  prophets  is  probably  in  large  part 
due  to  the  literary  activity  of  the  exile.     But 
the  earliest  piece  of  clear  evidence  to  the  exist- 
ence of  an  expanded  Canon  is  contained  in  the 
Apocryphal    book    of     Ecclesiasticus,    or    the 
"  Wisdom  of  Jesus,  son  of  Sirach,"  written  soon 
after  200  B.C.     In  his  eulogy  of  the  "  famous 
men  "  of  Israel  (chaps.  44-50)  the  author  follows 
the  order  of  the  "  law  and  the  prophets,"  and 
has  an  express  reference  to  the  book  of    the 
"  Twelve  "  (49.10).    Moreover,  the  Prologue  to 
Ecclesiasticus  (written  by  the  grandson  of  Jesus, 
son  of  Sirach,  who  translated  his  grandfather's 
Hebrew  book  into  Greek)  speaks  of 

"  The  law  and  the  prophets  and  the  others 
that  have  followed  in  their  steps." 

"  The  law  and  the  prophets,  and  the  other 
books  of  our  fathers." 

"  The  law  and  the  prophecies,  and  the  rest  of 
the  books." 

It  is  clear  then  that  by  the  year  200  B.C. 
the  "  law  and  the  prophets "  were  fully 
established  as  Scripture ;  the  vague  refer- 
ences to  the  remaining  books  indicate  that 
a  third  and  final  division  lacked  as  yet  full 
recognition. 

(4)  If  we  may  rely  on  a  reference  in  2  Mac. 
2.14,  the  human  impulse  which  led  to  a  final 
collection  of  sacred  writings  may  be  found  in 
the    persecution    of    the    Jews   by   Antiochus 
Epiphanes,     and     the    revolt     under     Judas 
Maccabseus  (c.  170  B.C.),  "  And  in  like  manner 
Judas  also  gathered  together  for  us  all  those 
writings  which  had  been  scattered  by  reason  of 
the  war  that  befell,  and  they  are  still  with  us." 
Some  of  the  "  writings  "  were  slower  to  gain 
recognition    than   others :     the   canonicity   of 
Ecclesiastes,     Ruth,     Esther,     Proverbs,     and 
Canticles  was  still  matter  of  Rabbinic  discussion 
in  the  first  century  A.D.,  and  the  Canon  of  the 
O.T.  was  only  finally  determined  by  the  Synod 
of  Jamnia,  near  Joppa,  c.  90  A.D.     But  virtually 
it  had  been  settled  long   before.       The  O.T. 
Scriptures,   regarded    with    reverence    as    the 
Word  of  God  by  Christ  and  His  apostles,  were 
identical  with  our  own.     Almost  every  book  is 
quoted  by  the  N.T.  writers,  and  although  they 
used   the  LXX,  and   in  some    passages  show 
acquaintance  with  its  Apocryphal  books,  these 
are  not  used  as  Scripture.     It  is  true  that  only 
one  dubious  reference  is  found  in  the   N.T.  to 
the  threefold  division  of  the  Canon,  "  the  law 
of  Moses,  and  the  prophets,  and  the   psalms  " 
(Lk.  24.44).     But  the  evidence  is  decisive  that 
by  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  the  whole 


CANON  OF  HOLY  SCRIPTURE]      90      [CANON  OF  HOLY  SCRIPTURE 


of  the  O.T.  Scriptures  were  regarded  as  of  long- 
established  and  Divine  authority. 
B.  The  Canon  of  the  N.T. 

1.  Its  Contents.— The   English   order  of   the 
twenty-seven  books  is  derived  from  the  Latin 
Vulgate.     It  exhibits  the  following  grouping  : — 

a.  The  four  Gospels,  and  Acts  (historical). 

b.  A  collection  of   fourteen   Epistles  of   St. 
Paul,  including  and  ending  with  Hebrews. 

c.  The  seven  "  Catholic  "  Epistles. 

d.  Revelation. 

(The  order  adopted  in  the  Greek  Testament 
of  Westcott  and  Hort,  following  that  of  the  best 
Greek  MSS.,  places  the  Catholic  Epistles  im- 
mediately after  Acts,  and  Hebrews  before  the 
Pastoral  Epistles).  This  traditional  order  is 
peculiarly  unfortunate  in  regard  to  the  Pauline 
writings,  which  appear  to  be  arranged  generally 
according  to  length  and  importance.  If  this 
treatment  might  possibly  be  justified  in  the 
case  of  inspired  "  Epistles,"  it  is  to  be  remem- 
bered that  they  were  letters  before,  by  inclusion 
in  the  Canon,  they  became  epistles,  and  as 
letters  they  have  definite  place  in  and  relation 
to  the  course  of  St.  Paul's  life  and  ministry. 
Their  chronological  sequence  is  really  vital  to 
their,  full  understanding,  and  it  can,  with  a 
small  margin  of  uncertainty,  be  determined. 
In  the  case  of  Galatians,  there  is  doubt  both  as 
to  the  group  to  which  it  is  to  be  assigned,  and  as 
to  its  place  in  the  group ;  in  that  of  Philippians, 
as  to  its  place  among  the  Epistles  of  the  im- 
prisonment, whether  first  or  last.  Apart  from 
these  minor  questions  of  order,  the  following 
grouping  would  be  generally  accepted  : — 

Second  Missionary  Journey :  (Galatians), 
1  and  2  Thessalonians. 

Third  Missionary  Journey :  (Galatians), 
1  and  2  Corinthians  (Galatians),  Romans. 

Imprisonment :  Ephesians,  Colossians,  and 
Philemon  ;  Philippians. 

After  the  (first)  Imprisonment :  Titus,  1 
Timothy,  2  Timothy. 

The  N.T.  literature,  then,  comprises  a  fourfold 
Gospel,  or  record  of  the  life,  death,  and  re- 
surrection of  Jesus  Christ,  a  further  history  of 
the  early  Church,  and  especially  of  the  labours 
of  St.  Paul,  a  collection  of  twenty-one  apostolic 
Epistles,  and  the  Apocalypse.  These  writings 
constitute  the  fact  of  the  N.T.  Canon,  and  we 
pass  on  to  consider — 

2.  Its  History. 

It  was  not  at  all  to  be  foreseen  that  Christian- 
ity would  create  a  new  sacred  literature.  It 
already  possessed,  and,  indeed,  founded  itself 
upon  an  inspired  book,  the  Jewish  Scriptures, 
and  the  place  freely  accorded  to  these  by  Jesus 
and  the  apostles,  as  of  Divine  and  final 
authority,  would  suggest  that  they  could 
neither  be  added  to  nor  superseded.  The 
Founder  of  the  new  religion  neither  wrote  nor 
gave  commission  to  write.  St.  Paul's  occasional 
writings  were  letters  addressed  to  local  com- 
munities and  special  needs,  supplying  for  the 
moment  the  lack  of  his  personal  presence. 
Even  the  Gospels,  as  St.  Luke  tells  us  (Lk.  1.1-4), 


grew  out  of  many  earlier  and  fragmentary 
records.  Out  of  fortuitous  beginnings  there 
came  somehow  into  being  a  whole  of  marvellous 
unity  and  completeness.  The  idea  of  an  ex- 
tended Canon  could  only  gradually  emerge, 
in  itself  a  most  notable  testimony  to  the  strength 
of  conviction  with  which  the  Church  believed 
that  Jesus  was  indeed  the  Christ,  and  that  the 
apostles  who  taught  in  His  name  were  possessed 
by  the  Spirit  and  clothed  with  Divine  authority. 

(1)  Jew  and  Christian  owned  in  common  the 
authority  of    a  sacred   book,   but  the  latter 
owned    also   a   second    authority,   higher   and 
interpretative,   in   the   word    of   Christ.     This 
"  Gospel " — the  record  of  His  words  and  deeds, 
His    death    and    resurrection — came    to     the 
Church  at  large   through   the  apostles,   com- 
missioned to  be  His  witnesses.     There  is  ample 
evidence  in  the  N.T.  itself,  and  in  the  writings  of 
the    sub-apostolic    age,   of    the    unique    place 
accorded    to   the   apostles    as    the   authorised 
depositaries  of  Christian  truth.     Through  them 
the  Lord  perpetuated  Himself  in  His  Church : 
the  tradition  of  apostolic  teaching  about  Jesus 
Christ    constituted    an    oral    Christian    Canon 
alongside  the  written  Canon  of  the  O.T.     For  a 
time,  and  to  a  Church  expectant  of  the  Parousia, 
this  would  suffice.     But  as  the  Lord  delayed  His 
coming  the  gap  widened  which  separated  the 
Christ   of   faith   from   the   Jesus   of    history ; 
Christian   communities    were    multiplied    over 
many    lands,    imperfectly    instructed    in    the 
grounds  of  their  faith,  exposed  to  perils  from  the 
heathen    without    and     from    false    teachers 
within.     The  need  inevitably  arose  for  some- 
thing more  fixed  and  tangible  than   apostolic 
tradition,    an   authentic   record    of    the    facts 
concerning  Jesus  Christ,  and  of  their  authorita- 
tive interpretation  through  His  first  disciples. 
And  even   as  it   arose  materials  were    found 
already  at  hand  to  meet  it,  out  of  which  were 
constituted  in  due  time,  as  the  most  essential 
documents  of  Christianity,  the  collection  of  the 
Gospels,  and  the  collection  of   the  Epistles  of 
St.  Paul. 

(2)  The  Gospels.— It  is  certain  that  before  the 
close  of  the  second  century  the  four  Gospels  held 
primary  place  in  a  new  Canon  of  sacred  writings, 
of  equal  sanctity  and  authority  with  the  O.T. 
Scriptures.     The  indications  of  their  gradual 
"  canonisation  "  afforded  by  the  scanty  remains 
of  early   Christian   literature  cannot  here   be 
detailed.     But  it  may  fairly  be  said  that  the 
trend  of  recent  criticism  has  been  to  vindicate 
their  early  date,  and,  in  a  measure  at  least, 
their    traditional   authorship.     There   is   large 
agreement   as    to    the    main    sources    of    the 
Synoptics — a    narrative    source,    ascribed    by 
Pupias  (c.  150  A.D.)  to  Mark,  and  containing 
Mark's   careful   reminiscences   of    Peter's   oral 
teaching ;     and   a  compilation   of  our   Lord's 
sayings  and  discourses,  attributed  by  the  same 
authority,  in  its  Aramaic  form  and  under  the 
title  of  the   "  Logia "   (oracles),   to  Matthew. 
Our    "  St.    Mark "    is    substantially    Mark's 
"  Pe trine    memoirs";    our    "St.    Matthew" 


CANON  OF  HOLY  SCEIPTURE]       91 


[CANTICLES 


combines  these  with  the  "  Logia  "  ;  so  does  our 
"  St.  Luke,"  with  differences  as  to  arrangement, 
and  with  inclusion  of  fresh  sources. 

The  Fourth  Gospel  comes  later,  and  is  cast  in 
a  different  mould.  Its  purpose  is  dogmatic  ; 
it  records  and  interprets,  but  its  inclusion  by 
the  Church  in  the  fourfold  Gospel,  when  so 
many  competing  records  were  rejected,  is  a 
declaration  that  its  witness  to  the  Christ  of  the 
Church's  faith  is  true.  Early  in  the  second 
century  we  begin  to  meet  isolated  references  to 
St.  Matthew  introduced  as  "  Scripture " ; 
about  140  Marcion  adopted  St.  Luke  into  bis 
Canon.  A  little  later  Justin  Martyr  used  all 
four  Gospels,  and  tells  how,  "  on  the  day  called 
Sunday,"  these  "  memoirs  of  the  apostles " 
were  read  in  the  Christian  assemblies,  along 
with  "  the  writings  of  the  prophets."  Tatian 
wove  all  four  into  the  continuous  Gospel,  which 
he  called  the  Diatessaron,  and  finally  the  writings 
of  Irenseus  (c.  192  A.D.)  show  the  four  firmly 
established,  without  possibility  of  rivalry,  as 
authentic  and  sacred  Scripture. 

(3)  The  Epistles  of  St.  Paul— The  beginnings 
of  the  daring  conception  of  a  "  New  Testament," 
equally  inspired  and  authoritative  with  the 
O.T.,  are  no  doubt  to  be  found  in  the  recognition 
of  the  unique  value  for  the  Church  of  written 
Gospels.  But,  once  the  idea  was  formed,  other 
writings  silently  claimed  admission  into  the  new 
Canon  ;  questions  as  to  the  extent  of  the  N.T. 
Canon  arose,  which  were  not  finally  settled 
till  the  close  of  the  fourth  century.  Of  these 
writings  the  first  to  gain  recognition  were  the 
Epistles  of  St.  Paul.  They  were,  for  the  most 
part,  occasional  letters  to  individual  Churches  ; 
but  it  is  easy  to  imagine  that  the  Church  which 
received  one  would  hold  it  a  precious  possession, 
would  lend  to  neighbouring  Churches,  and  in 
turn  borrow  from  them.  Paul  himself  gives 
two  directions  which  would  tend  to  preservation 
and  interchange.  His  letters  are  to  be  publicly 
read  in  the  Church  assembly  (1  Thess.  5.27  ; 
Col.  4.16) ;  we  may  be  sure  that  they  would  be 
read  many  times,  and  to  successive  generations. 
Moreover,  two  neighbouring  Churches  in  the 
Lycus  valley,  Colossae  and  Laodicea,  are  ex- 
pressly told  to  interchange  letters  they  have 
severally  received  from  the  apostle  (Col.  4.16). 
These  two  facts  of  public  reading  and  inter- 
change would  tend  to  invest  these  letters  with 
permanent  and  general  value  ;  copies  would  be 
multiplied,  and  before  long  the  desire  would  be 
felt  on  the  part  of  some  Church  to  possess  a 
complete  collection  of  them.  How  soon  this 
collection  was  gathered  together  we  do  not 
know.  Marcion  included  ten  (rejecting  the 
Pastoral  Epistles)  in  his  Canon,  the  Muratorian 
Canon  (c.  170  A.D.)  names  all  the  thirteen,  while 
recognition  of  individual  Epistles  as  authorita- 
tive writings  dates  from  the  beginning  of  the 
second  century. 

(4)  Other  N.T.  Books. — Before  the  year 
200  A.D.  the  nucleus  of  the  N.T.  Canon  already 
described  had  been  expanded  by  the  full  re- 
cognition of  Acts,  1  Peter  and  1  John.  The  other 


five  "  Catholic  Epistles,"  with  Hebrews  and 
the  Apocalypse,  were  not  yet  generally  accepted, 
nor  were  certain  other  books,  as  the  Shepherd  of 
Hermas,  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas,  and  the 
Apocalypse  of  Peter,  definitely  excluded.  In 
the  list  of  Eusebius,  a  century  later,  these 
latter  were  declared  "  spurious,"  while  the  books 
which  have  any  claim  to  be  "  canonical "  are 
divided  into  those  "  acknowledged "  (the 
Gospels,  Acts,  the  Epistles  of  Paul,  probably 
including  Hebrews,  1  John,  1  Peter)  and  those 
"disputed"  (James,  Jude,  2  Peter,  2  and  3  John), 
the  Apocalypse  strangely  finding  a  place  in 
both  classes. 

The  varying  fortunes  of  individual  books  in 
different  sections  of  the  Church  cannot  here  be 
traced.  Controversy  was  practically  closed 
by  the  decree  of  the  Third  Council  of  Carthage 
(397  A.D.),  which,  though  of  local  authority 
only,  so  accurately  interpreted  the  considered 
judgment  of  the  whole  Christian  Church  that 
it  has  hardly  been  questioned  since.  This 
Council,  ordaining  that  "  except  the  Canonical 
Scriptures  nothing  be  read  in  church  under  the 
name  of  Divine  Scriptures,"  added  a  list  of  the 
N.T.  "  Canonical  Scriptures "  exactly  corre- 
sponding with  our  own  N.T.  Broadly  speaking, 
the  test  which  ultimately  determined  accept- 
ance or  rejection  was  the  mark  of  Apostolicity, 
not  dependent  upon  proved  apostolic  author- 
ship, but  discerned  in  the  writings  themselves. 
For  the  application  of  this  test  the  sound  kernel 
of  truth  possessed  in  the  Gospels  and  the 
Epistles  of  St.  Paul  formed  a  standard.  As  the 
impulse  which  first  led  to  a  New  Testament  at  all 
was  the  desire  to  preserve  for  the  expanding  and 
imperilled  Church  the  word  of  Christ,  so  the 
final  result  of  that  impulse  in  a  completed  N.T. 
Canon  expresses  the  devout  judgment,  matured 
through  three  centuries  of  the  Church's  history, 
that  in  these  writings,  as  in  no  others,  the  Lord 
did  indeed  speak  through  apostolic  men. 

Canticles  (or  the  Song  of  Solomon). — The 
subject  of  this  Song  is  the  mutual  affection 
and  endearments  of  the  marriage  relation. 
Its  authorship  and  date  have  been  much  dis- 
cussed. The  universal  voice  of  antiquity 
ascribed  the  book  to  Solomon,  and  the  internal 
evidence  is  consistent  with  his  period.  It  has 
always  been  in  the  Canon,  but  is  not  quoted 
in  the  N.T.  Some  have  thought  that  it  may 
have  been  originally  a  collection  of  songs 
sung  at  a  wedding-feast,  in  accordance  with 
the  custom  in  Palestine  at  the  present  day.  It 
is  to  be  viewed  as  a  beautiful  exhibition  of  the 
legitimate  exercise  of  that  merely  human  love 
which  our  Creator  has  implanted  in  our  being. 
But  there  is  much  more  than  this  to  be  said. 
The  marriage  relation  is  used  in  many  pas- 
sages of  the  Scriptures  that  illustrate  the 
connexion  between  Jehovah  and  His  chosen 
people.  Accordingly  the  Jews  have  always 
understood  the  Song  of  Solomon  in  a  figurative 
sense.  So  also  Christian  commentators  in 
every  age  have  regarded  this  poem  as  illustrat- 
ing the  mutual  love  of  the  Saviour  and  His 


CAPER] 


92 


[CAPTIVITY 


Church,  and  as  fitly  representing  the  closeness 
and  perpetuity  of  the  union  which  subsists 
between  them.  Arid  when  it  is  regarded  in 
this  light,  it  will  appear  to  be  a  valuable  per- 
ception of  Divine  truth  ;  more  suitable  to  the 
habits  of  thought  and  feeling  of  some  persons 
than  of  others,  but  peculiarly  adapted  to 
enliven  the  religious  emotions  of  no  inconsider- 
able portion  of  the  people  of  God.  Of  course 
it  is  in  the  general  purport  of  the  poem  that 
we  must  seek  its  mystical  meaning  ;  we  must 
not  attempt  to  interpret  symbolically  every 
minute  circumstance  mentioned. 

The  poem  is  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  ;  the 
chief  speakers  being  Solomon  and  his  bride, 
with  the  occasional  interposition  of  female 
attendants,  and  perhaps  of  other  spectators. 
The  Contents  may  be  divided  thus :  1.  in- 
troduction, setting  forth  the  mutual  love  of 
Bridegroom  and  Bride  (ending  2.7) ;  2.  the 
Bridegroom's  visit  and  the  Bride's  dream 
(ending  3.5) ;  3.  the  royal  espousals  (ending 
5.1) ;  4.  a  dream  of  estrangement  and  sorrow, 
followed  by  the  renewal  of  love  (ending  6.9)  ; 

5.  the  delights  of  conjugal  affection  (ending  8.4) ; 

6.  visit  to  the  Shulamite's  house  and  a  happy 
retrospect  (ending  8.14).     As  in  ancient  poems 
generally,    there    are    no    breaks    to    indicate 
change  of  scene  or  of  speakers.     In  detecting 
these  changes  we  are  guided  partly  by  the  sense, 
but  chiefly  by  the  use  in  the  original  of  feminine 
and    masculine   pronouns,    of    the    second    or 
third  person.     A  neglect  of  this  distinction  has 
much  obscured  the  English  version.     In  some 
editions,  however,  as  in  the  Annotated  Para- 
graph Bible,  the  different  scenes  and  characters 
are  indicated. 

Caper. — A  shrub  of  which  the  buds  or  berries 
are  made  into  pickle,  of  pungent  flavour,  and 
used  as  stimulant  to  the  appetite.  In  Eccles. 
12.5  for  "  desire  shall  fail  "  the  R.V.  substitutes 
"  the  caper-berry  shall  fail,"  i.e.  fail  to  restore 
the  jaded  appetite. 

Caper'naum.  —  Village  of  Nahum  :  on  the 
northern  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  The  doom 
pronounced  against  it  and  the  other  cities  has 
been  singularly  fulfilled^  The  modern  Tell- 
Hum  (where  tbere  are  the  ruins  of  a  fine 
synagogue)  probably  represents  its  site,  but  the 
claims  of  Khan  Minyeh  are  still  maintained  by 
a  few  scholars. 

The  interest  attaching  to  Capernaum  is  that 
it  was  the  residence  of  our  Lord  and  His 
apostles,  and  the  scene  of  so  many  miracles  and 
"  gracious  words."  Capernaum  was  His  own 
city  (Matt.  9.1).  It  was  when  He  returned 
thither  that  He  is  said  to  have  been  at  home 
(Mk.  2.1).  Here  He  called  Matthew  (Matt. 
9.9).  The  brothers  Simon  Peter  and  Andrew 
belonged  to  Capernaum  (Mk.  1.29).  It  was  here 
that  Christ  worked  the  miracle  on  the  centurion's 
servant  (Matt.  8.5  ;  Lk.  7.1),  on  Simon's  wife's 
mother  (Matt.  8.14;  Mk.  1.30;  Lk.  4.38), 
on  the  paralytic  (Matt.  9.1 ;  Mk.  2.1 ;  Lk.  5.18), 
and  on  the  man  afflicted  with  an  unclean  spirit 
(.Mk,  1.32 ;  Lk.  4.33).  The  son  of  the  nobleman 


( John  4.46)  was,  though  resident  at  Ciipernaum, 
healed  by  words  which  appear  to  have  been 
spoken  in  Cana  of  Galilee.  At  Capernaum 
occurred  the  incident  of  the  child  (Matt.  18.1  ; 
Mk.  9.33),  and  in  the  synagogue  there  was 
spoken  the  wonderful  discourse  of  John  6.  It 
was  an  important  customs  station,  and  had 
a  garrison  of  Roman  troops. 

Caph'tor,  Caphto'rim. — A  country  whence 
the  Philistines  migrated  to  Palestine  (Gen.  10.14; 
Deut.  2.23  ;  1  Ch.  1.12  ;  Jer.  47 A  ;  Amos  9.7); 
Professor  Sayce  locates  it  on  the  shores  of  the 
Nile  delta ;  more  probably  Crete. 

Cappado'cia.  —  An  eastern  district  of  Asia 
Minor,  bounded  on  the  south  and  east  by  the 
range  of  Mount  Taurus  and  the  upper  course 
of  the  Euphrates.  In  early  times  the  name 
extended  as  far  north  as  the  Black  Sea,  but  in 
the  time  of  the  apostles  it  was  divided  into  the 
two  Roman  Provinces  of  Pontus  and  Cappadocia, 
the  latter  being  near  the  Taurus.  It  is  an 
elevated  tableland  intersected  by  mountain- 
chains,  famous  for  grazing,  and  a  good  grain 
country.  Its  metropolis  was  Ccesarea  (now 
Kaisariyeh),  situated  near  Mount  Argaeus, 
the  highest  mountain  in  Asia  Minor.  Some 
Jews  of  Cappadocia  were  among  the  hearers 
of  Peter's  first  sermon  (Acts  2.9),  and  some  of 
its  Christian  residents  were  among  the  readers 
of  his  First  Epistle  (1  Pet.  1.1). 

Captain. — [See  ARMY.]  The  captain  of  the 
guard  (Acts  28.16)  is  either  the  Prefect  of  the 
Praetorian  Guard  (R.V.  marg.)  or,  more  prob- 
ably, the  lesser  officer  in  charge  of  the 
"  soldiers  from  abroad,"  constantly  coming  and 
going  on  the  service  of  outlying  portions  of 
the  Empire,  and  quartered  when  in  Rome  in 
a  permanent  camp.  The  R.V.  text  omits  the 
clause.  The  captain  of  the  Temple  (Lk.  22.4; 
Acts  4.1,  5.24)  was  not  a  military  officer,  but 
superintended  the  guard  of  priests  and  Levites 
who  kept  watch  by  night  in  the  Temple.  His 
functions  were  to  visit  the  posts  during  the 
night,  and  see  that  the  sentries  were  on  duty. 

Captivity,  Captivities  of  Israel  and  Judah, 
The. — The  origin  of  these  calamities  lay  in 
the  sins  of  rulers  and  people,  and  then  in 
alliances  with  heathen  powers.  Pekah,  King 
of  Israel,  sought  the  aid  of  Rezin,  King  of 
Syria,  against  Ahaz,  King  of  Judah.  Ahaz, 
imitating  his  rival's  policy,  applied  for  help  to 
Tiglath-pileser  (or  Pul),  King  of  Assyria.  The 
latter  came  and  chastised  the  Israelites,  carrying 
into  Media  the  two  and  a  half  trans-Jordan 
tribes  (Reuben,  Gad,  and  half  Manasseh)  and 
making  the  rest  tributary.  Such  was  the  first 
captivity  of  Israel.  Ten  years  later,  Hoshea, 
King  of  Israel,  appealed  to  So,  King  of  Egypt,  to 
assist  him  in  throwing  off  the  tribute,  Hezekiah, 
King  of  Judah,  joining  in  the  confederacy. 
This  revolt  brought  up  Shalmaneser,  son  of 
Tiglath-pileser,  with  a  large  host.  Samaria 
fell  before  the  power  of  Sargon,  Shalmanesor's 
successor,  and  was  annexed  to  the  Assyrian 
crown.  This  was  the  second  captivity  of  Israel, 
completing  the  depopulation  of  the  land.  Jeru- 


CARBUNCLE] 


93 


[CARMEL 


salem  escaped,  the  army  of  Sennacherib,  son  of 
Sargon,  being  miraculously  destroyed.  The 
conquered  Israelite  territory  was  afterwards 
peopled  by  settlers  from  the  region  of  the  Tigris 
and  the  Euphrates  (2  K.  17.24).  They  inter- 
married with  those  of  the  Israelites  who  had 
remained,  and  ultimately  took  the  name  of 
the  Samaritans.  What  became  of  the  Ten 
Tribes  is  not  known. 

The  kingdom  of  Judah  was  tributary  success- 
ively to  Assyria,  Egypt,  and  Babylon.  Zede- 
kiah;s  revolt  against  Babylon  brought  up 
Nebuchadnezzar  against  Jerusalem,  587  B.C. 
After  a  siege  of  eighteen  months,  the  city  was 
taken  at  midnight ;  most  of  the  inhabitants 
were  put  to  death,  the  children  of  Zedekiah  were 
slain,  and  he  himself  (his  eyes  put  out)  was 
carried  in  chains  to  Babylon.  Nebuzaradan, 
the  general  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  burned  the 
city,  destroyed  the  Temple,  and  carried  off 
the  remainder  of  the  sacred  vessels  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  natives,  a  few  poor  only 
being  left  to  till  the  soil.  The  Jews  in  Babylonia 
were  from  the  first  a  separate  people,  and  in 
several  places  they  constituted  themselves  into 
distinct  communities,  with  elders,  and  a 
government  of  their  own.  They  were  treated 
as  colonists  (not  as  slaves) ;  they  might  rise 
to  the  highest  positions  in  the  State,  as 
Daniel  did,  or  hold  the  most  confidential 
offices  near  the  person  of  the  king.  The 
idolatry  by  which  they  were  surrounded  had 
no  longer  any  attractions  for  them ;  it 
rather  aroused  a  strong  antagonism.  The 
restorer  of  the  Jewish  nation  was  Cyrus  the 
Great,  who  conquered  Babylon,  and  is  renowned 
as  the  founder  of  the  Persian  Empire.  Cyrus 
issued  a  decree  permitting  the  subjects  of  the 
States  that  had  been  conquered  by  Babylon 
to  return  to  their  homes  and  re-establish  their 
worship.  The  results  of  this  decree  and  the 
subsequent  history  of  the  Jews  until  the  close 
of  the  O.T.  canon  are  found  in  the  historical 
books  of  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and  Esther,  and  in 
the  prophecies  of  Haggai,  Zechariah,  and 
Malachi.  Cyrus  decreed  the  rebuilding  of  the 
Temple  in  536  B.C.  In  all,  about  56,000 
persons  returned  from  exile;  but  the  bulk 
of  living  Jews,  having  been  born  in  Babylonia, 
remained  there.  Those  of  them  who  kept  up 
their  national  distinctions  in  that  distant 
land  formed  an  important  part  of  what  was, 
known  as  the  Dispersion  ( John  7.35 ;  1  Pet, 
1.1 ;  Jas.  1.1),  which  served  a  great  purpose 
in  spreading  a  knowledge  of  the  true  God, 
and  in  affording  a  point  for  the  commencement 
of  the  efforts  of  the  evangelists  of  the  Christian 
faith.  [CYRUS,  DISPERSION.] 

Carbuncle. — The  Hebrew  word  so  rendered  in 
Ex.  28.17  and  39.10  is  believed  to  indicate 
the  emerald.  The  particular  gem  meant  by 
a  dilTerent  Hebrew  word  in  /sat.  54.12  is  not 
known. 

Car'cas. — One  of  the  seven  chamberlains  or 
eunuchs  of  Ahasuerus  (Esth.  1.10). 

C'arche'mish. — City  of  Northern  Syria,  com- 


manding the  passage  of  the  Euphrates,  and 
therefore  an  object  of  contention;  taken  by 
Pharaoh-necho,  and  subsequently  retaken  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  (2  Ch.  35.20 ;  Isai.  10.9 ; 
Jer.  46.2).  Its  site,  Jerablus,  was  excavated 
in  1911,  and  yielded  some  Hittite  records  and 
weights,  but,  as  a  whole,  the  results  were 
disappointing.  [HITTITES.] 

Care'ah  (2  K.  25.23;  R.V.  Kareah,  which 
see). 

Car'mel.— The  well-wooded  place:  1.  A 
mountain  which  forms  a  striking  and  char- 
acteristic feature  of  Canaan.  It  runs  out 
with  a  bold  promontory  into  the  Mediterranean, 
and  stretches  inland,  almost  in  a  straight 
line,  for  more  than  twelve  miles  to  the  south- 
east, terminating  abruptly  in  a  bluff.  It 
stands  as  a  wall  between  the  maritime  plain 
of  Sharon  on  the  south  and  the  more  inland 
expanse  of  Esdraelon  on  the  north.  Carmel 
is  formed  of  hard  grey  limestone,  and  abounds 
with  caves.  On  the  mountain  are  occasionally 
found  round  stones,  known  by  the  name  of 
"  Elijah's  melons."  They  are  really  what 
the  geologists  call  "  geocles."  Carmel  is  still 
clothed  with  the  same  excellency  of  wood  which 
supplied  the  prophets  with  one  of  their  favourite 
illustrations  (Isai.  33.9  ;  Mic.  7.14).  Carmel 
fell  within  the  lot  of  Asher  (Josh.  19.26),  and 
the  king  of  "  Jokneam  of  Carmel "  was  one  of 
the  Canaanite  chiefs  who  fell  before  the  arms 
of  Joshua  (12.22). 

The  chief  interest  of  Carmel  is  its  connection 
with  the  history  of  the  two  great  prophets  of 
Israel — Elijah  and  Elisha.  Here  Elijah  dis- 
comfited the  priests  of  Baal,  and  brought  back 
Israel  to  allegiance  to  Jehovah.  This  event 
took  place  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  ridge. 
From  this  position  the  city  of  Jezreel  with 
Ahab's  palace  and  Jezebel's  temple  would  be 
distinctly  visible ;  and  under  the  base  of  the 
mountain  was  clearly  seen  the  winding  bed 
of  the  Kishon.  After  the  slaughter,  Elijah 
ascended  to  the  top  of  the  mountain,  "  and  there, 
with  his  face  on  the  earth,  remained  rapt  in 
prayer,  while  his  servant  mounted  to  the 
highest  point  of  all,  whence  there  is  a  wide  view 
of  the  blue  reach  of  the  Mediterranean,  over 
the  western  shoulder  of  the  ridge.  Seven  times 
the  servant  climbed  and  looked,  and  seven 
times  there  was  nothing.  At  last  out  of  the 
far  horizon  there  rose  a  little  cloud,  and  it 
grew  till  the  whole  sky  was  overcast,  and  the 
forests  of  Carmel  shook  in  the  sound  of  the 
winds "  which  preceded  the  longed-for  rain 
(I  K.  18.17-46).  It  was  on  Carmel  that  Elijah 
caused  fire  to  come  down  from  heaven  and 
consume  the  two  •"  fifties  "  of  the  guard  which 
Ahaziah  had  dispatched  to  take  him  prisoner, 
for  having  stopped  his  messengers  to  Beelzebub, 
the  god  of  Ekron  (2  K.  1.9-15).  After  the 
ascent  of  Elijah,  Elisha  went  to  Mount  CarmeJ 
(2  K.  2.25),  though  only  for  a  time ;  he  re- 
ceived the  Shunammite,  the  bereaved  mother 
whose  son  he  was  soon  to  restore  to.  her  arms 
(2  K.  4.25). 


CARMELITE] 


94 


[CATHOLIC 


2.  A  town  in  the  mountainous  country  of 
Judah  (Josh.  15.55),  familiar  to  us  as  the  resid- 
ence of  Nabal  (1  Sam.  25)  and  the  native  place  of 
David's  favourite  wife,  Abigail  the  Carmelitess 
(1  Sam.  27.3  ;  1  Ch.  3.1).  This  was  doubtless 
the  spot  at  which  Saul  set  up  a  place,  i.e.  a 
monument  or  trophy,  after  his  victory  over 
Amalek  (1  Sam.  15.12).  This  also  was  the 
spot  at  which  King  Uzziah  had  his  vineyards 
(2  Ch.  26.10).  The  ruins  of  the  town,  now 
Kurmul,  are  ten  miles  below  Hebron.  Con- 
spicuous among  them  are  a  castle  of  great 
strength  and  a  very  fine  and  large  reservoir. 

Car'melite.  —  A  native  of  Carmel  in  the 
mountains  of  Judah  (1  Sam.  30.5  ;  2  Sam.  23.35). 

Carmeli'tess.  —  A  woman  of  Carmel  in  Judah  : 
used  only  of  Abigail,  the  favourite  wife  of 
David  (1  Sam.  27.3  ;  1  Ch.  3.1). 

Car'mi.—  1.  Father  of  Achan,  the  "  troubler 
of  Israel  "  (Josh.  7.1,  18  ;  1  Ch.  2.7).  2.  The 
fourth  son  of  Reuben,  progenitor  of  the  family 
of  the  Carmites  (Gen.  46.9  ;  Ex.  6.14  ;  Num. 
26.6;  lCh.5.3). 

Car'mites,  The.  —  A  branch  of  the  tribe  of 
Reuben,  descended  from  Carmi  (Num.  26.6). 

Car/pus.  —  A  Christian  at  Troas,  with  whom 
Paul  states  that  he  left  a  cloak,  books,  and 
parchments  (2  Tim.  4.13). 

Carriage.  —  This  word  signifies  what  we  now 
mean  by  baggage  (e.g.  1  Sam.  17.22  ;  Acts  21.15), 
except  in  the  margin  of  1  Sam.  17.20  and  26.5-7, 
where  it  denotes  a  wagon  or  cart. 

Carshe'na.  —  One  of  the  seven  princes  of 
Persia  and  Media  "  which  saw  the  king's 
face  "  in  the  time  of  Ahasuerus  (Esth.  1.14). 

Cart.  —  A  vehicle  drawn  by  cattle  (2  Sam.  6.6) 
to  be  distinguished  from  the  chariot  drawn 
by  horses.  Carts  and  wagons  were  either 
open  or  covered,  and  were  used  for  conveyance 
of  persons,  burdens,  or  produce. 

Carving.  —  The  arts  of  carving  and  engraving 
were  very  much  in  request  in  the  construction 
both  of  the  Tabernacle  and  the  Temple,  as  well 
as  in  the  ornamentation  of  the  priestly  dresses. 
In  Solomon's  time  Huram  the  Phoenician  had 
the  chief  care  of  this,  as  of  the  larger  archi- 
tectural works  (Ex.  28.9-36,  31.2-5,  35.33; 
1  K.  6.18,  35  ;  2  Ch.  4.11,  16  ;  Ps.  74.6  ;  Zeeh. 
3.9). 

Casiph'ia.  —  A  place  on  the  road  between 
Babylon  and  Jerusalem  (Ezra  8.17),  residence 
of  Levites  and  Nethinim  who  accompanied 
Ezra  on  his  return  from  Babylon. 

Caslu'him.—  Mentioned  in  Gen.  10.14  as 
among  the  offspring  of  Mizraim,  meaning 
thereby  that  the  Casltihim  —  or  coast-men  — 
were  among  the  inhabitants  of  Egypt.  The 
words  "  out  of  whom  came  Philistim  "  in  this 
verse  should  come  after  Caphtorim,  not  after 


Cas'sia.  —  One  of  the  ingredients  in  the  "  oil 
of  holy  ointment  "  (Ex.  30.24).  It  is  mentioned 
in  connexion  with  the  royal  bride  in  Ps.  45.8  : 

All  thy  garments  smell  of  myrrh,  and  aloes, 
and  cassia."  It  was  an  article  of  merchandise 
in  the  market  of  Tyre  (Ezek.  27.19).  The 


cassia  tree,  a  small  shrubby  plant,  is  a  native 
of  Cochin  China,  Ceylon,  and  the  Malabar 
Coast.  The  cassia  of  commerce  is  the  bark 
of  the  tree.  The  scent  is  more  pungent  and 
less  agreeable  than  that  of  cinnamon. 

Castor  and  Pollux. — A  ship  of  Alexandria 
whose  sign  was  Castor  and  Pollux  is  mentioned 
in  Acts  28.11.  In  the  ancient  mythology 
Castor  and  Pollux  were  reckoned  sons  of 
Jupiter  by  Leda,  and  regarded  by  sailors  as 
their  protecting  divinities.  They  appear  in  the 
heavens  as  the  constellation  of  the  Gemini  or 
Twins.  On  shipboard  they  were  recognised 
in  the  phosphoric  lights  which  play  about  the 
masts  and  sails.  Castor  and  Pollux  were  repre- 
sented frequently  as  young  men  on  horseback, 
with  conical  caps  and  stars  above  them,  and 
such  figures  were  probably  painted  or  sculptured 
at  the  bow  of  the  ship. 

Caterpillar. — The  word  denotes  the  locust 
in  its  larva  stage.  [Locusx.] 

Catholic — Although  this  word  is  not  found 
in  Scripture,  it  is  so  familiar  in  phrases  like 
"  the  Catholic  Church "  and  "  the  Catholic 
Faith  "  that  it  calls  for  special  notice.  It  is 
often  misunderstood,  and  demands  careful 
attention.  It  comes  from  a  Greek  expression 
meaning  "throughout  the  whole,"  and  its  funda- 
mental idea  is  universality ;  but  this  idea  has 
been  variously  applied  in  the  usage  of  the 
word.  The  original  application  was  geo- 
graphical diffusion.  The  meaning  was  simply 
that  of  universality,  as  in  the  phrase,  "  Thy 
Holy  Church  universal."  It  indicated  that 
Christianity  was  a  religion  intended  for 
universal  diffusion,  that  all  men  were  eligible 
for  membership.  This  is  the  meaning  of  the 
word  when  first  used  by  Ignatius  at  the 
beginning  of  the  second  century,  "  Where 
Jesus  Christ  is,  there  is  the  Catholic  Church." 
The  word  as  thus  used  is  essentially  expressive 
of  the  supreme  purpose  of  Christianity  as  a 
world-wide  religion.  The  same  idea  is  con- 
veyed by  the  word  when  it  appears  next  in 
the  letter  of  the  Church  of  Smyrna  on  the 
occasion  of  the  martyrdom  of  Polycarp, 
addressed  "To  all  the  congregations  of  the 
Holy  and  Catholic  Church  in  every  place." 

This  idea  of  universality  was  subsequently 
followed  by  the  thought  of  doctrinal  purity  and 
completeness,  as  a  mark  of  Catholicity.  By 
accurate  and  complete  doctrine  was  understood 
that  which  most  closely  adhered  to  the  teaching 
of  Christ  and  His  apostles.  This  extension  of 
the  meaning  of  the  word  was  directed  probably 
against  Judaism,  and  certainly  against  heresy. 
The  rise  of  heresies  and  schisms  seemed  to 
demand  this  application  of  the  word  to  describe 
those  who  held  fast  to  the  complete  truth  of  New 
Testament  Christianity.  As  Lightfoot  points 
out,  the  original  meaning  of  the  word  was 
"  universal,"  as  opposed  to  "  particular,"  and 
then  later  "  orthodox,"  as  opposed  to  "  hereti- 
cal." "  The  truth  was  the  same  everywhere, 
the  heresies  were  partial,  scattered,  localised, 
isolated."  We  see  this  secondary  meaning  of 


CATHOLIC] 


95 


[CAVE 


the  term,  as  applied  to  doctrinal  correctness  and 
completeness,  in  the  phrase,  "  the  Catholic 
Faith." 

Still  later  came  a  third  application  of  the  term. 
Geographical  explanation  and  doctrinal  purity 
became  expressed  in  Church  unity  and  fellow- 
ship. At  the  outset  fellowship  was  necessarily 
congregational ;  then  it  was  widened  to  include 
associations  of  congregations  in  a  town  or 
district.  Later  came  the  idea  of  diocesan 
fellowship,  and  still  later  the  fellowship  con- 
nected with  associations  of  dioceses  called 
patriarchates.  Last  of  all  came  the  great 
divisions  of  Eastern  and  Western  Christianity, 
each  with  its  own  view  of  Catholicity. 

The  word  "  Catholic,"  as  Greek  by  derivation, 
naturally  came  into  use  first  in  the  East,  and 
did  not  appear  in  a  Western  Creed  until  nearly 
the  end  of  the  fifth  century.  Professor  Swete 
points  out  that  the  Church  of  Rome  was  long 
indifferent  to  the  word,  perhaps  because  she  did 
not  feel  the  need  of  support  from  the  idea  of 
Christian  solidarity.  There  was  a  narrowness 
about  its  use  by  Rome,  and  it  came  to  mean 
only  those  parts  of  Christendom  that  accepted 
the  Roman  supremacy.  In  the  East,  Catho- 
licity took  the  form  of  orthodox  belief,  combined 
with  the  autonomy  of  certain  Churches,  while 
in  the  West  it  took  the  form  of  ecclesiastical 
unity  in  the  Papacy.  The  Reformed  Churches 
of  the  sixteenth  century  naturally  adopted  a 
position  practically  identical  with  that  of 
Eastern  Christendom  in  insisting  upon  the  inde- 
pendence of  particular  Churches,  while  preserv- 
ing all  the  essentials  of  the  Catholic  Faith  of 
Christendom.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  it  in- 
volves a  false  antithesis  to  speak  of  Christians 
as  "  Catholic  "  and  "  Protestant."  The  word 
"  Protestant "  is  not  opposed  to  what  is  Catholic, 
but  to  what  is  distinctively  Roman  Catholic, 
that  is,  to  the  perversion  of  Catholic  truth,  and 
a  departure  from  true  Catholicity.  The 
various  evangelical  Reformed  Churches,  in 
accepting  those  fundamental  doctrines  of 
the  Christian  Faith  which  are  found  in  the 
N.T.,  rightly  claim  the  true  title  of 
"  Catholic  "  ;  and  it  is  noteworthy  that  in 
what  is  known  as  the  Bidding  Prayer  in  the 
Church  of  England  these  words  occur,  "  Ye 
shall  pray  for  Christ's  whole  Catholic  Church, 
that  is,  for  the  whole  congregation  of  Christ's 
people  dispersed  throughout  the  world."  So 
that  we  have  the  interesting  and  significant 
feature  of  evangelical  Churches  all  over  the 
world  to-day  returning  to  the  original  idea  of 
the  word  Catholic  as  expressed  in  Ignatius, 
"  Where  Jesus  Christ  is,  there  is  the  Catholic 
Church."  The  word  is  therefore  most  appro- 
priate, as  testifying  to  the  world-wide  ex- 
tension of  the  gospel  in  the  purpose  of  God. 
As  Christianity  is  intended  for  all  men,  so  all 
Christians  form  the  Catholic  Church.  The  sole 
use  of  the  term  "  Catholic  "  by  any  one  body  of 
Christians  is  obviously  a  contradiction  in  terms. 
The  Church  Catholic  is  the  Church  Universal, 
not  any  one  Church,  however  large  or  well- 


known.  In  its  Catholicity  all  differences  and 
distinctions,  whether  of  race  or  position  or 
capacity,  are  unified  and  utilised  in  the  one 
fellowship  of  the  saints  in  Christ  Jesus. 

Catholic  Epistles.— £NEW  TESTAMENT.] 

Cattle. — Abraham  and  the  wealthier  patri- 
archs had  very  considerable  herds  of  cattle, 
of  which  a  large  portion  was  required  for 
sacrifice  or  for  occasions  of  public  hospitality, 
or  special  feasts,  or  to  entertain  friends.  They 
roamed  in  a  semi-domesticated  condition  over 
great  areas  of  land.  Thus  they  often  became 
wild  and  fierce,  the  more  especially  as  they 
were  in  those  times  exposed  to  the  attacks  of 
many  wild  beasts,  the  lion  and  the  bear,  the 
wolf  and  the  leopard,  and  thus  acquired  ferocity 
in  self-defence.  The  breed  of  cattle  in  Central 
Palestine  at  the  present  day  is  small  and 
shaggy,  and  little  used  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses. At  the  south  end  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
however,  the  cultivating  Arabs  there  use  them 
almost  exclusively.  [BULL,  Ox,  SHEEP.] 

Cauda.— [CLAUD  A.  ] 

Caul.— The  old  English  word  "  caul "  de* 
noted  a  netted  cap  worn  by  women  (Isai.  3.18  ; 
R.V.  marg.  "  networks  ").  Also  used  of  the 
tissue  enclosing  the  liver  (Ex.  29.13,  etc.)  and 
heart  (Eos.  13.8). 

Cave. — The  rocks  of  Palestine  consist  chiefly 
of  chalky  limestone,  and  naturally  there  is  a 
large  number  of  fissures  and  caverns,  many  of 
which  have  been  enlarged  by  the  hand  of  man 
for  purposes  of  shelter  and  defence.  The 
shepherds  near  Hebron  leave  their  villages  in 
the  summer  to  dwell  in  caves  and  ruins,  so  as 
to  be  near  their  flocks  and  fields.  Almost  all 
the  habitations  at  Gadara  are  caves.  Extensive 
systems  of  caves  exist  at  Eleutheropolis  in 
Judah,  and  at  a  place  between  Bethlehem  and 
Hebron.  Lot  dwelt  in  a  cave  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  Sodom  (Gen.  19.30).  Abraham  buried 
Sarah,  his  wife,  in  the  cave  of  Machpelah 
(Gen.  23.19).  The  five  kings  of  the  Amorites, 
when  pursued  by  Joshua,  took  refuge  in  a  cave 
at  Makkedah.  Joshua  rolled  great  stones  at 
the  mouth,  and  continued  the  pursuit  of  the 
enemy.  When  he  had  completely  routed  them, 
he  returned  to  the  cave,  brought  out  the  kings 
from  thence,  and  slew  them  (Josh.  10.15-27). 
Other  caves  mentioned  in  Scripture  are  the 
cave  of  Adullam,  where  David  and  his  followers 
found  refuge  (1  Sam.  22.1  ;  2  Sam.  23.13-16), 
the  cave  of  Engedi,  where  Saul  went  to  seek 
David  and  his  men  (1  Sam.  24.1-8),  the  cave 
in  which  Obadiah  hid  the  prophets  from  the 
fury  of  Jezebel  (1  K.  18.4),  and  the  cave  in 
which  Elijah  rested  after  the  slaughter  of  the 
prophets  of  Baal  on  Mount  Carmel  (1  K.  19.9). 
Under  the  category  of  caves  would  also  come 
the  rock  sepulchres  of  Lazarus  and  of  our 
Lord  (Matt.  27.60  ;  John  11.38). 

In  the  time  of  Gideon  the  Israelites  took 
refuge  from  the  Midianites  in  caves,  such  as 
abound  in  the  mountain  region  of  Manasseh 
( Judg.  6.2),  and  in  the  early  days  of  Saul  they 
fled  from  the  Philistines  into  holes, 


CEDAR] 


96 


[CHALDEANS,  CHALDEES 


Natural  cavities  in  the  rocks  were  frequently 
used  as  cisterns  for  water  and  as  places  of 
imprisonment  (Isai.  24.22 ;  Ezek.  32.23 ; 
Zech.  9.11).  The  rocky  soil  of  a  large  portion 
of  the  Holy  Land  almost  forbids  interment, 
except  in  cavities  either  natural  or  hewn  from 
the  rock.  The  dwelling  of  the  demoniac 
among  the  tombs  is  thus  explained  by  the  rock 
caverns  abounding  near  the  Sea  of  Galilee. 

Cedar. — The  cedar  of  Lebanon  is  a  member 
of  the  Conifers  or  cone-bearers.  It  finds  its 
chief  habitat  in  the  ranges  of  Taurus  and 
Lebanon,  the  latter  being  its  southernmost 
limit.  The  trunk  of  the  largest  specimens 
now  existing  in  the  forest  of  Lebanon  measures 
47  feet  in  circumference  and  in  height  nearly 
100  feet.  Cedars  of  Lebanon  were  introduced 
into  England  before  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  since  which  time  they  have  become 
naturalised,  ripening  their  cones  readily,  though 
not  attaining  to  the  stature  of  the  originals. 
The  Hebrew  poets  regarded  the  cedar  of  Lebanon 
as  the  type  of  power  and  majesty,  grandeur 
and  beauty,  strength  and  permanence  (Isai.  2.13 ; 
Ezek.  17.3,  22,  23 ;  31.3-18  ;  Amos  2.9  ;  Zech. 
11.1,  2).  The  cedar,  in  its  steady  and  continual 
growth,  is  compared  to  the  spiritual  progress 
of  the  righteous  man  (Ps.  92.12).  In  its  native 
forests  the  timber  of  the  cedar  is  of  superior 
excellence.  The  chief  woodwork  of  the  first 
Temple  and  of  the  royal  palaces,  like  that  of 
David  (1  Oh.  14.1),  was  of  cedar,  one  of  the 
latter  edifices  being  named  "  the  house  of 
the  forest  of  Lebanon"  (1  K.  7.2).  Cedar 
became  as  common  in  Jerusalem  during  Solo- 
mon's reign  as  the  inferior  timber  of  the 
sycamore  fig  had  been  in  previous  times 
(1  K.  10.27 ;  2  Ch.  9.27 ;  Cant.  1.17).  The 
later  kings  of  Judah  and  the  Assyrian  monarchs 
had  similar  dwellings  (Jer.  22.14,  15;  Zeph. 
2.14).  The  Tyrians  used  the  trunks  of  Lebanon 
cedars  as  masts  for  their  ships  (Ezek.  27.5). 
Cedar  supplied  the  timber  for  the  second  Temple 
of  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  3.7),  and  for  that  of 
Herod. 

Ce'dron.— Only  in  John  18.1,  for  the  O.T. 
Kidron  (which  see),  the  brook  in  the  ravine 
below  the  eastern  wall  of  Jerusalem.  Another 
reading  is  "of  the  cedars"  (R.V.  marg.), 
which  takes  Cedron  as  the  gen.  plur.  of  the 
Greek  for  "  cedar,"  perhaps  a  popular  corrup- 
tion from  similarity  of  sound  of  the  Heb. 
Kidron  (dark). 

Ceiling. — The  ceilings  of  the  Temple  and  the 
palaces  of  the  Jewish  kings  were  formed  of  cedar 
planks,  carved,  and  sometimes  also  painted.  It 
is  probable  that  the  taste  for  vermilion  paint- 
ing,  shown  in  Jehoiakim's  palace  (Jer.  22.14), 
may  have  come  from  Egypt.  Examples  are 
extant  of  Egyptian  ceilings  in  stucco  painted 
with  devices,  of  a  date  much  earlier  even  than 
Solomon's  Temple. 

Cen'chrea  (R.V.  correctly  Cenchrese). — The 
eastern  harbour  of  Corinth  (nine  miles  off),  and 
the  emporium  of  its  trade  with  Asia.  Paul  sailed 
from  Cenchre*  on  his  return  to  Syria  from 


his  second  missionary  journey  (Acts  18.18) ; 
site  of  Christian  Church  (Rom.  16.1). 

Censer. — A  small  portable  vessel  of  metal 
fitted  to  receive  burning  coals  from  the  altar,  and 
on  which  the  incense  for  burning  was  sprinkled 
by  the  priest,  who  bore  it  in  his  hand  (2  Ch. 
26.19  ;  Lk.  1.9). 

Census.— [NUMBERING.] 

Centurion.— [ARMY.] 

Ce'phas.— [PETER.] 

Chaff.— This  word  in  Isai.  5.24  and  33.11 
means  dry  grass,  and  in  Jer.  23.28  "  straw." 
Hay-making,  in  our  sense  of  the  term,  is  not 
practised  to  any  extent  in  Palestine.  Stalled 
cattle  and  horses  are  fed  on  straw  and  fodder 
cut  green,  or  dried  and  withered  according  to  the 
season. 

Chain.— The  gold  chain  placed  about  Joseph's 
neck  (Gen.  41.42),  and  that  promised  to 
Daniel  (Dan.  5.7),  were  badges  of  office. 
The  prime  minister  and  the  judges  of  Egypt 
wore  chains.  Men  and  women  alike  wore 
chains  for  ornament  (Prov.  1.9).  The  Midi- 
anites  adorned  the  necks  of  their  camels  with 
"  round  tires  like  the  moon,"  pieces  of  metal 
made  in  crescent  shape  (Judg.  8.21,  26).  The 
means  adopted  for  confining  prisoners  among 
the  Jews  were  fetters  similar  to  our  handcuffs, 
fastened  on  the  wrists  and  ankles  and  attached 
to  each  other  by  a  chain  (Judg.  16.21  ;  2  Sam. 
3.34;  2  K.  25.7;  Jer.  39.7).  Among  the 
Romans  the  prisoner  was  handcuffed  to  one 
and  occasionally  to  two  guards — the  hand- 
cuff on  the  one  being  attached  to  that  on  the 
other  by  a  chain  (Acts  12.6,  7,  21.33). 

Chalcedony. — The  green  transparent  car- 
bonate of  copper,  or  our  copper  emerald,  found 
in  the  island  opposite  Chalcedon.  It  is 
mentioned  in  Rev.  21.19  as  the  stone  which 
garnished  the  third  foundation  of  the  heavenly 
Jerusalem. 

Chalcol. — A  man  of  marked  wisdom  (1  K. 
4.31).  [CALCOL.] 

Chalde'a,  Chaldse'a.— Southern  province  of 
Babylonia,  about  the  lower  course  of  the 
Euphrates ;  to  the  west  of  the  Tigris,  the 
border  of  the  Arabian  desert,  and  the  head 
of  the  Persian  Gulf ;  intersected  in  O.T.  times 
by  numerous  canals,  very  populous,  and 
very  fertile.  It  is  now  an  arid  waste.  This 
tract  is  400  miles  long,  and  has  an  average 
width  of  100  miles.  The  word  was  employed 
in  a  wider  sense  to  denote  the  whole  of  Baby- 
lonia, and  even  the  Babylonian  Empire,  on 
account  of  the  supremacy  which  the  Chaldeans 
acquired  at  Babylon  (Ezra  5.12).  It  was 
from  Chaldea  (Ur  of  the  Chaldees)  that  Abra- 
ham migrated  (Gen.  11.28),  and  from  Chaldea 
came  the  bands  which  plundered  Job  (Job 
1.17).  The  name  was  evidently  interchange- 
able with  Babylon  (2  K.  25.4,  10,  13  ;  2  Ch. 
36.17;  Isai.  13.19,  48.20;  Jer.  50.1,  8,  10, 
51.35;  Ezek.  11.24,  12.13,  16.29,  23.15,  16). 
[BABYLON.] 

Chaldeans,  Chaldees.— They  were  originally, 
says  Prof.  Sayce,  a  tribe  which  lived  in  the. 


CHALK-STONES] 


97 


[CHARITY 


great  salt-marshes  at  the  mouths  of  the  Euph- 
rates and  the  Tigris  south  of  Babylonia.  This 
tribe,  however,  was  destined  to  exert  an  im- 
portant influence  on  the  fortunes  of  Babylonia. 
Under  Merodach-baladan,  they  gained  posses- 
sion of  Babylon  (721  B.C.),  but  after  twelve 
years  Merodach  was  forced  to  fly  before  Assyrian 
invaders,  and  though  he  returned  once  more 
to  Babylon,  it  was  for  but  a  short  time.  Sen- 
nacherib ravaged  Babylonia  with  fire  and  sword, 
and  it  became  an  appanage  of  the  Assyrian 
crown.  Nevertheless,  it  is  probable  that 
Nebuchadnezzar  and  his  family  were  of  Chaldean 
descent.  Certainly,  the  Chaldeans  attained  a 
prominent  position  in  Babylonia,  and  their  name 
is  used  to  denote  the  entire  inhabitants  of  the 
country.  It  is  probable  that  the  Chaldeans 
were  a  Semitic  race.  The  "  Chaldeans  " 
referred  to  in  the  Book  of  Daniel  were  simply 
"  astrologers."  From  ancient  times  Babylonia 
(that  is,  Chaldea  in  the  extended  use  of  that 
term)  was  the  home  of  astrology,  and  the 
practitioners  of  the  art  were  held  in  high 
esteem.  One  of  the  class  was  raised  by  Sen- 
nacherib to  the  throne  of  Babylon. 

Chalk-Stones. — The  "  chalk-stones  that  are 
beaten  in  sunder"  (Isai.  27.9)  are  literally 
"stones  of  lime." 

Chamberlain. — The  position  held  by  Erastus 
the  chamberlain  of  Corinth  (Rom.  16.23)  was 
that  of  public  treasurer,  an  officer  who  kept 
the  accounts  of  the  public  revenues.  The 
term  chamberlain  is  at  the  present  day  applied 
to  the  official  who  performs  similar  duties  in 
the  city  of  London.  The  office  held  by  Blastus, 
the  king's  chamberlain  (Acts  12.20),  was 
different  from  that  exercised  by  Erastus.  It 
was  a  post  of  honour,  which  involved  great 
intimacy  and  influence  with  the  king  (for 
"  chamberlain  "  in  2  K.  23.11 ;  Esth.  1.10,  etc., 
see  Eunuch). 

Chameleon. — The  word  rendered  "chameleon" 
in  Lev.  11.30  is  translated  "land-crocodile" 
in  the  R.V.  This  land-crocodile  is  a  powerful 
species  of  lizard,  five  feet  or  more  long,  found 
in  the  regions  round  the  Dead  Sea  and  south 
of  it.  It  was  forbidden  as  food  by  the  law 
of  Moses. 

Chamois. — The  chamois  mentioned  in  Deut. 
14.5  as  fit  for  food  cannot  be  the  animal  that  we 
understand  by  that  word,  for  it  is  unknown  in 
Bible  lands.  Some  sort  of  wild  mountain  sheep 
is  intended. 

Chancellor  (Ezra  4.8,  9, 17). — A  high  official  in 
the  Persian  Court,  whose  duty  it  was  to  receive 
the  reports  of  the  various  satraps  and  officials. 

Chapel.— The  term  "  the  king's  chapel " 
(Amos  7.13)  is  applied  not  to  any  definite 
temple  or  'shrine,  but  to  Bethel  itself  (R.V. 
"  sanctuary  "). 

Chapiter. — The  upper  member  of  a  pillar,  i.e. 
the  capital  (Ex.  38.17  ;  1  K.  7.31). 

Chapman  (2  Ch.  9.14).— I.e.  trader. 

Clnra'shim,  The  Valley  of.— A  place  men- 
tioned twice  in  A.V.  :  1  Ch.  4.14  as  having 
been  founded  by  Joab  (R.V.  Gc-harashim) 


and  in  Nek.  11.35  as  being  reinhabited  by 
Benjamites  after  the  captivity  (R.V.  Valley  o/ 
craftsmen,  mar g.Ge-hahara shim).  It  was  situated 
in  the  swelling  ground  (the  Snephela'i)  at  the 
back  of  the  plain  of  Sharon,  east  of  Jaffa. 

Charchemish. — [CAECHEMISH.] 

Charger. — A  large  flat  dish  (Num.  7.13,  etc. ; 
Ezra  1.9).  The  daughter  of  Herodias  brought 
the  head  of  John  the  Baptist  in  a  charger 
(Matt.  14.8)  (O.E.  "  that  which  bears  "  what  is 
put  on  it,  from  the  same  root  as  carry,  car,  cargo, 
etc.). 

Chariot. — The  military  might  of  a  nation 
was  reckoned  mainly  by  the  number  of  chariots 
it  possessed.  Up  to  the  time  of  David,  the  Israel- 
ites possessed  few,  if  any,  chariots,  but  Solomon 
maintained  a  force  of  1400  chariots  by  taxation 
on  certain  cities  (1  K.  9.19,  10.25).  There  is 
early  reference  to  the  chariots  of  Egypt  (Gen. 
41.43;  Ex.  14.7),  and  the  "chariots  of  iron" 
of  the  Canaanites  proved  a  serious  obstacle 
to  Israel's  occupation  of  the  land  ( Josh.  17.16, 
18 ;  Judg.  4.3,  13).  As  these  could  be  burnt 
(Josh.  11.9),  they  were  probably  of  wood, 
strengthened  with  iron  :  the  Vulgate  transla- 
tion, "  scythed  chariots,"  i.e.  armed  with 
blades  of  scythes,  points  to  a  later  device. 

When  the  Jews  came  to  make  chariots  of 
their  own,  they  were  no  doubt  imitations  of 
Egyptian  models. 

The  Egyptian  chariot  consisted  of  a  semi- 
circular wooden  frame  with  straightened  sides, 
having  the  hinder  part  resting  on  the  axle-tree 
of  a  pair  of  wheels,  and  supporting  a  rail  of  wood 
or  ivory  attached  to  the  frame  by  leathern 
thongs,  and  a  wooden  upright  in  front.  The 
floor  of  the  car  was  made  of  rope  network,  in- 
tended to  give  a  more  springy  footing  to  the 
occupants.  The  chariot  was  mounted  from  the 
back,  which  was  open,  and  the  sides  were 
strengthened  and  ornamented  with  leather  and 
metal  binding.  Attached  to  the  right-hand 
side,  and  crossing  each  other  diagonally,  were  the 
bow-case  and,  inclining  upwards,  the  quiver  and 
spear-case.  If  two  persons  were  in  the  chariot, 
a  second  bow-case  was  added.  Each  of  the  two 
wheels  had  six  spokes.  There  were  no  traces  ; 
a  bearing-rein  was  fastened  to  a  ring  or  hook  in 
front  of  the  saddle,  and  the  driving-reins  passed 
through  other  rings  on  each  side  of  both  horses. 
The  driver  stood  at  the  right-hand  side,  and  in 
discharging  his  arrow  hung  his  whip  from  the 
wrist.  In  some  instances  the  king  is  represented 
alone  in  his  chariot,  with  the  reins  fastened 
round  his  body,  thus  using  his  weapons  with 
his  hands  at  liberty.  Most  commonly  two  per- 
sons, and  sometimes  three,  rode  in  the  chariot, 
the  third  carrying  the  state  umbrella.  A  second 
chariot  usually  accompanied  the  king  in  battle, 
to  be  used  in  case  of  necessity.  The  Assyrian 
and  Persian  chariots  were  very  similar  to  those 
of  Egypt. 

The  Jewish  monarchs  who  fell  into  idolatry 
made  offerings  of  chariots  and  horses  to  the  sun 
(2  K.  23.11). 

Charity. — The    N.T.    rendering   of    a   Greek 


CHAEMEK] 


98 


[CHESULLOTH 


word  denoting  brotherly  love — an  essentially 
Christian  word. 

Charmer.— [CURIOUS  ARTS,  DIVINATION,  EN- 
CHANTMENTS, SERPENT-CHARMING.] 

Charran. — {  H  AR  AN.  ] 

Chase. — [HUNTING.] 

Che'bar. — A  river  or  canal  in  the  land  of  the 
Chaldeans,  on  the  banks  of  which  the  exiles  who 
had  been  carried  away  by  Nebuchadnezzar  with 
Jehoiachin  lived,  and  where  Ezekiel  saw  his 
earlier  visions  (Ezek.  1.1, 3.15,  23, 10.15,22,43.3). 

Checker-Work  (1  K.  7.17).— After  the  pattern 
of  a  chess-board. 

Chedorlao'mer. — A  king  of  Elam,  in  the  time 
of  Abraham,  who,  with  three  other  subordinate 
princes  of  Babylonia  and  the  neighbouring 
region,  carried  on  two  campaigns  in  Palestine, 
when  the  kings  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  and 
other  cities,  were  reduced  to  servitude.  For 
twelve  years  he  retained  his  hold  over  them  ; 
in  the  thirteenth  they  rebelled  ;  in  the  next 
year,  however,  he  and  his  allies  marched  upon 
their  country,  and  after  defeating  many  neigh- 
bouring tribes  encountered  the  five  kings  of  the 
plain  in  the  vale  of  Siddim.  He  completely 
routed  them  ;  slew  the  kings  of  Sodom  and 
Gomorrah,  and  carried  away  much  spoil,  to- 
gether with  the  family  of  Lot.  A  rescue,  however, 
was  effected  by  Abraham  upon  hearing  of  the 
captivity  of  his  nephew  (Gen.  14.17).  The 
Biblical  account  has  received  striking  confirma- 
tion by  the  findingof  the  name(Kudin-Lagamar, 
"  servant  of  the  goddess  Lagamar  ")in  the  cunei- 
form inscriptions  of  Babylonia.  Sayce  dates 
tue  invasion  about  2330  B.C.  [AMRAPHEL.] 

Cheese. — The  Hebrew  words  which  are  trans- 
lated "  cheese  "  simply  express  various  degrees  of 
coagulated  milk,  and  it  is  impossible  to  decide  how 
far  these  terms  correspond  with  our  notion  of 
cheese  (see  1  Sam.  17.18  ;  2  Sam.  17.29 ;  Job 
10.10). 

Che'lal. — Completeness :  one  of  those  who 
had  married  a  foreign  wife  (Ezra  10.30). 

Chel'luh,  Cheluhi,  Cheluhu.— One  of  the  sons 
of  Bani  who  had  foreign  wkees  (Ezra  10.35). 

Che'lub.— 1.  A  descendant  of  Judah  (1  Ch. 
4.11 ).  2.  Father  of  Ezri,  who  was  one  of  David's 
officers  (1  Ch.  27.26). 

Chelu'bai. — Another  form  of  the  name  Caleb 
(1  Ch.  2.9). 

Chelu'hi,  Chelu'hu. — [CHEIXUH.] 

Chema'rims,  The.— They  who  prostrate  them- 
selves: an  old  Semitic  word  for  priests,  used 
in  the  Bible  only  of  unlawful  or  non-levitical 
priests  (Zeph.  1.4;  and  marg.  of  2  K.  23.5; 
Has.  10.5 ;  text,  "  idolatrous  priests  "). 

Che'mosh.— The  god  of  the  Moabites  and  the 
Ammonites,  whose  worship  was  introduced  into 
Judah  by  Solomon  and  abolished  by  Josiah 
(A7«m.2].29;  1  #.  11.7  ;  2  £.23.13;  Jer.48.1). 

Chenaa'nah. — 1.  Father  or  ancestor  of 
Zedekiah,  the  false  prophet  (1  K.  22.11  ;  2  Ch. 
18.10).  2.  A  Benjamite  (1  Ch.  7.10). 

Chena'ni. — Jehovah  hath  protected  :  one  of  the 
Levites  who  assisted  at  the  solemn  purification 
of  the  people  under  Ezra  (Neh.  9.4). 


Chenani'ah. — Jehovah  hath  protected  :  chief 
of  the  Levites  when  David  carried  the  Ark  to 
Jerusalem  (1  Ch.  15.22,  26.29). 

Cheph'ar-Haammo'nai  (R.V.  C.-Ammoni).— 
The  hamlet  of  the  Ammonites  :  a  place  mentioned 
among  the  towns  of  Benjamin  (Josh.  18.24). 

Chephi'rah. — Village,  hamlet :  one  of  the 
four  cities  of  the  Gibeonites  (Josh.  9.17).  The 
men  of  Chephirah  returned  with  Zerubbabel  from 
Babylon  (Ezra  2.25  ;  Neh.  7.29).  It  has  been 
identified  with  Kefir,  in  the  mountain  country 
on  the  western  side  of  Benjamin,  nearly  five 
miles  east  of  Ajalon. 

Che'ran. — One  of  the  sons  of  Dishon,  the 
Horite  duke  (Gen.  36.26  ;  1  Ch.  1.41). 

Chere'thims. — [CHERETHITES.] 

Chere'thites  and  Pele'thites.— The  general 
opinion  is  that  the  Cherethites  who  formed  part 
of  the  foreign  bodyguard  of  David  (2  Sam.  8.18, 
15.18,  20.7;  1  K.  1.38;  1  Ch.  18.17)  were 
Philistine  mercenaries.  Perhaps  Cherethites  = 
Cretans.  [CAPHTOR.] 

Che'rith,  The  brook. — The  torrent-bed  or 
wady  in  which  Elijah  hid  himself  during  the 
early  part  of  the  three  years'drought  (1  K.  17.3-5). 
The  exact  situation  is  not  known,  though  it  was 
probably  east  of  Jordan. 

Cherub. — The  name  of  a  place  or  a  person 
mentioned  in  Ezra  2.59  and  Neh.  7.61. 

Cher'ub,  Cher'ubim. — These  appear  in  the 
O.T.  as  celestial  beings,  ministers  of  the  Divine 
will,  but  the  references  leave  us  in  doubt  both 
as  to  their  appearance  and  as  to  their  functions. 
In  Gen.  3.24  they  are  placed  east  of  the  Garden 
of  Eden  "  to  keep  the  way  of  the  tree  of  life." 
At  either  end  of  the  cover  of  the  ark,  or  mercy- 
seat,  was  a  cherub  of  gold  with  outspread 
wings  (Ex.  25.18-22;  Heb.  9.5):  figures  of 
cherubim  also  were  woven  into  the  curtains  and 
veil  of  the  Tabernacle  (Ex.  26).  These  features 
were  repeated  with  lavish  magnificence  in 
Solomon's  Temple  (1  K.  6.8  ;  cf.  2  K.  19.15  ; 
Ps.  80.1 ;  Isai.  37.16),  and  in  Ezekiel's  vision  of 
Jerusalem  restored  (Ezek.  41.18,  20,  25).  The 
fullest  description  is  in  Ezek.  10. 

Chesa'lon. — Now  Kesla,  8  miles  west  of 
Jerusalem.  A  place  on  the  west  part  of  the 
north  border  of  Judah,  on  the  shoulder  of 
Mount  Jearim  (Josh.  15.10). 

Che 'sed.— Fourth  son  of  Nahor  (Gen.  22.22). 

Ches'iL — A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of 
Palestine  ( Josh.  15.30  ;  in  19.4  Bethul). 

Chestnut-Tree. — The  tree  mentioned  in 
Gen.  30.37  and  in  Ezek.  31.8  is  the  Oriental 
plane  tree,  one  of  the  most  agreeable  and 
conspicuous  objects  in  the  vegetation  of  the 
riverside  and  other  watered  districts  of  Syria 
and  the  Holy  Land.  It  grows  wild  on  the  banks 
of  streams  in  the  Lebanon  district  and  is  cultivated 
wherever  sufficient  moisture  can  be  found.  Its 
very  broad  leaves  and  horizontal  branches  make 
a  perfect  protection  from  the  sun's  rays.  The 
bark  is  smooth  and  whitish,  and  scales  olT 
annually  hi  patches  ;  this  may  illustrate  Jacob's 
stratagem  (Gen.  30.37). 

Chesul'loth. — One  of  the  towns  of   Issachar 


CHEZIB] 


99 


[CHIUN 


(Josh.  19.18;  in  19.12  CUsloth-tdbor),  now 
Iksal,  3  miles  west  of  Tabor. 

Che'zib. — Deceitful :  Judah  was  at  Chezib  when 
the  Canaanitess,  Bathshua,  bare  his  third  son, 
Shclah  (Gen.  38.5).  It  is  identical  with  ACHZIB  in 
the  low  country  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.44 ;  M ic. 
1.14) — perhaps  tho  modern  'Ain-Kezbeh,  near 
Adullam. 

Chi'don. — Threshing-floor  where  the  accident 
to  the  Ark  and  the  death  of  Uzza  occurred 
(1  Ch.  13.9). 

Chief  Priest.— [PMEST.] 

Children. — The  blessing  of  children,  especially 
of  male  children,  is  highly  valued  in  the  East, 
and  childbirth  is  usually,  but  not  always, 
attended  with  little  difficulty,  and  accomplished 
with  little  or  no  assistance  (Gen.  35.17,  38.28  ; 
Ex.  1.19  ;  1  Sam.  4.19,  20).  As  soon  as  the  child 
was  born  and  the  umbilical  cord  cut,  it  was 
washed  in  a  bath,  rubbed  with  salt,  and  wrapped 
in  swaddling  clothes  (Ezek.  16.4;  Lk.  2.7). 
On  the  eighth  day  the  rite  of  circumcision  in 
the  case  of  a  boy  was  performed,  and  a  name 
given,  often  conveying  some  special  meaning. 
After  the  birth  of  a  male  child  the  mother  was 
considered  unclean  for  forty  days ;  if  the  child 
were  a  female,  for  double  that  period.  At  the 
end  of  the  time  she  was  to  make  an  offering  of 
purification  of  a  lamb  as  a  burnt-offering,  and 
a  pigeon  or  a  turtle-dove  as  a  sin-offering,  or, 
in  case  of  poverty,  two  doves  or  pigeons,  one  as 
a  burnt-offering,  the  other  as  a  sin-offering  (Lev. 
7.1-8  ;  Lk.  2.22).  The  period  of  nursing  appears 
to  have  been  prolonged  sometimes  to  three  years. 
Nurses  were  employed  in  cases  of  necessity 
(Gen.  24.59,  35.8 ;  Ex.  2.9 ;  2  Sam.  4.4 ;  2  K.  11.2  ; 
2  Ch.  22.11).  The  time  of  weaning  was  an 
occasion  of  rejoicing  (Gen.  21.8).  The  babies  in 
the  East  are  usually  carried  by  the  mothers  on 
the  hip  or  the  shoulder,  a  custom  to  which 
reference  is  made  by  Isaiah  (Isai.  49.22,  66.12). 
Boys  in  wealthy  families  had  tutors  or  governors 
(Num.  11.12;  2  K.  10.1-5;  Esth.  2.7;  Isai. 
49.23  ;  Gal  3.24).  Daughters  usually  remained 
in  the  women's  apartments  till  marriage,  and, 
among  the  poorer  classes,  were  employed  in 
household  work  (Lev.  22.13 ;  Num.  12.14 ;  1  Sam. 
9.11;  Prov.  31.19-23).  The  example  and 
authority  of  the  mother  were  carefully  upheld 
in  the  case  of  children  of  both  sexes  (Deut.  21.20 ; 

1  K.  2.19  ;  Prov.  10.1,  15.20). 

The  firstborn  male  children  were  regarded 
as  devoted  to  God,  and  were  to  be  redeemed  by 
an  offering  (Ex.  13.13  ;  Num.  18.15  ;  Lk.  2.22). 

The  authority  of  parents,  especially  of  the 
father,  was  very  great.  The  disobedient  child, 
the  striker  or  re  viler  of  a  parent,  was  liable  to 
capital  punishment.  Children  might  be  taken 
as  slaves,  in  case  of  non-fulfilment  of  their  duties, 
and  were  expected  to  perform  menial  offices  for 
their  parents,  such  as  washing  the  feet,  and  to 
maintain  them  in  poverty  and  old  age.  The  like 
obedience  is  enjoined  by  the  Gospel  (Gen.  38.24  ; 
Lev.  19.32,  21.9;  Num.  12.14;  1  K.  2.19; 

2  K.  4.1;  Neh.  5.5;  Prov.  10.1,  15.20,  19.13; 
Eph.  6.1 ;  Col  3.20 ;  1  Tim.  1.9). 


The  inheritance  was  divided  equally  between 
the  sons  except  the  eldest,  who  received  a  double 
portion  (Gen.  25.31,  49.3  ;  Deut.  21.17  ;  Judg. 
11.2-7 ;  1  Ch.  5.1,  2).  Failing  sons,  the  inherit- 
ance went  to  the  daughters,  but  they  were 
forbidden  to  marry  out  of  their  father's  tribe 
(Num.  27.1-8,  36.2-8). 

Chil'eab.— Second  son  of  David  (2  Sam.  3.3), 
called  Daniel  in  1  Ch.  3.1. 

Chil'ion. — Pining:  the  son  of  Elimelech  and 
Naomi,  and  husband  of  Orpah  (Ruth  1.2,  5,  4.9). 

Chil'mad. — A  town  or  district  in  Media,  one 
of  the  marts  of  Tyrian  commerce  (Ezek.  27.23). 

Chim'ham. — A  follower,  and  probably  a  son, 
of  Barzillai  the  Gileadite ;  he  returned  from 
beyond  Jordan  with  David  (2  Sam.  19.37-40). 
David  appears  to  have  bestowed  on  him  a 
possession  at  Bethlehem,  on  which,  in  later  times, 
an  inn  or  khan  was  standing,  well  known  as  the 
starting-point  for  travellers  from  Jerusalem  to 
Egypt  (Jer.  41.17). 

Chin'nereth,  Chinnerpth,  Cinneroth.  —  En- 
closure :  a  fortified  city  in  the  tribe  of  Naphtali 
(Josh.  19.35).  The  Sea  of  Chinnereth  (Num. 
34.11 ;  Josh.  13.27)  or  Chinneroth  (Josh.  11.2, 
12.3)  is  the  O.T.  name  for  the  Lake  of  Gennesaret 
or  Sea  of  Galilee.  [GENNESARETH.]  In  Deut. 
3.17  and  1  K.  15.20  the  name  is  applied  to  the 
district  generally. 

Chios  (now  Scio). — An  island  separated  from 
Smyrna  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  by  a  strait  of 
5  miles.  Paul  anchored  off  Chios  for  a  night  on 
his  return  from  his  third  missionary  tour  (Acts 
20.15).  At  that  time  it  enjoyed  the  privilege  of 
freedom.  It  is  bold  and  mountainous,  and  has 
always  been  celebrated  for  beauty  and  fertility. 

Chis'leu,  Chis'lev. — The  ninth  month  in  the 
Jewish  year,  beginning  with  the  new  moon  of 
December  (Neh.  1.1  ;  Zech.  7.1). 

Chis'lon. — Strong:  father  of  Elidad  (Num. 
34.21). 

Chis'loth-taber.— [CHESULLOTH.] 

Chit'tim,  Kit'tim. — First  mentioned  in  Gen. 
10.4  among  the  sons  of  Javan  (Ionia,  Greece) 
who  inhabited  "  the  isles  of  the  nations." 
Josephus  writes  that  of  the  sons  of  Javan 
"  Cethimus  possessed  the  island  Cethima;  it 
is  now  called  Cyprus  :  and  for  this  reason  all 
islands,  and  the  greatest  part  of  the  seacoasts, 
are  named  Cethim  by  the  Hebrews."  He 
adds  that  the  name  is  also  preserved  in  the 
city  of  Citium  in  Cyprus,  the  modern  Larnaca 
(Ant.  i.  6.  1).  Cyprus  was  colonised  by  Phoen- 
icians in  the  south  and  east,  the  rest  by  Greeks. 
In  the  O.T.  Chittim  stands  not  only  for  Cyprus, 
but  for  any  maritine  power  west  of  Palestine. 

Balaam  predicted  that  a  fleet  should  thence 
proceed  for  the  destruction  of  Assyria  (Num. 
24.24).  In  Isai.  23.1,  12  it  appears  as  the 
resort  of  the  fleets  of  Tyre.  The  Tyrians 
procured  thence  the  cedar  or  box-wood,  which 
they  inlaid  with  ivory,  for  the  decks  of  their 
vessels  (Ezek.  27.6).  In  Dan.  11.30  ships  of 
Chittim  advance  to  the  south  to  meet  the  king 
of  the  north. 

Chi'un. — Th.e   name   of   a   deity  worshipped 


CHLOE] 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  REDLANDS  LIBRARY 


100 


[CHRONICLES 


by  the  Israelites  in  the  desert  (Amos  5.26). 
[REMPHAN.] 

Chlo'e. — A  woman  mentioned  in  1  Cor.  1.11, 
some  of  whose  household  brought  word  to 
Paul  in  Ephesus  of  divisions  in  the  Corinthian 
Church.  It  is  uncertain  whether  she  lived  in 
Corinth  or  in  Ephesus. 

Chora'shan  (R.V.  Cor-ashan,  marg.  Bor- 
ashan). — One  of  the  places  where  David  and 
his  men  were  wont  to  haunt  and  whence  he 
sent  presents  to  his  friends  of  the  plunder 
taken  from  the  Amalekites.  Perhaps  the 
Ashan  of  Josh.  15.42  (1  Sam.  30.30). 

Chora'zin. — Now  Kerazeh,  2J  miles  north  of 
Tell  Hum  [CAPERNAUM],  on  the  Lake  of  Galilee. 
The  extensive  ruins  include  that  of  a  synagogue. 
Our  Lord  did  mighty  works  here,  but  because 
of  unbelief  He  denounced  the  city  (Matt.  11.21  ; 
Lk.  10.13). 

Chozeta. — Deceitful :  the  "  men  of  Chozeba  " 
are  named  amongst  the  descendants  of  Shelah, 
the  son  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  4.22).  [CHEZIB.] 

Christ.— [  JESUS.] 

Christian. — The  word  occurs  three  times  only 
in  the  N.T.  ( Acts  11.26,  26.28 ;  1  Pet.  4.16), 
and  each  reference  suggests  that  the  name  was 
of  heathen  origin  and  application.  The  same 
formation  is  seen  in  "  Herodians  "  and  in  the 
Latin  "  Caesariani,"  "  Pompeiani,"  etc.,  i.e. 
adherents  of  Herod,  Csesar,  Pompey.  In  the 
Acts  and  Epistles  the  followers  of  Christ  style 
themselves  disciples,  brethren,  saints,  etc. :  the 
honourable  title  which  has  prevailed  from  the 
second  century  onwards,  emphasising  as  it  does 
the  cardinal  truth  of  devotion  to  a  Person, 
appears  to  have  originated  as  a  heathen  "  nick- 
name." "  The  disciples  were  called  Christians 
first  in  Antioch  "  ( Acts  11.26).  In  accordance 
with  this  Gentile  usage  it  is  the  Roman  governor, 
Festus,  who  declines  to  be  made  a  Christian  by 
Paul  "  with  but  little  persuasion  "  (Acts  26.28) ; 
and  it  is  the  charge  of  being  a  Christian,  laid 
before  the  Roman  courts,  for  which  Peter's 
readers  may  be  well  content  to  suffer  (1  Pet. 
4.16).  Tacitus  writing  (about  116  A.D.)  of  the 
persecution  under  Nero  (64-68)  says  that 
punishments  were  inflicted  on  those  "  whom 
the  populace  called  Christians."  Another  form 
current  was  Chrestiani,  followers  of  one  known 
as  Chrestus,  a  name  in  common  use,  meaning 
kind,  gentle  [CLAUDIUS];  and  of  this  the 
Christian  Apologists  of  the  second  century  avail 
themselves,  claiming  this  character  of  a  gentle- 
ness void  of  offence  in  answer  to  the  charges 
of  evil-doing  brought  against  them. 

Chron'icles,  First  and  Second  Books  oi — 
The  present  title  of  these  Books  was  given 
to  them  by  Jerome.  The  two  Books  were 
originally  one,  and  were  called  "  Words  of  Days," 
i.e.  diaries  or  journals.  By  the  Jews  they 
were  included  in  the  Kethubim  or  Hagio- 
grapha.  In  the  Septuagint  they  are  distin- 
guished as  Paraleipomena,  Books  of  Omissions, 
or  Supplements.  The  authorship  was  by 
Jewish  tradition  ascribed  to  Ezra.  It  will  be 
observed  that  the  conclusion  of  2  Chronicles 


is  the  same  as  the  beginning  of  Ezra,  thus 
joining  these  Books,  which  together  with 
Nehemiah  originally  formed  one  connected 
whole.  These  Books  will  be  found  to  resemble 
each  other  in  their  point  of  view,  in  their  choice 
of  material,  and  in  their  selection  of  topics.  No 
exact  determination  of  date  can  be  given.  If 
the  main  authorship  was  Ezra's,  there  was 
probably  addition  by  a  subsequent  writer 
(1  Ch.  3.19-24). 

That  the  "  Chronicles  "  were  compiled  from 
earlier  sources,  the  works  of  prophets,  is  evident 
in  the  Books.  These  documents  appear  some- 
times to  be  quoted  literally  (see  2  Ch.  5.9,  8.8). 
Many  passages  also  are  identical,  or  nearly 
identical,  with  passages  in  Kings,  both  doubt- 
less being  drawn  from  the  same  annals.  The 
following  documents  are  referred  to  : — 

1.  The  Book  of  the  Kings  of  Judah  and  Israel 
(2  Ch.  16.11,  25.26,  28.26).  (Not  the  Canonical 
Books  of  Kings,  for  allusions  are  made  to 
events  not  there  recorded.)  2.  The  History  of 
Samuel  the  Seer  (1  Ch.  29.29).  3.  The  History 
of  Nathan  the  Prophet  (1  Ch.  29  29).  4.  The 
History  of  Gad  the  Seer  (1  Ch.  29.29,.  5.  The 
Prophecy  of  Ahijah  the  Shilonite  (2  Ch.  9.29). 

6.  The  Vision  of  Iddo  the  Seer  (2  Ch.  9.29). 

7.  The  Histories  of  Shemaiah  the  Prophet,  and 
of  Iddo  the  Seer  (2  Ch.  12.15).      8.  The  History 
of  Jehu  the  son  of  Hanani   (2  Ch.  20.34).     9. 
The  Commentary  of  the  Book  of  the  Kings  (2  Ch. 
24.27).     10.  The  Acts  of  Uzziah,  by  Isaiah,  the 
son  of  Amoz  (2  Ch.  26.22).     11.  The  Vision  of 
Isaiah  the  Prophet,  the  son  of  Amoz  (2  Ch. 
32.32).     12.  The  Words  of  the  Seers  (of  Hozai, 
R.V.)  (2  Ch.  33.19). 

The  Contents  of  the  Books  may  be  summarised 
as  follows  : — 

1  Chronicles  is  naturally  divided  into  two 
parts — 

Part  I.  contains  Genealogies,  showing  the 
descent  of  the  people  of  Israel  from  Adam  to 
the  time  of  Ezra,  with  short  historical  notices. 
Genealogies  from  Adam  to  Jacob  (1,  2.2).  The 
descendants  of  Judah,  with  their  settlements 
(3-55);  the  family  of  David  (3).  Other 
descendants  of  Judah,  also  of  Simeon,  Reuben, 
Gad,  and  half  of  Manasseh,  with  their  settle- 
ments;  and  historical  notices  (4,  5).  Gene- 
alogies of  the  Levites  and  priests  (6).  The 
descendants  of  Issachar,  Benjamin,  Naphtali, 
the  other  half  of  Manasseh,  Ephraim,  and 
Asher,  with  some  of  their  settlements  ;  and 
historical  notices  (7).  Genealogy  of  Benjamin 
to  the  time  of  Saul ;  Saul's  descendants  (8). 
List  of  the  families  who  dwelt  at  Jerusalem 
(9.1-34).  Saul's  pedigree  repeated  (34-44). 

Part  II.  deals  mainly  with  the  reign  of  David, 
comprising :  The  death  of  Saul  and  Jonathan  (10). 
David's  accession  to  the  throne,  and  capture  of 
Jerusalem ;  his  mighty  men  (11,  12).  Removal 
of  the  Ark  to  the  house  of  Obed-edom  (13). 
David's  palace ;  his  children ;  his  victories 
(14).  Bringing  up  of  the  Ark  to  Jerusalem,  and 
arrangements  for  Divine  worship  in  connexion 
therewith  (15,  16).  David's  desire  to  build  a 


CHRONICLES] 


101 


temple,  and  God's  message  to  him  by  Nathan 
(17).  Victories  over  the  Philistines,  Moabites, 
Edomites,  Syrians,  and  Ammonites  (18-20). 
Numbering  of  the  people  ;  infliction  of  pestilence 
and  its  removal  (21).  David's  preparations 
for  the  Temple  (22).  Number  and  distribution 
of  the  Levites  and  priests  (23,  24) ;  the  singers 
and  musicians  (25) ;  the  porters,  store-keepers, 
officers,  and  judges  (26).  The  arrangement 
of  the  army ;  the  princes  and  officers  (27). 
David's  last  exhortations  ;  the  offerings  of  the 
princes  and  people  for  the  Temple  ;  David's 
thanksgiving  and  prayer  ;  Solomon's  establish- 
ment on  the  throne  (28,  29). 

2  Chronicles  may  also  be  divided  into  two 
parts — 

Part  I.  The  history  of  all  Israel  under  Solo- 
mon, comprising  :  Solomon's  sacrifice  at  Gibeon, 
his  prayer,  and  choice  of  wisdom ;  his  wealth 
and  grandeur  (1).  The  building  and  furnishing 
of  the  Temple  (2-5).  Solomon's  dedication- 
prayer,  and  God's  answer  thereto  (6,  7).  Solo- 
mon's buildings,  officers,  and  commerce  (8). 
The  queen  of  Sheba's  visit ;  Solomon's  wealth 
and  greatness  (9). 

Part  II.  The  history  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah 
after  the  separation  of  the  ten  tribes  ;  including 
Rehoboam's  accession,  and  the  revolt  of  the 
ten  tribes  (10).  Rehoboam's  government  and 
success  ;  his  degeneracy,  and  the  invasion  of 
the  king  of  Egypt  (11,  12).  Reign  of  Abijam 
(13);  of  Asa  (14-16).  Good  reign  of  Jehosh- 
aphat  (17-20).  Wicked  reigns  of  Jehoram  and 
Ahaziah  ;  and  Athaliah's  usurpation  (21,  22). 
Reign  of  Joash  (23,  24) ;  of  Amaziah  (25) ;  of 
Uzziah  (26) ;  of  Jotham  (27) ;  and  of  Ahaz 
(28).  Hezekiah's  good  reign  and  reformations  ; 
and  the  deliverance  of  Jerusalem  from  Senna- 
cherib (29-32).  Manasseh's  wickedness,  cap- 
tivity, and  repentance ;  and  Amon's  wicked 
reign  (33).  Josiah's  good  reign,  and  zeal  for 
reformation  (34,  35).  Reigns  of  Jehoahaz, 
Jehoiakim,  Jehoiachin,  and  Zedekiah  ;  destruc- 
tion of  the  city  and  Temple  ;  captivity  of  the 
people  (36.1-21).  Proclamation  of  Cyrus  per- 
mitting the  return  of  the  Jews  (36.23,  24). 

Reasons  which  determined  or  helped  to  deter- 
mine the  contents  of  the  Books  may  be  stated 
as  follows  : — 

The  land  of  Palestine  was  divided  among  the 
people  of  Israel  according  to  families,  and  this 
\vas  an  institution  which  it  was  considered 
vital  to  preserve.  The  carrying  away  of  the 
people  into  captivity  made  it  a  difficult  matter 
to  resume  the  system  when  they  returned  to 
their  own  country.  Obviously  one  of  the  most 
pressing  wants  of  the  people  after  their  return 
from  Babylon  would  be  trusty  genealogical 
records,  in  order  to  settle  the  ownership  of  the 
land,  and  if  there  were  any  such  in  existence 
the  arrangement  and  publication  of  them 
would  be  one  of  the  greatest  services  that 
could  be  rendered.  Hence  the  genealogies  in 
the  Chronicles. 

But  there  was  a  further  and  even  more  im- 
portant reason — the  maintenance  of  the  Temple 


services  at  Jerusalem.  This  could  only  be 
effected  by  the  residence  of  the  priests  and  Levites 
in  Jerusalem,  in  the  order  of  their  courses  ; 
and  this  residence  was  only  practicable  if  the 
appointed  tithes,  first-fruits  and  other  offerings 
were  paid.  Immediately  these  ceased,  the 
priests  and  Levites  were  obliged  to  disperse  to 
their  own  villages  to  obtain  a  livelihood,  and 
Temple  services  were  neglected.  The  registers 
of  the  Levitical  genealogies  were  necessary,  in 
order  that  it  might  be  known  who  were  entitled 
to  the  various  allowances,  because  all  the 
various  offices  went  by  families,  and  the  pay- 
ment of  the  tithes  was  dependent  upon  the 
different  families  of  Israel  being  established 
each  in  his  inheritance. 

Further,  Zerubbabel,  Ezra,  and  Nehemiah 
were  anxious  to  make  the  people  feel  that  they 
were  still  inheritors  of  God's  covenanted  mercies, 
and  that  the  Captivity  had  only  temporarily 
interrupted,  not  dried  up,  the  stream  of  God's 
favour  to  their  nation.  Hence  the  compen- 
dious history  of  the  kingdom  of  David,  which 
should  embrace  a  full  account  of  its  prosperity, 
should  trace  the  sins  which  led  to  its  overthrow, 
and,  carrying  the  thread  through  the  period 
of  the  Captivity,  should  continue  it,  as  it  were, 
unbroken  on  the  other  side.  Naturally  special 
emphasis  was  given  to  accounts  of  the  building 
and  restoring  of  the  Temple,  to  the  reformation 
of  religion,  and  to  the  zealous  regulation  of  the 
services  of  the  House  of  God.  The  kingdom  ol 
Israel  (or  Samaria)  had  utterly  passed  away,  and 
its  existing  inhabitants  were  among  the  bitterest 
adversaries  of  Judah;  therefore  it  had  small 
attention.  [KINGS,  THB  BOOKS  OP  THE.] 

Chronology. — The  Hebrews  had  no  division 
of  time  below  the  hour.  The  night  was  divided 
into  three  watches ;  but  in  the  N.T.  four  night- 
watches  are  mentioned  (Mk.  6.48,  13.35),  the 
idea  being  probably  adopted  from  the  Romans. 
The  week  was  a  period  of  seven  days,  ending 
with  the  Sabbath.  The  days  of  the  week,  save 
the  Sabbath,  appear  to  have  been  unnamed. 
The  day  corresponding  to  our  Friday  was, 
however,  designated  "  preparation  day  " — pre- 
paration for  the  Sabbath.  The  months  were 
strictly  lunar,  the  year  of  12  months  consisting 
of  354  days,  but  during  and  after  the  Exile,  says 
Professor  Whitehouse,  an  intercalary  month, 
Ve-Adar,  was  added,  in  order  to  make  up  the 
extra  11  daysN)f  the  solar  year  (of  365  days). 
The  new  moon  was  kept  as  a  sacred  festival. 
The  first  month  is  called  Abib  or  Nisan,  "  the 
month  of  the  ears  of  com/'  when  the  ears  were 
so  forward  that  on  the  sixteenth  day,  the 
second  day  of  the  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread, 
ripe  ears  could  be  offered.  This  fixes  the  be- 
ginning of  the  year  in  the  middle  of  March. 
The  patriarchal  year  is  believed  to  have  been 
360  days.  In  historical  passages,  from  the  date 
of  the  Exodus  downwards  until  the  time  of 
the  Captivity,  the  year  is  lunar,  consisting 
of  354  days.  The  year  was  held  to  begin  with 
the  first  day  of  the  seventh  month,  when  there 
was  a  special  sanctification  above  that  of  the 


CHBiONO'LOGY]  ; 


102 


[CHRONOLOGY  OF  THE  O.T. 


ordinary  new  moon.  The  ancient  Hebrews 
did  not  divide  their  year  into  fixed  seasons  ; 
we  find  mention  of  summer  and  winter,  and  also 
of  the  agricultural  seasons,  seed-time  and 
harvest.  Before  the  Captivity  there  were, 
besides  the  Sabbaths  and  new  moons,  four 
great  festivals  and  a  fast  in  the  Hebrew  year  : 
the  Feast  of  the  Passover  and  of  Unleavened 
Bread,  the  Feast  of  Weeks  or  Pentecost,  the 
Feast  of  Trumpets,  the  Fast  of  the  Day  of 
Atonement,  and  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles. 

The  Feast  of  the  Passover  took  place  on  the 
evening  of  the  fourteenth  day  of  the  first 
month,  the  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread  be- 
ginning on  the  morning  of  the  fifteenth  day  of 
the  month,  and  lasting  seven  days,  until  the 
twenty-first  inclusive.  The  fifteenth  and 
twenty-first  days  were  holy  days. 

The  Feast  of  Weeks  or  Pentecost  was  held 
at  the  close  of  seven  weeks,  counted  from  the 
seventeenth  day  of  the  first  month.  Thanks- 
giving was  made  for  the  blessings  of  the  harvest, 
and  first-fruits  offered  in  the  form  of  loaves  of 
leavened  bread.  Hence  it  was  also  called  the 
Feast  of  Harvest  and  the  Day  of  First-Fruits. 

The  Feast  of  Trumpets  was  the  first  day  of 
ike  seventh  month,  the  beginning  of  the  civil 
year. 

The  Day  of  Atonement  was  the  tenth  day  of 
the  seventh  month.  It  was  a  fast.  Upon  this 
day  the  high  priest  made  an  offering  of  atone- 
ment for  the  nation. 

The  Feast  of  Tabernacles  was  kept  in  the 
seventh  month,  from  the  fifteenth  to  the 
twenty-second  day  inclusive.  It  commemor- 
ated the  Exodus,  the  dwelling  of  the  people  in 
tabernacles.  It  was  also  called  "  the  Feast 
of  Ingathering,"  because  it  was  also  the  occasion 
of  thanksgiving  for  the  end  of  the  fruit- 
harvest,  including  the  vintage. 

In  later  times  several  holy  days  were  added. 
The  most  noteworthy  are  the  Feast  of  Purim  or 
"  Lots,"  commemorating  the  deliverance  of  the 
Hebrews  from  Hainan's  plot ;  the  Feast  of  the 
Dedication  (Chanuca),  recording  the  cleansing 
and  dedication  of  the  Temple  by  Judas  Macca- 
bneus  ;  and  fasts  on  the  anniversaries  of  great 
national  calamities  of  the  age  of  the  Babylonish 
Captivity. 

The  Sabbatical  Year  was  every  seventh  year, 
just  as  the  Sabbath  was  every  seventh  day. 
During  the  Sabbatical  year  the  ground  lay 
fallow.  There  was  also  remission,  temporary 
or  absolute,  of  debts.  The  Sabbatical  year 
began  with  the  seventh  month.  After  the  lapse 
of  seven  Sabbatical  periods,  or  forty-nine  years, 
a  year  of  jubilee  was  to  be  kept,  immediately 
following  the  last  Sabbatical  year.  The 
jubilee  year  was  called  "  the  year  of  the 
trumpet,"  because  the  beginning  of  the  year 
was  announced  on  the  Day  of  Atonement  by 
sound  of  trumpet.  Debts  were  remitted, 
lands  restored  to  their  former  owners,  and 
slaves  set  free. 

Chronology  o!  the  O.T.— This  must  be 
considered  in  Periods,  beginning  in — 


1.  The  Antediluvian  Period.— Tor  the  first 
period  the  genealogies  in  Gen.  5  are  the  only 
authority,  as  no  contemporary  records  exist. 
The  sum  of  years  is  found  by  adding  together 
the  ages  of  the  antediluvian  patriarchs,  each  at 
the  birth  of  his  eldest  son  ;  Noah's  age  being 
taken  at  the  time  of  his  entrance  into  the  ark. 
The  Hebrew  text  differs  from  the  Septuagint 
and  the  Samaritan,  as  shown  in  the  table 
annexed — 


* 

1 

fi- 
ts 

E 

g 

e" 

'£ 

»< 

v? 

a 

C5 

$ 

X 

&, 

5; 

"5 

tq 

OS 

3 

Years. 

Years. 

Years. 

Gen.  5.3 

Adam 

130 

230 

130 

6 

Seth 

105 

205 

105 

9 

Enos 

90 

190 

90 

„      12 

Cainan 

70 

170 

70 

15 

Mahalaleel 

65 

165 

65 

>,      18 

Jared 

162 

162 

62 

»      21 

Enoch 

65 

165 

65 

»      25 

Methuselah 

187 

187 

67 

»      28 

Lamech  . 

182 

188 

53 

it  7.11 

Noah    at    the 

Deluge 

600 

600 

600 

1656 

2262 

1307 

It  need  hardly  be  added  that,  whatever  the 
number  of  years  from  Adam  to  the  Deluge,  the 
computation  affords  no  basis  for  a  date  B.C. 
This  must  evidently  depend  on  the  length  of 
the  succeeding  periods.  The  estimate  there- 
fore of  4004  years  from  Adam  to  Christ  must 
be  discarded  as  unsupported.  In  fact,  there  are 
as  many  different  views  of  the  date  of  creation 
as  there  are  chronological  systems.  No  fewer 
than  140  different  dates  have  been  variously 
assigned  ;  the  shortest  being  that  of  the  Rabbis, 
who  give  only  3483  years  as  the  time  of  the 
world's  duration  before  the  Christian  era. 

2.  From  the  Flood  to  Abraham. — The  second 
period,  in  like  manner,  is  calculated  from  the 
Bible  genealogies,  but  includes  the  beginnings 
of  secular  history — • 


| 

j 

f 

i 

1 

1 

1 

1 

§ 

1 

n. 

CO 

$ 

Years. 

Years. 

Years. 

Gen.  11.10  -j 

Shem     after^ 
the  Flood     J 

2 

2 

2 

12 
LXX   and) 
Lk.   3.36f 

Arphaxad 
Cainan  11. 

35 

135 

135 
130 

Gen.  11.14 

Salah 

30 

130 

130 

,,         16 

Heber 

34 

134 

134 

„         18 

Peleg 

30 

130 

130 

20 

Reu 

32 

132 

132 

„         22 

Serug 

30 

130 

130 

24 

Nahor 

29 

179 

79 

Gen.  11.26,) 
32,  12.4   T 

Terah      . 

130 

130 

130 

Gen.    12.4 

Abraham 

75 

75 

75 

427 

1307 

1077 

CHRONOLOGY  OF  THE  O.T.]  103          [CHRONOLOGY  OF  THE  O.T. 


The  discrepancy  between  the  Hebrew  text 
and  the  others  is  here  specially  noticeable, 
and  has  led  to  much  discussion,  as  between 
the  longer  and  the  shorter  chronology.  The 
longer  is  by  many  considered  to  be  best  entitled 
to  confidence. 

3.  From  the  Call  of  Abraham  to  the  Exodus.— 
The  third  period  is  calculated,  first,  from  the 
lives  of  the  three  great  patriarchs,  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob  ;  and,  secondly,  from  the 
Scripture  statements  regarding  the  duration 
of  the  Israelites'  abode  in  Egypt,  thus — 


I 

, 

•y 

1 

cq 

| 

Gen.  21.5   .  -J 

Abraham      (until) 
Isaac's  birth)       / 

Years. 
25 

YTears. 
25 

„    25.26    . 

Isaac 

60 

60 

„      47.9     / 

EX.12AO,  4M 
LXX,  Gat. 
3.17,  Acts  \ 
7.6  =  Heb-  f 

Jacob,   on   enter-  ) 
ing  Egypt     .       / 

Israelites  in  Egypt 

130 

430 

130 
215 

rewof  Ex. 
12.40.      J 

645 

430 

With  regard  to  this  period,  there  is  again 
a  serious  discrepancy  between  the  different 
estimates  ;  arising  in  this  instance  from  the 
addition  in  the  LXX  of  an  important  clause  in 
Ex.  12.40.  The  Hebrew  reads,  "  The  sojourning 
of  the  children  of  Israel,  which  they  sojourned 
in  Egypt,  was  430  years  "  ;  the  LXX  and  the 
Samaritan,  adding  after  Egypt,  "  and  in  the 
land  of  Canaan,"  thus  including  the  years  of 
the  previous  patriarchal  abode  in  Palestine 
(215  years).  This  was  evidently  the  "  received 
chronology  "  in  apostolic  times,  and  as  such 
is  adopted  by  the  Apostle  Paul ;  while  it 
certainly  seems  to  be  supported  by  the 
genealogies. 

4.  From  the  Exodus  to  Saul. — In  this  fourth 
period,  the  reckoning  begins  with  the  forty 
years  in  the  wilderness  ;  and  the  statement, 
1  K.  6.1,  that  from  the  Exodus  to  the  building 
of  the  temple  in  the  fourth  year  of  Solomon's 
reign  there  were  480  years,  seems  to  afford  a 
sure  basis  for  computation.  But  many  diffi- 
culties have  arisen  regarding  this  statement, 
which  have  baffled  chronologers.  The  LXX 
reads  "  the  440th  year  "  ;  but  this  may  be 
simply  from  the  omission  of  the  forty  years' 
wandering.  In  2  Ch.  3.2  (the  parallel  passage) 
there  is  no  date.  Josephus,  and  others  who 
have  left  systems  of  chronology,  seem  to  have 
been  ignorant  of  this  computation,  which  is 
first  mentioned  in  the  fourth  century  by 
Eusebius ;  and  he  does  not  adopt  it.  St. 
Paul,  again,  seems,  according  to  the  received 
text,  to  assign  450  years  as  the  time  from  the 
division  of  Canaan  "  until  Samuel  "  (Acts  13.20), 


an  1  if  so,  the  whole  period  must  have  been  579 

years  at  least,  viz. — 

In  the  wilderness,  and  till  the  land 

was  divided  ....       40  years 

Judges  including  Eli  and  Samuel      .     450    „ 
Saul  40,  David  40,  Solomon  3  .         .       83    „ 

579 

We  cannot  gather  from  Scripture  what  time 
elapsed  between  the  death  of  Samson  and  the 
accession  of  Saul.  Eli  judged  Israel  forty  years, 
but  Ussher  makes  him  contemporary  of  Samson, 
and  not  his  successor.  He  reckons  between 
Eli's  death  and  Saul's  election  twenty-one  years, 
though  Samuel  could  hardly  have  been  in  that 
case  "  old  and  grey-headed  "  (1  Sam.  12.2). 
Eusebius  reckons  forty  years  for  Eli,  and  includes 
Samuel  in  Saul's  reign  :  Josephus  reckons  fifty- 
two  years  for  Eli  and  Samuel,  Hales  allowing 
for  them  seventy-two.  Clinton  supposes  St. 
Paul's  reckoning  to  end  with  the  beginning  of 
Samuel's  judgeship,  and  adds  for  that  thirty- 
two  years.  On  the  whole,  therefore,  it  may  be 
said  that  if  we  set  aside  the  reading  in  1  K.Q.I, 
and  are  uncertain  of  the  precise  meaning  of 
Acts  13.20,  we  have  not  materials  for  solving 
the  difficulties  which  this  fourth  period  involves. 

5.  Period  of  the  Kingly  History.— For  the  fifth 
period,  the  main  source  of  information  from 
Scripture  is  in  the  lists  of  the  kings  of  Israel  and 
Judah  respectively,  compared  with  the  annals 
of  surrounding  empires.  The  difficulties  in  the 
computation  arise  first  from  the  fact  that  the 
two  series  of  reigns  differ  in  their  totals  ;  those 
of  Judah,  from  the  death  of  Solomon  to  the  fall 
of  Samaria,  seeming  to  amount  to  259  years  ; 
those  of  Israel,  during  the  same  period,  to  241 
years.  Different  methods  of  explaining  this 
variation  have  been  adopted  :  one  by  assuming 
unrecorded  intervals  of  anarchy  in  Israel ; 
another,  by  showing  that  in  Judah  there  were 
instances  of  associated  sovereignty,  so  that  the 
same  years  were  counted  both  to  father  and  son. 

A  second  source  of  occasional  difficulty  is  in 
the  adjustment  of  the  annals  of  other  nations 
to  the  Bible  chronology.  Yet,  whatever  the 
apparent  discrepancies,  the  main  result  is  very 
remarkably  to  confirm  and  illustrate  the  state- 
ments of  Scripture. 

In  the  latter  part  of  this  fifth  period  the  syn- 
chronisms with  the  known  dates  of  secular 
history  make  it  for  the  first  time  possible 
definitely  to  give  the  year  B.C. 

It  should  be  especially  noticed  here  that 
certain  peculiarities  of  reckoning  cause  occa- 
sional difficulty. 

(a)  Jewish  historians,  for  example,  speak  of 
the  reign  of  a  king  which  is  continued  through 
one  whole  year  and  parts  of  two  others  as  a 
three  years'  reign.  It  may  be  two  years  and  ten 
months,  or  it  may  be  one  year  and  two  months. 

(ft)  They  sometimes  set  down  the  principal 
number  ;  the  odd,  or  smaller  number,  being 
omitted,  as  in  Judg.  20.35  :  see  ver.  46. 

(c)  As   sons    frequently  reigned    with    their 


CHRONOLOGY  OF  THE  O.T.] 


104 


[CHRONOLOGY  OF  THE  N.T. 


fathers  in  ancient  monarchies,  the  time  of  the 
reign  of  each  is  sometimes  made  to  include  the 
time  of  the  other,  and  sometimes  to  exclude  it. 
Thus  Jothamissaid  to  have  reigned  sixteen  years, 
2  K.  15.33  ;  and  yet,  in  ver.  30,  mention  is  made 
of  his  twentieth  year.  For  four  years  he  seems 
to  have  reigned  with  Uzziah,  who  was  a  leper. 
So  2  K.  13.1-10,  24.8,  compared  with  2  Ch.  36.9. 
A  similar  principle  explains  Dan.  1.1  ;  Jer.  25.1 ; 
Nebuchadnezzar  being  king  with  his  father 
when  Jerusalem  was  besieged. 

(d)  It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  different 
modes  of  reckoning  are  adopted  in  reference  to 
the  same  transaction.  See  Gen.  15.13  and 
Gal.  3.17  ;  Genesis  speaking  of  400  years  from 
the  birth  of  Isaac  to  the  Exodus  ;  Paul,  of  430 
years  from  the  call  of  Abraham  to  the  giving  of 
the  Law,  which  occurred  three  months  after  the 
Exodus. 

6.  From  the  Captivity  to  the  Advent,—  The 
sixth  period,  covering  the  time  of  the  later 
prophets,  the  close  of  the  O.T.  Canon,  and  the 
interval  before  the  Advent,  is  definitely  marked 
out  by  the  annals  of  the  several  nations.  About 
this  part  of  the  chronology  there  is  practically 
no  doubt.  [ISRAEL.] 

Chronological  Eras. — It  should  be  added  that 
with  respect  to  the  synchronisms  with  secular 
history  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  periods  we  hare 
certain  fixed  eras  or  starting-points  of  reckoning, 
with  "  Canons  "  or  lists  following. 

1.  Assyrian  Eponym  Canon. — Four  different 
records  have  been  discovered,   in  substantial 
agreement ;    defects  in  any  one  of  them  being 
supplied  by  one  or  more  of  the  rest.    In  these  the 
years  are  numbered  by  the  names  of  officers 
annually  appointed  from  893  to  659  B.C.     The 
known  date  of  a  solar  eclipse  mentioned  in  these 
records  (June  15,  763  B.C.)  affords  a  key  to  the 
rest. 

2.  The  Babylonian  Era  of  Nabonassar,  747  B.C. 
— Nabonassar    (Budge,    Babylonian    Life    and 
History,  p.  59)  was  a  Babylonian  king  of  whom 
nothing  more  is  known  than  that  the  celebrated 
Canon  of  Ptolemy,   the   Egyptian  astronomer 
(about  150  A.D.),  begins  from  his  reign,  extending 
from  747  B.C.  to  137  A.D. 

3.  The  Olympiads,  or  periods  of  four  years, 
reckoned   by  the   Greeks   from  the  recurrence 
of      the     Olympic     games,      beginning     with 
776  B.C. 

4.  The  Year  of  the  Building  of  Rome  (Annus 
Urbis    Condit<8),    generally    quoted    as    A.U.C., 
754-753  B.C.,  is  employed  in  Roman  calculations, 
as  also  are  the  names  of  the  consuls  in  each  year 
from  509  B.C.  to  476  A.D. 

5.  The  Seleucid  Era  begins  with  the  occupa- 
tion of    Babylon    by    Seleucus    Nicator,   after 
the  death  of  Alexander's  son,  312  B.C. 

6.  Scripture  itself  seldom  reckons  from  fixed 
points.     An  exception  is  in  the  prophet  Ezekiel's 
constant  reference  to   the  date  of  Jeconiah's 
captivity,    597    B.C.     The    "  thirtieth    year," 
however,  in  chap.   1.1,  belongs  to  a  different 
computation,  and  possibly  refers  to  the  prophet's 
own  life,  or  else,  as  has  been  conjectured,  to  the 


accession  of  Nabopolassar,  father  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, in  625  B.C. 

Years  beginning  at  different  Times. — The  above 
epochs  severally  begin  on  different  months  and 
days  :  the  Assyrian  year  commencing  (like  the 
Jewish)  at  the  new  moon  before  the  vernal 
equinox ;  the  era  of  Nabonassar  on  February  26 ; 
the  Olympiads  about  July  1,  the  day  of  the  full 
moon  following  the  summer  solstice ;  A.U.C., 
April  21  ;  the  Seleucid  era,  September  1. 
This  has  to  be  borne  in  mind  in  comparing  the 
several  chronologies. 

Chronology  of  the  N.T.  —  This  is  fixed 
by  a  few  important  dates,  the  Consular  lists 
of  the  Roman  Empire  being  an  accurate  guide. 
It  must  be  noted  that  the  "  year  of  our  Lord," 
the  conventional  era,  from  which  the  dates 
before  and  after  (B.C.  and  A.D.)  are  all  reckoned, 
is  only  an  approximation.  The  year  was  fixed 
by  the  calculations  of  Dionysius  the  Little,  a 
Roman  monk  in  the  days  of  the  Ernpero;. 
Justinian,  as  753  A.TJ.C.  (see  above).  As  it  is 
certain,  however,  that  our  Lord  was  born  before 
the  death  of  Herod  the  Great  (750  A.U.C.),  the 
calculation  was  plainly  incorrect  by  at  least  three 
years,  and  although  certainty  as  to  the  exact 
time  of  Christ's  birth  is  unattainable  it  was 
probably  about  749  A.U.C.,  i.e.  in  4  or  5  B.C. 
The  question,  however,  is  not  important,  and 
the  conventional  landmark  of  time  will  no  doubt 
be  always  retained. 

The  N.T,  gives  but  few  direct  notes  of  time. 
Such  as  are  specified  are  mainly  connected  with 
the  Roman  annals. 

1.  Lk.  3.1,  "  the  fifteenth  year  of  Tiberius," 
i.e.  from  the  time  when  Tiberius  was  associated 
with    Augustus    in    the    imperial    government 
(765  A.U.C.).     This  gives  780  A.U.C.  or  27  A.D. 
as  the  date  of  John's  ministry.     At  the  same 
time  our  Lord  was  "  about  thirty  years  of  age," 
Lk.  3.23— about  thirty-three,  therefore,  at  the 
time  of  His  crucifixion,  which  for  that  and  other 
reasons  is  generally  assigned  to  30  A.D. 

2.  John  2.20,  "  Forty  and  six  years  "  from 
the  time  of  Herod's  undertaking  the  restoration 
of  the  Temple.     This  work  was  begun,  according 
to  Josephus,  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  Herod's 
reign,  or  19  B.C.,  which  would   give  27  or  28 
A.D.  for  the  date  specified  in  the  text. 

3.  Acts  12.23,  the  death  of  Herod  Agrippa, 
44  A.D.     This  date  is  useful,  as  throwing  light 
upon  the  time  of  the  conversion  and  mission  of 
the  Apostle  Paul. 

4.  Accession  of  Nero,  the  "  Csesar  "  of  Acts 
25.8-12,  etc.,  to  the  imperial  throne,  54  A.D. 

5.  Acts   24.27,   appointment    of    Festus   as 
successor   to   Felix,   as  procurator  of   Judaea, 
60  A.D. 

6.  The  great  persecution    under   Nero,   be- 
ginning 64  A.D.,  three  or  four  years  therefore 
after  Paul's  arrival  in  Rome,  and  about  two' 
years  after  his  first  trial  and  acquittal.     During 
these  two  years,  it  is  probable,  the  apostle  began 
a  final  and  extended  missionary  journey. 

With  the  help  of  the  above  data,  a  tolerably 
certain  N.T.  Chronology  may  be  constructed, 


CHRYSOLYTE] 


105 


[CHURCH 


so  far  as  relates  to  the  general  history.  (See 
Separate  articles  on  the  Books  of  the  Bible,  under 
their  titles.) 

Chrysolyte. — The  modern  Oriental  topaz  ;  one 
of  the  precious  stones  in  the  foundation  of  the 
heavenly  Jerusalem  (Rev.  21.20). 

Chrysoprasus.  —  The  apple-green  or  leek- 
green  variety  of  agate,  owing  its  colour  to  oxide 
of  nickel  (Rev.  21.20) ;  one  of  the  precious  stones 
of  the  New  Jerusalem. 

Chub. — Name  of  a  people  in  alliance  with 
Egypt  in  the  time  of  Nebuchadnezzar  (Ezek. 
30.5). 

Chun  (R.V.  Cun).— A  city  of  Hadadezer, 
king  of  Zobah,  in  Syria,  which  David  spoiled 
(1  Ch.  18.8) :  apparently  the  same  as  Berothai 
(2  Sam.  8.8). 

Church.— When  Jesus  Christ  unites  an  indi- 
vidual sinner  to  Himself  a  relationship  naturally 
springs  up  between  those  who  are  thus  united 
to  Christ.  A  society  of  believers  is  therefore  a 
necessary  outcome  of  our  Lord's  work  of  redemp- 
tion— a  society  of  those  who  are  in  direct  relation 
to  Himself.  This  society  is  called  by  several 
titles  in  the  N.T.,  but  the  most  im- 
portant and  the  most  characteristic  of  the 
present  age  is  the  term  "Church."  It  occurs 
over  one  hundred  times  in  the  N.T.  The 
English  word  "  Church "  is  a  corruption  of 
the  Greek  (Kyriake),  which  means  "belonging 
to  the  Lord."  This  is  seen  still  more  clearly  in 
the  Scottish  word  "  kirk,"  the  German  "kirche," 
and  the  Swedish  "  kyrkan."  The  Greek  word 
which  is  translated  "  Church  "  (Ecclesia)  means 
an  assembly  or  congregation,  and  is  rendered 
by  this  term  in  Luther's  Bible. 

When  did  the  Church  commence  ?  It  is 
usual  to  speak  of  the  Day  of  Pentecost  as  the 
Church's  birthday,  because  the  company  of 
believers  in  Christ  were  then  for  the  first  time 
constituted  a  spiritual  body  by  the  indwelling 
of  the  Holy  Spirit.  But  there  is  a  sense  in 
which  the  Christian  Church  really  began  when 
two  of  John's  disciples  heard  him  speak,  and 
united  themselves  to  Jesus  (John  1.37).  And 
there  was  a  Jewish  Church  or  congregation  all 
through  O.T.  times.  The  term  Church  is  found 
first  on  our  Lord's  lips  in  Matt.  16.18,  then  again 
in  Matt.  18.17,  and  these  are  the  only  occa- 
sions in  which  the  word  is  found  in  the  Gospels. 
But  they  show  that  it  was  our  Lord's  intention 
to  found  a  society,  and  that  the  society  was  to 
be  permanent. 

How  did  the  Church  commence  ?  Using  the 
Day  of  Pentecost  as  a  typical  illustration,  the 
Church  commenced  by  the  acceptance  of  God's 
Word  preached  by  the  Apostle  Peter.  Be- 
lievers thereby  became  united  to  Christ  and  to 
one  another  in  Him.  The  precise  order  of 
events  should  be  carefully  observed.  Christ 
was  preached,  then  was  accepted  by  faith,  and 
then  He  added  the  penitent  believers  to  the 
Church.  There  was  a  definite  contact  of  each 
believer  with  God,  by  means  of  faith  on  the 
human  side,  and  the  Holy  Spirit  on  the  Divine 
aide.  Then  came  the  ministerial  act  of  baptism. 


The  account  in  Acts  2  gives  in  gorm  everything 
that  is  essential  in  the  N.T.  idea  of  the 
Church. 

Why  did  the  Church  come  into  existence  ? 
Generally,  for  the  purpose  of  glorifying  God 
(Eph.  3.10  ;  1  Pet.  2.9),  but  specifically,  for 
fellowship  between  Christians,  for  testimony  to 
the  world  on  behalf  of  Christ,  and  for  service 
in  extending  the  knowledge  of  the  Gospel.  Thus 
the  Church  satisfied  the  social  instinct,  and  at 
the  same  time  provided  the  means  of  extending 
and  establishing  Christianity  in  the  world. 
Herein  lies  the  value  of  the  Church  :  while 
each  believer  is  saved  by  direct  contact  with 
Christ,  he  is  sanctified,  not  solitarily,  but  in 
association  with  others.  The  home,  the  school, 
the  village,  the  town,  the  city,  the  country,  are 
all  illustrations  of  that  social  life  which  is  ex- 
pressed religiously  in  the  Church. 

The  term  "  Church  "  is  found  in  three  differ- 
ent though  associated  connexions  in  the  N.T. 
The  earliest  use  refers  to  the  Christians  in 
a  house  or  a  city,  the  believers  in  one  place. 
Then  is  seen  a  more  general  use  of  the  aggre- 
gate of  Churches  at  one  time  in  different  places 
(1  Cor.  10.32,  12.28).  This  in  turn  widens  out 
into  the  idea  of  the  Church  as  universally 
realised  at  all  places  and  times,  i.e.  the  "  Body 
of  Christ  "  (Acts  20.28  ;  Eph.  1.22  ;  Col  1.18). 
It  should  be  carefully  noted  that  the  Church  is 
not  to  be  limited  to  oilicials  :  the  Church  is 
the  whole  body  of  Christians,  and  must  never 
be  confused  with  the  Ministry.  The  growth  of 
the  organisation  of  the  Church  was  gradual 
according  to  circumstances.  There  was  no 
uniform  organisation  or  government;  develop- 
ment came  from  within,  the  spiritual  body 
expressing  itself  in  earthly  forms.  As  need 
arose  it  was  met  by  this  or  that  function  of  the 
Church's  life.  The  Church  must  therefore  be 
viewed  both  from  the  inward  and  the  outward 
aspects.  This  distinction  is  sometimes  de- 
scribed by  the  terms  "  invisible  "  and  "  visible," 
according  as  the  Church  is  considered  as  to  its 
spiritual  Head  or  earthly  organisation,  according 
to  its  inner  life  or  outward  obedience.  The 
Church  is  invisible  as  to  its  Divine  Head  and  the 
Spirit  of  its  life,  but  visible  as  to  those  who 
compose  it.  The  two  aspects,  while  connected, 
do  not  cover  exactly  the  same  ground.  A  man 
may  belong  to  the  Church  as  visible  without 
belonging  to  the  Church  as  invisible.  He  may 
be  united  to  the  outward  society  without  being 
spiritually  united  to  Christ. 

The  terms  "  Church  "  and  "  Kingdom,"  while 
closely  related,  are  not  to  be  regarded  as  synony- 
mous. We  cannot  substitute  the  one  for  the 
other  in  the  Lord's  Prayer,  or  indeed  any- 
where else.  It  is  important  to  remember  that 
for  everything  essential  to  the  idea  of  the 
Church,  as  distinct  from  what  is  purely  circum- 
stantial, we  must  adhere  closely  to  the  N.T. 
While  Church  life  may  take  various  forms 
through  the  centuries,  we  can  only  accept  as 
absolutely  necessary  for  the  existence  and  well- 
being  of  the  Church  what  is  found  in  the  N.T. 


CHURCHES,  BOBBERS  OF] 


106 


[CISTERN 


A  point  of  some  importance  is  that  in  the  N.T. 
the  term  Church  is  never  used  of  a  building,  only 
of  Christ's  people.  Strict  accuracy  will  lead 
to  the  avoidance  of  the  term  "  Church  of  Christ," 
for  the  singular  term  is  never  used  except  of  the 
"  Church  of  God."  The  plural  is  used  thus  : 
"  Churches  of  Christ."  It  is  also  very  impor- 
tant to  keep  in  view  the  idea  of  the  universal 
Church  as  primarily  spiritual,  an  organism 
rather  than  an  organisation.  It  is  this  spiritual 
idea  of  the  Church  which  dominates  the  Epistle 
to  the  Ephesians,  and  should  therefore  rule  all  our 
views  of  the  local  and  ecclesiastical  Church  and 
Ministry.  As  Bishop  Moule  says,  "  All  other 
meanings  of  the  word  Church  are  derived  and 
modified  from  this,  but  this  must  not  be  modified 
by  them  "  (on  Eph.  1.22).  The  true  doctrine 
of  the  Church  may  be  summarised  in  the  well- 
known  words,  "  Where  Christ  is,  there  is  the 
Church."  And  if  it  be  asked,  Where  is  Christ  ? 
the  answer  is,  Where  the  Holy  Spirit  is,  for  He 
alone  makes  Christ  real  to  men.  And  if  it  be 
further  asked,  Where  is  the  Holy  Spirit  ?  the 
answer  is  obvious,  that  the  Spirit  is  known  by 
His  grace  and  power  in  human  lives. 

We  must  be  careful  not  to  overrate  the  posi- 
tion and  importance  of  the  Church.  "  Through 
Christ  to  the  Church "  is  wholly  right  ; 
"  through  the  Church  to  Christ "  is  only 
partly  right.  We  must  never  place  the  Church 
between  the  sinner  and  the  Saviour,  though,  on 
the  other  hand,  if  we  exalt  and  honour  Christ, 
the  Church  will  always  find  its  proper  place, 
and  be  valued  aright.  We  must  also  be  careful 
not  to  underrate  the  position  of  the  Church. 
The  individual  Christian  needs  the  Church  for 
everything  connected  with  worship,  fellowship, 
evangelisation,  and  edification.  We  must 
cultivate  Church  unity  and  fellowship  in  every 
available  way,  and  thus  realise  the  purpose  of 
God,  "  that  now  unto  the  principalities  and 
powers  in  heavenly  places  might  be  known  by 
the  Church  the  manifold  wisdom  of  God  " 
(Eph.  3.10). 

Churches,  Robbers  oi — This  expression  in 
A.V.  of  Acts  19.37  signifies"  robbers  of  temples" 
(R.V.),  and  involves  a  charge  of  sacrilege  (of. 
Horn.  2.22).  When  the  A.V.  was  made,  the 
word  "  church  "  denoted  a  place  of  pagan  as 
well  as  of  Christian  worship.  [SACRILEGE.] 

Chushan  -  Rishatha'im. — A  king  of  Meso- 
potamia who  oppressed  Israel  for  eight  years 
(Judg.  3.8  ;  R.V.  Cushan-K.). 

Chu'za,  Chuzas. — The  house-steward  of  Herod 
Antipas,  whose  wife  Joanna  was  one  of  the 
women  who  accompanied  Jesus  on  His  journey- 
ings  (Lk.  8.3).  She  was  one  of  those  who  came 
early  to  the  sepulchre  on  the  morning  of  the 
Resurrection  (Lk.  24.10). 
Cieling.— [CEILING.  ] 

Cilicia. — A  maritime  province  in  the  south- 
east of  Asia  Minor,  girt  round  with  lofty  moun- 
tain ranges.  The  eastern  portion  was  remarkable 
for  beauty,  fertility,  and  the  softness  of  its 
climate  ;  hence  it  became  a  favourite  residence 
of  the  Greeks  after  its  incorporation  with  the 


Macedonian  empire,  and  its  capital  Tarsus  was 
elevated  into  the  seat  of  a  celebrated  school  of 
philosophy.  Cilicia  was  from  its  geographical 
position  the  high  road  between  Syria  and  the 
West ;  and  in  the  apostolic  age  Jews  were 
settled  there  in  considerable  numbers.  Tarsus 
was  the  native  place  of  Paul  (Acts  9.11,  30, 
21.39,  22.3),  who  visited  Cilicia  soon  after  his 
conversion  (Acts  9.30  ;  Gal.  1.21),  and  again  in 
his  second  missionary  journey  (Acts  15.41). 

Cinnamon. — Cinnamon,  the  bark  of  the  tree, 
was  imported  from  the  Far  East — Cochin 
China,  Ceylon,  and  the  Malabar  Coast — and  was 
known  from  a  remote  period  in  Palestine.  It 
is  mentioned  in  Ex.  30.23  as  one  of  the  com- 
ponent parts  of  the  holy  anointing  oil ;  in 
Prov.  7.17  as  a  perfume  for  the  bed ;  in  Cant. 
4.14  as  one  of  the  plants  of  the  garden 
which  is  the  image  of  the  bride  ;  and  in  Rev. 
18.13  as  among  the  merchandise  of  the  great 
Babylon. 

Cinne'roth.  — [CHINNEEETH.] 

Circumcision. — This  practice  was  enjoined 
upon  Abraham  and  his  descendants  by  God  as 
a  token  of  the  Covenant  into  which  they 
entered  with  Him  (Gen.  17.9-14).  The  rite  was 
part  of  the  common  inheritance  of  the  Hebrew 
and  the  Canaanite  among  other  nations  of 
antiquity,  the  Philistines,  who  are  expressly 
spoken  of  as  uncircumcised  (1  Sam.  passim), 
being  a  notable  exception.  It  was  a  necessary 
condition  of  Jewish  nationality.  Every  male 
child  was  to  be  circumcised  when  eight  days  old. 
Slaves,  whether  home-born  or  purchased,  were 
to  be  circumcised.  No  foreigner  could  eat  the 
Passover,  unless  all  the  males  of  his  family 
were  circumcised  (Ex.  12.48),  so  that  he  became, 
in  fact,  a  Jew. 

The  obligation  or  otherwise  of  the  rite  of 
circumcision  upon  the  Gentile  converts  to 
Christianity  was  a  question  that  caused  con- 
siderable trouble.  The  peace  of  the  Church 
at  Antioch  was  disturbed  by  Judaizing  teachers, 
who  said  to  the  Gentile  converts,  "  Except 
ye  be  circumcised  after  the  manner  of  Moses, 
ye  cannot  be  saved  "  (Acts  15.1) ;  but  "  the 
apostles  and  elders  "  at  Jerusalem  decided  that 
the  Gentiles  were  entirely  free  from  all  obligation 
to  undergo  the  rite  (Acts  15.22-29).  Paul's 
position  hi  this  matter  is  seen  in  Gal.  5  and  6  ; 
Rom.  3.30,  4.9-12  ;  1  Cor.  7.18,  19  ;  Phil.  3.2 : 
also  in  Acts  16.3  ;  Gal.  2.3. 

Christianity,  however,  seized  upon  the 
spiritual  significance  of  circumcision.  The 
epithet  "  uncircumcised "  was  applied  in  the 
O.T.  to  lips  (Ex.  G.12),  ears  (Jer.  6.10),  and 
hearts  (Lev.  26.41).  In  the  N.T.  circumcision 
is  declared  to  be  "  that  of  the  heart,  in  the 
spirit,  and  not  in  the  letter  "  (Rom.  2.29).  The 
title  of  the  true  "  circumcision  "  is  claimed  for 
Christians  (Phil.  3.3;  compare  Col.  2.11). 

Cis. — The  Greek  form  of  Kish,  father  of 
Saul  (Acts  13.21). 

Cistern. — The  summers  of  Syria  are  very 
dry,  and  as  there  is  a  scarcity  of  springs  in 
many  parts  of  the  country,  the  rain-water 


CITIZENSHIP] 


107 


[CLEOPHAS 


\vhich  falls  at  other  times  is  collected  in  cisterns 
and  reservoirs.  The  larger  sort  of  public 
tanks  or  reservoirs  are  usually  called  in  the 
A.V.  "  pool."  The  rocky  nature  of  the  soil 
affords  peculiar  facilities  for  the  construction 
of  cisterns  either  by  original  excavation  or 
by  enlargement  of  natural  cavities.  The 
cisterns  in  Palestine  at  the  present  day  have 
usually  a  round  opening  at  the  top,  sometimes 
built  up  with  stonework,  and  furnished  with 
a  curb  and  wheel  for  the  bucket.  Empty 
cisterns  were  sometimes  used  as  prisons  and 
places  of  confinement.  Such  was  the  "  pit " 
into  which  Joseph  was  cast  (Gen.  37.22). 
Jeremiah  was  cast  into  a  miry,  though  empty, 
cistern  (Jer.  38.6). 

Citizenship. — The  privilege  of  Roman  citizen- 
ship was  acquired  by  purchase  (Acts  22.28), 
military  services,  and  favour.  Once  obtained, 
it  descended  to  a  man's  children.  Great 
numbers  of  Jews  who  were  Roman  citizens 
were  scattered  over  Greece  and  Asia  Minor. 
A  Roman  citizen  could  not  be  bound  or  im- 
prisoned without  a  formal  trial  (Acts  22.29), 
still  less  could  he  be  scourged  (Acts  16.37), 
and,  if  he  demanded  it,  he  could  appeal  from  a 
provincial  tribunal  to  the  Emperor  at  Rome 
(Acts  25.11).  Any  infringement  of  the  privilege 
was  visited  with  severe  punishment.  The  figure 
of  citizenship  is  applied  to  the  privileges  and 
responsibilities  of  the  Christian  in  Eph.  2.19; 
Phil.  1.27,  3.20. 

City.  —  From  the  time  of  the  capture 
of  Jerusalem  by  David  the  Hebrews  became, 
to  a  considerable  extent,  a  city-dwelling 
people.  The  cities  for  the  most  part  were 
"  fenced,"  i.e.  possessed  a  wall  with  towers  and 
gates.  But  around  the  city,  especially  in 
peaceable  times,  lay  undefended  suburbs,  to 
which  the  privileges  of  the  city  extended. 
According  to  Eastern  custom,  special  cities 
were  appointed  to  furnish  special  supplies 
for  the  service  of  the  State  ;  stone  cities  for 
chariots,  for  horsemen,  for  building  purposes, 
and  for  provision  for  the  royal  table.  To  the 
Levites  forty-eight  cities  were  assigned,  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  country,  together  with 
a  certain  amount  of  suburban  ground. 

Before  the  Captivity  the  internal  government 
of  Jewish  cities  was  vested  in  a  council  of  elders 
(2  K.  10.1),  with  judges  who  were  required  to 
be  priests.  Under  the  kings  a  president  or 
governor  appears  to  have  been  appointed,  and 
judges  were  sent  out  on  circuit,  who  presum- 
ably referred  matters  of  doubt  to  a  council  of 
priests,  Levites,  and  elders  at  Jerusalem.  After 
the  Captivity  Ezra  made  similar  arrangements 
for  the  appointment  of  judges. 

In  many  Eastern  cities  much  space  is  devoted 
to  gardens,  and  thus  the  size  of  the  city  is 
much  increased.  The  vast  extent  of  Nineveh 
and  Babylon  may  thus  in  part  be  accounted 
for.  The  streets  are  in  general  extremely 
narrow,  seldom  allowing  more  than  two 
loaded  camels  to  pass  each  other.  The 
internal  commerce  of  the  cities  was  carried 


on,  as  now,  by  means  of  bazaars.  We  read 
in  Jer.  37.21  of  the  bakers'  street. 

The  open  spaces  near  the  gates  of  towns 
were  in  ancient  times,  as  they  are  still,  used  as 
places  of  assembly  by  the  elders,  of  holding 
courts  by  kings  and  judges,  and  of  general  resort 
by  citizens.  They  were  also  used  as  places  of 
public  exposure  by  way  of  punishment.  Great 
pains  were  taken  to  supply  the  cities  with 
water,  both  by  tanks  and  cisterns  for  rain- 
water and  by  reservoirs  supplied  by  aqueducts 
from  distant  springs. 

City  o!  Refuge.— Six  Levitical  cities  were 
specially  chosen  as  places  of  refuge  for  the  invol- 
untary homicide  (Num.  35  and  Josh.  20).  Three 
were  on  the  east  side  of  the  Jordan — Bezer  in 
Reuben,  Ramoth-Gilead  in  Gad,  and  Golan  in 
Manasseh.  The  three  on  the  west  side  were — 
Kedesh  in  Naphtali  (now  Kedes,  20  miles  from 
Tyre),  Shechem  hi  Mount  Ephraim,  and  Hebron 
in  Judah. 

Clauda  (now  Gozzo). — A  small  island  south- 
west of  Crete,  under  the  lee  of  which  Paul's 
storm-driven  ship  ran,  on  his  voyage  to  Rome 
(Acts  27.16). 

Clau'dia. — A  Christian  woman  who  sends 
greetings  to  Timothy  in  2  Tim.  4.21. 

Ciau'dius. — Fourth  Emperor  of  Rome,  reign- 
ing from  41  to  54  A.D.  He  gave  to  Agrippa  all 
Judaea,  and  to  his  brother,  Herod,  the  kingdom 
of  Chalcis.  He  terminated  the  dispute  be- 
tween the  Jews  and  the  Alexandrians,  confirm- 
ing the  former  in  the  freedom  of  Alexandria 
and  in  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion  and 
laws,  but  not  permitting  them  to  hold  assemblies 
at  Rome.  Agrippa  dying  in  44  A.D.,  the 
Emperor  again  reduced  Judaea  to  a  province, 
and  sent  Cuspius  Fadus  as  governor.  About 
this  time  happened  the  famine,  as  foretold 
by  the  prophet  Agabus  (Acts  11.28).  In 
49  A.D.  Claudius  published  an  order  expelling 
all  Jews  from  Rome  (Acts  18.2),  because,  as 
Suetonius  relates,  of  constant  rioting  at  the 
instigation  of  one  "  Chrestus."  If,  as  is  possible, 
"  Chrestus  "  is  confused  with  "  Christus,"  the 
cause  of  disturbance  may  have  been  Jewish 
opposition  to  the  Christians  of  Rome.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  the  decree  was  ever  fully 
carried  into  effect.  [CHRISTIAN.] 

Ciau'dius  Lys'ias.H;LYsiAs.] 

Clay. — Clay  of  various  kinds  was  used  for 
building  [BRICKS]  and  for  pottery  (Isai.  29.16, 
45.9,  etc. ;  Rom.  9.21).  Another  use  of  clay 
was  in  sealing  ( Job  38.14) :  our  Lord's  tomb 
may  have  been  thus  sealed  (Malt.  27. G6). 
This  practice  of  sealing  doors  with  clay  in 
order  to  facilitate  detection  in  case  of  mal- 
practice is  still  common  in  the  East. 

Clean. — [UXCLEAN  MEATS,  UXCLEANNESS.] 

Clem/ent. — A  fellow-labourer  of  Paul  (Phil. 
4.3).  Hardly  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  who  wrote 
his  Epistle  about  90  A.D. 

Cle'opas. — One  of  the  two  disciples  going  to 
Emmaus  when  Jesus  appeared  to  them  (Lk. 
24.18). 

Cle'ophas  (R.V.   Clopas).— Is  mentioned    in 


CLOTHING] 


108 


[COLOSSIANS 


John    19.25    to  distinguish    Mary,  the   wife  of 
Clopas,  from  Mary  Magdalene.     [ALPH^US.] 

Clothing.— [DRESS.  ] 

Cloud. — Bible  lands  are  ordinarily  cloudless, 
and  the  appearing  of  clouds  in  the  sky  is  there- 
fore more  noted  than  among  us.  A  "  cloud  with- 
out rain  "  is  a  proverb  for  the  man  of  promise 
without  performance  (Prov.  16.15  ;  cf.  Jude  12). 
A  cloud  is  also  a  figure  of  the  transitory  (Job 
30.15),  and  of  a  barrier  between  the  divine  and 
the  human.  On  many  occasions  God  shrouded 
or  symbolised  His  manifestations  by  clouds 
(Ex.  19.18,  24.16,  33.9,  40.34-38;  Deut. 
4.11 ;  2  Sam.  22.12  ;  1  K.  8.10 ;  Ezek.  1.4). 

Cloud,  Pillar  of.— A  pillar  of  cloud  led  the 
host  of  the  Exodus  (Ex.  13.21)  by  day,  and 
became  a  pillar  of  fire  by  night.  This  was  a 
miraculous  indication  of  God's  presence  leading 
the  ransomed  people.  The  pillar  of  cloud 
interposed  itself  at  the  critical  moment  between 
the  Israelites  and  the  pursuing  Egyptians 
(Ex.  14.19). 

Clout.— An  old  Celtic  word  meaning  patch 
(Josh.  9.5;  Jer.  38.11). 

Cnidus  (now  Cape  Kria). — City  and  harbour 
at  extreme  south-west  promontory  of  Caria, 
in  Asia  Minor,  past  which  Paul  sailed  on  his 
voyage  to  Rome  (Acts  27.7).  The  remains 
show  that  it  must  have  been  a  city  of  great 
magnificence. 

CoaL— The  coal  referred  to  in  the  Scriptures 
is  not  what  we  understand  by  the  word,  but 
charcoal  or  other  material  used  for  fuel.  Elijah's 
miraculous  meal,  "  a  cake  baken  on  the  coals  " 
(1  K.  19.6),  means  a  cake  baked  on  a  hot 
stone,  as  is  still  usual  in  the  East.  The  pro- 
verbial expression,  "  Thou  shalt  heap  coals 
of  fire  upon  his  head "  (Prov.  25.22),  was 
adopted  by  Paul  to  express  the  burning  shame 
and  confusion  which  men  must  feel  when 
their  evil  is  requited  by  good. 

Coast.— Border,  neighbourhood  (Matt.  2.16). 

Cock-crowing. — Cock-crowing  is  mentioned 
in  Mark  13.35  as  a  period  of  time  coming  be- 
tween midnight  and  morning.  This  is  really 
the  second  cock-crowing,  just  before  dawn,  the 
first  being  at  midnight  and  less  regular.  Mark 
(14.30)  mentions  the  two  cock-crowings,  while 
Matthew  (26.34)  refers  to  that  which  was  em- 
phatically the  cock-crowing — namely, the  second. 

Cockatrice. — The  words  so  rendered  in 
Isai.  11.8,  14.29,  59.5,  and  Jer.  8.17  signify 
some  very  poisonous  species  of  snake.  In 
each  instance  R.V.  has  "  basilisk,"  marg.  adder. 
Both  "  cockatrice  "  and  "  basilisk  "  are  fabulous 
creatures.  Originally  the  word  "cockatrice," 
a  form  of  the  Latin  calcatrix,  "treader," 
meant  the  Egyptian  ichneumon,  an  animal 
of  the  weasel  kind.  Then,  by  a  mistaken 
derivation,  it  was  said  to  be  a  monster 
hatched  from  a  cock's  egg. 

Cockle. — Some  sort  of  noxious  weed,  not  the 
cockle  of  our  cornfields  ( Job  31.40 ;  see  marg. 
of  A.V.  and  R.V.). 

Coffer. — A  movable  box  hanging  from  the 
side  of  a  cart  (1  Sam.  6.8,  11,  15). 


Coffin. — The  body  of  Joseph,  on  his  death 
in  Egypt,  was  embalmed  and  placed  in  a  coffin 
(Gen.  50.26).  [BURIAL.] 

Col-ho'zeh. — Seeing  all :  a  man  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah  in  the  time  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  3.15, 
11.5). 

Collar.— In  Judg.  8.26  R.V.  correctly 
"  pendants."  In  Job  30.18  of  the  close-fitting 
neckband  of  the  under  garment  (cf.  Ps.  133.2 
R.V.  marg.). 

College, The. — Huldah  the  prophetess  "dwelt 
in  Jerusalem  in  the  college  "  (2  K.  22.14).  The 
R.V.  reads  "in  the  second  quarter,"  i.e.  the 
lower  city. 

Collops.— Pieces  of  flesh  (Job  15.27). 

Colony. — A  designation  of  Philippi,  the 
celebrated  city  of  Macedonia,  in  Acts  16.12. 
Augustus,  after  the  battle  of  Actium,  assigned 
to  his  veterans  those  parts  of  Italy  which  had 
espoused  the  cause  of  Antony,  and  transported 
many  of  the  expelled  inhabitants  to  Philippi 
and  other  cities.  Philippi  was  made  a  Roman 
colony.  It  was  because  the  Jus  Italicum  pre- 
vailed at  Philippi,  and  because  Paul  was  a 
Roman  citizen,  that  the  action  of  the  magistrates 
in  causing  him  to  be  scourged  was  illegal. 

Colos'se,  Colossae,  or  perhaps  more  accurately 
Colassse. — A  large  city  of  Phrygia,  Asia  Minor, 
on  the  river  Lycus,  once  of  great  importance, 
but  in  N.T.  times  declining  before  its  rivals, 
Laodicea  and  Hierapolis ;  situated  close  to 
the  great  road  which  led  from  Ephesus  to  the 
Euphrates,  about  three  miles  from  the  modern 
village  of  Chonas  ;  site  of  a  Christian  Church 
to  which  Paul  addressed  one  of  his  epistles  , 
residence  of  Philemon  and  his  slave  Onesimus 
(Col.  4.9),  Archippus  (Col.  4.17),  and  Epaphras 
(Col.  1.7  ;  Philem.  23),  who  was  the  founder 
of  the  Church  there.  Paul  had  not  himself 
visited  Colossae  (Col.  2.1). 

Colossians,  The  Epistle  to  the.— This  epistle 
was  written  during  Paul's  first  imprisonment 
at  Rome,  and  probably  about  the  same  time  as 
the  epistles  to  the  Ephesians  and  to  Philemon  ; 
the  three  letters  being  all  sent  by  the  same 
messengers,  Tychicus  and  Onesimus,  the 
latter  of  whom  was  returning  to  his  master, 
Philemon,  at  Colossae.  Its  date  would,  there- 
fore, be  about  the  year  62. 

Its  cause  is  manifest.  The  account  given 
of  the  Church  by  Epaphras,  its  founder,  who 
had  been  sent  by  the  Colossians  to  Paul  to  comfort 
him  and  inform  him  of  their  state,  was  on  the 
whole  satisfactory.  There  appears,  however, 
to  have  been  some  danger  from  false  teachers, 
who  aimed  to  combine  with  Christianity  the 
speculations  of  the  philosophers.  The  supreme 
dignity  of  Christ  was  denied,  by  ascribing  to 
angels  the  work  of  creation  (1.16)  and  of  medi- 
ating in  redemption  between  God  and  man  ;  the 
worship  of  angels  was  introduced  into  the 
Church  (2.18).  Reference  is  also  clearly  dis- 
cernible to  the  disturbing  influence  of  Judaiz- 
ing  and  of  ascetic  teachers  (2.16,  3.11,  18,  19). 
To  correct  and  refute  this  threefold  error  was 
the  purpose  of  this  epistle. 


COLOURS] 


109 


[COMMERCE 


In  its  contents  the  apostle  shows  that  no 
philosophical  speculations,  no  human  ordinances 
or  traditions,  no  ascetic  austerities,  can  raise 
the  soul  above  gross  pursuits,  or  enable  it  to 
realise  unseen  and  eternal  objects.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  Christ  is  perfect  salvation  ;  faith 
in  Him  not  only  reconciling  us  to  God,  but, 
by  connecting  us  with  an  ascended  Redeemer, 
guiding  our  thoughts  and  desires  to  things 
above.  The  leading  thought  of  the  epistle 
is  "  Christ  all  and  in  all."  As  in  Ephesians,  so 
here  appears  his  favourite  expression  "  riches," 
"  the  riches  of  the  glory  of  this  mystery " 
(1.27) ;  "  riches  of  the  full  assurance  of 
understanding "  (2.2) ;  and  in  adverbial  form, 
"  let  the  word  of  Christ  dwell  in  you 
richly  "  (3.16). 

The  resemblance  between  this  epistle  and  that 
"  to  the  Ephesians  "  indicates  some  similarity 
in  the  tendencies  of  the  Churches  addressed, 
and  is  also  ascribable  to  the  fact  that  both 
epistles  being  written  about  the  same  time, 
the  same  ideas,  and  even  the  same  expressions, 
would  be  likely  to  recur.  The  two  epistles 
must,  in  fact,  be  read  together.  The  one  is  a 
commentary  on  the  other.  A  difference  of  stress 
may  be  noted.  The  controversial  note  in  this 
epistle  leads  to  insistence  on  the  nature  of 
Christ  and  on  what  He  is  to  His  Church ;  in 
Ephesians  Paul  expounds  the  unity  of  the 
Church  and  its  glorious  destiny  in  the  purposes 
of  its  Divine  Lord. 

Colours. — The  natural  colours  noticed  in 
the  Bible  are  white,  black,  red,  yellow,  and 
green.  White  was  symbolical  of  innocence ; 
hence  the  raiment  of  angels  and  of  glorified 
saints  is  described  as  white  (Mark  16.5  ;  John 
20.12  ;  Rev.  19.8,  14).  It  was  also  symbolical 
of  joy  (Eccles.  9.8)  and  of  victory  (Zech. 
6.3,  6).  Black,  as  being  the  opposite  to  white, 
is  symbolical  of  evil  (Zech.  6.2,  6 ;  Rev.  6.5),  of 
mourning,  affliction,  calamity  (Jer.  14.2  ;  Lam. 
4.8,  5.10).  Red  was  symbolical  of  bloodshed 
(Zech.  6.2 ;  Rev.  6.4,  12.3).  It  was  regarded 
as  an  element  of  personal  beauty  (1  Sam.  16.12). 
The  lily  of  Cant.  2.1  is  the  red  one  for 
which  Syria  was  famed.  The  complexion  is 
compared  to  the  red  fruit  of  the  pomegranate 
(Cant.  4.3,  6.7) ;  and  the  hue  of  the 
skin  is  (in  Lam.  4.7)  redder  than  coral  (A.V. 
"  rubies  "),  contrasting  with  the  white  of  the 
garments.  Green,  in  the  sense  of  colour,  is 
frequently  applied  to  herbage  :  it  also  occurs, 
in  the  A.V.,  in  the  sense  of  fresh,  young, 
moist  (Gen.  30.37;  Lev.  2.14,  23.14;  Judg. 
16.7,  8;  Esth.  1.6;  Job  8.16;  Cant.  2.13). 
Joseph's  coat  of  many  colours  (Gen.  37.3) 
was  probably,  as  R.V.  marg.,  a  long  garment 
with  sleeves,  as  distinct  from  the  ordinary 
short  sleeveless  tunic  (see  2  Sam.  13.18  ;  R.V. 
marg.). 

Comforter. — [PARACLETE.] 

Coming  of  Christ,  The  Second.— Although 
this  phrase  does  not  occur  in  the  N.T.,  the  event 
to  which  it  refers  had  prominent  place  in  the 
faith  and  hope  of  the  Early  Church.  The 


O.T.  thought  of  the  "  day  of  the  Lord  "  ( Joel 
1.15,  2.11,  etc.),  mainly  a  day  of  judgment 
(cf.  Ps.  50.1-6),  became  identified  with  the 
coming  of  Jesus  Christ,  to  judge  the  world 
(Acts  17.31),  to  restore  all  things  and,  especially, 
to  confirm  and  complete  the  salvation  of  believers. 
This  "  coming  "  is  generally  spoken  of  as  the 
"  Parousia  "  (i.e.  presence,  including  the  idea 
of  arrival) ;  also,  as  a  revelation  or  manifesta- 
tion (e.g.  2  Thess.  2.8  where  both  ideas  are 
combined). 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  the  Apostolic 
preaching,  and  the  faith  of  the  first  generation 
of  Christians,  the  Parousia  was  regarded  as  im- 
minent. Paul  at  first  expected  it  within  his  own 
lifetime  (1  Cor.  15.51 ;  1  Thess A.15):  the  expecta- 
tion of  it  is  his  constant  inspiration  and  ground 
of  appeal  (1  Cor.  1.7,  8,  7.29-31 ;  Phil.  1.10,  2.16, 
etc.  ;  1  Thess.  1.10,  2.19,  3.13,  4.13  to  5.11 ;  cf. 
Heb.  10.25  ;  1  John  2.18).  This  belief  must  in 
some  way  have  founded  itself  upon  the  teaching 
of  our  Lord,  mistakenly  perhaps  as  to  the 
time,  securely  as  to  the  fact.  He  is  recorded 
to  have  declared  that  the  kingdom  of  God  was 
at  hand  (Mk.  1.15),  and  repeatedly,  in  language 
borrowed  from  the  vision  of  Daniel  (Dan.  7.13, 14), 
to  have  foretold  the  coming  of  the  Son  of  Man 
(Mk.  8.38,  13.26,  14.62).  The  ethical  side  of 
this  teaching,  as  a  motive  to  fidelity,  patience, 
and  watchfulness,  is  emphasised  (Mk.  13.9-13, 
33-37  ;  Lk.  12.35,  36,  18.8,  etc.),  and  there  are 
hints  that  the  coming  may  be  delayed  (Mk.  13.5  ; 
Lk.  12.45).  But  in  other  sayings  of  our 
Lord  the  "  coming  of  the  Son  of  Man  "  is  not 
clearly  distinguished  from  an  event  which 
was  to  happen  within  that  generation  (Matt. 
10.23  ;  Mk.  9.1,  13.30),  and  this  is  hardly  modi- 
fied by  the  language  of  Mk.  13.10  (cf.  Col. 
1.6,  23).  It  would  appear,  then,  that  our 
conception  of  the  Parousia  predicted  by  Christ 
must  at  least  be  widened  to  find  a  fulfilment 
in  Pentecost,  another  in  the  fall  of  Jerusalem 
and  consequent  enlargement  of  the  new  faith, 
and  yet  others  in  any  signal  intervention  of 
God  in  human  history  which  makes  for  the 
final  triumph  of  His  Kingdom.  The  moral 
elements  in  the  teaching  of  Jesus  on  this  matter 
stand  self-attested :  those  which  are  more 
strictly  eschatological  and  even  apocalyptic  may 
in  part  have  been  coloured  by  an  over-literal 
interpretation  of  what  was  figuratively  spoken. 

Commandments. — [LAW.  ] 

Commerce. — Abraham  was  rich  in  gold  and 
silver  plate  and  ornaments  (Gen.  13.2,  24.22,  53), 
a  fact  which  shows  that  even  at  that  early  time 
the  nomad  races  had  commercial  relations  with 
others.  Egypt  held  from  very  early  times  a  high 
place  as  a  commercial  nation,  though  her 
external  trade  was  in  the  hands  of  foreigners. 
It  was  an  Ishmaelite  caravan,  laden  with 
spices,  which  carried  Joseph  into  Egypt,  and  the 
account  shows  that  slaves  formed  sometimes  a 
part  of  the  merchandise  imported  (Gen.  37.25, 
39.1  ;  cf.  Job  6.19).  Corn  was  exported  from 
Egypt  and  paid  for  by  weighed  silver  (Gen. 
41.57,  42.3,  25,  35,  43.11,  12,  21).  The  precious 


COMPASS] 


no 


[CONGREGATION 


stones  and  spices  of  India  were  imported  into 
Egypt  (Ex.  25.3,  7).  At  the  same  period  trade 
was  carried  on  between  Babylon  and  the  Syrian 
cities. 

Until  the  time  of  Solomon  the  Hebrew 
nation  may  be  said  to  have  had  no  foreign 
trade.  He,  however,  imported  linen  yarn, 
horses,  and  chariots  from  Egypt.  For  all  these 
he  paid  in  gold,  which  was  imported  by  sea  from 
India  and  Arabia  (1  K.  9.26,  27,  10.22-29). 
It  was  by  Phoenicians  that  the  cedar  and  other 
timber  for  his  great  architectural  works  was 
brought  by  sea  to  Joppa,  whilst  Solomon  found 
the  provisions  necessary  for  the  workmen  in 
Mount  Lebanon  (1  K.  5.6,  9  ;  2  Ch.  2.16). 

The  fleets  used  to  sail  into  the  Indian  Ocean 
every  three  years  from  Elath  and  Ezion-geber, 
ports  on  the  Elanitic  gulf  of  the  Red  Sea,  and 
brought  back  gold,  silver,  ivory,  sandal-wood, 
ebony,  precious  stones,  apes,  and  peacocks 
(1  K.  9.26,  10.11, 12  ;  2  Ch.  8.18). 

Phoenicia  was  supplied  from  Judaea  with 
wheat,  honey,  oil,  and  balm  (1  K.  5.11 ;  Ezek. 
27.17 ;  Acts  12.20),  while  Tyrian  dealers 
brought  fish  and  other  merchandise  to  Jerusalem 
at  the  time  of  the  return  from  the  Captivity 
(Neh.  13.16),  as  well  as  timber  for  the  rebuilding 
of  the  Temple.  Oil  was  exported  to  Egypt 
(Eos.  12.1),  and  fine  linen  and  ornamental 
girdles  of  domestic  manufacture  were  sold  to  the 
merchants  (Prov.  31.24).  In  the  language  of 
Ezekiel,  Jerusalem  appears  as  the  rival  of  Tyre 
in  the  export  trade  which  went  through  its  port, 
Joppa  (Ezek.  26.2).  The  places  of  public  market 
were  chiefly  the  open  spaces  near  the  gates,  to 
which  goods  were  brought  for  sale  bv  those  who 
came  from  the  outside  (Neh.  13.15,  16;  Zeph. 
1.10). 

In  the  matter  of  buying  and  selling  great 
stress  is  laid  by  the  law  on  fairness  in  dealing. 
Just  weights  and  balances  are  stringently  ordered 
(Lev.  19.35-36;  Deut.  25.13-16).  Kidnapping 
slaves  is  forbidden  under  the  severest  penalty 
(Ex.  21.16  ;  Deut.  24.7). 

Compass. — "  Fetch  a  compass  "  (Num.  34.5  ; 
Josh.  15.3  ;  2  Sam.  5.23  ;  2  K.  3.9  ;  Acts  28.13) 
means,  "  make  a  circuit,"  or  turn  about  (see 
11.  V.). 

Conani'ah. — Jehovah  hath  established:  1.  A 
Levite  in  the  time  of  Hezekiah  (2  Ch.  31.12, 13  ; 
A.V.Cononiah).  2.  A  chief  of  the  Levites  in  the 
time  of  Josiah  (2  Ch.  35.9). 

Concision. — A  term  of  bitter  reproach  flung 
out  by  Paul  against  his  Judaizing  opponents 
(Phil.  3.2).  The  "  circumcision "  on  which 
they  boast  themselves,  and  which  they  would 
enforce  on  all  Gentile  converts  to  Christianity, 
is  "  concision,"  mere  physical  mutilation 
without  moral  or  spiritual  significance  (cf.  Lev. 
21.5  ;  Gal.  5.12). 

Concubine. — In  the  patriarchal  age  the  differ- 
ence between  wife  and  concubine  was  not  very 
clearly  drawn,  owing  to  the  prevalence  of  poly- 
gamy. Generally,  however,  the  concubine  was  a 
slave.  With  regard  to  the  children  of  concubines 
our  ideas  of  legitimacy  did  not  apply,  and  their 


names  appear  in  the  patriarchal  genealogies  just  as 
those  of  the  other  children.  If  the  concubine  were 
a  Hebrew  girl  bought  of  her  father  as  a  slave, 
or  a  Gentile  captive  taken  in  war,  her  rights 
were  protected  by  law  (Ex.  21.7  ;  Deut.  21.10-14). 
A  Hebrew  was  forbidden  to  take  a  Canaanitish 
woman  as  a  concubine,  though  it  was  from  this 
class  that  the  concubines  of  the  kings  were  mostly 
drawn.  Free  Hebrew  women  might  also  become 
concubines.  [POLYGAMY.] 

Conduit. — A  watercourse  or  channel  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  the  water  supply  of 
Jerusalem.  Hezekiah,  on  the  approach  of 
the  Assyrian  army,  stopped  the  upper  water- 
course of  Gihon,  diverting  its  waters  by  means 
of  a  canal  straight  down  to  the  west  side  of  the 
city  (2  Ch.  32.4,  30).  The  idea  was  to  secure  a 
supply  of  water  for  the  inhabitants  which  would 
be  withdrawn  from  the  invaders.  Other  re- 
ferences to  conduits  are  to  "  the  conduit  of  the 
upper  pool "  (2  K.  18.17;  Isai.  7.3,  36.2),  and  to 
another  made  by  Hezekiah  (2  K.  20.20 ;  see  also 
Isai.  22.9,  11).  There  still  exist  the  remains  of 
several  aqueducts,  including  one  constructed, 
it  is  believed,  by  Solomon,  by  which  water  was 
brought,  a  distance  of  13£  miles,  from  the  "Pools 
of  Solomon  "  beyond  Bethlehem  to  Jerusalem. 

Coney. — Mentioned  four  times  in  Scripture  : 
in  Lev.  11.5  ;  Deut.  14.7  among  animals  pro- 
hibited for  food  because  it  "  chews  the  cud, 
but  parts  not  the  hoof  "  ;  in  Ps.  104.18  as  finding 
refuge  in  the  rocks ;  and  in  Prov.  30.26  among 
the  four  little  things  which  are  exceeding  wise, 
"  a  feeble  folk,"  yet  making  their  houses  in 
the  rocks.  The  name  coney  (or  cony)  is  O.E. 
for  a  "  rabbit,"  but  the  coney  of  Scripture  is 
not  a  rabbit;  theR.V.  marg.  at  Lev.  11.5  correctly 
defines  it  as  "  Heb.  shaphan,  the  Hyrax 
Syriacus  or  rock-badger."  About  the  size  of,  and 
not  unlike,  a  rabbit,  they  still  abound  in  Syria, 
living  in  the  rocks,  and  seeking  instant  shelter 
at  the  least  sign  of  danger. 

Confection  (Ex.  30.35).— The  R.V.  trans- 
lates "perfume,"  and  for  confectionaries 
(1  Sam.  8.13)  gives  margin  "  perfumers." 

Congregation. — Most  frequently  applied  to 
the  whole  Hebrew  people  as  a  religious  com- 
munity (Ex.  12.3,  etc. ;  Lev.  4.13,  etc. ;  Num.  1.2, 
etc.).  Before  the  institution  of  kingship,  the 
parliament  of  the  congregation  consisted  of  the 
head  or  father  of  each  house,  family,  and  tribe. 
The  delegates  were  named  elders  or  princes  ;  they 
exercised  complete  sovereign  rights ;  and  the 
people  were  bound  by  their  acts  even  when 
they  disapproved  of  them  (Josh.  9.1 8).  Another 
Hebrew  word  is  used  of  an  assembly  called  for 
any  special  purpose,  e.g.  on  occasion  of  one  of  the 
great  festivals  (1  K.  8.65;  2  Ch.  7.8,  30.13. 
Yet  a  third  Hebrew  word  is  very  frequent  in  the 
A.V.  phrase — "  tabernacle  of  the  congregation  " 
(Ex.  27.21,  etc.) :  the  R.V.  correctly  renders 
"  tent  of  meeting,"  i.e.  the  place  where  God 
meets  with  His  people. 

Congregation,  The  Mount  of  the.—"  I  will 
sit  upon  the  mount  of  the  congregation,"  says 
the  King  of  Babylon  in  Isaiah's  vision  (Isai. 


CONIAH] 


U 


[CORINTH 


14.13).  He  refers  to  a  mountain  in  the  north 
of  Babylonia,  where,  according  to  mythology, 
the  gods  had  their  meeting  place. 

Coni  'ah. — [  JECONIAH.  ] 

Cononi'ah.  — [CONANIAH.] 

Consecration.— [PRIEST.] 

Conversation. — As  used  in  the  A.V.  expresses 
"  disposition  "  or  "  turn  of  mind  "  (Heb.  13.5), 
"citizenship"  (Phil.  3.20),  and  "manner  of 
life"  (Gal.  1.13;  Eph.  4.22,  etc.). 

Convocation. — The  word  is  applied  generally 
with  the  prefix  "  holy  "  only  to  the  Sabbath 
and  the  great  annual  festivals  of  the  Jews 
(Ex.  12.16;  Lev.  23.2;  Num.  28.18,  29.1; 
fsai.  1.13). 

Cooking. — Flesh  food  was  not  an  article 
of  ordinary  diet  among  the  Jews.  Few  animals 
were  slaughtered  except  on  occasions  of  hospi- 
tality and  festivity.  The  throat  of  the  animal 
—  kid,  lamb,  or  calf  —  was  cut  so  that  the 
blood  might  be  poured  out  (Lev.  7.26).  After 
being  flayed  it  was  ready  for  roasting  or  boiling. 
In  the  former  case  the  animal  was  preserved 
entire  (Ex.  12.46),  and  roasted  either  over  a  fire 
(Ex.  12.8)  of  wood  (Isai.  44.16)  or  in  an  oven, 
consisting  of  a  hole  dug  in  the  earth,  well 
heated,  and  covered  up.  Boiling,  however,  was 
the  more  usual  method  of  cooking,  in  which 
case  the  animal  was  cut  up.  The  whole  mass 
was  thrown  into  a  caldron  (Ezek.  24.4,  5)  filled 
with  water  (Ex.  12.9)  or  milk  (Ex.  23.19).  The 
caldron  was  boiled  over  a  wood  fire,  the  scum 
which  rose  to  the  surface  being  removed  from 
time  to  time,  and  salt  or  spices  thrown  in.  The 
meat  and  the  broth  were  served  up  separately 
(Judg.  6.19),  the  broth  being  used  with  unleavened 
bread,  and  butter  (Gen.  18.8)  as  a  sauce  for 
dipping  morsels  of  bread  into.  Vegetables 
were  usually  boiled  and  served  up  as  a  pottage 
(Gen.  25.29  ;  2  K.  4.38).  The  utensils  required 
for  cooking  were  a  range,  having  places  for 
two  or  more  pots  (Lev.  11.35),  a  caldron  (1  Sam. 
2.14),  a  large  fork  or  flesh-hook,  a  wide  open 
metal  vessel  resembling  a  fish-kettle,  adapted 
to  be  used  as  a  wash-pot  (Ps.  60.8)  or  to  eat  from 
(Ex.  16.3),  and  dishes. 

Co'os.— [Cos.]    (Acts  21.1.) 

Copper.— The  word  which  in  Ezra  8.27  is 
rendered  "  fine  copper  "  is  elsewhere  translated 
as  "  brass."  When  we  read  "  brass  "  we  are 
generally  to  understand  either  copper  or  a 
mixture  of  copper  and  tin  (nine  parts  of  the 
former  to  one  of  the  latter),  i.e.  bronze.  Brass 
is  an  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc;  and  zinc  was  not 
known  to  the  ancients.  Copper  was  abundant, 
and  used  for  every  kind  of  instrument,  chains 
(Judg.  16.21),  pillars  (1  K.  7.15-21),  lavers 
(2  K.  25.13 ;  1  Ch.  18.8),  mirrors  (Ex.  38.8 ; 
Job  37.18),  helmets  and  spears  (1  Sam.  17.5,  6, 
38;  2  Sam.  21.16).  The  bow  of  steel  mentioned 
in  Job  20.24  and  Ps.  18.34  should  read  "  bow 
of  copper." 

Cor. — The  largest  of  the  dry  measures, 
equivalent  to  the  homer,  i.e.  about  eight  bushels 
(1  K.  4.22  ;  Ezek.  45.14  ;  2  Ch.  2.10,  27.5). 

Coral— Job  28.18  ;  Ezek.   27.16.     Coral  reefs 


and  coral  islands  abound  in  the  Red  Sea,  whence 
probably  the  Hebrews  derived  their  knowledge 
of  it.  It  is  found  in  different  colours — white, 
black,  and  red,  the  last  being  esteemed  the  most 
precious. 

Cor-ashan. — [CHOR-ASHAN.]    (1  Sam.  30.30.) 

Corban. — A  Hebrew  word  retained  in  Mk.  7.11 
(not  in  the  parallel,  Matt.  15.5),  where  it  is  inter- 
preted "given  to  God "(R.V.).  Itoccurs  frequently 
in  Lev.  (e.g.  2.4)  in  the  sense  of  "  oblation,"  lit. 
something  brought  near  to  God  as  an  offering. 
Hence  it  became  a  formula  of  dedication  to 
sacred  purposes,  and  a  mere  pretext  for  evading 
inconvenient  obligations.  The  law  "  Honour 
thy  father  and  thy  mother  "  involved  the  duty 
of  support  to  parents,  if  in  need ;  but  let  the  word 
"  Corban  "  be  pronounced  over  the  necessary 
means,  and  they  are  sacrosanct.  Religion  steps 
in  through  its  authorised  exponents,  the 
scribes  and  Pharisees,  who  "  no  longer  suffer 
him  to  do  aught  for  his  father  or  his  mother." 
It  is  probable  that  the  vow  of  dedication  to  the 
Temple  service  was  a  formality  only  (cf.  Matt. 
23.16-22) ;  but  what  Jesus  condemns  is  not 
simply  the  unreality  of  the  vow,  but  the  vow 
itself.  To  neglect  the  duty  of  filial  piety  in  the 
name  of  religion  is  to  "  make  void  the  word  of 
God  "  (cf.  also  Matt.  5.23,  24). 

Cord. — Was  used  for  fastening  tents,  as  a 
halter  or  rein  for  animals,  for  yoking  them  either 
to  a  cart  or  a  plough,  for  binding  prisoners,  for 
bowstrings,  for  the  ropes  of  a  vessel,  foi 
measuring  ground,  for  fishing  and  snaring,  for 
attaching  articles  of  dress,  for  fastening  awnings, 
for  attaching  to  a  plummet,  for  drawing  water 
out  of  a  well,  for  raising  heavy  weights  (Ex. 
35.18;  Judg.  15.13;  Esth.  1.6;  Ps.  118.27; 
Isai.  5.18;  Jer.  38.6).  The  finer  sorts  of  cord 
were  made  of  flax  (Isai.  19.9).  The  cords 
made  into  a  whip  by  our  Lord  as  a  symbol 
of  His  authority  were  probably  of  rushes 
(John  2.15). 

As  the  tent  supplied  a  favourite  image  of  the 
human  body,  the  cords  which  held  it  in  its  place 
represented  the  principle  of  life  (Eccles.  12.6). 
To  "  loosen  the  cord,"  a  metaphor  taken  from 
the  management  of  animals,  meant  to  free 
from  authority  (Ps.  2.3).  Cords  being  used  for 
measuring  lands,  cord  or  line  became  an  ex- 
pression for  an  inheritance  (Ps.  16.6),  hence 
to  "  cast  a  cord  "  (Mic.  2.5)  meant  to  assign 
a  property.  To  place  a  rope  on  the  head 
instead  of  the  ordinary  headgear  was  a  sign  of 
abject  submission  (1  K.  20.31). 

Core'.— [KORAH.]    (Jude  11.) 

Coriander. — A  plant  mentioned  in  Ex.  16.31 
and  Num.  11.7.  It  is  still  much  employed  in  the 
East  as  a  condiment,  and  forms  an  ingredient 
in  curry  powder.  The  fruits  are  aromatic,  and 
are  used  in  medicine.  Coriander  is  an  umbelli- 
ferous plant,  growing  from  one  to  two  feet  in 
height,  with  divided  leaves  and  small  white 
flowers. 

Corinth. — A  famous  Greek  city  on  the  isthmus 
connecting  the  Peloponnesus  with  the  mainland, 
thus  having  the  benefit  of  two  harbours. 


CORINTHIANS] 


112 


[CORINTHIANS 


Cenchrcue  on  the  east,  Lechzeum  on  the  west, 
receiving  on  the  one  hand  the  rich  merchandise 
of  Asia,  and  on  the  other  that  of  Italy  and  the 
West ;  in  very  early  times  a  great  commercial 
emporium  ;  the  scene  of  great  prosperity  and 
licentiousness,  the  worship  of  Venus  being 
attended  with  shameful  rites.  It  was  at 
Corinth  that  the  Apostle  Paul's  ghastly  catalogue 
of  heathen  vices  was  penned  (Rom,  1.21-32).  It 
is  not  the  true  Greek  Corinth  with  which  we 
have  to  do  in  the  life  of  Paul,  but  the  Corinth 
which  was  rebuilt  by  Julius  Caesar,  and  made  the 
capital  of  the  Roman  province  of  Achaia. 
Scene  of  Paul's  labours  in  the  reign  of  Claudius, 
for  eighteen  months,  at  the  close  of  his  second 
missionary  tour  (Acts  18.1-18) ;  whence  the 
two  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians  were  written  ; 
scene  of  Apollos's  labours  (Acts  18.27,  19.1  ; 
1  Cor.  3.6).  To  the  Church  at  Corinth,  composed 
of  Gentile  and  Jewish  converts  (Acts  18.4-8  ; 
1  Cor.  1.2,  12.2  ;  2  Cor.  1.1,  23),  Paul  addressed 
two  epistles,  from  Ephesus  and  from  Macedonia  ; 
returned  during  his  third  missionary  tour  for 
three  months  (Acts  20.3) ;  during  which  time  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans  was  written.  Residence 
of  Stephanas  (1  Cor.  1.16,  16.15,  17),  Crispus 
(Acts  18.8  ;  1  Cor.  1.14),  Gaius  (Rom.  16.23  ; 
1  Cor.  1.14),  and  Erastus  (Rom.  16.23 ;  2  Tim. 
4.20). 

Corinth  has  now  shrunk  to  a  mean  village,  on 
the  old  site  and  bearing  the  old  name,  which  is 
often  corrupted  into  Gortho.  There  are  still 
some  notable  relics  of  its  former  splendour, 
including  portions  of  the  Posidonium,  or 
sanctuary  of  Neptune,  the  scene  of  the  Isthmian 
games,  from  which  Paul  borrows  some  of  his  most 
striking  imagery  in  the  Corinthian  and  other 
epistles.  These  remains  include  the  stadium 
where  the  foot-races  were  run  (1  Cor.  9.24). 
Abundant  over  the  shore  are  the  small  green 
pine  trees  which  gave  the  wreath  to  the  victors 
in  the  games  (1  Cor.  9.25). 

Corinthians,  Epistles  to  the. — As  the  result 
of  the  labours  of  Paul  and  Apollos  a  numerous 
and  flourishing  church  was  formed  at  Corinth  ; 
teachers  were  set  over  the  converts ;  and  the 
ordinances  of  Christ  were  regularly  observed. 
Ere  long,  however,  the  peace  of  the  Church  was 
disturbed  by  certain  persons,  who  sought  to 
engraft  on  the  doctrines  of  Christ  the  refinements 
of  human  philosophy.  These  persons  depreci- 
ated the  apostle,  representing  him  as  deficient 
in  the  graces  of  style  and  the  arts  of  oratory,  and 
even  calling  in  question  his  apostolic  authority  ; 
they  also  pleaded  for  a  licentious  manner  of 
life,  under  pretence  of  Christian  liberty.  Hence 
arose  divisions  and  irregularities  ;  and  the  Church 
was  declining  from  its  original  faith  and  love. 
The  state  of  the  Corinthian  Christians,  in  fact, 
greatly  resembled  that  of  converts  from  gross 
heathenism  in  all  ages.  The  new  life  was 
working  among  them,  but  it  was  having  a  hard 
conflict  with  inveterate  evils.  This  was 
the  situation  which  it  was  the  purpose  of 
the  two  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians  to 
meet. 


The  First  Epistle  was  written  from  Ephesus, 
after  Paul  had  been  for  some  time  absent  from 
Corinth.  Its  date  may  be  placed  in  the  year 
57.  Although  known  as  the  First  Epistle 
it  had  evidently  been  preceded  by  another 
which  has  not  been  preserved,  but  to  which 
reference  is  made  in  5.9.  This  earlier  letter  was 
either  crossed  or  followed  by  one  from  the 
Corinthians  to  Paul  (7.1),  requesting  his  advice 
and  instruction  on  some  points.  The  contents 
of  the  Epistle  include  the  apostle's  correction  of 
some  disorders  prevailing  among  them,  of  which 
he  had  heard  from  some  of  their  members  (1.11, 
5.1,  11.18),  which  bad  occasioned  him  deep  con- 
cern, and  led  him  to  send  Timothy  to  Corinth 
(4.17 ;  Acts  19.22).  The  evils  which  Paul  sought 
to  correct  included  party  divisions,  a  fondness 
for  so-called  philosophy,  immorality,  litigiousness, 
feminine  immodesty,  the  perversion  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  into  an  occasion  of  joviality,  the  abuse  of 
the  gift  of  tongues  and  the  denial  of  the  Resurrec- 
tion. The  matters  upon  which  he  gives  instruc- 
tions are  marriage,  circumcision,  and  slavery ; 
eating  things  offered  in  sacrifice  to  idols,  and  the 
collection  for  the  saints  at  Jerusalem.  He  shows 
how  the  highest  principles  may  be  applied  to  all 
the  details  of  personal  or  Church  life.  Special 
topics  of  this  First  Epistle  are  the  Gospel  as  the 
Wisdom  of  God  (1-3),  the  supremacy  of  Love 
(13),  and  the  doctrine  of  the  Resurrection  (15). 

In  no  epistle  does  Paul's  own  character  appear 
more  illustrious  than  in  this.  The  assertion  of 
his  apostolic  authority  is  beautifully  blended 
with  humility  and  godly  jealousy  of  himself 
(2.3,  9.16,  27).  He  combines  fidelity  with  the 
utmost  tenderness  (3.2,  4.14,  6.12),  and  what- 
ever be  bis  gifts,  he  prefers  love  to  them  all 
(13.1). 

The  Second  Epistle. — Not  very  long  after  writ- 
ing the  First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  Paul  left 
Ephesus,  and  went  to  Troas.  Here  he  expected 
to  meet  Titus  (whom  he  had  sent  to  Corinth),  and 
to  receive  from  him  intelligence  of  the  state  of  the 
Church  and  of  the  efforts  of  his  former  epistle. 
But,  not  rinding  him  there,  he  crossed  over  to 
Macedonia,  where  his  anxiety  was  relieved  by  the 
arrival  of  Titus.  From  him  Paul  learned  that  his 
faithful  reproofs  had  awakened  in  the  minds  of  the 
Corinthian  Christians  a  godly  sorrow,  and  a  prac- 
tical regard  for  the  proper  discipline  of  the  Church. 
But  there  were  also  symptoms  of  a  painful  kind. 
The  faction  connected  with  the  false  teachers  was 
still  depreciating  his  apostolic  authority,  and 
misrepresenting  his  motives  and  conduct;  even 
using  his  former  letter  to  bring  new  charges 
against  him,  as  having  failed  to  keep  his  promise 
of  coming  to  see  them,  and  having  adopted  an 
authoritative  style  of  writing,  little  in  unison, 
as  they  alleged,  with  the  contemptibleness  of  his 
person  and  speech. 

Thereupon  the  apostle  wrote  the  Second 
Epistle,  designed  to  carry  forward  the  work  of 
reformation,  to  establish  still  further  his  authority 
against  the  false  teachers,  and  to  prepare  the 
Corinthians  for  his  intended  visit,  when  he 
desired  to  find  their  disorders  rectified,  and  their 


CORMORANT] 


113 


[COVENANT 


promised  contributions  for  their  afflicted 
brethren  ready.  Nowhere,  indeed,  has  the  very 
heart  of  Paul  been  more  ingenuously  and  touch- 
ingly  laid  bare  than  in  this  epistle.  The 
language  of  commendation,  love,  and  thankful- 
ness is  blended  with  censure,  indignation,  and 
grief.  The  main  objects  of  the  epistle  were  to 
encourage  and  tranquillise  the  better  portion  of 
the  Church,  and  to  guard  them  against  being  led 
astray  by  the  false  teachers.  Paul  asserts  his 
apostolic  authority,  and  adduces  as  credentials 
of  his  mission  his  labours,  sufferings,  dangers,  and 
Divine  revelations.  That  the  epistle  was  in  the 
main  successful  in  its  aims  may  be  inferred  from 
the  tranquil  tone  which  pervades  the  Epistle  to 
the  Eomans,  written  from  Corinth  a  few  months 
later,  and  from  the  absence  of  information  to 
the  contrary.  For  many  details  of  the  apostle's 
life  this  epistle  is  our  only  source  of  information. 
[CRITICISM,  THE  HIGHER,  §  3.] 

Cormorant. — The  Hebrew  term  which  is 
translated  "  cormorant  "  (so  R.V.)  in  Lev.  11.17 
and  Deut.  14.17  implies  a  plunging  bird,  and 
hardly  fits  the  common  cormorant.  Some 
member  of  the  tern  family  is  apparently 
intended.  The  "  cormorant "  of  Isai.  34.11 
and  Zeph.  2.14  is  the  pelican  (so  R.V.). 

Corn. — The  most  common  kinds  of  corn 
mentioned  in  Scripture  are  wheat,  barley, 
spelt,  and  millet.  Oats  are  not  mentioned. 
Wheat  was  shred  in  the  house  for  domestic 
purposes  (2  Sam.  4.6).  From  Solomon's  time 
Palestine  was  a  corn-exporting  country,  and 
her  grain  was  largely  taken  by  Tyre  (2  Ch. 
2.10,  15  ;  Ezek.  27.17).  [AGRICULTURE.] 

Corne'lius. — A  centurion  stationed  at  Csesarea, 
one  of  the  earliest  Gentile  converts  to  the 
Christian  Church  (Acts  10).  Visions  sent  from 
God  to  Cornelius  and  Simon  Peter  individually 
brought  about  a  meeting  between  them.  "  Ye 
know,"  said  Simon  Peter,  "  how  that  it  is  an 
unlawful  thing  for  a  man  that  is  a  Jew  to  keep 
company,  or  come  unto  one  of  another  nation  ; 
but  God  hath  shewed  me  that  I  should  not  call 
any  man  common  or  unclean."  He  then 
declared  the  Gospel  unto  Cornelius,  who  received 
it,  and  the  Holy  Ghost  fell  on  all  them  which 
heard  the  word,  i.e.  on  Cornelius,  his  kinsmen, 
and  near  friends  (Acts  10.24,  44).  The  pro- 
minence given  to  this  event  (note  the  repetition 
of  the  story  in  chap.  11)  shows  that  it  was 
regarded  as  a  distinct  epoch  in  the  history 
of  the  Church.  Cornelius,  though  fearing  God 
and  attached  to  Judaism  in  a  loose  sort  of  way 
(10.2),  was  uncircumcised  (11.3),  and  therefore 
not  a  proselyte.  His  baptism  was  thus  the  first 
important  step  in  the  admission  of  the  Gentiles 
(11.18). 

Corner. — According  to  the  Law,  the  corner 
of  the  field  was  not  to  be  wholly  reaped,  this 
being  part  of  the  provision  for  the  poor  (Lev. 
19.9).  The  constant  complaints  of  the  prophets 
concerning  the  defrauding  of  the  poor  (Isai. 
10.2 ;  Amos  5.11,  8.G)  seem  to  show  that  this 
enactment  lost  practical  force.  Tho  Hebrews 

ere  prohibited  from  cutting  the  "  corners,"  i.e. 


the  extremities,  of  the  hair  and  whiskers  running 
round  the  ears  (Lev.  19.27,  21.5). 

Corner-Stonc. — The  great  stone  which  bound 
together  the  sides  of  a  building,  either  at  the 
bottom  (Isai.  28.16)  or  top  (Ps.  118.22  ;  Zech. 
4.7)  of  the  angle.  The  phrase  "  corner-stone  " 
came  to  be  applied  to  persons  of  influence 
(Isai.  19.13),  and  in  the  N.T.  the  Scriptures 
just  cited  are  frequently  applied  to  our  Lord 
(Mk.  12.10 ;  Eph.  2.20 ;  1  Pet.  2.6,  7). 

Cornet.— In  Dan.  3  the  Hebrew  qeren  (lit. 
hom):  in  1  Ch.  15.28 ;  2  Ch.  15.14;  Ps.  98.6; 
Hos.  5.8  the  Hebrew  shophar,  generally  rendered 
trumpet.  [TRUMPET.]  The  "  cornet "  in 
2  Sam.  6.5  (R.V.  "  castanets,"  marg.  "  sistra  ") 
was  some  kind  of  instrument  played  by  being 
shaken,  like  the  Egyptian  sistrum,  consisting  of 
rings  or  bells  hung  loosely  on  iron  rods. 

Cos,  Co'os.— Now  called  Stanchio  ;  a  small 
island  off  the  coast  of  Caria,  Asia  Minor, 
where  Paul  passed  a  night  on  his  return  from 
his  third  missionary  tour  (Acts.  21.1) ;  it  was 
celebrated  for  its  light  woven  fabrics  and  for 
its  wines,  also  for  a  temple  of  .Esculapius, 
to  which  a  school  of  physicians  was  attached, 
\vith  a  museum  of  anatomy  and  pathology. 

Co'sam. — Ancestor  of  Joseph,  the  husband 
of  the  Virgin  Mary  (Lk.  3.28). 

Couch. — [BED.] 

Council.— 1.  See  SANHEDRIN.  2.  "  Whoso- 
ever shall  say  to  his  brother,  Raca,  shall  be 
in  danger  of  the  council"  (Matt.  5.22).  The 
council  here  referred  to  is  one  of  the  lower 
courts.  See  also  Matt.  10.17  and  Mk.  13.9. 
3.  A  kind  of  jury  or  privy  council,  consisting 
of  assessors  who  assisted  Roman  governors  in 
the  administration  of  justice  and  other  public 
matters  (Acts  25.12). 

Court.— Most  commonly  applied  to  the 
enclosure  of  the  Tabernacle  and  the  Temple. 
The  word  rendered  "  palace  "  in  the  A.V.  of 
Matt.  26.69,  "Now  Peter  sat  without  in  the 
palace,"  should  be  translated  "  court,"  i.e. 
the  quadrangle  in  the  centre  of  the  high  priest's 
palace.  He  was  not  in  the  chamber  where 
the  trial  of  the  Saviour  was  being  held.  See 
also  Mk.  14.66,  15.16,  and  John  18.15. 

Covenant. — A  solemn  contract  or  agreement 
between  man  and  man,  or  between  man  and 
God.  Instances  of  the  former  occur  in  Gen. 
21.27,  31.44-55;  Josh.  9.6-15):  the  idea  of 
the  latter  so  pervades  the  Scriptures  as  finally 
to  give  to  the  completed  Canon  the  titles  of  the 
Old  Testament  (i.e.  Covenant)  and  the  New 
Testament. 

1.  The  Old  Covenant.— The  word  is  first  used 
of  God's  promises  to  Noah  (Gen.  6.18,  9.9-16), 
but  the  characteristic  history  of  a  compact 
between  God  and  His  chosen  people,  Israel, 
begins  with  Abraham,  and  the  promises  of 
Gen.  15,  ratified  by  solemn  covenant  ritual, 
and  again  and  again  repeated  and  extended 
(Gen.  17.19,  22.16).  The  conditions  on 
Abraham's  part  are  faith  (15.6)  and  obedience 
(17.1,9,  22.16).  Accordingly  the  story  of  the 
Exodus  begins  with  the  statement  that  "God 


COW] 


114 


[CRETE 


remembered  His  covenant  with  Abraham,  with 
Isaac,  and  with  Jacob"  (Ex.  2.24).  The 
giving  of  the  Law  from  Sinai  is  prepared  for 
by  a  reminder  of  how  God  had  delivered  Israel, 
and  by  further  promises  on  condition  of  obedience. 
Moses  wrote  "  all  the  words  of  the  Lord  "  in 
the  "  Book  of  the  Covenant,"  and  after 
expiatory  sacrifices  read  it  before  the  people, 
who  responded,  "  All  that  the  Lord  hath  said 
will  we  do,  and  be  obedient " ;  then  he  sprinkled 
the  people  with  "  the  blood  of  the  covenant " 
(Ex.  19.4-6,  24.4-8).  It  is  this  covenant  which 
is  most  frequently  referred  to  throughout  the 
O.T.  and  in  notable  utterances  of  the  N.T.  (v. 
infra).  The  tables  of  the  Law  were  afterwards 
placed  in  the  "  Ark  of  the  Covenant,"  which 
was  regarded  as  symbol  and  dwelling-place  of 
Jehovah  (Ex.  25.21,  etc. ).  As  "  to  eat  of  a  man's 
salt  "  means  a  pledge  of  amity,  the  "  salt  of  the 
covenant "  was  to  be  added  to  every  meal 
offering,  a  beautiful  reminder  of  sacred  ties 
between  God  and  His  chosen  people  (Lev.  2.13  ; 
cf.  Num.  18.19;  2  Ch.  13.5).  The  covenant 
of  perpetual  kingship  to  the  line  of  David 
(2  Sam.  23.5)  is  told  in  2  Sam.  7. 

The  O.T.  references  to  the  covenant  abound 
in  notices  of  Israel's  failure  to  keep  it :  they 
forgot,  transgressed,  broke  the  covenant.  These 
culminate  in  the  great  prophecy  of  Jer.  31.31-34, 
which  foreshadows  "  a  new  covenant,"  not  only 
demanding  obedience,  but  supplying  the  moral 
motive  power  of  love,  its  law  written  in  the 
heart.  For  the  fulfilment  of  this  prophecy 
we  pass  from  the  O.T.  (Covenant)  to  the 
N.T. 

2.  The  New  Covenant  [for  testament  hi  the 
sense  of  covenant  see  TESTAMENT]. — According 
to  the  earliest  account  of  the  institution  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,  Jesus  said,  "  This  cup  is  the 
new  covenant  in  My  blood  "  (1  Cor.  11.25  R.V.  ; 
cf.  Matt.  26.28 ;  Mk.  14.24 ;  Lk.  22.20).  The 
reference  is  to  Ex.  24.8  :  Jesus  was  to  create 
a  new  relation  between  God  and  men,  founded 
like  the  old  upon  sacrifice,  the  sacrifice  of 
Himself.  In  the  development  of  this  truth 
in  the  N.T.  writings,  the  stress  lies  naturally 
upon  the  means  of  the  covenant,  the  blood  of 
Christ  (Rom.  3.25;  Eph.  1.7;  Heb.  9.14; 

1  Pet.  1.19 ;   1  John  1.7  ;   Rev.  1.5,  etc.) :  the 
thought  of  the  covenant  itself  is  prominent  in 

2  Cor.  3.6 ;   Gal.  3.15,  and  especially  in  Heb. 
8.10,  12.24,  13.20.     For  another  view  of  N.T. 
passages  see  TESTAMENT. 

Cow. — Mentioned  as  a  domestic  animal  in 
the  times  of  Jacob  in  Palestine  and  of  Pharaoh 
in  Egypt  (Gen.  32.15,  41.1-4).  In  Canaan 
the  Israelites  had  numerous  cows  (Deut.  7.13, 
28.4).  A  cow  and  her  calf  were  not  to  be  killed 
the  same  day  (Lev.  22.28 ;  cf.  Ex.  23.19 ; 
Deut.  22.6,  7). 

Coz  (R.V.  Hakkoz). — A  man  among  the 
descendants  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  4.8). 

CozT)i. — Deceitful :  a  Midianite  woman, 
daughter  of  Zur,  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  nation 
(Num.  25.15,  18).  Her  connexion  with  Zimri, 
a  leading  Simeonite,  was  part-cause  of  the  plague 


at   Shittim.     When   they  were   destroyed,  the 
plague  was  stayed. 

Cozeba. — [CHOZEBAH.] 

Cracknels. — Small  dry  cakes.  Only  1  K. 
14.3  :  the  same  word  is  rendered  bread  (dry 
and  mouldy)  at  Josh.  9.5. 

Crane.— /sat.  38.14  and  Jer.  8.7;  the  A.V. 
has  "  crane  and  swallow,"  the  R.V.  correctly 
"swallow  and  crane."  The  crane  is  a 
migratory  bird,  well  known  in  Palestine,  with 
a  loud,  hoarse,  melancholy  cry.  Flocks  of 
them,  numbering  many  thousands,  resort  in 
the  winter  to  certain  well-known  roosting-places 
in  the  southern  desert. 

Creation. — There  are  two  accounts  of  the 
Creation  in  Scripture — the  one  ending  with  the 
institution  of  the  Sabbath  (Gen.  2.3),  the  other 
comprising  the  narrative  of  Eden  and  the 
Fall  of  Man  (Gen.  2.4-3.24).  Two  points 
should  be  specially  noted.  First,  the  world 
was  made.  Heathen  philosophers  in  general 
maintained  the  eternity  of  matter,  even  those 
who  taught  that  God  (or  the  gods)  moulded 
it  into  various  forms.  The  words  "  God 
created "  dispel  such  speculations.  In  the 
second  place,  the  world  was  made  by  God 
only.  Thus  is  monotheism  stamped  from  the 
first  upon  the  inspired  record ;  in  absolute 
distinction  from  monolatry  (to  use  a  modern 
word),  which  might  denote  the  worship  of 
one  God,  without  denying  the  possible  existence 
of  others.  The  revelation  is  based  upon  the 
truth  that  Jehovah  is  the  only  God,  for  whereas 
throughout)  the  first  account  the  term  "  God  " 
is  used,  the  second  has  consistently  "  the 
Lord  God "  ;  the  primal  creative  force  is  no 
other  than  Jehovah,  the  God  of  revelation 
and  grace. 

Traditions  of  the  creation  are  found  among 
the  records  of  ancient  Eastern  nations,  particu- 
larly of  the  Accadians,  the  primitive  inhabit- 
ants of  the  plains  of  Lower  Mesopotamia. 
On  the  tablets  and  cylinders,  rescued  from  the 
long-buried  palaces  and  temples  of  Assyria, 
are  inscribed  narratives  which  bear  a  remarkable 
resemblance  to  the  record  of  Genesis.  But 
in  dignity  and  religious  value  the  Biblical 
account  stands  unrivalled.  Creation  by  the 
Divine  Will  would  still  be  creation,  although 
the  process  extended  over  millions  of  years,  and 
no  science  of  the  "  laws  of  Nature  "  can  con- 
flict with  the  revelation  that  these  are,  in  fact, 
the  ways  in  which  God  works. 

Creditor.— [LOAN.] 

Crescens. — A  companion  of  Paul  who  left 
him  to  go  to  Galatia  (2  Tim.  4.10).  It  is  pos- 
sible that  this  was  European  Galatia  or  Gaul 
(some  MSS.  read  Gaul :  so  R.V.  marg. ),  practically 
coterminous  with  modern  France.  The  founding 
of  the  Churches  of  Vienne  and  Mayence  was 
ascribed  by  tradition  to  Crescens. 

Crete. — One  of  the  largest  islands  hi  the 
Mediterranean,  equidistant  from  Europe,  Asia, 
and  Africa,  but  always  reckoned  as  part  of 
Europe  ;  inhabited  by  considerable  numbers  of 
Jews,  some  of  whom  were  present  at  Jt-rusalenj 


CRETES] 


115 


[CRITICISM,  THE  HIGHER 


on  the  Day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  2.11) ;  passed  by 
Paul,  on  the  south  side,  on  his  voyage  to  Rome 
(Acts  27.7-13,  21) ;  probably  visited  by  him  after 
his  first  imprisonment  in  Rome  (Tit,  1.5) ;  scene 
of  the  labours  of  Titus,  where  he  received  Paul's 
epistle,  in  which  the  inhabitants  are  described 
as  lawless  and  immoral  (Tit.  1.10-13),  their  own 
Cretan  poet,  Epimenides  (600  B.C.),  being  quoted 
against  them  ( ver.  12).  Titus  was  much  honoured 
in  the  island  during  the  Middle  Ages.  The  more 
common  modern  name  of  the  island  is  Candia. 

Cretes  (Acts  2.11),  Cretians  (Tit.  1.12).— 
Inhabitants  of  Crete. 

Crib. — A  box  or  trough  of  stone  in  which  the 
animals'  food  was  kept  ( Job  39.9 ;  Prov.  14.4 ; 
Isai.  1.3). 

Crimson. — "  Though  your  sins  be  as  scarlet 
.  .  .  though  they  be  red  like  crimson  " 
(Isai.  1.18).  The  word  "  crimson  "  refers  to 
the  female  of  the  cochineal  insect,  a  grub 
which  attaches  itself  to  the  Syrian  holm-oak. 
When  alive  the  grub  is  about  the  size  of  the 
kernel  of  a  cherry,  and  of  a  dark  amaranth 
colour,  but  when  dead  it  shrivels  up  to  the  size 
of  a  grain  of  wheat.  It  is  very  common  in 
Palestine,  and  is  still  occasionally  used  as  a  dye. 
"  Scarlet "  is  produced  from  the  same  insect, 
and  the  colours  are  not  always  exactly  dis- 
criminated. 

Crisping  Pins  (Isai.  3.22).— R.V.  "  satchels  "  : 
the  word  is  rendered  "  bags  "  in  2  K.  5.23. 

Crispus. — A  Jew  of  Corinth,  whose  conversion 
was  a  fruitful  event  in  Paul's  work  there.  He 
was  a  Tiler  of  the  synagogue,  and  in  order  to 
point  the  significance  of  his  conversion  the 
apostle  baptized  Crispus  with  his  own  hands 
(1  Cor.  1.14). 

Criticism,  The  Higher.—!.  The  Origin  and 
Meaning  of  the  Phrase. — It  should  be  carefully 
observed  that  the  word  "  higher,"  as  applied 
to  criticism,  does  not  express  any  claim  to 
superiority,  but  is  a  purely  technical  term. 
"  Higher  "  is  here  used  in  contrast  to  "  lower." 
The  "  lower "  criticism  is  that  kind  of 
criticism  which  deals  with  the  text,  and  the 
text  only.  For  example,  the  two  editions  of 
the  Greek  Testament  which  are  now  in  most 
use  among  scholars  are,  perhaps,  that  of 
Westcott  and  Hort,  and  that  of  Nestle.  Each 
is  the  result  of  the  '*  lower  "  criticism  only, 
i.e.  criticism  which  deals  with  words  alone,  and 
investigates  the  authorities  upon  which  these 
rest,  in  the  case  of  the  New  Testament  upon 
manuscripts  in  the  original  Greek,  versions  or 
translations,  and  quotations  in  the  Fathers  or 
elsewhere.  The  same  three  kinds  of  "  author- 
ities" are  used  also  for  the  text  of  the  O.T., 
but  at  present  the  third  kind,  quotations,  is 
of  little  value,  as  there  are  but  few  quotations 
of  the  original  dating  from  early  times.  The 
"  higher "  criticism,  on  the  contrary,  goes 
beyond  the  question  of  what  are  the  words 
of  a  given  document.  It  endeavours  to  find 
out  the  sources  from  which  the  document  was 
derived,  and,  if  possible,  to  trace  out  the 
stages  by  which  it  came  to  its  present  form. 


Such  criticism  is,  in  principle,  perfectly 
legitimate.  In  fact,  it  is  continually  being 
applied  to  all  kinds  of  writings,  profane  as 
well  as  sacred.  The  term  "  Higher  Criticism  " 
was  first  given  to  this  special  method  of  studying 
the  Bible  by  J.  G.  Eichhorn,  of  Gottingen,  in 
the  second  edition  of  his  Introduction  to  the 
O.T.,  published  in  1787,  where  he  says, 
"  I  have  been  obliged  to  bestow  the  great- 
est amount  of  labour  on  a  hitherto  entirely  un- 
worked  field,  the  investigation  of  the  inner 
constitution  of  the  separate  books  of  the 
O.T.  by  the  aid  of  the  Higher  Criticism" 
(quoted  by  Carpenter  and  Harford-Battersby, 
The  Hexateuch,  1.42). 

Accepting  the  principle  that,  when  writing 
under  Divine  inspiration,  the  writer  of  a 
canonical  book  was  guided  to  use  such  sources 
of  knowledge  as  were  available,  we  can  under- 
stand that  these  may  have  been  either  written 
or  oral,  or,  if  the  expression  be  allowed, 
crystallised  into  customs;  and,  further,  that 
they  may  have  been  drawn  in  the  first  instance, 
whether  by  the  inspired  writer  himself  or  the 
framers  of  the  sources  used  by  him,  from 
Israelites  or  from  non-Israelites.  It  will  be 
seen  at  once  how  wide  a  field  is  thus  thrown 
open  for  investigation.  The  fact  that  such 
study,  even  of  the  Bible,  is  closely  connected 
with  the  prevailing  spirit  of  our  time — that  of 
investigating  and  testing  everything  in  every 
department  of  knowledge  (whether  physical 
or  literary)  by  the  inductive  or  historical 
method,  should  not  blind  us  to  its  value. 
Nor  should  it  be  neglected,  even  though,  in 
the  process  of  investigation,  some  wild  theories 
may  be  brought  forward. 

2.  The  Higher  Criticism  of  the  O.T. 
— In  a  sense  there  has  never  been  a  time  in 
the  history  of  the  Christian  Church  when 
this  has  been  entirely  absent,  for  even 
Irenaeus  attributed  to  Ezra  an  inspired  re- 
arrangement of  the  words  of  earlier  prophets 
(Adv.  Haer.  3.21),  and  in  the  twelfth  century 
the  famous  Rabbi  Aben  Ezra  suggested  that 
small  parts  of  the  Pentateuch  were  not  written 
by  Moses.  Even  Luther  pointed  to  the  allusion 
to  the  Israelite  monarchy  in  Gen.  36.31  as 
evidence  that  that  verse  at  least  was  due  to 
a  later  date  than  Moses.  But  As  true,  a  French 
Roman  Catholic  physician,  in  1753,  was  the 
first  to  make  a  systematic  investigation  of  the 
subject,  by  inquiring  into  the  sources  of  the 
Book  of  Genesis.  He  thought  the  presence  of 
two  names  for  God,  Jehovah  and  Elohim,  was 
due  to  the  fact  that  Moses  made  use  of  two 
sources.  From  his  time  the  study  has  gradu- 
ally been  developed,  until  it  is  now  possible 
to  procure  editions  of  the  O.T.  in  which  chapters 
and  verses,  half  verses,  and  words,  are  marked 
by  different  colours,  or  type,  or  symbols, 
designating  the  various  authors  or  schools  of 
authors  to  which  critics  confidently  assign 
each  separate  part. 

Some  of  the  positions  taken  up  are  a«  fol- 
lows :— 


CRITICISM,  THE  HIGHER] 


11G 


[CRITICISM,   THE  HIGHER 


Ewald  (1843)  distinguished  four  writers  in 
the  Pentateuch,  but,  like  all  other  critics  of 
that  time,  thought  that  Deuteronomy  was 
written  later  than  Exodus,  Leviticus,  and 
Numbers.  Graf  (1866)  went  so  far  as  to  say 
that  the  Priestly  legislation  of  the  Pentateuch 
was  later  than  Deuteronomy,  and  also  later  than 
the  Prophets.  This  theory,  subsequently  de- 
veloped by  Wellhausen  (1878),  is  now  accepted 
by  the  large  majority  of  Higher  Critics.  Accord- 
ing to  its  exponents,  of  the  four  great  writings 
of  the  Pentateuch,  or  rather  the  Hexateuch  (for 
Joshua  is  joined  with  the  five  books  of  Moses), 
two,  viz.  the  Jehovistic  and  Elohistic,  existed, 
it  is  said,  as  early  as  the  time  of  Amos  (750  B.C.)  ; 
Deuteronomy  was  composed  about  the  time 
of  Josiah  (623  B.C.)  ;  while  the  Priestly  legisla- 
tion, though  sketched  by  Ezekiel  (593  B.C.), 
was  not  completed  until  the  time  of  Nehemiah, 
soon  after  which  it  was  combined  with  the 
rest  of  the  Pentateuch  and  the  Book  of  Joshua. 

Other  important  parts  of  the  theories  of  the 
Higher  Criticism  are  that  large  portions  of  the 
Book  of  Isaiah  are  very  much  later  than  that 
Prophet  (740-690  B.C.);  that,  in  particular, 
chaps.  40-55  belong  to  near  the  end  of  the 
Exile  (536  B.C.),  and  chaps.  56-66,  together 
with  certain  other  chapters  in  the  first  part, 
were  written  as  late  as  the  end  of  the  Persian 
period,  or  even  after  the  time  of  Alexander  the 
Great  (332  B.C.).  Similarly,  the  Book  of 
Zechariah  is  said  to  consist  of  two  parts, 
chaps.  1-8  being  written  by  that  prophet 
not  long  after  the  Return,  i.e.  in  520  and  519 
B.C.,  and  chaps.  9-14  written  for  the  most 
part  quite  late,  perhaps  after  the  time  of 
Alexander. 

But  it  would  appear  that  there  is  hardly  a 
single  book  of  the  O.T.  which  the  Higher  Critics 
do  not  claim  to  be  able  to  disintegrate,  assigning 
its  portions  to  different  dates. 

3.  The  N.T.  does  not  afford  the  same 
scope  for  conjectures,  because  more  is  known 
about  the  circumstances  under  which  large 
parts  of  it  were  written,  and  in  any  case  the 
possible  limits  of  time  are  much  narrower  than 
they  are  in  the  O.T.  Of  chief  importance 
is  the  question  of  the  relation  which  the  Four 
Gospels,  and  especially  the  first  three,  hold 
to  one  another.  Here  it  is  sufficient  to  say 
that  recent  Higher  Criticism  seems  to  be 
fairly  successful  in  showing  that  (a)  the  First 
and  the  Third  Gospels  used  the  Second,  but 
neither  the  First  used  the  Third  nor  the  Third 
the  First ;  (b)  a  collection  of  our  Lord's  dis- 
courses, and  perhaps  deeds,  existed,  which  was 
used  by  the  First  and  the  Third  Gospels  ;  (c) 
the  First  and  the  Third  Gospels  had  each  access 
to  material  unknown  to  the  other. 

In  the  remaining  books  of  the  N.T.  the 
Higher  Criticism  is  now  tending  to  confirm 
the  belief  that  the  author  of  the  Third  Gospel 
and  of  the  Acts  was  one  and  the  same  person, 
who  used  for  his  Acts  materials  that  he  had 
made  on  his  travels  with  St.  Paul  [ACTS). 
It  has  suggested,  but  without  sufficient  reason, 


that  Rom.  16.1-20,  with  its  long  list  of  salu- 
tations addressed  to  an  un visited  Church,  may 
be  a  separate  letter  to  Ephesus.  And  in 
dealing  with  the  perplexing  problem  of  St. 
Paul's  communications  with  Corinth,  it  is, 
on  better  grounds,  inclined  to  regard  2  Cor. 
6.14-7.1  (a  passage  which  curiously  disturbs 
the  context)  as  part  of  the  lost  letter  referred 
to  in  1  Cor.  5.9  (therefore  earlier  than  1  Cor.), 
and  2  Cor.  10-13  as  an  epistle  intermediate 
between  1  and  2  Cor.,  being  the  "  painful  letter  " 
referred  to  in  2  Cor.  2.3,  4,  9,  7.8,  12.  But 
it  cannot  be  said  that  this  theory  is  made  out 
with  any  certainty. 

4.  It  is,  however,  necessary  to  call  attention 
to  the  subjective  character  of  a  large  part  of 
the  Higher  Criticism,  especially  in  its  criticism 
of   the  O.T.     It  claims   to  be  the   Historical 
Method,  but  it  is  hampered  on  all  sides  by  the 
absence  of  adequate  historical  data.     It  there- 
fore has  to  fall  back  very  largely  upon  im- 
pressions, and  after  removing  from  the  genuine 
work  of,  say,  Isaiah,  chapters  or  verses  which 
it  believes  he  did  not  write,  it  argues  from  the 
remainder  as  though  they  were  the  final  test 
of  his  writings.     But  at  any  time  the  discovery 
of    really   ancient  evidence   may   compel    the 
alteration  of  such  theories.     For  example,  it 
was  confidently  asserted   until  quite  recently 
that  an  allusion  in  the  prophets  to  Jews  residing 
in  Upper  Egypt  brought  down  the  date  of  such 
an  allusion  to  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great 
at  least.     But  the  discovery  in  1904  of  the 
existence  of  a  flourishing  colony  of  Jews  at 
Assouan  at  least  as  early  as  the  sixth  century 
B.C.  has  destroyed  the  value  of  such  an  assertion. 
Similarly,   fifty  years  ago  it  was  part  of  the 
stock-in-trade  of  Higher  Critics  that  when  the 
Israelites  came  out  of  Egypt  they  were  a  rude 
and    ignorant   people,    and    found    themselves 
in   Canaan   among  peoples   equally  rude   and 
ignorant ;    and    that    for   this   reason   it   was 
impossible  to  attribute  the  books  of  the  Penta- 
teuch to  Moses,  or  to  place  credit  in  its  asser- 
tions.    But  now  it  has  been  proved  abundantly 
from  Egyptian  history  and  discoveries  in  the 
Sinaitic  Peninsula,  not  only  that  Moses  must 
have  been  highly  educated, but  also  that  the  chief 
men  and  overseers  of   the  nation   must  have 
been  accustomed  to  write  and  to  make  reports. 
Similarly,  again,  until  a  few  years  ago,  Higher 
Critics    denied    the    possibility   of    the    state- 
ments of  Genesis  that  kings   of  Babylon  and 
neighbouring    states     came    as    far    west    as 
Palestine.     But    now    it    is    a    commonplace 
that  they  did  so  several  times  before  the  time 
of  Abraham.     It  is  also  known  now  that  the 
laws  of  the  kings  of  Babylon  ran  in  Canaan 
in  the  time  of  Abraham,  and  that  the    life  of 
the  latter,  as  recorded  in  Genesis,  is  fully  in 
accord  with  what  we  know  from  elsewhere  of 
the  conditions  of  things  there  at  that  period. 

5.  Conclusion. — Lastly,  it  is  most  desirable 
that  both  parties  in  the    present  controversy 
about    the    Higher    Criticism    and    the    Bible 
should  remember  that,  whatever  the  ultimate 


CROSS] 


117 


[CUCUMBERS 


results  of  this  criticism  may  be,  it  cannot  do 
more  than  point  out  the  sources  of  human 
knowledge,  and  is  obliged  to  confess  that  the 
history  of  Israel  is  unique.  Even  if  it  prove 
to  be  the  case  that  portions,  small  or  great, 
of  the  contents  of  the  inspired  books  be 
drawn  ultimately  from  non-Israelitish  sources, 
Babylonian,  for  example,  or  Arabian,  yet  it  is 
only  as  Biblical  and  Israelitish  documents 
that  they  have  had  their  power.  The  more 
we  know  of  the  pre-Christian  Gentile  nations 
and  their  literatures,  the  more  pre-eminent, 
in  moral  power  and  spiritual  development, 
stand  out  the  literature  and  the  nation  of  Israel. 

Cross. — Crucifixion  was  a  Roman  method  of 
execution,  at  first  reserved  for  slaves.  It  com- 
bined every  element  of  shame  and  torture,  and 
was  naturally  looked  upon  with  the  profoundest 
horror. 

The  punishment  of  crucifixion  commenced  with 
scourging,  after  the  criminal  had  been  stripped. 
Into  the  scourge  the  soldiers  often  stuck  nails, 
pieces  of  bone,  and  the  like,  and  the  punishment 
might  be  so  severe  that  the  sufferer  died  under  it. 
The  scourging  generally  took  place  at  a  column. 
In  our  Lord's  case  the  scourging  seems  to  have 
been  a  milder  punishment  inflicted  before 
sentence,  in  order  to  excite  pity  and  procure 
immunity  from  further  punishment  (Lk.  23.22  ; 
John  10.1). 

Various  sorts  of  crosses  were  used.  That  on 
which  our  Lord  was  crucified  was  the  Latin  cross, 
shaped  thus — *(•.  Other  familiar  types  were 
"St.  Andrew's  Cross" — X  and  "St  Anthony's 
Cross  " — ~[~.  Besides  the  four  arms  of  the  Latin 
cross  there  was  another  projection  arising  out  of 
the  central  stem,  on  which  the  body  of  the  sufferer 
rested,  in  order  to  prevent  its  weight  from  tearing 
away  the  hands.  Whether  there  was  also  a 
support  to  the  feet,  as  we  sometimes  see  in 
pictures,  is  doubtful.  An  inscription  was 
generally  placed  above  the  person's  head 
(Matt.  27.37;  Mk.  15.26;  Lk.  23.38;  John 
19.19)  briefly  expressing  his  crime.  The  criminal 
carried  the  cross-bar  to  the  place  of  execution 
(Mk.  8.34,  15.21,  etc.).  Our  Lord  was  nailed  to 
the  cross,  but  sometimes  the  sufferer  was  merely 
tied  to  it,  though  the  latter  was  regarded  as  the 
more  painful  punishment,  because  it  meant 
such  prolonged  agony.  Sometimes  among  the 
Jews  the  body  of  an  executed  criminal  was 
hung  on  a  tree,  where  it  might  not  remain  over- 
night, for  it  was  "  the  curse  of  God,"  and  would 
defile  the  land  (Deut.  21.22,  23).  Paul  applies  this 
passage  to  Jesus  in  Gal  3.13,  and  echoes  of  it 
may  be  traced  in  Acts  5.30,  10.39,  etc. 

Crown. — Crowns  are  constantly  mentioned 
in  Scripture,  and  represent  several  words  of 
differing  meaning.  In  the  O.T.  there  is  the 
crown  or  rim  of  gold  round  the  furniture 
of  the  Tabernacle  (Ex.  25.11,  24,  30.3),  the 
crown  of  sacred  office  worn  by  the  high  priest 
(Ex.  29.6,  cf.  28.36,  37)  and  king  (2  Sam.  1.10), 
and,  more  frequently,  the  royal  diadem  (2  Sam. 
12.30).  Figurative  use  is  made  both  of 
the  sacred  (Pg.  89.39)  and  the  royal  crown 


(Prov.  12.4,  16.31,  17.6).  In  the  N.T.  the 
royal  diadem  is  spoken  of  in  Rev. 
12.3,  13.1,  19.12.  Elsewhere  the  reference 
is  to  the  wreath  of  victory  (1  Cor.  9.25 ;  1  Pet. 
5.4,  etc.)  or  of  festal  rejoicing.  [DIADEM.] 

Crown  of  Thorns. — Our  Lord  was  crowned 
with  a  wreath  of  thorns  by  the  Roman  soldiers, 
in  their  mockery  of  "  the  King  of  the  Jews  " 
(Matt.  27.29  and  parallels).  The  plant  used  may 
have  been  the  Arabian  nabk,  which  has  many 
sharp  thorns  and  flexible  branches  that  can 
easily  be  plaited.  The  object  was  rather 
mockery  than  the  torture  which  has  become 
associated  with  the  "crown  of  thorns." 

Crucifixion.— [CROSS.] 

Cruse. — A  vessel  of  clay  for  containing  water, 
oil,  honey,  etc.  (1  Sam.  26.11 ;  1  K.  14.3, 19.6). 

Crystal — Wisdom  is  declared  to  be  more 
valuable  than  "  gold  and  the  crystal"  (Job  28.17). 
The  R.V.  here  translates  "glass."  In  Ezek.  1.22 
the  ordinary  rock-crystal  is  meant.  In  Rev. 
4.6  and  22.1  either  ice  or  crystal  is  signified. 

Cub.— [CHUB.] 

Cubit. — The  Hebrew  word  translated  cubit 
signifies,  in  all  cases  but  one,  "  the  fore-arm." 
The  exception  is  in  Judg.  3.16,  where  cubit  is 
a  conjectural  translation  of  a  unique  word. 
There  has  been  much  discussion  as  to  the  length 
of  a  cubit,  the  estimates  varying  from  16  to 
22  inches. 

In  the  N.T.  cubit  occurs  as  a  measure  of 
length  (John  21.8 ;  Rev.  21.17).  Whether  it  is 
to  be  so  interpreted  in  the  saying  of  Jesus, 
"  Which  of  you  by  being  anxious  can  add  one 
cubit  unto  his  stature  ?  "  (Matt.  6.27 ;  Lk.  12.25) 
is  doubtful.  The  word  rendered  "  stature " 
may  also  mean  "  age "  or  "  life,"  and  the 
improbability  of  anxiety  on  the  part  of  any  man 
to  increase  his  height  by  some  18  inches 
suggests  that  "  cubit "  may  be  here  exceptionally 
used  as  a  measure  of  time,  "  Add  one  span  to  his 
life "  (so  R.V.  marg.).  On  the  other  hand, 
there  is  evidence  that  the  "  cubit "  was  the 
ordinary  unit  of  measurement  for  human 
stature :  short,  medium,  tall  men  are  described 
as  3,  3£,  and  4  cubits  in  height.  Hence,  without 
being  too  literal,  we  may  perhaps  interpret 
"  which  of  you  is  able  to  increase  his  height  ?  " 

Cuckow  (i.e.  the  cuckoo).  —  Mentioned 
among  unclean  birds  in  the  A.V.  of  Lev.  11.16 
and  in  Deut.  14.15.  The  R.V.  has  "  seamew," 
and  it  is  probable  that  some  sort  of  "  gull  "  is 
meant. 

Cucumbers. —These  are  much  cultivated  in 
the  East,  and  appear  in  the  lamentation  of  the 
manna-fed  multitude  over  the  remembered 
dainties  of  their  Egyptian  fare  (Num.  11.5). 
Isaiah,  foretelling  the  desolation  of  Jerusalem, 
writes  (1.8),  "  The  daughter  of  Zion  is  left  as  a 
cottage  in  a  vineyard,  as  a  lodge  in  a  garden 
of  cucumbers."  This  lodge  or  cottage  is  a 
rude  temporary  structure,  made  of  boughs  cut 
from  the  oleander,  and  sustained  by  four  long 
poles,  in  which  a  man  or  boy  is  set  to  watch 
against  robbers  or  destructive  animals,  such  as 
foxes  or  jackals.  When  the  crop  is  gathered 


CUMMIN] 


118 


[CYRENIUS 


and  the  lodge  forsaken,  "  the  poles  will  fall  down 
or  lean  every  way,  and  the  green  boughs  with 
which  it  is  shaded  will  be  scattered  by  the 
winds,  leaving  only  a  ragged  sprawling  wreck — 
a  most  affecting  type  of  utter  desolation." 

Cummin. — Being  a  small  and  tender  seed, 
cummin  was  threshed  by  being  beaten  with  a  rod 
(Isai.  28.25-27).  The  ancients  used  cummin  as  a 
condiment  with  fish  and  other  viands,  and  as 
a  stimulant  to  the  appetite,  and  the  Egyptian 
cooks  sprinkled  the  seeds  or  fruits  upon 
cakes  and  bread,  as  we  use  caraways.  In 
Matt.  23.23  cummin  is  mentioned  among  the 
small  garden  herbs  upon  which  the  scribes  and 
Pharisees  scrupulously  paid  tithes. 

Gun. — [CHUN.] 

Canning. — In  the  A.V.  of  the  O.T.  "  cunning  " 
has  always  its  archaic  sense  of  wise,  skilful 
(properly  the  participle  of  the  A.-S.  verb  "  to 
know "  :  connected  both  with  can  and  ken). 
The  R.V.  sometimes  replaces  by  "skilful," 
or,  of  work,  "  curious." 

Cupbearer.— An  officer  of  high  rank  with 
Oriental  monarchs,  whose  duty  was  to  serve 
the  king  with  wine  and  guard  against  poison. 
Nehemiah  held  this  office  at  the  Persian  court 
(Neh.  1.11).  Pharaoh's  "  butler  "  was  cupbearer 
(same  Heb.  word).  See  also  1  K.  10.5 ;  2  Ch.  9.4. 

Curious  Arts.— Magic  and  jugglery.  The 
books  which  the  magicians  burned  (Acts  19.19) 
contained  collections  of  spells  and  charms, 
which  were  sold  at  a  great  price.  Some 
examples  of  Ephosian  spells  have  come  down 
to  us. 

Curse.— [ANATHEMA.  ] 

Cush.— 1.  Son  of  Ham,  grandson  of  Noah,  and 
father  of  Nimrod  (Gen.  10.6-8).  The  name  is 
more  commonly  used  as  a  geographical  and 
ethnic  term,  signifying  the  country  (Isai.  11.11) 
and  people  of  Ethiopia,  which  is  its  usual 
rendering  in  the  O.T.  Ethiopia  generally  corre- 
sponded with  what  is  now  known  as  the  Egyptian 
Soudan,  but  also  included  the  south-western  coast 
of  Arabia  and  the  opposite  coast  of  Africa  as 
well.  Prof.  Sayce  writes  that  "  it  was  inhabited 
for  the  most  part  by  a  white  race,  whose  physical 
characteristics  connect  them  with  the  Egyptians. 
But  in  the  southern  valley  of  the  Nile  this 
race  was  in  contact  with  two  black  races,  the 
negroes  and  the  Nubians."  The  latter,  except 
in  colour  of  skin  and  hair,  possessed  a  much 
more  refined  physical  structure  and  appearance 
than  the  negroes.  2.  A  Benjamite  mentioned 
in  the  title  of  Ps.  7,  otherwise  unknown. 
[ETHIOPIA.] 

Cu'shan  (Rob.  3.7). — Perhaps  a  tribe  of  Cush 
(Ethiopia),  or  identical  with  Cushan-Rishathaim. 

Cu'shan-Rishatha'im.— [CHUSHAN-R.] 

Cu'shi,  Cushite. — As  a  proper  name  Cushi  is — 
1.  An  ancestor  of  Jehudi  ( Jer.  36.14).  2.  Father 
of  Zephaniah  the  prophet  (Zeph.  1.1).  3.  For 
Cushi  in  2  Sam.  18.21-32  the  R.V.  has  "  the 
Cushite,"  i.e.  an  Ethiopian  attached  to  the 
person  of  Joab,  who  broke  to  David  the  news 
of  Absalom's  death. 

Cuth,  Cu'thah.— Now  Tell-Ibrahim,  15  miles 


north-east  of  Babylon,  whence  Shahnaneser 
brought  colonists  into  Samaria  (2  K.  17.24,  30). 
These  Cutheans,  who  became  the  progenitors  of 
the  Samaritans,  were  worshippers  of  Nergal, 
one  of  the  Assyrian  gods. 

Cutting. — Among  the  Canaanites  and  neigh- 
bouring nations  the  practices  of  shaving  the 
head  and  mutilating  the  body  were  current,  as 
supposed  means  of  propitiating  the  spirits  of  the 
dead.  Hence  the  Israelites  were  forbidden  to 
imitate  the  customs  (Lev.  19.28).  The  priests  of 
Baal  cut  themselves  with  knives  to  propitiate 
then*  god  (1  K.  18.28).  Another  usage  con- 
templated by  the  prohibition  was  that  of 
tattooing  the  body  in  order  to  indicate  allegiance 
to  a  deity.  This  is  evidently  alluded  to  in 
Rev.  13.16.  The  tearing  of  the  flesh  from  grief 
and  anguish  of  spirit  in  mourning  for  the  dead 
was  regarded  as  a  mark  of  affection  (Jer.  16.6, 
41.5,  48.37). 

Cymbals. — Percussive  instruments  of  copper 
(1  Ch.  15.19)  or  other  metal  included  in  the 
orchestra  of  1  Ch.  13.8,  15.16,  etc.,  and  under 
another  name  in  2  Sam.  6.5 ;  Ps.  150.5  (two  sorts). 
In  the  N.T.  the  only  reference  is  1  Cor.  13.1, 
where  for  the  inappropriate  "  tinkling  cymbal  " 
the  R.V.  has  "  clanging  cymbal." 

Cypress.— See  Isai.  44.14,  where  R.V.  has 
"  holm  tree."  The  only  guidance  is  that  the 
Heb.  root  means  some  hard  wood,  and  that  this 
tree  is  used  with  cedar  and  oak. 

Cyprus. — A  large,  beautiful,  and  fertile  island 
in  the  Mediterranean :  birthplace  of  Barnabas 
(Acts  4.36),  early  received  the  Gospel  and  sent 
forth  evangelists  (Acts  11.19,  20,  21.16),  visited 
by  Paul  and  Barnabas  on  their  first  missionary 
tour  (Acts  13.4-13),  revisited  by  Barnabas 
(Acts  15.39),  passed  on  the  south  by  Paul  on  his 
return  from  his  third  missionary  tour  ( Acts  21.3), 
passed  on  the  north  by  Paul  on  his  voyage  to 
Rome  (Acts  27.4).  Cyprus  was  celebrated  for  its 
copper  mines,  which  were  at  one  time  farmed  to 
Herod  the  Great.  A  remarkable  event  in  its 
history  was  a  terrible  insurrection  of  the  Jews 
in  the  reign  of  Emperor  Trajan  (117  A.D.),  which 
led  to  a  massacre,  first  of  the  Greek  inhabit- 
ants and  then  of  the  insurgents  themselves. 
[CHITTIM.] 

Cyre'ne.— Now  El-Krenna.  The  chief  city  of 
Cyrenaica  (Tripoli),  which  extended  from  Carth- 
age to  Egypt  and  from  Libya  (Acts  2.10)  to  the 
Mediterranean  ;  inhabited  by  a  considerable 
number  of  Jews,  who  gave  their  name  to  one 
of  the  synagogues  in  Jerusalem  (Acts  2.10,  6.9) ; 
home  of  Simon  who  bore  the  Saviour's  cross 
(Matt,  27.32;  MTc.  15.21;  Lk.  23.26),  and  of 
early  evangelists  (Acts  11.20,  13.1).  Gyrene, 
though  on  the  African  coast,  was  a  Greek  city. 

Cyre'nian. — A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Gyrene 
(Mk.  15.21 ;  Lk.  23.26  ;  Acts  6.9). 

Cyre'nius. — Mentioned  in  Lk.  2.2,  the  Greek 
form  of  P.  Sulpicius  Quirinus.  He  was  governor 
of  Cilicia,  which  was  annexed  to  Syria  at  the  tune 
of  our  Lord's  birth.  The  "  taxing "  in  this 
passage  means  the  enrolment  or  registration  of 
the  people. 


CYRUS] 


119 


[DAMASCUS 


Cyrus. — The  Sun :  the  early  career  of  this 
great  conqueror  is  inextricably  wrapped  up  in 
legend.  There  is  no  record  of  it  in  the  Scriptures. 
The  most  trustworthy  account  states  that  he 
was  the  son  of  Cambyses,  a  Persian  of  royal 
blood,  and  grandson,  on  his  mother's  side,  of 
Astyages,  the  king  of  the  Medes.  He  became 
the  ruler  of  Babylonia,  Media,  Persia,  and  other 
countries.  He  led  his  victorious  armies  as  far 
north  as  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia  Minor  and  as  far 
south  as  the  valley  of  the  Tigris.  He  is  said  to 
have  performed  many  feats  of  military  engineering 
— passing  over  the  Gyndes,  a  tributary  of  the 
Tigris,  by  diverting  its  water  into  a  large  number 
of  small  channels,  and  capturing  Babylon  by 


diverting  the  course  of  the  Euphrates,  so  that  his 
soldiers  entered  the  city  by  the  bed  of  the  river. 
Cyrus  was  not  only  a  great  conqueror,  but  a  wise 
ruler,  seeking,  as  far  as  possible,  to  identify  him- 
self with  the  sentiments  of  the  various  nations 
he  had  vanquished.  Jews  and  Babylonians  alike 
were  contented  under  his  rule.  He  ordered  the 
rebuilding  of  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem  (2  Ch. 
36.23  ;  Ezra  1.2,  4.3,  5.13),  returned  the  vessels 
of  the  house  of  the  Lord  which  Nebuchadnezzar 
had  taken  away  (Ezra  1.7),  and  made  a  grant  to 
bring  cedar  trees  from  Lebanon  (Ezra  3.7).  In 
the  book  of  Isaiah  he  is  recognised  as  a  shepherd 
of  the  Lord  (Isai.  44.28),  and  an  anointed  king 
(Isai.  45.1). 


Daba'reh.— [DABBRATH.] 

Dabba'sheth,  Dabbe'sheth.— A  hump  :  now 
Dabsheh  ;  a  town  of  Zebulun  (Josh.  19.11). 

Dabe'rath.—  (?)  Pasture:  now  Deburieh;  a 
town  on  the  boundary  of  Zebulun  (Josh.  19.12), 
belonging  to  Issachar  ;  a  Levitical  city.  It  lies 
at  the  western  foot  of  Tabor.  The  same  as 
Debareh  (Josh.  21.28). 

Dagger. — The  word  so  translated  in  Judg. 
3.16,  21,  22  is  elsewhere  generally  rendered 
"  sword." 

Da'gon. — The  national  god  of  the  Philistines. 
There  were  temples  of  Dagon  worship  at  Gaza 
(Judg.  16.21-30)  and  Ashdod  (1  Sam.  5.5,  6 ; 
1  Ch.  10.10).  Dagon  was  the  god  of  agriculture. 
Hence  the  gift  of  five  golden  field-mice 
sent  by  the  Philistines  (1  Sam.  6.4)  as  a  trespass- 
offering  to  the  God  of  Israel,  the  field-mice 
perhaps  symbolising  the  god  who  had  punished 
the  worshippers  of  Dagon.  Probably  there  is 
some  connexion  with  the  fact  that  the  plague 
is  primarily  a  rat  disease. 

Dalai 'ah,  Delaiah. — Jehovah  hath  drawn :  a  de- 
scendant of  Zerubbabel  (1  C7&.3.24).  [DELAIAH.] 

Dalmanu'tha. — A  town  or  district  on  the  west 
side  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  whither  our  Lord  came 
after  feeding  the  4000  (Mk.  8.10),  but  otherwise 
quite  unknown.  [MAQDALA.] 

Dalmatia. — Mountainous  district  on  east  coast 
of  the  Adriatic,  part  of  the  Roman  province  of 
Illyricum,  whither  Titus  was  sent  (2  Tim.  4.10). 
Paul  himself  had  preached  the  Gospel  in  its 
immediate  neighbourhood  (Rom.  15.19).  It  was 
not  itself  the  name  of  a  province  till  70  A.D. 

Dalphon. — (?)  Dropping:  a  son  of  Haman 
(Esth.  9.7). 

Dama'ris. — (?)  Heifer :  a  woman  converted  at 
Athens  by  Paul  (Acts  17.34).  It  is  hardly 
possible  that  she  can  have  been  an  Athenian 
lady  of  rank,  for  one  would  not  have  teen  in 
St.  Paul's  audience. 

Damas'cus. — The  most  important  and  one  of 
the  most  ancient  of  the  cities  of  Syria,  standing  in  a 
fertile,  almost  circular  plain,  30  miles  in  diameter, 
watered  by  the  Barada  and  the  Awaj  (Abana  and 


Pharpar).  It  is  distant  from  Jerusalem  north- 
east 133  miles.  For  ages  it  has  been  a  commercial 
centre  (Ezek.  27.18 ;  Amos  3.12).  It  was  known 
in  the  time  of  Abraham,  and  was  the  birthplace 
of  his  steward  Eliezer  (Gen.  14.15,  15.2). 
Except  during  the  short  period  in  which  David 
and  Solomon  held  it  in  subjection,  it  was  the 
capital  of  the  independent  kingdom  of  Syria, 
with  which  its  history  is  closely  linked.  Damascus 
was  taken  by  David  and  laid  under  tribute 
(2  Sam.  8.5,6;  1  Ch.  18.5-7),  and  retaken  by 
Rezon  in  the  tune  of  Solomon  (1  K.  11.23-25). 
Benhadad  i.,  king  of  Syria,  being  bribed  by 
Asa,  king  of  Judah,  broke  his  alliance  with 
Baasha  and  invaded  Israel (1  K.  15.18-20;  2Ch. 
16.2-4),  continuing  the  war  with  Israel  in  the  time 
of  Omri  (1  K.  20.34).  Benhadad  II.  vainly  be- 
sieged Samaria  in  the  time  of  Ahab,  returned,  was 
again  routed,  but  secured  a  covenant  with  Ahab 
(1  K.  20. 1-34).  Three  years  afterwards  war  was 
renewed,  in  which  Ahab  was  defeated  and 
killed  (1  K.  22.1,  37).  From  Damascus  Naaman 
was  sent  to  Samaria  for  the  cure  of  his 
leprosy  (2  K.  5).  Benhadad  unsuccessfully 
besieged  Samaria  a  second  time  (2  K.  6.24). 
Hazael  was  visited  by  Elisha  at  Damascus  and 
designated  Benhadad's  successor  (2  K.  8.7-15). 
Hazael  was  defeated  by  the  Assyrians,  but  was 
victorious  against  Jehoram  and  Ahaziah  (2  K. 
8.28,  29).  Syrians,  ravaged  the  land  of  Israel 
east  of  the  Jordan  in  the  reign  of  Jehu  (2  K. 
10.32,  33  ;  Amos  1.3-5) ;  besieged  and  took  Gath 
(2  K.  12.17 ;  Amos  6.2) ;  threatened  Jerusalem 
(2  K.  12.18 ;  2  Ch.  24.23) ;  oppressed  Israel  under 
Jehoahaz  (2  K.  13.3-7,  22).  Benhadad  nr. 
also  was  oppressive,  but  lost  the  cities  which 
Hazael  had  taken  (2  K.  13.25),  Jehoash  being 
victorious,  according  to  the  assurance  of  Elisha 
(2  K.  13.14-19);  Jeroboam  also  attacked 
Damascus  (2  K.  14.28).  Rezin,  in  conjunction 
with  Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  unsuccessfully 
attacked  Jerusalem,  but  took  numerous  captives 
and  recovered  Elath  (2  K.  16.5,  6 ;  2  Ch.  28.5  ; 
Isai.  7.1-9).  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  Assyria, 
at  the  instigation  of  Ahaz,  took  Damascus, 


DAMN,  DAMNATION] 


120 


[DANIEL 


:      >;_-     i,    '.:..      .    .7 

the    kmgdom    of    !!••••  in    (2    A*.    16.9-12: 

ImL  17.1-3 ;  Jar.  49.23-27 ;  Amos  1.5). 

In   N.T.  times   TliaiaaTiii   was  part  of  the 
of  Aretas,  an  Arabian  (2  Cor.  11.32) 


'.:  1.  The  fifth  son  of  Jacob,  and 
the  not  by  Bihah  (Gem.  30.6),  of 

know  nothing.    When  tl 
of 

1 62,700  men  able  to  serve, 
,  was  exceeded  only  by  Judah.     The 
of  the  riwiiaul  Land  assigned  to  the 
was  the  smallest  of  the  twWve,  bnt  it  had 
It  extended  from 
the 


••  of  the 

in  the  whole  of  Palestine, 
of   this   territory   was 
Anuriftes  and  afterwards  by  the 
drove  the  Danites  up 
plain,  with  their  deep  black  soil,  to  the  vfflage* 
whose  ruins  still  crown  the  niBs  that  skirt  the 


original  seat.    After   the   time   of   David 

of  DIM,  a*  applied  to  a  tribe,  ramsfaea. 
to  the  tribe  of  Dan.  It  is 
thai  the  name  of  Dan  m  omitted  from 
the  1st  m  JZc*.  7.  The 
Antichrist  was  expected  to 


city,  so  f  amffiar  as  the 
of  Palestine,  in  the 
from  Dan  eren  to  Beer- 
It  is  at  the  main  source  of  the  Jordan, 
and  was  originally  eaDed  Laish  or  Leshem  ( Jo*. 
19.47).  It  was  taken  by  the  Danites,  and  called 
Dm  (J*dg.  18) ;  was  the  site  of  idolatrous  worship 
18^9,  30;  1  K.  1239,  30;  2  K.  10,29 ; 


Ama*  JU4) ;  and  was  laid  waste  by  Benhadad 
( 1  K.  15.20 ;  2  C*.  16.4).  Dan  was  a  very  ancient 
city,  of  great  repute  even  in  the  time  of  Abraham 
(Gfn.  14.14).  No  doubt  the  passage  originally 
the  older  name,  Laish,  and  when  that 
by  Dan,  the  new  name  was 
MSS.  It  has  been  identified 
with  the  modem  Tell  el-Kady,  "  the  judge's 
mound,"  whose  long  level  top  is  strewed  with 
ruins.  The  spring  which  gushes  out  from  the  foot 
of  the  mound  is  called  el  Leddan,  and  the  stream 
produced  by  the  spring  is  termed  Nahr  ed-Dan. 
3.  In  Ettt.  27.19  **  Dan  also  "  should  be  read 
as  -  Vedan  "  with  the  R.V. 

. — The  Hebrew  women  made  the  dance 
of  expressing  their  feelings ; 
and  when  their  husbands  or  friends  returned  from 
on  behalf  of  life  and  home,  they  welcomed 
with  a  dance  of  triumph  (Ex.  15.20; 
Jmdf.  LL34).  The  young  men  are  mentioned 
as  dancing  with  the  old  in  Jer.  31.13.  It  has 
been  thought  that  the  peculiarity  of  David's 
he  "danced  before  the  Lord  with 
'  (2  &BB.  6U4)  was  that  the  dance. 
iaatcordance  with  custom,  should  have  been  led 
by  Mkhal,  who  should  have  come  out  with 
to  welcome  the  conquerors.  But 
the  Semitic  nations  sacred  dances  were 
by  men  as  well  as  by  women.  Rather 
that  it  was  undignified  and 
for  him  to  divest  himself  of  the  upper 
robes  of  his  kingly  office.  The  "  leaping  "  bv 
the  priests  of  Baal  was  probably  a  limping 
(1  K.  18.26).  In  Ca*L  6.13  "the 
of  two  armies"  may  mean  a  sword 
dance  by  the  bride.  The  dance  of  Ps.  149.3, 150.4 
is  with  pipe  or  other  wind  instrument.  In  no 
case  did  men  dance  with  women.  Dancing  by 
girls  was  frequently  of  a  licentious  kind,  as 
probably  in  the  case' of  Salome  (Mk.  6.22). 

DtafeL— God  is  my  jwdye:  1.  The  second 
son  of  David,  bom  unto  him  in  Hebron,  of 
Abigail,  the  Carmelites*  (1  Ch.  3.1),  called 
Cbileabm2&m.3.3. 

2.  The  prophet  Daniel,  of  whose  history  little 
is  known  beyond  what  may  be  gathered  from 
the  book  which  bears  bis  name  (see  below). 
He  was  not  a  priest,  like  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel ; 
but,  like  Isaiah,  was  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and 
probably  of  the  royal  house  (1.3-6).  He  was 
carried  to  Babylon  as  a  youth  (1.4)  in  the  third 
year  of  Jehoiakim  (605  B.C.),  eight  years  before 
Ezekiel.  There  he  was  placed  in  the  court  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  and  became  acquainted  with 
the  science  of  the  Chaldnans,  attaining  a  wisdom 
superior  to  their  own. 

The  first  event  which  gained  Daniel  influence 
was  the  disclosure  and  explanation  of  the  dream 
of  Nebuchadnezzar.  This  occurred  in  the  second 
year  of  the  toU  reign  of  that  monarch,  i.e. 
in  603.  Subsequently  his  companions  were 
delivered  from  the  burning  fiery  furnace  into 
which  they  had  been  thrown  for  refusing  to 
worship  an  image ;  and  some  years  later  occurred 
the  second  dream  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  The 
date  of  the  events  recorded  in  chap.  5,  Bel- 


DANIEL,  THE  BOOK  OF] 


121 


DANIEL,  THE  BOOK  OF 


shazzar's  feast  and  the  writing  on  the  wall,  seems 
to  be  538  B.C.,  towards  the  close  of  the  reign 
of  Nabonidus,  represented  in  Babylon  by  his 
son  Belshazzar.  That  night  the  young  princ-e 
(denominated  "  king ")  was  slain,  and  the 
dynasty  changed.  By  Nebuchadnezzar  Daniel 
had  been  raised  to  high  rank  and  power ;  a 
position  he  retained,  though  no  tun  interruptedly, 
under  both  the  Babylonian  and  Persian 
dynasties.  In  the  reign  of  Darius  he  was  thrown 
into  a  lions'  den  for  his  fidelity  towards  the 
religion  of  his  race,  but  he  was  miraculously 
delivered.  He  prophesied  during  the  whole  of 
the  Captivity  (1.21),  his  last  prophecy  being 
delivered  two  years  later,  in  the  third  year  of  the 
reign  of  Cyrus  (10.1).  He  offered  a  pattern  of 
fidelity  to  the  faith  of  Jehovah,  even  in  a  strange 
land.  Ezekiel  mentions  Daniel,  with  Noah  and 
Job,  as  a  righteous  man  (14.14,  20),  and  as 
endowed  with  special  wisdom  (28.3).  If  this  be 
the  same  Daniel,  the  classing  of  a  young  contem- 
porary with  the  great  names  of  old  is  very  re- 
markable. Our  Lord  quotes  him  as  a  prophet 
(Matt.  24.15). 

3.  A  descendant  of  Ithamar,  who  returned 
from  exile  with  Ezra  (Ezra  8.2),  and  sealed  the 
covenant  drawn  up  by  Nehemiah  (Neh.  10.6). 

Daniel,  The  Book  of.— Few  parts  of  Holy 
Scripture  have  been  more  keenly  discussed  than 
the  Book  of  Daniel.  This  interest  may  in  part 
be  traced  to  the  relation  of  his  prophecies  to  the 
history  of  great  nations. 

Contents.  — The  book  is  divided  into  two  parts : 
(I.)  the  historical,  1-6,  and  (II.)  the  prophetic, 
7-12.  In  the  former  part  Daniel  is  spoken  of 
in  the  third  person  ;  in  the  latter  (apart  from 
introductory  notices,  7.1,  10.1)  he  himself  is  the 
narrator.  (I.)  Daniel  and  his  companions  at  the 
court  of  Nebuchadnezzar  (1) ;  the  king's  dream 
of  the  great  image,  typifying  four  kingdoms 
(2) ;  the  burning  fiery  furnace  (3) ;  Nebuchad- 
nezzar's dream  of  the  great  tree  destroyed, 
interpreted  as  foreshadowing  his  madness  (4) ; 
Belshazzar's  feast  (5) ;  Daniel  in  the  lions' 
den  (6).  (II.)  Vision  of  the  four  great  beasts 
coming  up  from  the  sea,  their  judgment  before 
the  "  Ancient  of  days,"  and  the  giving  of  a 
kingdom  to  "  one  like  unto  a  son  of  man  "  (7) ; 
vision  of  the  ram  with  two  horns,  overcome  of  the 
he-goat  with  a  "  notable  horn,"  which  is  broken, 
and  out  of  which  came  four  horns,  and  from  one 
of  these  a  "  little  horn,"  which  waxed  great  and 
persecuted  the  saints  (8) ;  Daniel  is  given  under- 
standing of  Jeremiah's  prophecy  (Jer.  25.12, 
29.10)  as  to  the  seventy  years  of  the  "  idolatries  " 
of  Jerusalem  (9).  Daniel,  after  fasting  and 
mourning,  is  given  yet  further  visions  (10-12). 

The  interpretation  of  the  visions  has  been  a 
matter  of  keen  controversy.  The  angel  Gabriel 
exp'ains  the  vision  in  chap.  8,  and  leaves  its 
historical  application  a  simple  matter.  The 
Persian  empire  established  by  Cyrus  lasted  from 
538-333  B.C.,  when  it  was  overthrown  by  Alex- 
ander the  Great  at  the  battle  of  Issus.  He  had, 
at  his  early  death  (in  333,  aged  thirty-two — the 
"  broken  horn  "),  established  an  almost  world- 


wide dominion,  which,  in  default  of  an  heir,  was 
partitioned  out  among  his  generals.  After 
twenty  years  of  rivalry  and  conflict  four  king- 
doms were  established — Macedonia  and  Greece, 
Thrace  and  Bithynia,  Egypt  and  Syria,  with 
Babylonia  and  the  East  allotted  to  Seleucus. 
Hence  Judaea  passed  under  the  sway  of  the 
Seleucid  kings,  of  whom  the  ninth  was  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  (175-164  B.C.),  %  "  little  horn." 
His  persecutions  of  the  Jews  led  to  the  revolt 
under  Judas  Maccabaeus,  and  to  the  recon- 
secration  of  the  Temple  (in  165),  about  three 
years  after  its  pollution.  A  few  months  later 
Antiochus  died. 

It  may  be  inferred  that,  as  the  clear  pre- 
diction of  chap.  8  is  repeated  and  expanded 
in  the  remainder  of  the  book,  it  is  anticipated  in 
the  kindred  but  obscurer  prophecies  of  chaps. 
7  arid  2,  and  that  the  kingdoms  of  Media,  Persia, 
and  Greece  are  also  among  the  four  typified  by 
the  Beasts  and  the  Image.  Moreover,  the  first 
of  the  four  is  that  of  Nebuchadnezzar  himself, 
Babylon  (2.38). 

At  this  point  expositors  divide.  Are  Media 
and  Persia  one  empire,  the  Medo-Persian,  founded 
by  Cyrus,  symbolised  by  the  ram  with  shorter 
and  longer  horns  ?  If  so,  Greece  is  the  third, 
and  the  fourth  is  naturally  identified  with  Rome, 
under  whose  power  the  empire  founded  by 
Alexander  eventually  passed.  Out  of  this 
assumption  spring  many  varied  interpretations 
of  the  ten  kingdoms  (the  toes  of  the  image,  chap. 
2,  and  the  horns  of  the  fourth  beast,  chap.  7) 
into  which  the  Roman  empire  was  to  be  broken 
up  :  also  of  the  "  little  horn  "  of  chap.  7.8,  20, 
21,  25,  often  identified  with  the  papacy. 

Or,  on  the  other  hand,  are  Media  and  Persia 
to  be  regarded  as  two,  the  second  and  third  of  the 
four  kingdoms,  the  fourth  being  the  empire 
founded  by  Alexander  the  Great  ?  In  this  case 
the  outlook  of  the  prophecy  is  more  limited, 
and  of  less  ambiguous  interpretation.  The  ten 
kings  are  probably  Alexander's  successors : 
the  "  little  horn  "  of  chap.  7  being  identical  with 
that  of  chap.  8,  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  who  is 
represented  as  removing  three  powerful  rivals 
before  securing  his  kingdom  (7.8,  20,  28)./ 

The  interpretation  of  the  fourth  kingdom  is 
closely  connected  with  the  controversy  as  to 
the  date  and  authorship  of  the  book.  If,  according 
to  the  uniform  tradition  of  the  Jewish  and 
Christian  Churches,  it  was  written  by  Daniel  in 
Babylon,  not  only  is  the  historicity  of  chaps.  1-6 
assured,  but  the  prophecies  concerning  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  uttered  four  centuries  before  the 
event,  stand  out  as  a  marvel  of  prediction. 
In  favour  of  such  a  date  there  is  urged  (1)  the 
place  of  the  book  in  tiie  Canon.  It  was  received 
as  Scripture  in  the  time  of  the  Maccabees 
(see  1  M ace.  2.59,  60) ;  and  Josephus  says  that  its 
prophecies  were  shown  to  Alexander  on  his 
arrival  at  Jerusalem  (Ant.  xi.  8  §  5).  It  is 
included  in  the  Septuagint  version  of  the  O.T. 
Scriptures,  which  was  commenced  about  280 
years  B.C.  (2)  The  testimony  of  our  Lord 
(Matt.  24.15).  (3)  The  witness  of  the  Christian 


DANIEL,  THE  BOOK  OF] 


122 


[DARKNESS 


Church.  A  heathen  writer,  Porphyry  (233-302 
A.D.),  first  attacked  the  claims  of  Daniel  to 
be  a  prophet,  and  Jerome  dealt  with  his  objec- 
tions. (4)  The  colouring  and  details  of  the 
narrative,  which  are  such  as  a  contemporary 
alone  could  supply. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  urged  that  the  book 
was  written  at  a  date  long  subsequent  to 
the  Captivity.  The  following  grounds  of  this 
belief  are  given  : — 

(1)  The  main  interest  of  chaps.  7-12  centres 
in    the    times    of    Antiochus    Epiphanes :    the 
analogy    of    other    prophetic    writings    would 
suggest  that  it  is  there  we  should  look  for  the 
historical  standpoint  of  the  prophet. 

(2)  The  series  of  predictions  in  chap.  11  are, 
in  their  minuteness  of  detail,  unlike  any  other 
prophecies  of  Scripture.     To  this  it  is  replied 
that  we  have  no  right  to  limit  the  method  of 
possible  Divine  communication. 

(3)  Some  historical  details  of  chaps.  1-6  are 
difficult  to  reconcile  with  the  fuller  knowledge 
of  Babylonian  times  reached  by  modern  dis- 
coveries :   especially   the   identity   of   "  Darius 
the  Mede." 

(4)  It  is  held  that  various  indications  of  late 
date  are  afforded  by  the  book  itself,  its  place  in 
the  Canon,  and  its  use  in  subsequent  literature. 

(a)  The  linguistic  phenomena  are  peculiar. 
The  section  2.4-7.8  is  in  Aramaic  :  fifteen  words 
from  the  Persian  and  three  from  the  Greek  occur  : 
the  Hebrew  is  that  of  the  later  language. 

(b)  In  the  Hebrew  Canon,  Daniel  is  not  placed 
among  the  "  Prophets  "  (though  that  section 
contains    the    post-exilic    writings   of    Haggai, 
Zechariah,  and  Malachi),  but  among  the  Kethub- 
him  (Hagiographa,  Holy  Writings),  a  collection 
which,  there  is  reason  for  thinking,  marks  the 
latest  stage  in  the  formation  of  the  O.T. 

(c)  The  predictions  in  the  book  are,  for  their 
minuteness  and  particularity,  up  to  a  certain 
point,  unlike  any  other  prophecies  to  be  found 
in  Holy  Scripture.    It  is  replied  that  possibly 
some  of  the  suspected  details  have  been  added 
by   "  targumists,"    and    transferred    from    the 
margin. 

For  these  and  other  reasons  the  book  is 
assigned  by  many  modern  critics  to  the  times  of 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  between  the  desecration 
of  the  Temple  and  his  death  (168-164).  It  thus 
becomes  an  appeal  to  the  author's  suffering 
countrymen,  based  on  reminders  of  what  God 
had  wrought  for  His  steadfast  servants  of  old, 
permeated  by  a  religious  interpretation  of 
history  as  the  unfolding  of  the  Divine  purpose 
for  His  people,  and  culminating  in  a  reassertion 
of  the  Messianic  hope  and  the  final  triumph  of 
the  Kingdom  of  God. 

In  regard  to  this  controversy  it  should  be 
pointed  out  that  the  late  date  leaves  un- 
touched the  supposition — most  probable  on  other 
grounds — that  the  author  incorporated  true,  and 
carefully  cherished,  traditions  of  Daniel  and 
his  companions  in  Babylon.  In  its  religious 
interpretation  of  history  and  of  the  circumstances 
amid  which  it  was  written,  the  book  exhibits  in 


a  marked  degree  the  characteristics  of  inspired 
prophecy.  To  suggest  an  alternative  between 
a  genuine  work  of  Daniel  and  a  "  forgery  "  is  to 
misapprehend  the  literary  methods  of  the 
ancient  world.  It  is  quite  conceivable  that  this 
Eastern  writer  would  clothe  his  inspired  message 
to  his  persecuted  compatriots  in  story  and  vision 
gathered  round  the  ancient  history  of  Daniel 
in  Babylon.  But  the  religious  value  of  the  book, 
its  revelation  of  the  Divine  working,  its  promise 
of  the  Christ,  and  all  moral  and  spiritual  lessons 
which  it  has  so  freely  yielded  to  the  Church  in  all 
ages,  have  been,  and  must  ever  remain,  inde- 
pendent of  any  conclusion  of  criticism  as  to  when 
and  by  whom  it  was  written. 

Dan'ites,  The. — Members  of  the  tribe  of  Dan 
( Judg.  13.2, 18.1, 11 ;  1  Ch.  12.35). 

Dan-ja'an. — Meaning  unknown:  a  place  on 
the  north-west  border  of  David's  kingdom,  visited 
by  Joab  in  taking  the  census  (2  Sam.  24.6). 
Possibly  to  be  identified  with  Daman,  a  ruin 
4  miles  north  of  Achzib. 

Dan'nah. — Meaning  unknown :  town  in  the 
mountains  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.49). 

Da'ra.— 1  Ch.  2.6.     [DARDA,  R.V.  marg.] 

Dar'da. — One  of  four  men  who  were  of  great 
fame  for  their  wisdom,  but  were  excelled  by 
Solomon.  He  and  two  others  are  called  sons  of 
Mahol,  which  see  (1  K.  4.31). 

Daric.— [MONEY.] 

Dari'us. — Three  kings  bearing  this  name  are 
mentioned  in  the  O.T. 

1.  Darius  the  Mede,  who  succeeded  to  the 
government    of     Babylon    after     Belshazzar's 
violent  death.    He  was  sixty-two  years  old  at 
the  time  (Dan.  5.31  et  seq.).     He  made  Daniel 
one  of  the  three  presidents  who  were  placed  over 
the  120  satraps,  and  after  Daniel's  miraculous 
deliverance  from  the  lions  he  issued  a  decree 
enjoining  "  reverence  for  the  God  of  Israel " 
throughout    his    dominions.      He    is    usually 
identified   with    Gobryas,   governor   of    Media, 
who  acted  as  Cyrus'  representative  at  the  capture 
of  Babylon. 

2.  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  proclaimed 
king  of  the  vast  Persian  empire  in  521  B.C.     He 
was  one  of  the  greatest  warriors  in  history.    He 
carried  his  conquering  arms  beyond  the  heights 
of  the  Balkans  and  far  along  the  northern  coast 
of  Africa,  and  south  to  the  plains  of  the  Indus. 
His  attempt  at  the  conquest  of  Greece  resulted 
in  the  crushing  defeat  of  the  Persians  at  the 
battle  of  Marathon  (490  B.C.),  one  of  the  decisive 
battles    of    the    world's    history.     During    his 
reign   of    thirty-six    years   he   established   and 
extended  the  kingdom  founded  by  Cyrus.    The 
Jews  prospered  during  the  reign  of  Darius,  under 
whom   the  work  of  restoring  the  Temple  was 
continued  and  completed  (Ezra  6.15). 

3.  Darius  the  Persian  (Neh.  12.22),  probably 
Codomannus,  last  king  of  Persia,  overthrown  by 
Alexander  the  Great,  330  B.C. 

Darkness. — The  phrase  "  outer  darkness  " 
contains  a  reference  to  the  darkness  of  the 
streets  in  the  East,  which  are  never  lighted  up 
by  any  public  or  private  lamps  after  nightfall, 


• 


DAKKON] 


123 


[DAVID 


in  contrast  with  the  cheerful  light  within  the 
house.  The  expression  "  the  land  of  darkness  " 
(Job  10.21,  22)  signifies  the  state  of  the  dead. 

Dar'kon.— (?)  Walking  rapidly.  Children  of 
Darken  were  among  "  the  servants  of  Solomon  " 
who  returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel 
(Ezra  2.56  ;  Neh.  7.58). 

Dart.  — "Fiery  darts"  (Eph.  6.16)  are 
arrows  or  other  missiles  discharged  while  they 
are  on  fire  or  armed  with  some  combustible 
material. 

Da'than. — Meaning  unknown :  a  Reubenite 
chieftain  who  joined  the  conspiracy  of  Koran 
the  Levite  (Num.  16.1,  26.9;  Dent.  11.6; 
Ps.  116.17). 

Daughter.— The  word  as  used  in  Scripture 
sometimes  implies  granddaughter  or  other  female 
descendant.  "  Daughter  of  Belial  "  (1  Sam.  1.16) 
simply  means  "  daughter  of  worthlessness," 
i.e.  worthless  woman  ;  "  daughter  of  a  strange 
god  "  (Mai.  2.11)  means  a  woman  (or  a  nation) 
who  worshipped  a  false  god.  The  "  daughters 
of  music  "  (Eccles.  12.4)  are  singing  birds.  The 
word  is  also  frequently  used  of  cities.  On  the 
inheritance  of  daughters,  see  Num.  27.6-11. 

David. — (?)Beloved  one:  the  second  and  greatest 
king  of  the  people  of  Israel,  son  of  Jesse, 
great-grandson  of  Ruth,  born  at  Bethlehem, 
the  youngest  son  of  a  family  of  ten.  Though 
his  father  was  a  man  of  position  and  property, 
David  in  his  youth  pursued  the  occupation — 
that  of  the  shepherd — allotted  in  Eastern 
countries  usually  to  the  slaves,  the  females,  or  the 
despised  of  the  family.  Yet  Samuel  neverthe- 
less anointed  him  as  the  future  king  of  Israel. 
Being  a  skilful  player  on  the  harp,  he  was 
summoned  by  Saul  to  soothe  the  melancholy 
of  that  unhappy  monarch  (1  Sam.  16).  The 
scene  of  David's  encounter  with  Goliath  (1  Sam. 
17)  was  Ephes-Dammim,  among  the  hills  on  the 
western  frontier  of  Judah,  and  the  water- 
course that  ran  between  the  two  armies  was  the 
Elah  or  "  the  Terebinth,"  now  Wady  Es-Sunt. 
The  fame  which  David  acquired  by  this  exploit 
— though  it  won  him  Saul's  daughter  Michal 
to  wife — inspired  Saul  to  malicious  jealousy 
of  the  boy -warrior.  Nevertheless  the  king 
raised  David  to  the  post  of  captain  of  the  royal 
bodyguard,  a  position  only  inferior  to  that  of 
Abner,  the  captain  of  the  host,  and  Jonathan, 
the  heir-apparent.  David  and  Jonathan  be- 
came devoted  friends,  but  the  jealous  madness 
and  murderous  designs  of  the  king  at  length 
drove  David  into  exile.  He  sought  refuge  with 
Samuel,  and  later  at  the  court  of  Achish,  the 
Philistine  king  of  Gath,  whence  he  escaped 
by  feigning  madness  (1  Sam.  19-21).  He  now 
made  his  retreat  in  the  cave  of  Adullam,  then 
in  a  stronghold  near  En-gedi,  and  afterwards 
in  the  forest  of  Hareth,  in  the  south  of  Judah. 
David  had  there  with  him  a  band  of  devoted 
and  desperate  men,  who  willingly  shared  his 
dangers.  Friendship  to  his  cause  was  a  perilous 
thing,  as  was  shown  by  the  murder  of  Abimelech 
and  the  priests  by  Doeg  the  Edomite  at  Saul's 
command  (1  Sam.  22).  The  band  entered  the 


fortified  town  of  Keilah,  and  Saul  hoped  to 
ensnare  them  there  (1  Sam.  23).  In  contrast 
to  the  king's  relentless  pursuit  of  David  stands 
the  fugitive's  chivalrous  regard  for  "  the  Lord's 
anointed,"  as  shown  when  he  spared  Saul's 
life  in  the  wilderness  of  En-gedi  (1  Sam.  24) 
and  in  the  wilderness  of  Ziph  (1  Sam.  26).  The 
same  chivalrous  disposition  was  successfully 
appealed  to  by  Abigail  in  the  case  of  the  foolish 
Nabal  (1  Sam.  25).  For  a  time  David  found 
shelter  with  Achish,  king  of  Gath,  and  then  Saul 
"  sought  no  more  again  for  him  "  (1  Sam.  27.4). 
In  the  absence  of  David,  Ziklag  was  captured 
and  looted  by  the  Amalekites ;  but  David 
pursued  the  invaders,  defeated  them,  and 
rescued  the  captives,  which  included  his  own 
wives  (1  Sam.  30).  After  the  disastrous  battle 
of  Gilboa  (1  Sam.  31),  David  uttered  the 
touching  lamentation  over  Saul  and  Jonathan 
(2  Sam.  1).  David  now  became  king  of  Judah, 
was  anointed  at  Hebron  (2  Sam.  2),  and  reigned 
there  for  over  seven  years.  There  was  long 
war  between  the  house  of  Saul  and  the  house 
of  David  (2  Sam.  3.1).  But  after  the  murder 
of  Ishbosheth,  Saul's  son  (2  Sam.  4) — an  act  of 
which  David  strongly  disapproved — he  became 
king  of  all  Israel  (2  Sam.  5).  He  now  devoted 
his  attention  to  the  capture  of  the  one  fortress 
which  alone  in  the  centre  of  the  land  had  defied 
the  arms  of  the  chosen  people.  By  one  sudden 
assault  Jebus  was  taken,  and  became  henceforth 
known  by  its  ancient  name  of  Jerusalem,  and 
by  the  name  of  Zion  (2  Sam.  5).  The  captured 
city  was  strongly  fortified  and  made  the  capital 
of  the  kingdom.  The  ark  was  brought  with 
great  solemnity  from  Kirjath-jearim,  and  a  new 
tent  or  Tabernacle  erected  for  its  reception 
(2  Sam.  6).  Prosperity  continued  to  attend 
the  arms  of  David,  but  amidst  such  success — 
whilst  his  troops  were  besieging  Kabbah — he 
fell  into  the  depths  of  sin  in  compassing  the 
death  of  Uriah,  after  committing  adultery  with 
Bathsheba  (2  Sam.  11).  He  was  convicted 
of  his  sin,  repented,  and  was  pardoned ;  but  the 
remainder  of  his  days  were  embittered  by 
family  feuds.  Absalom,  his  favourite  son, 
rebelled  against  him,  and  for  a  time  made  his 
father  an  exile,  but  ultimately  perished  (2  Sam. 
15-18).  The  sore  judgment  entailed  by  the 
numbering  of  the  people  still  further  clouded 
the  later  years  of  the  king  (2  Sam.  24).  At  the 
last,  after  Adonijah  had  pretended  to  the  throne, 
David  abdicated  in  favour  of  Solomon,  confiding 
also  to  him  the  task  of  building  the  Temple, 
for  which  great  provision  had  been  made. 
After  a  final  charge  to  his  successor,  David 
"  slept  with  his  fathers,  and  was  buried  in  the 
city  of  David  "  (1  K.  1  and  2). 

The  career  of  David  is  one  full  of  romantic 
incidents  and  surprising  contrasts.  It  is 
essentially  a  human  story,  illustrating  the  weak- 
ness as  well  as  the  strength  of  a  character  of 
unusual  capacity.  That  David  was  "  a  man 
after"  God's  "own  heart"  (1  Sam.  13.14; 
Acts  13.22)  implies  no  presentation  of  David  as 
a  perfect  man,  but  only  as  an  agent  chosen  of 


DAVID,  CITY  OF] 


124 


[DEBORAH 


God  for  His  purposes.  David's  sins  brought  sore 
punishment ;  but  they  also  found  him  a  man 
who  humbled  himself  in  true  sorrow  under 
conviction  of  sin  (2  Sam.  12).  Of  the  general 
character  of  David,  Dean  Stanley  said  :  "  In 
the  complexity  of  its  elements,  passion,  tender- 
ness, generosity,  fierceness — the  soldier,  the 
shepherd,  the  poet,  the  statesman,  the  priest, 
the  prophet,  the  king — the  romantic  friend,  the 
chivalrous  leader,  the  devoted  father — there  is 
no  character  of  the  O.T.  at  all  to  be  compared  to 
it.  ...  He  is  the  type  and  prophecy  of  Jesus 
Christ.  Christ  is  not  called  the  son  of  Abraham 
or  of  Jacob  or  of  Moses,  but  '  the  son  of 
David.'  " 

David,  City  oL— [JERUSALEM.] 
David,  Tower  of.— [TOWER  OP  DAVID.] 
Day>_The  "  heat  of  the  day  "  (Matt.  20.12) 
means  about  nine  o'clock,  when  in  the  East  the 
sun  is  blazing  in  the  sky.  The  "  cool  of  the 
day"  (Gen.  3.8)  is  just  before  sunset.  Before 
the  Captivity  the  Jews  divided  the  night  into 
three  watches :  the  first  watch  lasting  till  mid- 
night (Lam.  2.19),  the  middle  watch  lasting  till 
cock-crow  (Judg.  7.19),  and  the  morning  watch 
lasting  'till  sunrise  (Ex.  14.24).  In  the  N.T. 
four  watches  are  referred  to — a  division  borrowed 
from  the  Greeks  and  Romans — first,  from  twi- 
light till  nine  o'clock  (M k.  11.11 ;  John  20.19) ; 
second,  from  nine  o'clock  till  midnight  (Mk. 
13.35) ;  third,  from  midnight  till  three  in  the 
morning  (Mk.  13.35) ;  and  fourth,  from  three 
o'clock  till  daybreak  (John  18.28).  The  day 
was  divided  into  tAvelve  parts  (John  11.9).  The 
third,  sixth,  and  ninth  hours  were  devoted  to 
prayer  (Dan.  6.10;  Acts  2.15,  3.1).  Part  of 
a  day  was  equivalent  in  calculations  to  a  whole 
day  (Matt.  12.40).  The  Jews  had  no  names  for 
the  days  of  the  week,  but  numbered  them  from 
the  Sabbath.  The  word  "  day"  is  used  of  a  festal 
day  (Eos.  7.5),  and  a  day  of  ruin  ( Job  18.20 ; 
Hos.  1.11).  It  should  be  noted  that  in  reckon- 
ing the  length  of  a  king's  reign,  for  example, 
a  small  portion  of  a  year  is  counted  a  whole  year. 
Thus,  if  a  king  came  to  the  throne  on  the  last 
day  of  the  year,  the  next  day  would  be  described 
as  the  beginning  of  the  second  year  of  his  reign. 
[CHEONOLOGY,  TIME,  YEAB.] 

Day's  Journey. — The  ordinary  rate  of  travel- 
ling was  for  a  solitary  traveller  three  miles  an 
hour ;  for  a  camel  two  and  a  half  miles.  Travel- 
lers were  "  on  the  move  "  for  from  six  to  eight 
hours..  The  rate  of  progress  frequently  de- 
pended of  course  upon  the  nature  of  the  ground 
to  be  covered.  A  caravan  with  women  and 
children,  camels  and  mules,  moved  very  slowly, 
not  perhaps  more  than  ten  or  twelve  miles  a  day. 
Daysman. — An  old  English  term  meaning 
umpire  or  arbitrator  (Job  9.33). 

Deacon. — The  title  usually  applied  to  the  Seven 
set  apart  in  Acts  6.  The  apostles,  in  order  to 
meet  the  complaints  of  the  Grecian  Jews  that 
their  widows  were  neglected  in  the  daily  minis- 
tration, called  upon  the  whole  multitude  of 
believers  to  choose  seven  men  "  full  of  the 
Spirit  and  of  wisdom,"  to  whom  they  (the 


apostles),  by  prayer  and  laying  on  of  hands, 
entrusted  the  duty  of  serving  tables  and  dis- 
tributing Church  alms.  As  early  as  Chry- 
sostom  it  was,  however,  contended  that  the 
Seven  were  not  the  first  Deacons,  but  were  set 
apart  only  for  the  work  needed  at  this  time. 
But  the  early  Church  in  general  deemed  the 
order  of  Deacons  to  have  originated  in  the 
Seven  of  Acts  6.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the 
Seven  are  never  called  Deacons  in  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles.  Towards  the  end  of  St.  Paul's 
life,  however,  there  are  clear  signs  of  the  Deacons 
appearing  as  a  regular  part  of  the  Church 
organisation.  They  are  mentioned  with  the 
"  Bishops  "  of  the  Philippian  Church  (Phil.  1.1) ; 
and  in  1  Tim.  3  Paul  lays  down  regulations  for 
both  these  offices. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  word  deacon 
(diakonos)  is  used  in  the  N.T.  in  the  general  sense 
of  a  servant-  or  agent  (as  of  a  king,  Matt.  22.13  ; 
"of  God,"  Rom.  13.4;  "of  Jesus  Christ," 
1  Tim.  4.6).  It  is  in  this  sense  that  Paul 
speaks  of  himself  as  a  diakonos  or  "  minister  " 
of  the  Gospel  (Col.  1.23),  and  of  the  Church 
(Col.  1.25). 

Deaconess. — From  the  reference  in  Rom.  16.1, 
"  I  commend  unto  you  Phoebe  our  sister,  which 
is  a  servant  (diakonos)  of  the  Church  which  is 
at  Cenchrea,"  it  has  been  assumed  that  Phoebe 
belonged  to  an  already  recognised  order  of 
Deaconesses.  But  there  is  no  evidence  that  this 
was  so.  The  more  general  meaning  of  the  word 
diakonos  [see  DEACON]  may  be  that  used  in  the 
case  of  Phoebe.  This  would  imply  that  Phoebe 
was  a  woman  of  influence,  whose  services  to  the 
apostle,  as  well  as  to  others  (Rom.  16.2),  justified 
him  in  giving  her  the  honourable  title  of  diakonos. 
Note,  however,  that  the  "  wives  "  spoken  of  by 
Paul,  later  on,  in  describing  the  qualifications  of 
a  deacon,  should  be  "  women  "  (1  Tim.  3.11). 
Clearly  at  this  period  the  diaconate  included 
both  men  and  women.  It  has  been  disputed 
whether  the  latter  were  the  wives  of  Deacons  or 
independent  women.  In  the  early  Church 
unmarried  women  as  well  as  widows  were  ad- 
mitted as  deaconesses. 

Dead,  Baptism  for.— [BAPTISM.] 

Dead  Sea. — [SEA,  SALT.]  The  name  is  not 
used  in  Holy  Scripture. 

Debir. — Meaning  unknown,  ?  shrine:  1. 
Now  Edh-Dhaherayeh,  a  town  in  mountains  of 
Judah  (Josh.  15.49),  formerly  called  Kirjath- 
sannah  and  Kirjath-sepher  (Josh.  15.15 ;  Judg. 
1.11).  Situated  on  the  top  of  a  long  flat  ridge, 
an  arid  district  without  springs,  but  with  fourteen 
springs  6£  miles  north.  Royal  city  of  Anakim, 
captured  by  Othniel  (Josh.  10,  11,  12,  and  15  ; 
Judg.  1.12,  13),  assigned  to  the  priests  (Josh. 
21.15 ;  1  Ch.  6.58).  2.  A  place  on  the  north 
boundary  of  Judah,  near  "  the  valley  of  Achor," 
(Josh.  15.7).  3.  Place  near  the  boundary  of 
Gad,  on  the  high  downs  east  of  Jordan  ( Josh. 
13.26).  4.  King  of  Eglon,  one  of  the  five  kings 
hanged  by  Joshua  (Josh.  10.3,  23). 

Debo'rah.— Bee :  1.  The  nurse  of  Rebekah 
(Gen.  35.8  ;  compare  24.59).  In  the  East  nurses 


DEBT,  DEBTOR] 


125 


pEMETRIUS 


were  important  and  highly  honoured  members  of 
the  family  (2  Ch.  22.11).  Deborah  accompanied 
Rebekah  to  the  home  of  her  husband  (Gen.  24.59). 
2.  A  prophetess  who  judged  Israel  (Judg.  4.5) 
under  a  palm  tree  in  Mount  Ephraim  ;  the  wife 
of  Lapidoth.  Her  prophetic  gift  endowed  her 
with  great  influence  in  a  time  of  despair  and 
confusion  (Judg.  4.6,  14,  5.7),  and  she  was  a  true 
"  mother  in  Israel."  She  roused  the  children 
of  Israel  to  withstand  Jabin,  king  of  Hazor,  who 
had  oppressed  Israel  for  twenty  years.  With 
the  aid  of  Barak  she  organised  an  army  of  10,000 
men,  by  whom  the  forces  of  Jabin,  commanded 
by  Sisera,  were  completely  defeated.  And  the 
land  of  Israel  had  rest  for  forty  years  (Judg. 
5.31).  Her  glorjpus  triumphal  ode  is  recorded 
in  the  same  chapter.  One  of  the  oldest  and 
greatest  of  Hebrew  poems,  it  is  also  one  of  the 
most  striking  odes  of  its  kind  in  all  literature. 
With  the  exception  of  Athaliah,  she  is  the  only 
female  ruler  in  Jewish  history. 

Debt,  Debtor.— [LOAN.] 

Decapolis.— Ten  cities:  a  confederation  of 
Greek  cities,  reckoned  as  ten,  in  an  area  ex- 
tending on  both  sides  of  the  Jordan  about  the 
south  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  northward. 
They  received  privileges  from  Rome  after  63  B.C. 
Sick  inhabitants  of  this  district  were  healed  by 
our  Lord  (Matt.  4.25  ;  Mk.  5.20,  7.31).  The  ten 
cities,  according  to  Pliny,  were  Damascus, 
Philadelphia,  Raphana,  Scythopolis  (  =  Beth- 
shan),  Gadara,  Hippos,  Dion,  Pella,  Gerasa, 
and  Canatha.  In  the  time  of  our  Lord  these 
cities  contained  large  populations,  mostly  Greeks, 
and  were  prosperous ;  six  of  them,  are  com- 
pletely ruined  and  deserted ;  three — Scythopolis, 
Gadara,  and  Canatha — have  still  a  few  families 
living,  more  like  wild  beasts  than  human  beings, 
amid  the  crumbling  ruins  of  palaces,  and  in  the 
cavernous  recesses  of  old  tombs.  Damascus, 
though  shorn  of  much  of  its  old  glory,  is  still 
important  and  populous. 

Decision,  Valley  of.—  [JEHOSHAPHAT.] 

De'dan. — Meaning  unknown :  1.  A  son  of 
Raamah  and  grandson  of  Gush  (Gen.  10.7). 
2.  A  son  of  Jokshan  (Gen.  25.3).  The  Dedanim 
of  Isai.  21.13  and  Dedan  of  Ezek.  27.20  were  the 
descendants  of  one  or  the  other,  and  were  an 
Arab  tribe,  acting  as  caravan  merchants  between 
east  and  west,  whose  home  was  near  Edom 
(Ezek.  25.13).  There  is  an  island  called  Dadan 
near  the  Persian  Gulf,  the  name  of  which  may 
or  may  not  be  connected  with  the  Biblical 
Dedan. 

Deda'nim.— [DEDAN.] 

Dedanites.— [DEDAN.] 

Dedication,  Feast  of  the.— The  festival  in- 
stituted to  commemorate  the  purification  of  the 
Temple  and  the  rebuilding  of  the  Altar  after 
Judas  Maccabseus  had  driven  out  the  Syrians 
(164  B.C.)  ;  mentioned  only  once  in  the  Bible 
( John  10.22).  The  festival  was  celebrated  with 
much  singing  and  with  the  carrying  of  branches. 
It  is  still  observed  as  Chanukah  by  the  Jews, 
and  frills  about  Hie  end  of  December. 

Deep,   The.— The   word    thus    translated    in 


Lk.  8.31  and  Rom.  10.7  is  rendered  "  abyss  " 
in  the  R.V.  In  Rev.  9.1,  2, 11,  11.7,  and  20.1,  3 
"bottomless  pit"  is  literally  "pit  (or  well)  of 
the  abyss"  (see  ll.V.),  the  entrance  to  the 
abyss  being  regarded  as  a  shaft  down  to  a 
region  lying  in  the  depths.  The  usual  interpre- 
tation is  that  it  means  the  prison-house  of  evil 
spirits. 

Degree,  Good  (1  Tim.  3.13).— R.V.  has 
"  good  standing  "  ;  a  position  assured  by  Paul 
to  those  who  served  well  as  deacons.  Three  ex- 
planations have  been  offered — (1)  promotion  to 
be  "  bishops "  ;  (2)  reward  in  the  favour  of 
God,  possibly  to  be  shown  in  a  future  state ; 
and  (3)  a  position  of  moral  influence  and  auth- 
ority in  the  Church.  The  early  Fathers  turned 
to  (1) ;  Hort  preferred  (3).  There  are  no  proofs 
that  in  the  tune  of  the  apostle  its  ministers 
passed  through  successive  grades ;  though 
later  on  the  word  here  used  (bathmos)  came  to 
mean  an  order,  or  rank,  in  the  ministry. 

Degrees,  Shadow  of  (2  K.  20.9).— [DIAL.] 

Degrees,  Song  of,  or  Song  of  Ascents.— The 
title  given  to  fifteen  Psalms  (120-134).  The 
Hebrew  going  up  to  Jerusalem  on  a  festival 
occasion  recited  one  or  other  of  these  Psalms. 
The  explanation  that  the  title  refers  to  the 
fifteen  steps  from  the  Women's  Court  in  the 
Temple,  and  that  one  of  these  Psalms  was  sung 
at  each  step,  is  improbable. 

Dehav'ites,  Dehaites.— Some  of  the  colonists 
planted  in  Samaria  by  the  Assyrian  monarch, 
Esarhaddon  (Ezra  4.9).  Perhaps  the  same  as 
the  Dai,  a  nomadic  tribe  of  Persia,  mentioned 
by  Herodotus. 

De'kar,  The  Son  of  (or  Ben-Dekar).— One  of 
Solomon's  commissariat  officers  (1  K.  4.9). 

Delai'ah. — Jehovah  hath  drawn'.  1.  A  priest 
in  the  time  of  David  (1  Ch.  24.18).  2.  A  prince 
of  Judah  in  the  time  of  Jeremiah  (Jer.  36.12,  25). 
3.  "  Children  of  Delaiah "  were  among  the 
people  of  uncertain  pedigree  who  returned 
from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  {Ezra  2.60: 
Neh.  7.62).  4.  A  father  of  a  contemporary  of 
Nehemiah  (Neh.  6.10).  5.  DALAIAH. 

Deli'lah. — (?)  Languishing:  a  woman  of  Sorek 
in  Philistia,  beloved  by  Samson.  At  her  insti- 
gation the  Philistines  won  from  him  the  secret 
of  his  strength  (Judg.  16.4-18).  She  received 
5500  shekels  (£700)  for  her  treachery. 

Deluge.— [NOAH.] 

De'mas. — Probably  a  shortened  form  of 
Demetrius.  A  companion  of  Paul  in  his  first 
imprisonment  at  Rome  (Col.  4.14 ;  Philem.  24), 
who  afterwards  forsook  him  under  the  more 
trying  circumstances  of  his  second  imprison- 
ment there  (2  Tim.  4.10). 

Deme'trius. — 1.  A  maker  of  small  silver 
shrines  of  Diana  at  Ephesus,  probably  repre- 
senting the  goddess  seated  in  a  niche.  It  was 
customary  to  carry  these  on  the  person,  or 
place  them  in  houses  as  amulets  and  charms. 
They  were  freely  purchased  by  visitors  to 
the  famous  temple.  Demetrius  raised  an 
outcry  against  Paul  when  he  preached  the 
Gospel  at  Ephesus,  considering  rightly  that 


DEMON,  DEMONIAC] 


126 


[DEUTERONOMY 


his  trade  was  in  danger  (Acts  19.24).  2.  A 
convert  well  spoken  of,  who  also  lived  at  or 
near  Ephesus  (3  John  12). 

Demon,  Demoniac.  [See  DEVIL,  POSSESSED 
OP  A.] 

Den.— [CAVES.]  Daniel  was  cast  into  "  the 
den  of  lions  "  (Dan.  6.16,  17).  This  was  the 
pit  in  which  the  lions  were  kept,  in  accordance 
with  the  custom  of  both  Assyrian  and  Persian 
monarchs. 

Denarius.— Translated  in  theR.V.  as  "  penny." 
The  denarius  was  the  principal  Roman  silver 
coin  of  the  period,  weighing  60  grains,  and 
worth  about  9£d.  of  our  money.  It  was  the 
ordinary  pay  for  a  husbandman's  day's  labour 
(Malt.  20.2-13). 

Deputy  (in  Acts  13.7,  etc. ;  R.V.,  Proconsul). 
[See  GALLIO.] 

Derbe. — A  city  of  Lycaonia  (Acts  14.6) 
geographically,  though  in  the  Roman  province 
of  Galatia.  It  was  visited  by  St.  Paul,  as 
described  in  Acts  14.20,  16.1 — possibly  also 
when  he  visited  "  the  district  of  Galatia  and 
Phrygia  "  (Acts  18.23).  Gaius,  his  companion, 
was  of  Derbe  (Acts  20.4).  The  site  of  Derbe  is 
probably  that  of  the  mound  of  Gudelissin,  some 
30  miles  south-west  of  Lystra. 

Desert.— The  ordinary  idea  of  a  desert— a 
vast  treeless  and  waterless  waste  of  sand — 
must  not  be  attached  to  the  word  as  it  is  used 
in  the  Bible.  The  Israelites  had  no  acquaintance 
with  such  a  desert  either  in  their  wanderings 
or  in  their  settled  existence.  Four  different 
Hebrew  words  are  translated  "  desert "  in  the 
A.V.  In  the  historical  books  of  the  Bible  the 
"  desert "  means  the  valley  of  the  Jordan, 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  of  the  country  south  of 
the  Dead  Sea.  Here  in  the  flourishing  days 
of  Palestine  were  cultivated  the  palm,  the 
balsam,  the  sugar-cane,  and  a  luxurious  vegeta- 
tion. In  the  prophetical  and  poetical  books 
the  desert  does,  in  general,  indeed  signify  a 
country  dried  up  with  excessive  heat,  although 
in  Ezek.  47.8  it  implies  the  Jordan  valley. 
The  word  rendered  "  desert  "  in  Ex.  3.1,  5.3, 
19.2,  and  in  Num.  33.16  would  be  better 
translated  by  "  pasture  land."  The  Israelites 
had  flocks  and  herds  with  them  during  the 
whole  of  their  passage  to  the  Promised  Land. 
The  same  rendering  ought  also  to  be  substituted 
for  desert  in  Job  24.5  ;  Isai.  21.1 ;  Jcr.  25.24. 

Deu'eL— (?)Know  God:  father  of  Eliasaph 
(Num.  1.14,  7.42,  47,  10.20).  The  name 
appears  as  Reuel  (Num.  2.14). 

Deuteronomy.— The  fifth  book  in  the  O.T., 
and  final  book  of  the  Pentateuch.  The  name, 
derived  from  the  contents,  means  the  "  Second 
Law."  Its  contents  may  be  summarised  thus — 

I.  Introduction,  or  Preface,  adapted  to 
gain  attention  from  the  people  :  i.  Commemora- 
ting the  blessings  conferred  on  them;  both  in 
peace,  by  the  gift  of  a  wise  and  religious  magis- 
tracy (1),  and  in  war,  by  making  them  victori- 
ous over  the  kin<js  of  Heshbon  and  Bashan 
(2,  3).  ii.  Describing  the  precious  law  given 
(0  them,  as  to  its  Author,  its  miraculous  pro- 


mulgation, its  subject-matter,  and  the  benefits 
which  would  redound  to  them  by  its  observ- 
ance (4.1-40). 

II.  The  Second  Part  contains  :   i.  The  main 
principles  of  religion,   in   the   Ten   Command- 
ments (4.44-49,  5) ;    followed  by  a  declaration 
of  the  end  of  the  Law — obedience  ;    with  an 
exhortation  thereto   (6),   and  dissuasives  from 
those  things  which  would  hinder  their  obedi- 
ence—  viz.   intercourse   with   heathen   nations 
(7),  forgetfulness  of  God's  mercies  (8),  and  self- 
righteousness  ;     to    beat    down    which    Moses 
reminds  them  of  their  own  frequent  rebellions, 
murmurings,   and  provocations,   and  of  God's 
free  and  undeserved  grace  and  love  towards 
them    (9,    10.1-11).     ii.    Practical    exhortations 
deduced  from  these  principles,  introduced  by 
an  earnest  and  impressive  appeal  (10.12-22, 11). 
These  chiefly  concern  the  worship  of  God — as 
to  its  proper  place  and  manner  (12) ;  the  avoid- 
ing and  punishing  seducers  to  idolatry  (13) ; 
the  guarding  against  legal  uncleanness  (14.1-21) ; 
and  the  times  and  seasons  of  worship,  including 
the  sabbatical  year  (15)  and  the  annual  festi- 
vals (16.1-17) :   and  the  conduct  of  men  ;   either 
in    civil     (16.18-22,    17),    or    in    ecclesiastical 
authority    (18) ;     or   universally    considered   in 
their  several  duties  to  God  and  man,  in  many 
laws — moral,  judicial,  and  ceremonial  (19-26). 

III.  The  Conclusion,  which,  after  enjoining 
a  solemn   repetition  of    the    law   (27),   is :    i. 
Hortatory :    persuading   to  obedience — by  pro- 
mises   of   blessings,    and    by   denunciation    of 
curses  (28);   by  the  remembrance  of  the  great 
things  which  God  had  done  for  them ;    by  the 
obligation  of  a  solemn  covenant  (29) ;  and  by 
encouragements   to   repentance    (30).    ii.    His- 
torical :    Moses  resigns   his  charge  to  Joshua, 
and  delivers  the  law  to  the  priests  (31.1-21); 
composes  a  prophetic  song,  which  he  delivers 
to   the  people   (31.22-30,   32);    pronounces  a 
blessing  upon   the   tribes,   each   in   particular 
(33) ;    views   the    Promised   Land,  into  which 
he  must  not  enter  ;  dies,  and  is  buried  (34). 

A  comparison  of  this  second  code  with  the 
laws  recorded  in  the  Bock  of  Exodus  should  be 
carefully  made  by  the  student.  The  results 
that  such  comparison  will  yield,  if  rightly  estim- 
ated, will  but  confirm  the  authenticity  of  both. 
Some  passages  that  at  first  sight  seem  at 
variance  may  refer  to  different  events ;  as  the 
appointment  of  judges,  1.16-18  compared  with 
Ex.  18  and  Num.  11.  Or  a  different  point  of 
view  is  taken,  as  when  in  1.22  the  people  are 
said  to  have  urged  the  mission  of  the  spies, 
whereas  in  Num.  13.1-3  Jehovah  is  said  to 
have  given  the  command;  the  request  of  the 
people  being  divinely  granted,  as  in  similar 
instances. 

Additions  to  the  history  require  no  explana- 
tion; as  "wept  before  Jehovah"  (1.45),  "  three- 
score cities  "  (3.4),  "  what  Amalek  did  unto  thee  " 
(25.17,  18.) 

Very  significant  and  important  are  occasional 
variations  in  the  laws.  Some  enactments  given 
for  observance  in  the  wilderness  would  not  apply 


DEVIL] 


127 


[DIAL 


to  life  in  Canaan.  Compare,  e.g.,  Lev.  17.3,  4 
with  Deut.  12.15. 

The  laws  relating  to  the  three  great  annual 
festivals,  Passover,  Pentecost,  and  Tabernacles 
are  modified :  compare  16.1-17  with  Lev.  23 
and  Num.  28, 29.  In  regard  again  to  the  offering 
of  firstlings,  to  the  position  and  support  of  the 
Levites,  the  earlier  and  the  later  codes  differ  in 
some  respects  from  each  other. 

Deuteronomy  appears  to  have  been  the  book 
discovered  by  Hilkiah  the  high  priest  in  the  tune 
of  king  Josiah  (2  K.  22.10),  for  the  reforms  then 
instituted  are  more  in  accordance  with  its 
teaching  than  with  that  of  any  other  book  of 
the  Pentateuch. 

It  was  from  Deuteronomy  that  our  Lord  thrice 
quoted  the  words  with  which  He  answered  the 
Tempter  in  the  wilderness  (compare  Matt.  4.4,  7, 
10  with  Deut.  8.3,  6.16,  6.13). 

The  announcement  of  a  future  prophet  in 
Deut.  18.15-19  is  twice  applied  to  Christ  in 
the  N.T.— by  the  Apostle  Peter,  and  by 
the  martyr  Stephen  (Acts  3.22,  7.37).  There 
is  also  evidence  that  the  words  were  regarded 
by  the  Jews  as  a  prediction  of  the  coming 
Messiah.  See  John  1.30,  31,  45,  and  5.45-47. 
No  doubt  the  language  of  Moses  had  a  general 
fulfilment  in  the  raising  up  of  a  prophetical 
succession,  culminating  in  the  appearance  and 
work  of  Jesus  Christ,  to  whom  therefore  it 
eminently  refers.  The  numerous  quotations 
from  Deuteronomy  in  the  N.T.  attest  the  honour 
in  which  the  book  was  held  from  the  earliest  days 
of  the  Christian  Church.  [PENTATEUCH.] 

Devil.  —  Accuser:  1.  The  false  accuser, 
slandering  God  to  man  and  man  to  God.  In 
Oen.  3.5  the  devil  seeks  to  represent  God  as  an 
arbitrary  and  selfish  ruler.  For  the  devil  as 
the  accuser  of  man,  see  Job  1  and  2.  He  is 
described  as  "  the  accuser  of  our  brethren,  who 
accused  them  before  our  God  day  and  night " 
(Rev.  12.10).  Of  the  nature  and  original  state 
of  Satan  little  is  revealed  in  the  Scripture,  but 
his  power  over  the  soul  is  intimated  not 
obscurely.  In  the  parable  of  the  sower  (Matt. 
13.19)  he  is  represented  as  catching  away  the 
good  seed  sown  in  the  heart ;  hi  that  of  the 
wheat  and  the  tares  (Matt.  13.39)  he  is  depicted 
as  introducing  evil  into  the  world.  Paul 
declares  to  Agrippa  that  his  mission  was  to  turn 
men  from  the  power  of  Satan  unto  God  (Acts 
26.18),  and  represents  the  excommunication 
which  cuts  men  off  from  the  grace  of  Christ  in  His 
Church  as  a  "  deliverance  of  them  unto  Satan  " 
(1  Cor.  5.5 ;  1  Tim.  1.20).  Then  we  find  the 
expression  "  synagogue  of  Satan "  (Rev.  2.9, 
3.9),  the  "  depths  of  Satan  "  (Rev.  2.24).  In 
Hebrews  the  death  of  Christ  is  spoken  of  as 
intended  to  destroy  "  him  that  hath  the  power 
of  death,  that  is,  the  devil "  (Heb.  2.14).  The 
"  wiles  "  (Eph.  6.11),  the  "  devices  "  (2  Cor.  2.11), 
the  "  snare  "  (1  Tim.  3.7,  6.9  ;  2  Tim.  2.26)  "  of 
the  devil "  are  expressions  which  indicate  the 
character  of  the  power  of  evil.  The  devils  who 
had  power  to  possess  the  souls  of  men  are  spoken 
of  ^s  members  of  the  host  which  Satan  captains 


(Matt.  12.24,  26;  LJc.  10.18;  Acts  10.38; 
Eph.  6.12).  The  Scripture  describes  sins  as 
"  the  works  of  the  devil,"  and  traces  to  him  all 
error  and  evil  (2  Cor.  11.14,  15  ;  1  Thess.  2.18 ; 
Rev.  2.10,  20.10).  Satan  is  represented  as,  above 
all,  the  Tempter  ;  the  chief  recorded  instances 
of  his  activity  in  this  character  are  the  tempta- 
tions of  Eve  and  of  our  Lord.  [SATAN.] 

2.  Devils,  as  objects  of  worship,  to  which 
propitiatory  sacrifices  were  offered,  are  referred 
to  in  Lev.  17.7;  Deut.  32.17;  2  Ch.  11.15; 
Ps.  106.37.  (Compare  Rev.  9.20.)  [And  see 
SATYE.] 

Devil,  Possessed  of  a.— Demoniacal  posses- 
sion figures  largely  in  the  Gospels  and  Acts. 
Three  words  represent  the  evil  spirits  and  the 
condition  of  being  under  their  control — daemon, 
dcemonion,  and  the  corresponding  verb.  They 
imply  the  existence  of  beings  inhabiting  and 
controlling  human  beings,  or  even  dwelling  in 
beasts  (as  hi  the  Gadarene  swine,  Matt.  8.32). 
Their  influence  was  manifested  at  times  in 
physical  infirmity  (as  dumbness,  Matt.  9.32,  33) ; 
but  that  those  possessed  thus  were  not  ordinarily 
sick  persons  is  shown  by  distinct  differentiation 
as  in  Matt.  10.8.  That  their  influence  was  also 
seen  in  moral  degradation  appears  from  the 
parable  of  the  unclean  spirit  (Matt.  12.43-45). 
They  are  opposed  to  the  kingdom  of  God,  and 
their  subjection  was  a  proof  that  His  kingdom 
was  come  (Lk.  11.20).  They  recognised  our 
Lord  as  the  Son  of  God  (as  in  Matt.  8.29),  and 
felt  the  authority  of  His  name  when  used  by 
others  (Acts  19.15). 

Attempts  to  represent  possession  by  the  devil 
as  merely  some  ordinary  physical  or  mental 
malady  fail  hi  the  face  of  the  details  to  be 
gathered  from  the  Gospels.  Nor  is  there  any 
force  in  the  allegation  that  such  possession  does 
not  now  exist.  On  what  sure  ground  can  any 
such  allegation  be  made  ?  Certainly  such 
phenomena  as  are  described  in  the  Gospels  have 
been  noted  in  various  parts  of  the  mission -field. 

Dew. — Dews  in  Palestine  are  plentiful  in  the 
summer,  every  morning.  Gideon  filled  a  basin 
with  the  dew  on  a  fleece  of  wool  (Judg.  6.38). 
Isaac,  blessing  Jacob,  wished  him  the  dew  of 
heaven,  which  fattens  the  fields  (Gen.  27.28). 
In  these  warm  countries,  where  it  seldom  rains, 
the  night  dews  supply  the  want  of  showers. 
The  dew  is  often  employed  in  the  imagery  of 
the  prophets  and  poets  (Deut.  32.2 ;  Job  29.19  ; 
Ps.  133.3 ;  Prov.  19.12 ;  Isai.  26.19 ;  Eos.  6.4, 
13.3,  14.5;  Mic.  5.7).  In  some  of  these 
passages  it  is  rather  the  evening-mist,  which  is 
brought  up  by  the  west  wind. 

Dew  of  Hermon.— [HERMOif^ 

Diadem. — Four  words  are  so  translated  in  the 
O.T.  See  Job  29.14  ;  Isai.  28.5,  62.3  ;  Ezek. 
21.26  (when  R.V.  has  "  mitre."  [CROWN.] 

Dial. — The  word  is  only  found  twice  in  the 
A.V.,  2  K.  20.11 ;  Isai.  38.8.  Elsewhere  the 
Hebrew  word  is  translated  "  steps  "  or  "  de- 
grees." The  general  opinion  is  that  the  dial 
of  Ahaz  was  a  staircase  so  arranged  'that  the 
sun  showed  the  hours  upon  it  by  the  shacjow. 


DIAMOND] 


128 


[DISPERSION 


It  may  be  that  at  the  head  of  the  stairs 
was  a  column  or  obelisk,  the  shadow  of  which 
fell  on  a  greater  or  smaller  number  of  steps 
according  as  the  sun  was  low  or  high.  The 
relation  between  the  length  of  the  shadow  and 
the  time  of  day  was  of  course  familiar  to  anti- 
quity. "  As  a  servant  earnestly  desire th  the 
shadow  "  ( Job  7.2),  i.e.  longs  to  get  done  with 
his  work. 

Diamond.  —  A  precious  stone  (Ex.  28.18, 
39.11 ;  Ezek.  28.13).  Modern  commentators 
prefer  "  onyx "  as  a  translation.  The  dia- 
mond of  Jer.  17.1  should  be  adamant. 

Dia'na. — The  Latin  name  of  the  Greek 
goddess  Artemis,  for  whose  worship  there 
was  a  famous  temple  at  Ephesus  (Acts  19).  The 
view  taken  of  her  in  that  city  was  that  she  was 
the  sustainer  of  all  living  creatures.  The  image 
of  Diana  was  believed  by  the  Ephesians  to 
have  fallen  down  from  heaven.  The  temple 
was  served  by  a  college  of  priests  and  by 
vestal  virgins.  [EPHESUS,  DEMETRIUS.]  It 
was  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world  ; 
constructed  of  shining  marble,  it  had  first 
and  last  taken  220  years  to  build.  Behind 
the  shrine  was  a  treasury  where  nations 
and  kings  stored  their  most  precious  things. 
This  famous  structure  was  burnt  by  the 
Goths  260  A.D. 

Diblah,  Dib'lath.— A  copyist's  mistake  for 
Riblah — D  and  R  being  very  similar  letters  in 
Hebrew  (Ezek.  6.14).  [RIBLAH.] 

Dibla'im. — Meaning  unknown :  the  father  of 
Hosea's  wife  Gomer  (Eos.  1.3). 

Diblatha'im. — Meaning    unknown.     [ALMON- 

DlBLATHAIM  ;    BETH-DlBLATHAIM.] 

Di  bon,  or    Dibon-Gad. — Meaning  unknown  : 

1.  Dhiban,    3J    miles    north   of    the    Am  on. 
Town  of  Moab  (Num.  21.30),  site  of  encamp- 
ment of   Israelites  (Num.  33.45,  46),  assigned 
to  Reuben,  rebuilt  by  Gad  (Num.  32.3,  34; 
Josh.  13.9,  17),  recovered  by  Moab  (Isai.  15.2 ; 
Jer.  48.18,  22).     Called  also  Dimon  (Isai.  15.9), 
site   of  the   discovery  of    the   Moabite   stone. 

2.  Town  reinhabited   by  men  of   Judah  after 
return  from  captivity  (Neh.  11.25).    [DraoNAH.] 

Dib'ri. — A  Danite  whose  daughter  had 
married  an  Egyptian,  and  whose  son  was  stoned 
for  blasphemy  (Lev.  24.11). 

Didrachma.  — [  DRACHMA.  ] 

Did'ymus. — The  twin :  the  Greek  equival- 
ent to  the  Aramaic  word  Thomas,  the  apostle 
(John  11.16,  20.24,  21.2). 

Dik'lah. — Palm  tree :  a  son  of  Joktan  of  the 
family  of  Shem  whose  descendants  inhabited 
a  district  in  Arabia  (Gen.  10.27 ;  1  Ch.  1.21). 
They  have  been  identified  on  somewhat  pre- 
carious grounds  with  the  Minaei,  a  people 
dwelling  in  a  district  of  the  Yemen,  Arabia. 

Dilan,  Dil'ean. — Meaning  unknown  :  town 
in  lowlands  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.38). 

Dill.— Marginal  rendering  of  Matt.  23.23. 
[ANISE.] 

Dim'nah. — (?)Dung  :  Levitical  town  of  Zebu- 
lun  given  to  the  Merarites  (Jo*h.  21.35) ; 
probably  same  as  Rimmon, 


Di'mon,  The  Waters  of.— Some  streams  in  the 
land  of  Moab  (Isai.  15.9) ;  same  as  DIBON  1. 

Dimo'nah. — Marshy  place  :  town  in  extreme 
south  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.22) ;  probably  same 
as  DIBON  2. 

Di'nah. — Judged  or  avenged :  daughter  of 
Jacob  by  Leah  ;  she  accompanied  her  father 
from  Mesopotamia  to  Canaan,  and  was 
violated  by  Shechem,  son  of  Hamor ;  Simeon 
and  Levi,  own  brothers  to  Dinah,  exacted  a 
signal  vengeance  for  this  offence,  slaying  all 
the  males  of  Hamor's  city  and  plundering  it 
(Gen.  34). 

Dinaites. — Assyrian  tribe  transported  to 
Samaria  by  the  Assyrian  king  Asnapper  (Assar- 
banipal)  (668-626  B.C.)  after  the  conquest 
and  captivity  of  the  ten  tribes.  They  opposed 
the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple  (Ezra  4.9).  It 
has  been  conjectured  that  they  are  the  Dayani 
who  lived  in  Western  Armenia. 

Dinha'bah. — Meaning  unknown  :  capital  of 
Bela,  an  Edomite  king  (Gen.  36.32 ;  1  Ch.  1.43). 

Dinner. — [MEALS.  ] 

Diony'sius. — A  convert  of  St.  Paul  and  a 
member  of  the  supreme  court  at  Athens  (Acts 
17.34).  Said  to  have  become  the  first  Bishop  of 
Athens.  Some  famous  mystical  treatises  attri- 
buted to  him  from  the  fifth  century  onwards  are 
doubtless  forgeries. 

Diot'rephes. — A  disciple  who  loved  pre- 
eminence (3  John,  9).  He  was  inhospitable 
to  travelling  evangelists. 

Diphath.— [RiPHATH.  ] 

Disciple. — A  pupil  or  learner,  following  a 
leader  or  his  principles,  as  of  Moses  ( John  9.28), 
John  the  Baptist  (Matt.  9.14),  the  Pharisees 
(Matt  22.16),  and,  pre-eminently,  the  followers 
of  our  Lord  either  in  general  (Matt.  10.42),  or 
restrictedly,  the  apostles  (Matt.  10.1).  The 
word  is  applied  to  a  woman  in  the  case  of  Dorcas 
(Acts  9.36).  [EDUCATION,  SCHOOLS,  APOSTLE.] 

Discover. — Used  in  the  sense  of  "  uncover  " 
in  Deut.  22.30;  2  Sam.  22.16;  Ps.  29.9,  and 
elsewhere. 

Disease.— [MEDICINE.] 

Dish.—"  He  that  dippeth  with  Me  in  the  dish  " 
(Matt.  26.23  ;  Mk.  14.20),  said  our  Lord  at  the 
Last  Supper,  referring  to  Judas.  Guests  at 
table  handled  the  food  with  their  fingers.  Each 
person  broke  off  a  small  piece  of  bread,  dipped 
it  hi  the  dish,  and  then  conveyed  it  to  his 
mouth,  together  with  a  small  portion  of  the 
meat  or  other  contents  of  the  dish.  [BASIN, 
CHARGER.] 

Di'shan. — (?)  Leaping,  or  gazette  or  mountain- 
goat  :  youngest  son  of  Seir  the  Horite  (Gen. 
36.21). 

Di'shon. — Gazette  or  mountain-goat :  1.  Fifth 
son  of  Seir  (Gen.  36.21,  26,  30;  1  Ch.  1.38). 
2.  Son  of  Anah  and  grandson  of  Seir  (Gen.  36.25  ; 
1  Ch.  1.41). 

Dispersion,  The  Jews  of  the. — The  title 
applied  to  Jews  settled  in  foreign  countries. 
These  colonies  were  kept  together  and  prevented 
from  being  lost  in  the  surrounding  community 
by  the  powerful  cohesion  of  their  faith.  Ip 


DISTAFF] 


129 


[DOG 


these  new  circumstances  the  literal  observance 
of  the  Mosaic  law  was  difficult,  and  the  Jews 
thereby  obtained  a  truer  insight  into  its  spiritual 
significance.  The  Dispersion  was  a  most 
wonderful  providential  preparation  for  the 
spread  of  Christianity  among  both  Jews  and 
Gentiles.  The  Temple  at  Jerusalem  remained 
the  acknowledged  centre  of  Judaism,  and  the 
faithful  Jew  everywhere  contributed  his  yearly 
half-shekel  to  its  maintenance.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Christian  era  Jews  were  settled  in 
Babylonia,  Persia,  Media,  Parthia,  throughout 
all  Asia  Minor,  in  Cyprus  and  the  islands  of  the 
JEgean,  in  Alexandria  and  along  the  northern 
coast  of  Africa,  and  in  Home  itself.  The 
earliest  evidence  we  possess  of  a  community  of 
Dispersed  Jews  elsewhere  than  in  Babylonia  is 
that  at  Elephantine  (Assuan)  in  Upper  Egypt, 
where  recent  discoveries  have  shown  the  evi- 
dence of  a  Jewish  Temple  in  the  sixth  century 
B.C.  Many  of  them  rose  to  prosperity  and 
influence.  The  influence  of  the  Dispersion 
on  the  rapid  promulgation  of  Christianity  can 
scarcely  be  overrated,  both  in  its  modification 
of  Jewish  (1 01  trine,  and  in  its  direct  influence 
by  proselytising.  Among  the  converts  at 
Pentecost  were  Jews  who  had  come  from  all 
parts  of  the  world  in  which  their  race  was 
settled,  and  these  naturally  when  they  returned 
to  their  homes  were  centres  of  propagandist 
activity,  and  prepared  the  way  for  the  subsequent 
work  of  the  apostles.  The  Dispersion  had 
created  among  the  Gentiles  a  class  known  as 
"  the  devout,"  who,  if  not  formally  Jews,  re- 
cognised in  various  degrees  the  faith  of  the  God 
of  Israel.  It  was  naturally  from  this  class  that 
many  of  the  first  converts  to  Christianity  were 
drawn. 

Distaff.— Prow.  31.19.     [SPIXXIXQ.] 

Dives. — [LAZARUS.] 

Divination. — God  has  been  pleased  to  bestow 
the  gift  of  prophecy  upon  but  very  few  persons 
in  the  whole  history  of  the  world,  but  there 
were  hi  Bible  times  many  pretenders  to  the 
gift,  who  practised  various  kinds  of  arts  to 
secure  their  supposed  insight  into  the  future. 
Divination  generally  fell  into  the  hands  of  a 
priestly  caste  (Gen.  41.8  ;  Isai.  47.13 ;  Jer.  5.31 ; 
Dan.  2.2),  who  used  it  for  their  own  ends.  The 
persons  who  claimed  to  have  familiar  spirits 
(Isai.  8.19,  29.4)  are  believed  to  have  been  ven- 
triloquists who  "  peeped  and  muttered  "  from 
the  earth  to  imitate  the  voice  of  the  spirits  that 
they  were  supposed  to  have  summoned  from  the 
dead.  As  regards  the  summoning  of  Samuel  from 
the  dead  by  the  witch  of  Endor  (1  Sam.  28.7-25), 
while  the  woman  was  no  doubt  an  impostor,  God 
gave  success  to  her  arts  on  this  occasion  for 
His  own  purpose — that  Saul  might  be  fully 
warned  of  what  awaited  him,  and  that  he  might 
turn  his  heart  to  God  even  in  his  closing  days. 
In  Ezek.  21.21  the  reference  is  to  divination  by 
arrow.  The  king  threw  up  a  bundle  of  arrows 
to  see  in  what  direction  they  would  alight,  and 
since  they  fell  on  the  right  hand  he  marched 
towards  Jerusalem.  The  cup  by  which  Joseph 


is  said  to  have  divined  (Gen.  44.5)  was  a 
silver  vessel  (symbolic  of  the  Nile,  "the 
cup  of  Egypt"),  which  was  supposed  to  have 
mysterious  magical  qualities.  The  divination 
was  by  means  of  radiations  from  the  water  or  from 
magically  inscribed  gems  thrown  into  it.  The 
condition  of  the  liver  of  the  animal  sacrificed 
was  supposed  by  some  to  be  an  indication  to 
future  conduct  (Ezek.  21.21).  Moses  forbade 
every  species  of  divination.  [MAGIC.] 

Divorce. — The  law  of  Moses  permitted  the 
Jewish  husband  to  put  away  his  wife  (Deut. 
22.19, 29, 24.1-4),  but  for  what  causes  is  a 
topic  of  dispute.  Our  Lord  said  :  "  Whosoever 
shall  put  away  his  wife,  saving  for  the  cause 
of  fornication,  cause th  her  to  commit  adultery ; 
and  whosoever  shall  marry  her  that  is  divorced 
committeth  adultery"  (Matt.  5.32).  Some 
scholars  think  that  in  this  verse  "fornica- 
tion "  is  to  be  understood  strictly  of  sin 
before  marriage  (Deut.  22.19).  [ADULTERY, 
MARRIAGE.] 

Diza'hab. — Region  of  gold :  a  place  in  the 
Arabian  desert,  apparently  on  the  border  of 
Moab  (Deut.  1.1). 

Doctor.  —  Lk.  2.46,  5.17;  Acts  5.34. 
[LAWYER,  MEDICINE,  RABBI,  SCRIBES.] 

Do'dai. — Beloved  of  Jah :  an  Ahohite,  one  of 
David's  captains  (1  Ch.  27.4).  [Dooo  2.] 

Doda'nim  or  Roda'nim. — A  race  descended 
from  Javan,  son  of  Japhet  (Gen.  10.4 ;  1  Ch.  1.7). 
They  may  represent  a  Greek  colony  in  Asia 
Minor.  If  Rodanim  is  the  correct  form,  it 
will  denote  the  natives  of  the  island  of  Rhodes. 
Rhodes  had  originally  been  occupied  by 
Phoenicians,  whose  tombs  have  been  discovered 
in  the  ancient  cemeteries  of  the  island,  but 
the  Phoenician  settlers  were  subsequently 
superseded  by  Dorian  Greeks. 

Doda'vah  (R.V.  Dodavahu). — Jah  is  loving  : 
father  of  Eliezer  (2  Ch.  20.37). 

Do'do.— Ilis  beloved-.  1.  Father  of  Elhanan, 
who  was  one  of  David's  captains  (2  Sam.  23.24 ; 
1  Ch.  11.26).  2.  An  Ahohite  (2  Sam.  23.9), 
probably  the  same  as  Dodai,  in  which  case  we 
must  suppose  that  the  words  "  Eleazar  son  of " 
have  dropped  from  1  Ch.  21  A.  3.  A  man  of 
Issachar  (Judg.  10.1). 

Do'eg. — (?)  Anxious :  chief  of  Saul's  herdsmen, 
an  Edomite  who  informed  Saul  of  Ahimelech 
having  assisted  David.  He  destroyed  the 
priests  of  Nob,  with  their  families,  to  the  number 
of  eighty-five  persons,  together  with  all  their  pro- 
perty (1  Sam.  21.7,  22.9, 17,  22). 

Dog. — Dogs  are  numerous  in  the  East. 
Having  no  owners,  they  run  about  the  streets 
in  troops,  living  on  what  they  can  pick  up  or  is 
given  to  them  by  chance.  They  consume  all 
sorts  of  offal ;  and  even  human  graves,  unless 
well  secured,  are  not  safe  from  their  search. 
"  The  dogs  shall  eat  Jezebel  by  the  wall  [ram- 
part] of  Jezreel "  (1  K.  21.23).  On  the  very  spot 
on  the  mounds  of  Jezreel,  outside  the  modern 
hovels,  the  descendants  doubtless  of  these  very 
dogs  may  be  seen  searching  for  refuse.  At 
this  day  every  town,  from  the  greatest  to  the 


DOOR] 


130 


[DRAGON  WELL 


least,  in  Palestine  swarms  with  lazy,  filthy  curs 
— not  unlike  ill-bred  collies  or  shepherds'  dogs — 
which  will  hardly  move  out  of  one's  way  in 
the  daytime,  and  howl  hideously  throughout  the 
night.  To  compare  a  person  to  a  dog,  living 
or  dead,  was  a  bitterly  insulting  expression 
(1  Sam.  17.43,  24.14 ;  2  Sam.  9.8  ;  2  K.  8.13). 
Paul  says,  "  Beware  of  dogs "  (Phil.  3.2),  i.e. 
of  impudent,  sordid,  greedy  professors  of 
religion  ;  while  in  Prov.  26.11  and  2  Pet.  2.22 
sinners,  who  continually  relapse  into  sin,  are 
compared  to  dogs  returning  to  their  vomit. 
"  Dogs  "  are  excluded  from  the  New  Jerusalem 
(Rev.  22.15). 

Door. — [GATE.] 

Doph'kah. — Meaning  unknown:  site  of 
Israelite  encampment  near  the  Wilderness  of 
Sin  (Num.  33.12, 13). 

Dor. — (?)  Round  dwelling:  now  Tanturah,  royal 
Canaanite  city  on  a  rocky  promontory  14  miles 
south  of  Carmel ;  whose  king  joined  Jabin,  king 
of  Hazor,  against  Joshua  ( Josh.  11.1,  2, 12.23) ; 
within  the  territory  of  Asher,  but  allotted  to 
Manasseh  ;  from  which  the  inhabitants  were  not 
expelled,  though  made  tributary  (Josh.  17.11 ; 
Judg.  1.27,  28) ;  a  commissariat  district  of 
Solomon  (1  K.  4.11).  The  ruins  include  the 
remains  of  the  ancient  harbour. 

Dorcas.— A  Greek  word  meaning  gazelle 
because  of  the  animal's  large  eyes,  as  Tabitha 
is  the  Aramaic  word  for  gazelle  because  of  its 
beauty  generally.  A  much-beloved  Christian 
woman  at  Joppa,  who  made  garments  for  the 
poor.  She  was  raised  from  the  dead  by  Peter 
(Acts  9.36-42). 

Do 'than.  —  Meaning  unknown  :  now  Tell 
Dothan,  town  on  a  hill  12  miles  north  of  Samaria 
in  a  beautiful  luxuriant  plain  running  up  among 
the  south  hills  from  the  south-west  side  of  the  plain 
of  Esdraelon ;  in  the  plain  Joseph's  brethren  were 
pasturing  their  flocks  when  they  sold  him  to  the 
Midianites  (Gen.  37.17) ;  in  the  town  Elisha  was 
protected  from  the  forces  which  the  Assyrian 
king  sent  to  apprehend  him  (2  K.  6.13). 

Do  to  Wit.— See  2  Cor.  8.1.  "  Do  "  signifies 
"  make  "  or  "  cause,"  and  "  to  wit "  equals 
"  to  know."  The  R.V.  reads,  "  We  make  known 
to  you." 

Dove. — The  first  mention  of  the  dove  in  the 
Bible  is  in  Gen.  8.8,  10-12.  Noah  used  the 
bird  to  find  out  how  far  the  waters  of  the 
flood  had  subsided.  Doves  are  very  plentiful 
in  Palestine,  both  in  the  wild  and  domesticated 
state.  They  are  classed  by  Moses  among  the 
clean  birds,  and  have  always  been  held  in  the 
highest  estimation  among  Eastern  nations. 
Ps.  68.13  refers  to  the  shimmering  of  their 
wings  as  they  rise.  The  dove  is  mentioned  as  a 
symbol  of  simplicity,  innocence,  gentleness,  affec- 
tion, and  fidelity  (Eos.  7.11 ;  Matt.  10.16).  Doves 
might  be  offered  in  sacrifice  by  poor  people 
who  could  not  bring  a  more  costly  oblation. 
Thus  it  was  that  Mary  offered  "  a  pair  of  turtle- 
doves or  two  young  pigeons  "  after  the  birth  of 
Christ  (Lev.  12.8 ;  Lk.  2.22-24).  In  Itai.  60.8 
we  read :  "  Who  are  these  that  fly  as  a  cloud, 


and  as  the  doves  to  their  windows  ?  "  The  windows 
refer  to  the  latticed  openings  in  the  dovecots 
(of  which  almost  every  house  possesses  one)  or 
to  the  clefts  of  the  rocks  to  which  the  wild 
pigeons  in  vast  numbers  resort,  literally  obscur- 
ing the  sun  in  their  passage.  The  bright  red 
skin  round  the  dark  eye  of  the  turtle-dove 
explains  the  words  "  fitly  set "  in  Cant.  5.12. 
The  dung  of  pigeons  is  very  largely  used  for 
manure  in  the  East.  Morier  in  his  Persian 
Travels  describes  the  pigeon-houses  erected  at  a 
distance  from  habitations  for  the  sole  purpose 
of  collecting  pigeons'  dung.  They  are  large 
round  towers,  rather  broader  at  the  bottom  than 
the  top,  and  crowned  by  conical  spiracles,  through 
which  the  pigeons  descend.  Their  interior 
resembles  a  honeycomb  pierced  with  a  thousand 
holes,  each  of  which  forms  a  snug  retreat  for  a 
nest.  "  The  extraordinary  flights  of  pigeons," 
says  Morier,  "  which  I  have  seen  alight  upon 
one  of  these  buildings  afford,  perhaps,  a  good 
illustration  for  Isai.  60.8  [see  above].  Their 
great  numbers  and  the  compactness  of  their 
mass  literally  look  like  a  cloud  at  a  distance." 

Doves'  Dung.— In  2  K.  6.25  only,  where  it 
is  said  that  during  the  siege  of  Samaria  "  the 
fourth  part  of  a  cab  [little  more  than  half  a  pint] 
of  doves'  dung  was  sold  for  five  pieces  of  silver." 
Most  scholars  are  in  favour  of  the  literal  meaning, 
that  doves'  dung  was  used  for  human  food  ;  but 
some  are  of  opinion  that  it  was  bought  instead 
of  salt  to  serve  as  a  kind  of  manure  for  raising 
esculent  plants  of  quick  vegetation.  It  can 
hardly  be  the  name  of  a  kind  of  grain. 

Dowry. — In  the  East  the  bridegroom  offers 
to  the  father  of  his  bride  a  sum  of  money  before 
receiving  the  daughter  in  marriage  (Gen.  34.12 ; 
1  Sam.  18.25).  When  Jacob  had  no  money  to 
give  for  a  wife  he  purchased  her  by  his  services 
to  her  father  Laban  (Gen.  29.18).  '[MARRIAGE.] 

Drachma. — Transcript  of  the  Greek  word 
translated  "  the  piece  of  silver  "  in  Lk.  15.8,  9. 
It  was  a  Greek  coin  of  nearly  the  same  value  as 
the  Roman  denarius,  i.e.  9£d.  The  double 
drachma  (didrachma)  is  the  same  as  half  a 
shekel,  two  of  which  formed  the  stater  paid 
in  Matt.  17.27.  [DENARIUS,  MONEY.] 

Dragon. — The  reference  is  to  the  jackal  in 
the  following  passages  :  Job  30.29  ;  Isai.  13.22, 
34.13,  43.20 ;  Jer.  9.11,  14.6,  51.37  ;  Mic.  1.8. 
The  Holy  Land,  with  its  large  number  of  caves 
and  old  tombs,  is  a  favourite  haunt  of  the  jackal, 
which  prowls  about  in  search  of  stray  sheep  or 
kids,  but  does  not  venture  to  attack  man. 
"  The  poison  of  dragons  "  (Deut.  32.33)  refers 
to  an  ordinary  serpent;  as  also  in  Ps.  91.13. 
The  dragon  of  Isai.  51.9  and  Ezek.  29.3  is  the 
crocodile,  the  great  monster  of  the  Nile  (and  the 
emblem  of  the  might  of  Egypt),  which  formerly 
also  existed  in  the  Euphrates  or  Tigris  (Jer. 
51.34).  The  dragon  of  Rev.  12  is  symbolical, 
not  necessarily  referring  to  any  actually  existing 
creature.  John  may  have  had  the  boa  in  his 
mind  when  he  describes  Satan  as  a  great  red 
dragon,  striking  vehemently  with  its  tail. 

Dragon  Well. — On   the  west  or  south-west 


DRAM] 


131 


PRESS 


wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  2.13).  The  name  is 
probably  due  to  a  pre-Israelitish  worship  of 
a  sacred  serpent,  or  a  jinn  in  the  form  of  a 
serpent. 

Dram. — [MONEY.] 

Dream. — The  Orientals,  and  particularly  the 
Jews,  greatly  regarded  dreams,  and  applied  for 
their  interpretation  to  those  who  undertook 
to  explain  them.  We  see  the  antiquity  of  the 
custom  in  the  history  of  Pharaoh's  baker  and 
butler  (Gen.  40) ;  Pharaoh  himself  (Gen.  41)  and 
Nebuchadnezzar  (Dan.  2)  are  also  instances. 
The  Midianites  gave  credit  to  dreams,  as  appears 
from  that  which  a  Midianite  related  to  his 
companion,  from  whose  interpretation  Gideon 
took  a  happy  omen  (Judg.  7.13,  15).  Consider 
also  the  dreams  of  Abimelech  (Gen.  20.3-7), 
Laban  (Gen.  31.24),  Joseph  (Matt.  1.20),  the 
Magi  (Matt.  2.12),  and  Pilate's  wife  (Matt. 
27.19).  It  should  carefully  be  noted  that  the 
greater  number  of  dreams  were  granted  to 
those  who  had  not  the  advantage  of  being 
under  the  Jewish  covenant. 

Dress. — The  earliest  garments  were  made 
from  fig  leaves  sewn  together  to  form  an  apron 
(Gen.  3.7) ;  afterwards  skins  of  animals  were 
used,  the  sacred  writer  wishing  to  suggest  a 
difference  between  garments  framed  by  man 
and  those  provided  by  God  at  the  expense  of 
life  (Gen.  3.21).  The  garment  of  Elijah  was 
apparently  the  skin  of  a  sheep  or  some  other 
animal  with  the  wool  left  on  (2  K.  1.8).  The 
art  of  weaving  hair  was  known  to  the  Hebrews 
at  a  very  early  period  (Ex.  26.7,  35.6);  the 
sackcloth  used  for  mourning  was  made  from 
black  goat's  hair.  John  the  Baptist's  robe 
was  of  camel's  hair  (Matt.  3.4).  Wool  was  at 
all  times  largely  employed,  particularly  for  the 
outer  garments  (Job  31.20  ;  Prov.  27.26,  31.13). 
Linen  was  used  in  the  vestments  of  the  high 
priests  (Ex.  28.5)  as  well  as  by  the  wealthy 
(Gen.  41.42;  Prov.  31.22;  Lk.  16.19).  Silk 
was  not  introduced  until  a  very  late  period 
(Rev.  18.12).  The  use  of  a  mixed  material  such 
as  wool  and  flax  was  forbidden  (Lev.  19.19  ; 
Deut.  22.11),  probably  with  the  view  of  enforc- 
ing the  idea  of  purity  and  simplicity. 

The  general  colour  of  the  Hebrew  dress  was 
the  natural  white,  intensified  in  some  cases  by 
the  fuller's  art  (Mk.  9.3).  The  notice  of  scarlet 
thread  (Gen.  38.28)  implies  some  acquaintance 
with  dyeing.  The  Hebrews  learned  from  the 
Egyptians  various  methods  of  producing  decor- 
ated stuffs,  such  as  weaving  with  dyed  threads 
(Ex.  35.25),  using  gold  thread  or  wire  (Ex.  28.6), 
and  working  figures  into  the  texture  (Ex.  26.1, 
31,  3G.8,  35).  Robes  decorated  with  gold 
thread  (Ps.  45.13),  and  at  a  later  period  with 
silver  thread,  were  worn  by  royal  personages  ; 
other  kinds  of  embroidered  garments  were 
worn  by  the  rich  (Judg.  5.30;  Ps.  45.14; 
Ezek.  16.13).  Dyed  robes  were  imported  from 
foreign  countries  (Zeph.  1.8) ;  purple  (Prov. 
31.22;  Lk.  16.19)  and  scarlet  (2  Sam.  1.24) 
were  occasionally  worn  by  the  wealthy. 

The  modern  Arab  dresses  much  as  the  ancient 


Hebrew  did,  with  the  same  flowing  robes. 
There  is  an  outer  garment,  warm  and  heavy,  and 
an  inner  of  light  material.  There  was  a  simi- 
larity between  the  garments  of  men  and  those  of 
women,  though  there  was  difference  enough  to 
indicate  sex  ;  "  the  woman  shall  not  wear  that 
which  pertaineth  unto  a  man,  neither  shall  a 
man  put  on  a  woman's  garment "  (Deut.  22.5). 
The  most  essential  article  of  dress  was  one  which 
resembled  our  shirt,  made  of  wool,  cotton,  or 
linen,  and  kept  close  to  the  body  by  a  girdle. 
A  person  with  only  this  garment  on  was  described 
as  naked  (1  Sam.  19.24 ;  Job  22.6 ;  Isai.  20.2, 
58.7;  John  21.7;  Jos.  2.15).  Over  this 
garment  was  worn  a  second  tunic,  longer  than 
the  first.  The  ordinary  outer  garment  con- 
sisted of  a  quadrangular  piece  of  woollen  cloth, 
probably  resembling  in  shape  a  Scotch  plaid. 
It  was  either  wrapped  round  the  body  or  worn 
over  the  shoulders  like  a  shawl,  or  it  might  be 
thrown  over  the  head  to  conceal  the  face  (2  Sam. 
15.30;  Esth.  6.12). 

The  women  wore  the  same  sort  of  inner  shirt 
as  the  men,  but  their  outer  garments  were 
different,  including  a  sort  of  shawl  and  a  veil. 
Their  garments  terminated  with  an  ample 
border  or  fringe,  which  concealed  the  feet 
(Isai.  47.2  ;  Jer.  13.22). 

The  outer  garment  of  the  Hebrews  was  also 
used  as  bedclothes,  for  which  reason  a  creditor 
could  not  retain  it  after  sunset  (Ex.  22.26 ; 
Deut.  24.12,  13).  The  custom  of  placing 
garments  in  pawn  appears  to  have  been  very 
common. 

The  loose  flowing  character  of  the  Hebrew 
robes  admitted  of  a  variety  of  symbolical 
actions ;  rending  them  was  expressive  of  various 
emotions,  as  grief  (Gen.  37.29,  34 ;  2  Sam.  1.2 ; 
Job  1.20),  fear  (1  K.  21.27 ;  2  K.  22.11,  19), 
indignation  (2  K.  5.7,  11.14;  Matt.  26.65), 
or  despair  ( Judg.  11.35  ;  Esth.  4.1).  Generally 
the  outer  garment  alone  was  thus  rent  (Gen. 
37.34;  Job  1.20,  2.12),  occasionally  the  inner 
(2  Sam.  15.32),  and  occasionally  both  (Ezra  9.3  ; 
Matt.  26.65).  Shaking  the  garments  or  shaking 
the  dust  off  them  was  a  sign  of  renunciation 
(Acts  18.6) ;  spreading  them  before  a  person,  of 
loyalty  and  joyous  reception  (2  K.  9.13  ;  Malt. 
21.8) ;  wrapping  them  round  the  bead,  of  awe 
(1  K.  19.13),  or  of  grief  (2  Sam.  15.30 ;  Esth. 
6.12;  Jer.  14.3,  4);  casting  them  off,  of  ex- 
citement (Acts  22.23) ;  laying  hold  of  them,  of 
supplication  (1  Sam.  15.27  ;  Isai.  3.6,  4.1 ;  Zech. 
8.23). 

In  the  case  of  travelling,  the  outer  garments 
were  girded  up  (1  K.  18.46).  They  were  thrown 
aside  also  when  they  would  impede  action 
(Mk.  10.50  ;  John  13.4  ;  Acts  7.58). 

"  Thou  hast  clothing  "  (Isai.  3.6)  signifies  to 
be  rich,  because  changes  of  raiment  formed  one 
of  the  main  elements  of  wealth  (Job  27.16 ; 
Matt.  6.19;  Jas.  5.2).  The  women  of  the 
family  made  the  clothes  (Prov.  31.22 ;  Acts  9.39). 
Owing  to  the  great  simplicity  of  the  "  cut "  of 
the  garments,  little  art  was  needed.  Ex- 
travagance in  dress  is  referred  to  in  Isai.  3.16  ; 


DEINK,  STRONG] 


132 


[DUST 


Jer.  4.30  ;  Ezek.  16.10  ;  Zeph.  1.8  ;  1  Tim.  2.9  ; 
1  Pet.  3.3. 

Drink,  Strong. — The  strong  drink  referred  to 
in  Isai.  5.22  was  made  from  barley  with  which 
spices  were  mixed.  Other  intoxicating  drinks — 
in  addition  to  wine — were  distilled  from  corn, 
honey,  or  dates.  The  effects  of  the  use  of  strong 
drink  are  referred  to  in  Ps.  107.27  ;  Isai.  24.20, 
49.26,  51.17-22.  It  was  forbidden  to  the  priests 
on  service  (Lev.  10.9)  and  the  Nazarites  (Num. 
6.3).  [DRUNKENNESS.] 

Drink  Offering. — An  offering  under  the 
Mosaic  law  (Ex.  29.40;  Lev.  23.18;  Num. 
15.5). 

Dromedary.— In  Isai.  60.6 ;  Jer.  2.23  this 
should  be  rendered  "  young  camel."  The 
translation  in  1  K.  4.28  should  be  "  swift 
steeds"  (R.V.).  The  expression  "mules, 
camels,  and  young  dromedaries  "  (Esth.  8.10) 
should  read  "  swift  steeds,  that  were  used  in 
the  king's  service,  bred  of  the  stud  "  (R.V.). 
[CAMEL.] 

Drought  of  Summer. — Lasts  from  middle 
of  May  to  middle  of  August,  vegeta- 
tion being  then  preserved  by  the  dews 
(Hag.  1.11). 

Drowning. — This  was  a  mode  of  capital 
punishment  in  use  among  the  Syrians 
(Matt.  18.6). 

Drunkenness. — The  first  instance  of  intoxi- 
cation on  record  is  that  of  Noah  (Gen.  9.21). 
The  sin  of  drunkenness  is  condemned  in  Rom. 
13.13;  1  Cor.  6.9,10;  Eph.  5.18;  1  Thess. 
5.7, 8.  Men  are  represented  as  drunk  with 
sorrow,  with  afflictions,  and  with  the  wine  of 
God's  wrath  (Isai.  63.6 ;  Jer.  51.57 ;  Ezek.  23.33). 
Persons  under  the  influence  of  superstition, 
idolatry,  and  delusion  are  said  to  be  drunk 
(Isai.  28.7 ;  Rev.  17.2). 

Drusilla.— The  third  daughter  of  that  Herod 
Agrippa  who  put  to  death  the  Apostle  James 
(Acts  12.1,  2)  and  imprisoned  Peter  (Acts  12.3,  4), 
and  who  was  himself  judicially  smitten  in  the 
midst  of  his  oration  at  Caesarea  (Acts  12.23). 
She  was  remarkable  for  beauty.  Her  second 
husband  was  Claudius  Felix,  governor  of  Judaea, 
by  whom  she  had  a  son  whose  name  was  Agrippa. 
Before  Drusilla  and  her  husband  Felix  the 
Apostle  Paul  appeared  and  defended  his 
Christian  profession  (Acts  24.24).  Drusilla's 
son,  Agrippa,  perished  in  the  great  eruption 
of  Vesuvius  (79  A.D.),  and  some  writers  have 
thought  that  she  died  with  him. 

Duke.— Leader,  chief.  The  Hebrew  word 
is  Head  of  a  thousand :  the  "  dukes  "  of  Edom 
(Gen.  36.15-43)  merely  signify  leaders  or  chiefs. 
It  was  not  an  hereditary  title,  and  was  not 
intended  to  be  so  by  the  translators  of  the  A.V., 
for  in  1611 "  duke  "  was  not  so  used. 

Dulcimer. — The  rendering  "  bagpipe  "  is  given 
by  K.V.  in  Dan.  3.5, 10, 15.  The  real  dulcimer 
is  a  triangular  instrument  of  fifty  wires,  struck 
by  an  iron  key. 

Du'mah. — Silence :  1.  An  Ishmaelite  tribe 
of  Arabia,  and  thence  the  name  of  the  principal 
place  or  district  inhabited  by  that  tribe  (Gen. 


25.14  ;  1  Ch.  1.30).  The  town  is  now  called 
J6f,  and  is  situated  in  the  north  part  of  the 
peninsula,  about  half-way  between  Petra  and 
the  Euphrates.  2.  A  city  in  the  mountainous 
district  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.52),  about  6  miles 
from  Hebron,  now  ed-D6meh,  a  large  ruin, 
with  rock-hewn  tombs.  3.  In  Isai.  21.11  it 
seems  to  be  a  title  of  the  prophecy  following, 
and  to  express  the  "silence"  of  the  fate  of 
Edom. 

Dumb. — Unable  to  speak  by  natural  infirmity 
(Ex.  4.11),  by  want  of  knowledge  and  skill 
(Prov.  31.8),  by  reason  of  unwillingness  to  speak 
(Ps.  39.9).  Christ  repeatedly  restored  the  dumb 
(Matt.  9.32,  33, 12.22  ;  Lk.  11.14). 

Dung. — The  use  of  dung  in  the  making  of 
bread  (Ezek.  4.12-16)  refers  to  its  employment 
as  fuel,  which  is  still  common  in  the  East,  but 
its  proximity  would  defile  the  bread  for  a 
Jew.  As  manure  it  consisted  either  of  straw 
steeped  in  liquid  manure  (Isai.  25.10)  or  the 
sweepings  of  the  streets  and  roads,  which  were 
collected  outside  the  town  walls  at  fixed  spots 
(Neh.  2.13).  Manure  was  applied  to  trees  by 
digging  holes  about  the  roots  (Lk.  13.8).  To 
sit  on  a  dung-heap  was  a  sign  of  the  deepest 
dejection  (1  Sam.  2.8  ;  Ps.  113.7  ;  Lam.  4.5). 

Dung  Gate,  Dung  Port.— Port  is  Old  English 
for  gate.  "Gate  of  the  refuse-heap"  would 
be  a  better  translation.  One  of  the  gates  of 
Jerusalem  (Neh.  2.13),  outside  of  which  was 
set  refuse  of  all  kinds.  It  was  probably  near 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  city. 

Dungeon.— [PRISON.] 

Du'ra. — (?)  Wall :  a  place  in  the  province  of 
Babylon  giving  its  name  to  the  plain  round  it 
where  Nebuchadnezzar  set  up  the  golden  image 
(Dan.  3.1).  It  has  been  identified  with  the 
mound  Dowair  or  Du'air,  south-east  of  Babylon, 
where  the  pedestal  of  a  colossal  statue  has  been 
discovered. 

Dust. — Dust  or  ashes  cast  on  the  head  was 
a  sign  of  mourning  (Josh.  7.6),  sitting  in  the  dust 
a  sign  of  affliction  (Isai.  47.1  ;  Lam.  3.29).  To 
shake  or  wipe  off  the  dust  of  a  place  from  one's 
feet  marks  the  renouncing  of  all  intercourse 
with  it  in  future.  To  lick  the  dust  is  a  sign  of 
abject  submission  (Ps.  72.9).  God  threatens  the 
Hebrews  with  a  rain  of  dust  (Dent.  28.24).  This 
is  a  reference  to  the  terrible  dust  storms  which 
often  do  such  havoc,  filling  eyes,  ears,  and 
nostrils,  and  injuring  the  brooks,  fields,  and 
gardens.  To  throw  dust  at  a  person  is  a  sign 
of  the  greatest  abhorrence.  In  almost  every 
part  of  Asia  those  who  demand  justice  against 
a  criminal  throw  dust  upon  him,  signifying  that 
he  deserves  to  lose  his  life,  and  be  cast  into  the 
grave.  Shimei  gave  vent  to  his  hostility  to 
David,  when  he  fled  before  Absalom,  by  casting 
dust  (2  Sam.  16.13).  It  was  an  ancient  custom 
in  these  arid  countries  to  lay  the  dust  before  a 
person  of  distinction  by  sprinkling  the  ground 
with  water.  To  throw  dust  into  the  air  while 
a  person  was  passing  was  an  act  of  great  dis- 
respect ;  to  do  so  before  a  sovereign  prince  was 
an  outrage.  Shimei  intended  to  signify  that 


DWELL  DEEP] 


133 


[EARTH 


David  was  unfit  to  live.  When  the  Jews  seized 
Paul  in  the  Temple  they  "  threw  dust  into 
the  air  "  (Acts  22.23),  indicating  their  violent 
and  deadly  hatred  towards  him. 


Dwell  Deep.— See  Jer.  49.8  :  the  words  refer 
to  the  custom  of  seeking  refuge  from  danger  in 
rock  caverns,  and  remote  desert  places. 

Dwelling. — [HOUSE,  TENT,  TABERNACLE.] 


E 


Eagle. — The  astonishing  number  of  birds  of 
prey  of  all  sixes  to  be  found  in  Palestine  and 
Arabia  is  constantly  referred  to  in  the  Bible. 
In  some  of  the  passages  where  the  word 
"  eagle  "  occurs,  a  better  translation  would  have 
been  "  vulture."  For  instance,  in  Mic.  1.16, 
"  Make  thee  bald,  and  poll  thee  .  .  .  enlarge  thy 
baldness  as  the  eagle,"  can  only  refer  to  the 
vulture,  which  is  devoid  of  true  feathers  on  the 
head  and  neck  ;  a  necessary  provision  of  nature, 
as  the  creature  is  in  the  habit  of  plunging  its  head 
into  the  carcases  of  dead  animals.  Another 
bird  that  has  been  rendered  "  eagle  "  is  the 
griffon  vulture,  whose  habit  of  resting  on  the 
highest  elevation  of  clilTs  is  exactly  described 
in  Jer.  49.16  and  Job  39.27-30.  In  this  last 
passage,  "  Her  eyes  behold  (the  prey)  afar  off," 
there  is  a  reference  to  the  almost  incompre- 
hensible powers  of  sight  of  the  vulture.  When 
an  animal  falls  dead  or  wounded  in  the  desert, 
travellers  tell  us  that  in  an  incredibly  short  space 
of  time  a  number  of  these  birds  will  be  attracted 
to  the  carcase,  though  a  minute  before  not  one 
was  visible.  A  single  carcase  thus  becomes  the 
focus  for  the  arrival  of  a  multitude  of  birds  of 
prey  (Matt.  24.28). 

The  strength  of  the  eagle  and  its  swiftness  are 
noticed  in  Jer.  4.13  and  Hos.  8.1.  In  Ps.  103.5 
there  is  a  reference  to  its  longevity  and  apparent 
perpetual  youth.  The  parental  care  alluded  to 
in  Lent.  32.11,  12,  especially  in  encouraging  the 
first  attempts  at  flight,  Ls  very  characteristic  of 
the  class  of  birds  to  which  the  eagle  belongs. 
It  is  from  the  eagle's  lofty  flight,  its  near  ap- 
proach to  the  heavens,  resembling  John's  keen 
insight  into  divine  truths,  that  the  eagle  has  been 
assigned  to  him  as  an  emblem. 

The  golden  eagle  and  the  imperial  eagle  are 
both  common  in  Palestine,  though  not  so  plenti- 
ful as  the  griffon  vulture,  being  seen  chiefly  in 
the  rocky  valleys  and  the  summits  of  mountain 
ranges  rarely  visited.  The  "  ossifrage  "  (Lev. 
11.13  ;  Deut.  14.17)  or  bearded  vulture  (II. V. 
gier-eagle)  gets  its  Latin  name  from  its  habit 
of  taking  marrow  bones  high  into  the  air  and 
then  dropping  them  on  the  stones  to  break 
them.  A  well-known  tradition  affirms  that  the 
poet  JLschylus  met  his  death  by  one  of  these 
birds  dropping  a  tortoise  on  his  bald  head,  mis- 
taking it  for  a  stone.  Other  eagles  found  in  the 
Holy  Land  are  the  tawny  eagle,  Bonelli's  eagle, 
and  the  short-toed  eagle,  the  last  being  the 
commonest,  feeding  on  reptiles,  which  are  re- 
markably plentiful  there. 

Ear. — In  several  instances  the  word  is  used 
figuratively,  as  in  Jer.  6.10,  where  uncircumcised 


ears  are  ears  inattentive  to  the  word  of  God.  The 
"open  ear"  of  Ps.  34.15  is  a  reference  to  the 
constant  regard  of  God  to  the  prayers  of  His 
people  ;  while  the  heavy  ears  of  Isai.  6.10  signify 
inattentive  and  disobedient  minds.  Among 
the  Jews,  the  slave  who  renounced  the  privilege 
of  being  freed  in  the  sabbatical  year  submitted 
to  have  his  ear  bored  through  with  an  awl  by  his 
master  as  a  sign  of  perpetual  slavery.  The 
ceremony  was  performed  in  the  presence  of  some 
judge  or  magistrate,  and  was  a  voluntary  act 
(Ex.  21.5,6). 

Earing. — To  "  ear  "  is  O.E.  for  to  plough. 
Thus  the  expression  "  earing  nor  harvest " 
(Gen.  45.6).  The  R.V.  has  "plowing  nor  harvest." 
See  also  Ex.  34.21  ;  Deut.  21.4  ;  1  Sam.  8.12; 
Isai.  30.24. 

Earnest. —  Something  given  in  hand  as  an 
assurance  that  something  else  shall  be  given, 
or  something  shall  be  performed,  in  due  time. 
It  differs  from  a  pledge  in  that  it  is  not  given  back 
when  full  payment  is  made.  The  Holy  Ghost 
and  His  influences  are  the  earnest  of  our  inherit- 
ance (2  Cor.  1.22,  5.5  ;  Eph.  1.14). 

Ear-Ring. — The  ear-ring  was  either  plain,  01 
had  a  drop,  a  pendant,  or  a  little  bell  attached. 
It  was  worn  by  the  fashionable  lady,  who,  in 
addition,  adorned  herself  with  bracelets,  finger- 
rings,  ankle-rings,  nose-rings,  etc.  (Gen.  24.22  ; 
Ex.  32.2,  3 ;  Isai.  3.21).  The  size  and  weight  of 
this  ornament  sometimes  far  exceeded  what  is 
usual  among  ourselves.  The  more  elaborate 
ear-rings  were  not  only  chased  but  were 
frequently  further  ornamented  with  pearls  and 
rubies.  Thus  their  intrinsic  value  made  them 
handsome  presents  (Num.  31.50;  Job  42.11). 
Poor  people  used  earthenware,  horn,  and  other 
cheap  substitutes  for  ear-rings. 

In  some  passages  it  is  impossible  to  say  whether 
ear-rings  or  nose-rings  were  intended,  for  the 
latter  was  as  favourite  an  ornament  as  the 
former,  and  the  sacred  writers  used  the  words 
promiscuously.  Every  woman  and  girl  in  the 
East  wears  these  rings.  Some  of  these  ear-rings 
have  figures  engraved  upon  them,  either  talis- 
mans or  charms,  or,  occasionally,  the  names  and 
symbols  of  their  gods.  Hence  in  Isai.  3.20 
for  "amulets"  (11. V.)  the  A.V.  reads  "ear- 
rings." It  is  probable  that  the  ear-rings  of 
Jacob's  household  were  of  this  character,  and 
that  this  was  the  reason  of  his  demanding 
them,  that  he  might  bury  them  under  the  oak 
before  they  went  up  to  Bethel  (Gen.  35.4). 

Earth. — The  Hebrews  had  various  names  for 
the  earth,  especially  Adamah  and  Eretz. 
Adamah,  i.e.  red  earth  (Gen.  1.25),  often  denotes 


EARTHQUAKE] 


134 


[EBED 


arable  land  (Gen.  4.2).  It  is  also  used  of  a 
country,  especially  Palestine  (Gen.  47.19 ; 
Zech.  2.12).  When  Naaman  asked  for  two  mule 
loads  of  earth  (2  K.  5.17),  he  was  influenced  by 
the  heathen  idea  that  Jehovah  was  a  local  god, 
and  could  be  worshipped  successfully  only  on 
his  native  soil. 

Eretz  is  earth  as  opposed  to  heaven,  or  dry  land 
as  distinct  from  the  sea  (Gen.  1.1,10).  -The 
word  is  also  applied  to  the  whole  earth  (Gen. 
18.18),  to  any  division  of  land  (Gen.  21.32),  and 
even  to  the  ground  under  one's  feet  (Gen.  33.3). 

The  "  lower  parts  of  the  earth  "  (Isai.  44.23) 
signifies  literally  the  valleys,  or  deep  recesses, 
such  as  caverns  and  caves,  and  figuratively  the 
grave. 

In  the  N.T.  besides  the  ordinary  word  for 
"  earth,"  which  corresponds  to  the  various 
meanings  already  noted,  there  is  a  special  word 
meaning  "  inhabited  earth "  (Lk.  4.5  ;  Horn. 
10.18,  etc.),  used  specifically  of  the  Roman 
Empire. 

Earth  in  a  moral  sense  is  opposed  to  what  is 
heavenly  and  spiritual  (see  John  3.31 ;  1  Cor. 
15.47-49  ;  Jas.  3.15,  etc.). 

Earthquake. — Bible  lands  have  always  been 
liable  to  earthquakes  :  in  the  Jordan  valley  and 
the  region  of  the  Dead  Sea  traces  of  volcanic 
action  abound.  These  forces  were  probably 
the  instruments  of  destruction  in  the  over- 
throw of  the  Cities  of  the  Plain  (Gen.  19.25),  and 
the  quaking  of  the  earth  naturally  became 
associated  with  the  awful  presence  and  judg- 
ments of  God  (Ex.  19.18 ;  1  K.  19.11).  Hence 
the  place  of  the  earthquake  in  the  symbolism  of 
prophecy  (Isai.  29.6  ;  Mk.  13.8  ;  Rev.  16.18). 

An  earthquake  in  the  days  of  Saul  is  recorded 
in  the  story  of  the  feat  of  arms  accomplished  by 
Jonathan  and  his  armour-bearer  (1  Sam.  14.15). 
One  in  the  reign  of  Uzziah  is  twice  mentioned  in 
terms  which  mark  it  out  as  a  memorable  cata- 
strophe (Amos  1.1  ;  Zech.  14.5).  Josephus 
connects  this  with  the  impiety  of  the  king  in 
presuming  himself  to  offer  incense  upon  the 
golden  altar,  and  describes  it  in  language  which 
closely  resembles  the  prophecy  of  Zech.  14.4 
(Josephus,  Ant.  ix.  10.  4). 

According  to  St.  Matthew  our  Lord's  death 
was  signalised  by  an  earthquake,  with  opening  of 
the  tombs  and  appearances  of  the  dead  (Matt. 
27.51-54).  At  Philippi  Paul  and  Silas  were 
delivered  from  prison  by  an  earthquake  (Acts 
16.26). 

East. — The  Hebrews  expressed  the  east, 
west,  north,  and  south  by  words  which  signify 
"  before,"  "  behind,"  "  left,"  and  "  right," 
according  to  the  position  of  a  person  who  has  his 
face  towards  the  rising  sun  ( Job  23.8,  9).  By  the 
east  they  frequently  described,  not  only  Arabia 
Deserta,  and  the  lands  of  Moab  and  Ammon, 
which  lay  to  the  east  of  Palestine,  but  also 
Assyria,  Mesopotamia,  Babylonia,  and  Chaldea, 
though  these  are  situated  rather  to  the  north 
than  to  the  east  of  Judaea.  Balaam,  Cyrus,  and 
the  wise  men  who  visited  Bethlehem  at  the  time 
Christ  was  born,  are  said  to  have  come  from  the 


East  (Nwm.  23.7;  Isai.  46.11;  Matt.  2.1). 
"The  Children  of  the  East'"'  are,  in  particular, 
the  various  desert  tribes  on  the  east  of 
Palestine  (Judg.  6.3,  and  elsewhere). 

East  Sea. — Another  name  for  the  Dead  Sea 
(Ezek.  47.18). 

East  Street. — An  open  space  in  front  of  the 
Temple  (2  Ch.  29.4).  K.V.  "  broad  place  on  the 
east." 

Easter. — The  word  elsewhere  rendered  "  Pass- 
over "  is  translated  by  "  Easter  "  in  the  A.V. 
of  Acts  12.4  :  R.V.  "  the  Passover."  The  word 
Easter  is  the  Teutonic  name  of  the  Christian 
feast  commemorating  our  Lord's  resurrection. 
[PASSOVER.] 

Eating. — The  ancient  manner  of  eating 
is  still  common  in  Eastern  nations ;  the 
guests  recline  on  couches,  resting  on  the  left 
elbow,  and  using  chiefly  the  right  hand  to  pass 
food  to  the  mouth.  This  peculiar  position 
makes  the  scene  in  Lk.  7.36-50  appear  quite 
natural,  and  enables  us  to  understand  how  one 
guest  could  repose  on  another's  bosom  (John 
13.23).  Honour  was  paid  to  the  guests  by 
helping  them  liberally.  Joseph  sent  his  brother 
Benjamin  a  portion  five  times  larger  than  those 
of  his  other  brethren  (Gen.  43.34).  To  eat  a 
meal  together  is  regarded  as  a  pledge  of  mutual 
confidence  and  goodwill.  Hence  the  force  of 
the  expression  in  Ps.  41.9,  "  Yea,  mine  own 
familiar  friend  .  .  .  which  did  eat  of  my  bread." 
[BANQUET,  FEAST,  MEALS.] 

Etal.— 1.  A  Horite  (Gen.  36.23 ;  1  Ch.  1.40). 
2.  A  son  of  Joktan,  a  descendant  of  Shem 
(1  Ch.  1.22  :  called  Obal  in  Gen.  10.28). 

E'bal  Mount. — Bare  :  a  celebrated  mountain, 
3000  feet  high,  on  the  north  of  the  valley  of 
Shechem.  Ebal  and  Gerizim  are  twin  moun- 
tains, close  together  and  separated  by  a  deep 
valley,  in  which  lay  the  town  of  Shechem 
(Judg.  9.7),  the  modern  Nablous.  The  two 
mountains  are  much  alike  in  height  and  form. 
One  of  them,  Ebal,  is  barren,  the  other  covered 
with  a  beautiful  verdure.  Moses  commanded 
the  Israelites  as  soon  as  they  should  have  passed 
over  the  Jordan  to  go  directly  to  Shechem,  and 
there  divide  the  whole  multitude  into  two 
bodies,  each  composed  of  six  tribes,  one  com- 
pany to  be  placed  on  Ebal,  the  other  on  Gerizim. 
The  six  tribes  on  Gerizim  were  to  pronounce 
blessings  on  those  who  should  faithfully  observe 
the  law  of  the  Lord,  and  the  six  others  on 
Mount  Ebal  were  to  pronounce  curses  against 
those  who  should  violate  it  (Dent.  11.29, 
27.11-13;  Josh.  8.30,31). 

The  first  "  great "  altar  to  Jehovah  was 
erected  on  Ebal  (Deut.  27.2-8),  as  also  memorial 
stones  to  mark  the  entry  of  the  Israelites  into 
the  Promised  Land  after  the  overthrow  of 
Jericho.  The  Samaritans  contended,  however, 
that  this  altar  was  erected  on  Gerizim,  and  they 
afterwards  built  a  temple  on  the  latter,  the 
ruins  of  which  are  still  visible.  The  remark  of 
the  Samaritan  woman  at  Shechem  has  reference 
to  this  fact  (John  4.20). 

.— Servant :     1.  Father    of    Gaal,    who 


EBED-MELECH] 


135 


[ECCLESIASTES,  BOOK  OF 


rebelled  against  Abimelech  when  he  was  reign- 
ing in  Shechem  (Judg.  9.26-35).  2.  The  son 
of  Jonathan,  and  one  of  the  Bene-Adin,  who 
came  back  from  Babylon  with  Ezra  (Ezra  8.6). 

E'bed-me'lech. — The  servant  of  the  king  :  an 
Ethiopian  eunuch  of  King  Zedekiah.  He  was  in- 
strumental in  saving  the  prophet  Jeremiah  from 
death  by  starvation  (Jer.  38.7-13,  39.15-18). 

Ebene'zer. — Stone  of  help  :  a  memorial  stone 
erected  by  Samuel  after  a  deliverance  from  the 
Philistines  (1  Sam.  4.1,  5.1,  7.12).  It  stood 
somewhere  between  Mizpeh,  "  the  watch-tower," 
a  few  miles  north  of  Jerusalem  and  Shen,  but 
its  exact  position  is  not  known. 

ET)er,  He'ber. — 1.  The  great-grandson  of  Shem, 
and  son  of  Salah.  He  was  the  ancestor  of 
Abraham,  in  the  seventh  generation  (Gen.  10.21, 
11.14-26).  Perhaps  the  name  is  ethnic  rather 
than  personal,  ascribing  to  this  ancestor  the 
origin  of  the  appellation  of-  Hebrews, 
Heber  signifying  one  that  passes  over,  or  an 
immigrant.  Such  were  Abraham  and  his  family 
among  the  Canaanites ;  and  his  posterity, 
learning  and  using  the  language  of  the  country, 
retained  the  name.  2.  The  chief  of  a  family 
in  Gad  (1  Ch.  5.13).  3.  A  son  of  Elpaal  a 
Benjamite  (1  Ch.  8.12).  4,  A  son  of  Shashak 
a  Benjamite  (1  Ch.  8.22).  5.  A  priest  of  the 
family  of  Amok  (Neh.  12.20).  [llm*BKW.] 

Ebez.— [ABEZ.] 

Ebia'saph. — The  father  of  gathering  :  a  great- 
grandson  of  Korah,  and  forefather  of  Samuel 
and  Heman  (1  Ch.  6.23,  37).  [ABIASAPH, 

ASAPH.] 

Ebony. — A  very  hard,  dark-coloured  wood. 
It  was  imported  from  India,  was  a  valuable 
article  of  commerce,  and  much  prized  (Ezek. 
27.15). 

Eb'ron.— A  town  of  Asher  (Josh.  19.28  R.V. : 
A.V.  wrongly  Hebron). 

Ebro'nah. — The  thirtieth  encampment  of  the 
Israelites.  Its  position  was  near  the  head  of 
the  Elanitic  Gulf  (Num.  33.34,  35;  R.V. 
Abronah). 

Ecbata'na. — The  metropolis  of  North  Media, 
at  which  the  decree  of  Cyrus  was  found,  per- 
mitting the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple  (Ezra  6.2). 

[ACHMETIIA.] 

Ecclesiastes,  Book  of.— A  book  now  classed 
with  what  is  called  (as  a  subdivision  of  the 
sacred  writings)  "  Wisdom  Literature."  Such 
works  are  distinguished  in  substance  and 
character  from  those  of  the  Prophets.  They 
are  reflective  and  ethical  rather  than  expressive 
of  direct  messages  from  God.  Thus  they  do  not 
employ  the  arresting  words,  "  Thus  saith  the 
Lord."  Indeed,  the  name  of  Jehovah  is  not 
found  in  Ecclesiastes. 

Title  and  Authorship. — The  English  name, 
taken  from  the  Greek  version,  signifies  one 
who  convenes  or  addresses  an  assembly,  and  is 
expressed  by  the  term  "  the  Preacher."  Prob- 
ably this  represents  the  sense  of  the  Hebrew 
title,  Qoheleth,  a  feminine  derivative  from  a 
word  meaning  "  assembly "  ;  or  it  may  be 
rendered,  '*  She  who  is  an  assembly  "  (Tyler) ; 


represented  as  speaking  through  the  voice  of 
one  person.  The  person  is  identified  as  Solo- 
mon, but  ideally,  as  though  his  spirit  spoke  : 
"  I  was  king."  Early  belief  regarded  Solomon 
as  the  actual  author,  and  held  that  the  book 
contained  the  penitent  reminiscences  and  wise 
conclusions  of  his  old  age.  It  would  thus  be  an 
interesting  addition  to  the  history,  which  no- 
where speaks  of  Solomon  as  repentant.  Accord- 
ing to  this  view,  Solomon,  though  so  richly 
endowed  with  wisdom,  turned  away  from  God, 
and  sought  happiness  in  earthly  and  idolatrous 
practices  (1  K.  11.1-13) ;  but  in  his  latter  years, 
being  made  sensible  of  his  folly,  he  here  records 
his  experience  ;  the  truths  here  given  having 
been  "  proclaimed  "  by  him  in  public  to  those 
who  crowded  from  all  parts  to  his  court  to  be 
instructed  by  his  wisdom.  Modern  criticism, 
however,  places  the  composition  of  the  book 
at  a  much  later  period — subsequent  to 
Malachi,  possibly  in  the  late  Persian,  or  the 
Greek  period,  but  earlier  than  the  Maccabees. 
The  Hebrew  of  the  book  is  held  to  be  that  of 
a  period  much  later  than  that  of  Solomon.  "  We 
could  as  easily  believe,"  writes  Dr.  Ginsburg, 
"  that  Chaucer  is  the  author  of  Rasselas  as  that 
Solomon  wrote  Qoheleth."  "  If  the  Book  of 
Ecclesiastes,"  writes  Delitzsch,  "  was  written 
in  the  age  of  Solomon,  there  is  no  history  of  the 
Hebrew  language." 

Contents.— Whilst  the  great  lessons  of  this 
book  are  clearly  brought  out,  it  Is  by  no  means 
easy  to  trace  the  course  of  thought.  After  a 
general  introduction  stating  his  subject  and 
design  (1.1-11),  the  Preacher  reviews  his 
personal  experience  in  his  search  after  happiness, 
showing  that  neither  luxurious  pleasure  nor  even 
intellectual  attainments  can  confer  it  (1.12, 
2.23) ;  and  he  concludes  that  it  is  best  to  fall 
in  with  the  unalterable  arrangements  of  Divine 
Providence  (2.24, 3.15). 

He  then  recounts  his  observations  of  the  lives 
of  others,  especially  in  their  social  connections, 
and  here  also  finds  vanity  (3.18,  4.16); 
upon  which  he  founds  some  striking  practical 
remarks  (5.1-9).  He  renews  his  observations, 
chiefly  regarding  men  as  individuals,  and  ex- 
posing the  disappointment  of  the  selfish  and 
avaricious  (5.10,  6.12).  He  then  adduces  some 
maxims  of  practical  wisdom  to  alleviate  these 
inevitable  ills — allowing,  however,  that  they  are 
not  always  successful  (7.1,  9.10) ;  and  adds 
some  most  striking  and  valuable  instructions 
respecting  the  application  of  wisdom  to  various 
circumstances  of  life,  so  as  to  confer  the  greatest 
attainable  happiness  (9.11,  11.6). 

This  leads  to  an  exhibition  of  the  highest  use 
of  wisdom,  in  producing  a  thoughtful  and 
serene  expectation  of  and  preparation  for  old 
age,  death,  and  judgment  (11.7,  12.7) ;  from 
which  follows  the  conclusion,  declaring  as  the 
result  of  all:  (1)  that  earthly  objects  cannot 
possibly  make  men  truly  happy  (12.8) ;  (2)  that 
Divine  Wisdom  alone  can  teach  them  to  make 
the  best  of  this  imperfect  state  (12.9-12); 
and  (3)  that  this  Divine  Wisdom  enjoins  the 


ECCLESIASTICUS,  BOOK  OF]          136 


[EDOM 


cultivation  of  submissive  and  reverential  piety 
(12.13),  and  the  expectation  of  a  future  state  of 
perfect  adjustment  and  retribution  as  the  best 
thing  for  man  on  earth  (12.14). 

Canonicity. — The  right  of  Ecclesiastes  to 
appear  in  the  Canon  was  questioned  by  Jewish 
authorities,  but  was  recognised  by  the  early 
Christian  Church.  It  is  not  actually  quoted  in 
the  N.T. 

Ecclesiasticus,  Book  of.— The  Latin  title  of 
a  book  in  the  Apocrypha,  called  in  the  Septua- 
gint  the  "  Wisdom  of  Jesus,  the  son  of  Sirach." 
Jesus  ben  Sirach,  to  whom  the  work  is  attributed, 
would  appear  to  have  been  a  Jew  of  Palestine,  a 
devout  student  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures, 
an  ardent  patriot  who  was  proud  of  the  great 
men  of  his  race,  and  an  observant  traveller. 
The  prologue  to  the  book  is  by  the  author's 
grandson,  who,  about  130  B.C.,  translated  the 
Hebrew  work  into  Greek.  The  body  of  the 
book  was  written  soon  after  200  B.C.  Until 
recent  times  the  work  was  only  known  in 
translations,  of  which  the  Greek  and  the  Syriac 
were  made  from  the  original  Hebrew,  whilst 
the  Latin  was  made  from  the  Greek.  But 
now  various  fragments  of  the  book  in  the 
original  have  been  discovered  and  examined.  It 
was  first  termed  "  Ecclesiasticus  "  by  Cyprian,  in 
the  third  century  A.D.  In  its  treatment  of  life — 
social,  domestic,  and  civil — the  book  acknow- 
ledges the  fatherhood  of  God,  treats  of  Wisdom, 
and  refers  to  the  Law  of  Moses.  Some  parts  of 
it  are  nobly  written,  as  the  Praise  of  Creation, 
42.15,  43.33,  and  the  Eulogy  of  Famous  Men, 
44-50.  In  it  we  have  the  choicest  monu- 
ment of  uncanonical  Jewish  literature. 

Edar. — [EDER.] 

E'den. — Delight:  1.  The  garden  or  paradise 
planted  by  God  for  the  reception  of  man 
(Gen.  2.8).  The  locality  of  the  garden  of  Eden 
cannot  exactly  be  fixed,  though  two  of  its  four 
rivers  are  undoubtedly  the  Tigris  and  the 
Euphrates.  No  successful  identification  of 
the  Pison  and  the  Gihon  has  been  reached. 
Perhaps  the  "river"  which  became  four 
"  heads  "  is  the  Persian  Gulf,  into  which  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates,  with  two  other  rivers, 
originally  flowed.  There  is  evidence  that  the 
gulf  was  thought  of  as  a  river,  and  the  tidal 
phenomena  would  account  for  the  parting  of  it 
into  four  "  heads."  Thus  Eden  would  lie  in  the 
fertile  plains  of  Babylonia.  Other  references 
to  Eden,  "  the  garden  of  God,"  are  found  in 
Isai.  51.3 ;  Ezek.  28.13 ;  31.9 ;  36.35.  In  these, 
as  in  the  Genesis  narrative  and  elsewhere,  the 
LXX  uses  the  Persian  word  for  park,  paradise. 
Hence  in  the  N.T.  Paradise  becomes  the  restored 
Eden,  the  ideal  abode  of  the  blessed  (Lk.  23.43  ; 
2  Cor.  12.4 ;  Rev.  2.7).  [PARADISE.]  2.  A  Ger- 
shonite,  son  of  Joah  (2  Ch.  29.12).  3.  A  Levite 
in  the  time  of  Hezekiah,  who  was  appointed 
to  distribute  the  oblations  (2  Ch.  31.15). 
4.  One  of  the  marts  of  Tynan  commerce 
taken  by  an  Assyrian  king.  It  seems  to  have 
been  the  home  of  the  Bit-Adiniol  the  Assyrian 
inscriptions,  some  200  miles  N.N.E.  of 


Damascus.  They  had  been  carried  captive  to 
Telassar  on  the  east  of  the  Tigris  (2  K.  19.12  ; 
Isai.  37.12  ;  Ezek.  27.23). 

Eden,  House  of. — Mentioned  Amos  1.5  (marg. 
Beth-eden).  There  is  a  place  near  Damascus 
bearing  the  name  of  "  House  of  Paradise."  The 
identification  is  uncertain. 

E'der.— 1.  The  "  town  of  Eder  "  (A.V.,  Edar) 
is  named  as  a  halting-place  of  Jacob  between 
Bethlehem  and  Hebron  (Gen.  35.21).  It  was 
one  of  the  towers  for  herdsmen  watching  flocks. 
They  also  served  as  places  of  shelter,  or  even  as 
summer  resorts  for  their  owners.  The  tower  of 
Eder  was  about  a  mile  from  Bethlehem.  In 
Mic.  4.8  (see  B..V.  marg.)  the  word  seems  to 
stand  for  Bethlehem  itself  as  birthplace  of 
the  Messiah.  2.  A  border  city  in  the  extreme 
south  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.21).  3.  A  grandson 
of  Mcrari,  son  of  Levi  (1  Ch.  23.23). 

E'dom. — Red :  1.  The  name  given  to  Esau  from 
the  red  colour  of  the  lentil  pottage  for  which  he 
sold  his  birthright  to  Jacob  (Gen.  25.30,  36.1). 

2.  The  country  that  in  N.T.  times  was  known 
as  Idumaea  (Mk.  3.8).  It  was  originally  called 
"  Mount  Seir  "  (rugged),  and  was  then  inhabited 
by  the  Horites  (Gen.  14.6).  It  extended  from 
the  Dead  Sea  to  the  Red  Sea,  where  Elath  and 
Eziongeber  were  the  Edomite  ports  (Deut.  2.8). 
It  is  a  narrow,  mountainous  district,  100  miles 
long  by  20  miles  wide,  and  its  height  above 
sea-level  averages  2000  feet.  Bounded  on  the 
east  by  the  Arabian  desert,  its  western  frontier 
was  coterminous  with  Judah.  It  is  a  land  of 
deep  glens  and  flat  and  fertile  plains,  with  a 
lovely  climate,  but  the  general  character  of 
the  country  is  wild  and  rugged  (Jer.  49.16  ; 
Obad.3,4). 

This  was  the  land  that  Esau  occupied  immedi- 
ately after  the  death  of  his  father  Isaac  (Gen. 
36.6-8).  It  was  subdued  by  his  descendants 
(Deut.  2.12).  The  Edomites  (i.e.  descendants 
of  Esau  or  Edom)  were  a  warlike  people,  were 
cave-dwellers  like  the  Horites,  whom  they 
dispossessed  (Jer.  49.16),  and  idolaters  (2  Ch. 
25.14).  They  refused  the  Israelites  a  passage 
through  their  country  (Num.  20.14-21,  21.4), 
and  were  accused  of  habitual  hatred  towards 
the  Israelites  (Ezek.  25.12).  Saul  made  war 
against  the  Edomites,  and  David  completely 
subdued  them  after  terrible  slaughter  (1  Sam. 
14.47  ;  2  Sam.  8.14).  From  this  time  the  kings 
of  Edom  were  tributary  to  the  kings  of  Judah 
until  the  reign  of  Jehoshaphat  (1  K.  22.47). 
After  this  they  maintained  their  independence 
and  made  repeated  attacks  on  Judah  (2  Ch. 
28.17).  Their  malignant  hostility  (Ezek. 
25.12)  drew  down  upon  them  the  awful 
prophecies  set  forth  in  Isai.  34.5-15,  63.1-6  ; 
Jer.  49.7-12  ;  Lam.  4.21  ;  Ezek.  25.14  ;  Joel 
3.19  ;  Amos  1.11,  12). 

During  the  captivity  of  the  Israelites,  the 
Edomites,  advancing  in  a  north-westerly 
direction,  occupied  many  (owns  in  the  south 
of  Judah  and  Simeon,  but  at  the  same  time  they 
lost  the  southern  part  of  their  own  territory 
to  the  Nabatheans,  a  powerful  tribe  of  Arabs. 


EDREI] 


137 


[EGYPT 


Ultimately  the  name  of  Edom  or  Idumaea 
extended  to  the  whole  territory  from  the 
Arabian  desert  to  the  Mediterranean.  Bozrah 
(Bezer)  was  the  chief  town,  and  the  principal 
fortress  was  Petra  (Sela),  that  wonderful  and 
almost  impregnable  place  carved  out  of  the 
living  rock.  [?ETRA.] 

The  words  of  the  prophets  have  been  com- 
pletely fulfilled—"  Edom  shall  be  a  desolation  " 
(Jer  49.17;  Joel  3.19).  Such  is  Edom's 
desolation,  that  the  wonder  is  how  could  such 
wild  and  barren  solitudes  ever  have  been 
adorned  with  cities,  or  inhabited  by  a  powerful 
and  opulent  nation.  Its  present  aspect  would 
belie  its  ancient  history,  were  not  that  history 
corroborated  by  many  remains  of  former 
grandeur,  by  the  traces  of  former  cultivation, 
the  remains  of  walls  and  paved  roads,  and  the 
ruins  of  cities  and  fortifications. 

Ed'rei. — Strength  :  1.  A  fortress  town  in  a  very 
strong  position  on  a  rocky  promontory  which 
projects  from  the  south-west  angle  of  the  Lejah. 
It  was  one  of  the  two  chief  towns  of  Bashan, 
and  the  scene  of  Og's  overthrow  by  the  Israelites 
(Num.  21.33-35;  Deal.  1.4,  3.10;  Josh.  9.10, 
12.4,  13.12).  It  was  allotted  to  the  east 
half  tribe  of  Manasseh  (Josh.  13.29-31),  but 
not  a  single  allusion  is  made  to  it  afterwards. 
Though  formerly  enormously  strong,  Edrei  is 
now  but  a  ruin,  to  which  the  ancient  name  still 
attaches  (Edraat). 

2.  A  town  in  Naphtali  in  the  north  of  Palestine 
(Josh.  19.37),  2  miles  south  of  Kedesh. 

Eg'lah.—  Heifer :  one  of  David's  wives, 
mother  of  his  son  Ithream  (2  Sam.  3.5 ;  1  Ch. 
3.3). 

Egla'im.  —  Two  ponds  or  two  springs : 
named  only  in  Isai.  15.8,  and  there  only  as  a 
town  of  Moab.  Perhaps  the  same  as  En-eglairn 
in  Ezek.  47.10,  but  its  site  has  not  been  identified 
with  any  modern  place,  though  tradition  placed 
it  at  about  8  miles  south  of  Areopolis. 

Eglath-shelislii'yah. — An  heifer  of  three  years 
old:  the  name  of  a  place  in  Moab  (R.V.  of 
Isai.  15.5  and  Jer.  48.34). 

Eg'lon. — 1.  A  king  of  the  Moabites,  who, 
aided  by  the  Ammonites  and  the  Amalekites 
(Judg.  3.12  fL),  took  Jericho,  and  for  eighteen 
years  oppressed  Israel  and  compelled  them 
to  pay  tribute.  He  was  assassinated  by  an 
Israelite  named  Ehud,  who  had  obtained 
admission  to  his  presence  by  means  of  a  present. 
[Emm.] 

2.  One  of  the  Amorito  towns  which,  under 
its  king  Debir  and  in  confederation  with  four 
other  towns,  made  war  against  Gibeon.  They 
were  destroyed  by  Joshua  (Josh.  10.3-35,  12.12). 
It  was  allotted  to  Judah  (Josh.  15.39).  Its 
modern  name  is  Ajlan,  14  miles  north-east  of 
Gaza  and  10  miles  from  Beit  Jibrin,  on  the 
south  of  the  great  maritime  plain,  f  JOSHUA.] 

Egypt.— Throughout  the  Bible  story,  from 
the  time  when  "  Abraham  went  down  into 
Egypt  to  sojourn  there  "  (Gen.  12.10),  because 
of  a  great  famine  in  Canaan,  until  that  other 
day  when  Joseph,  at  the  command  of  God, 


hurriedly  arose  and  took  "  the  young  child  and 
his  mother  by  night,"  and  departed  into  Egypt 
(Matt.  2.14),  we  find  the  Israelites  and  the 
Egyptians  in  constant  communication.  In 
Scripture  the  general  name  for  Egypt  is  Mizraim : 
Upper  Egypt  is  sometimes  called  Pathros 
(compare  Isai.  11.11;  Jer.  44.1;  EzeJc.  29.14 
with  Deut.  2.23  ;  Jer.  47.4 ;  Ezek.  30.14-16). 
A  poetical  designation  of  Egypt  is  Rahab 
(Ps.  87.4,  89.10;  Isai.  51.9).  [RAHAB.] 

In  its  Physical  Features,  Egypt  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Mediterranean  ;  on  the 
north-east  by  the  brook  El  Arish  (the  River  of 
Egypt  of  Num.  34.5),  on  the  borders  of  Palestine, 
and  the  Syrian  or  Arabian  desert  to  the  Gulf 
of  Suez,  and  from  thence  southward  by  the  west 
coast  of  the  Red  Sea  ;  and  on  the  west  by 
the  Libyan  desert.  From  the  earliest  ages 
its  southern  limit  has  been  fixed  at  the  cataracts 
of  Assouan,  the  ancient  Syene.  The  length 
of  Egypt  proper  is  very  disproportionate  to 
its  breadth,  being  about  500  miles,  while  its 
width  varies  from  about  5  miles  (of  land  capable 
of  cultivation)  to  about  80  miles,  the  width 
of  the  sea  front  of  the  Delta.  The  world- 
renowned  fertility  of  the  soil  of  Egypt  arose 
(and  still  arises)  from  the  wonderful  fertilising 
influences  of  the  annual  inundation  of  the  Nile, 
a  fact  which  is  taken  note  of  in  Deut.  11.10-12, 
where  reference  is  made  to  the  system  of  culti- 
vation by  irrigation.  Palestine,  the  passage 
tells  us,  was  a  country  watered  by  rain,  while 
Egypt  had  to  be  laboriously  watered  by  man 
himself.  For  there  rain  falls  but  seldom,  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  depending  upon  the  annual 
overflow  of  the  Nile.  This  overflow  is  made 
available  for  the  purpose  of  irrigation  to 
the  fullest  extent  by  means  of  canals  and 
trenches.  The  digging  and  cleansing  of  these 
canals  was  amongst  the  "  hard  bondage,  in 
mortar,  and  in  brick"  (Ex.  1.14),  with  which 
the  lives  of  the  Israelites  were  made  bitter  in 
Egypt.  Hence  the  attractiveness  of  the 
Promised  Land  that  was  watered  naturally  by 
rains  from  heaven. 

Not  only  do  the  prosperity,  the  riches, 
and  fertility  of  Egypt  depend  on  the  over- 
flowings of  the  Nile,  but  its  very  existence  is 
owing  to  the  same  cause.  The  soil  of  the 
country  has  been  brought  down  from  the 
mountains  and  tablelands  of  Abyssinia  and 
the  far  interior  of  Africa,  and  deposited  during 
the  annual  inundations  at  the  rate  of  about 
five  inches  in  a  century.  During  the  inundations 
the  whole  country  appears  like  a  series  of 
lakes,  ponds,  and  reservoirs,  separated  by 
dykes  and  raised  roads ;  and  it  is  not  merely 
the  saturation  of  the  ground,  but  the  deposit 
of  soil,  which  produces  such  vast  crops.  As 
soon  as  the  waters  have  subsided,  cultivation 
commences.  The  seed  is  sown  in  the  moistened 
soil,  or  even  on  the  surface  of  the  shallow  water 
spread  over  the  land,  and  under  the  hot  sun 
vegetation  and  harvest  follow  with  such  rapidity 
as  to  allow  a  succession  of  crops.  The  changed 
appearance  of  the  country  caused  by  the  annual 


EGYPT] 


138 


[EGYPT 


overflow  is  startling.  What  was  a  parched 
desert  of  sand  and  dust  becomes  in  a  short  space 
of  time  a  scene  of  verdant  beauty.  So  entirely 
were  the  Egyptians  dependent  on  the  Nile 
that  they  worshipped  it,  paying  it  divine  honours 
as  the  first  of  all  their  gods.  It  was  this  venera- 
tion for  their  river  that  made  the  plagues  of 
frogs  ana  the  turning  of  the  river  into  blood  so 
terrible  (Ex.  7.15-25,  8.1-15).  Even  though 
the  present  population  is  largely  Mohammedan 
there  is  the  same  tendency  to  regard  the  Nile 
with  a  superstitious  reverence,  and  it  is  still 
called  the  "  most  holy  river." 

Egypt,  in  its  Political  Divisions,  from  a 
very  early  period  was  divided  into  nomcs, 
or  districts.  These  were  at  times  virtually 
separate  kingdoms,  subject  to  the  supreme 
ruler,  and  originally  numbered  thirty-six, 
each  one  having  its  special  objects  for  worship. 
These  nomes  grew  less  in  number  until,  in  the 
time  of  Isaiah,  there  were  probably  not  more 
than  two.  Only  two  of  the  divisions  are 
mentioned  in  Scripture,  Pathros  and  Caphtor 
(which  see).  With  reference  to  one  of  these 
divisions,  the  land  of  Goshen,  we  are  told  that 
it  was  the  richest  pasture -land  of  Lower  Egypt. 
The  meaning  is  unknown,  but  perhaps  the 
district  was  called  Goshen  from  Gush,  an  Arabic 
word  meaning  "a  heart,"  or  whatever  is  choice 
or  precious  (Gen.  45.18,  47.11).  This  was  the 
province  chosen  by  Joseph  in  which  to  settle 
his  kindred.  Goshen  lay  between  the  most 
easterly  branch  of  the  Nile  and  Palestine  and 
Arabia.  It  was  part  of  the  district  of  Helio- 
polis,  of  which  the  On  of  the  Scriptures  was 
the  capital.  [GOSHEN,  ON.] 

As  was  to  be  expected  in  such  a  populous 
country  as  Egypt,  there  were  many  large  and 
prosperous  Cities  within  its  borders.  Of  the 
more  ancient  of  these  we  know  but  little,  except 
what  has  been  gleaned  from  the  monuments 
and  scattered  inscriptions.  Among  the  most 
remarkable  of  these  cities  was  Thebes,  the 
ancient  capital  of  Egypt.  This  renowned 
city  was  said  to  have  been  built  by  Mizraim, 
the  son  of  Ham  and  grandson  of  Noah.  It 
was  also  called  No  (Ezek.  30.14),  No-Ammon, 
and  Diospolis.  Thebes  was  situated  on  the 
Nile,  and  was  the  seat  of  the  worship  of  Ammon, 
and  was  crowded  with  magnificent  temples 
and  other  public  buildings.  How  great  and 
strong  Thebes  was,  history  and  its  existing 
monuments  testify,  and  Scripture  confirms 
(Nah.  3.8-10),  when  it  compares  it  with  Nineveh, 
giving  it  pre-eminence  over  that  city.  [No.] 
Other  important  cities  were  Zoan  (Ps.  78.12) ; 
On,  or  Heliopolis  (Gen.  41.45) ;  Pithom  and 
Raamses  (Ex.  1.11) ;  Sin  (Ezek.  30.15) ;  Pibeseth, 
or  Bubastes  (Ezek.  30.17) ;  Tahpanhes,  or 
Hanes  (Jer.  43.8;  /sat.  30.4);  Migdol  (Jer. 
46.14) ;  Memphis  or  Noph,  the  wealth  and 
glory  of  which  are  attested  by  ancient  writers, 
which  wrested  the  chief  place  from  Thebes, 
and  was  the  great  city  of  the  Pharaohs, 
the  city  the  Hebrews  were  best  acquainted 
with,  and  to  which  there  are  most  references 


in  Scripture;  Syene  (Ezek.  29.10)  and  Alex- 
andria. 

The  Egyptians  attained  a  high  degree  of 
refinement  and  luxury  at  a  time  when  the 
whole  Western  world  was  involved  in  barbarism, 
ages  before  Carthage,  Athens,  and  Rome  were 
founded.  Their  System  of  Government  was  a 
monarchy  founded  upon  a  powerful  priesthood, 
of  which  the  ruler  himself  was  the  head.  These 
priest-kings  were  originally  called  Pharaoh. 
This  was  not  a  proper  name,  but  a  word  signi- 
fying "  Great  House,"  and  was  generally  used 
as  a  prefix  to  the  monarch's  real  name.  The 
crown  was  hereditary,  but  the  Pharaoh's  actions 
were  greatly  limited  by  custom  and  laws  con- 
tained in  the  sacred  books.  Subject  to  Pharaoh 
were  the  territorial  chiefs  or  kings.  These  ruled 
over  provinces,  or  nomes,  and  governed  strictly 
according  to  the  general  laws  of  the  country. 
In  order  to  preserve  the  dignity  of  the  monarch, 
neither  hired  servant  nor  slave  was  permitted 
near  his  august  person.  Instead,  he  was 
served  and  ministered  to  by  the  children  of 
the  priestly  order,  who  were  always  highly 
educated  and  refined  hi  manner.  Great  respect 
was  paid  to  the  Pharaohs.  They  were  honoured 
whilst  living  as  visible  representations  of  the 
Deity,  and  after  their  death  were  lamented 
as  more  than  men,  and  worshipped.  Below 
the  monarch  the  people  of  Egypt  were  divided 
into  seven  distinct  classes  or  castes.  These 
were  priests,  soldiers,  herdsmen,  swineherds, 
shopkeepers  and  merchants  generally,  inter- 
preters, and  boatmen.  Besides  this  division, 
each  caste  was  subdivided  into  various  trades 
and  occupations,  no  one  interfering  with  the 
business  of  another. 

The  Priesthood  formed  the  real  ruling  power, 
the  government  being  rather  ecclesiastical 
than  monarchical.  Even  if  he  had  not  pre- 
viously been  a  priest,  the  king  on  his  accession 
was  always  adopted  into  that  caste  and  initiated 
into  its  mysteries.  This  may  explain  the 
union  of  Joseph  with  Asenath,  the  daughter 
of  the  "  priest  of  On,"  arising  out  of  the  desire 
of  Pharaoh  and  the  priests  to  concentrate  all 
power  in  their  own  hands.  The  priests  possessed 
great  privileges  and  large  revenues  (Gen.  47.22, 
26).  The  principal  seats  of  their  learning  were 
in  the  great  cities,  such  as  Thebes  and  On  ; 
but  they  were  also  stationed  in  groups  about 
the  kingdom,  guiding  the  worship  of  the  people 
and  governing  them.  The  high  priests  ranked 
in  power  next  the  king  [POTIPHERAK],  while 
the  general  body  not  only  directed  the 
worship  of  the  people  and  attended  the  service 
of  their  gods,  but  also  acted  as  judges,  physicians, 
soothsayers,  and  architects.  Their  temples  and 
settlements  were  maintained  by  grants  of  land, 
which  supplied  them  with  provisions  and  a 
common  fund  for  themselves  and  families. 
The  sacred  books,  over  which  the  priests  kept 
jealous  guard,  contained  not  only  the  mysteries 
of  their  worship,  but  also  the  principles  of 
government. 

Besides    the    kings    (see    above)    the    local 


EGYPT] 


139 


[EGYPT 


gods  were  the  objects  of  all  public  and  popular 
religion.  The  attempt  of  Amenhotep  iv.  (1370 
B.C.)  to  worship  the  sun  alone  as  supreme 
failed.  In  late  times  the  mysteries,  especi- 
ally those  of  Osiris  and  Tsis,  became  very 
popular,  but  were  only  revealed  to  the  initiated. 

In  their  Army  the  Pharaohs  had  a  splendidly 
organised  force,  for  the  speed  with  which  the 
army  of  chariots  and  cavalry  assembled  (even 
after  the  terrible  disasters  that  had  overtaken 
their  country  as  a  result  of  the  contest  between 
Moses  and  Pharaoh,  Ex.  14,  15)  to  pursue 
the  Israelites  shows  that  a  large  force  was 
constantly  maintained,  and  always  ready. 
The  army  consisted  of  militia,  and  the  office  of 
soldier  was  hereditary ;  indeed  he  was  a  member 
of  a  caste  which  enjoyed  particular  privileges, 
having  for  its  support  certain  nomes  or 
provinces.  The  monarch  was  the  commander- 
in-chief,  and  the  position  at  his  right  hand  was 
one  of  peculiar  honour.  The  army  was  divided 
into  battalions,  each  with  its  own  standard, 
carried  by  an  officer.  Their  arms  were  bows, 
shields,  battle-axes,  swords,  spears,  clubs,  and 
slings.  Great  attention  was  paid  to  the  breed 
of  horses  for  the  army;  some  of  the  princes 
maintained  scores  of  stables,  containing  hundreds 
of  horses.  Yet,  in  spite  of  all  their  military 
preparation,  the  Egyptians  in  the  main  were 
mot  a  warlike  people,  but  maintained  the  army 
for  their  own  protection.  Nevertheless,  some 
of  the  rulers,  more  ambitious  or  more  revengeful 
than  others,  carried  the  sword  and  torch  into 
their  neighbours'  territories. 

The  Laws  of  the  Egyptians  were,  on  the 
whole,  just  and  inclined  to  mercy.  These 
laws  had  the  credit  of  having  been  dictated 
by  the  gods  themselves,  and  Thoth  (the  Greek 
Mercury)  was  said  to  have  framed  them  for 
the  benefit  of  mankind.  The  general  punish- 
ment for  all  minor  offences  was  the  bastinado, 
while  mutilation,  imprisonment,  and  death  were 
reserved  for  wilful  murder  and  other  serious 
crimes. 

In  Agriculture  and  Trade  the  Egyptians 
were  an  industrious  and  capable  people.  The 
cultivation  of  flax  and  other  fibrous  products 
for  the  making  of  linen,  paper,  and  cloth  was 
highly  developed  ;  while  the  number  of  vege- 
tables grown  in  the  fields  was  great.  Grapes, 
pomegranates,  dates,  and  other  fruits  were 
also  produced  in  abundance.  Several  cereals 
were  grown,  and  constituted  the  chief  wealth  of 
the  country.  Barley,  rye,  rice,  and  wheat  were 
the  principal.  It  was  the  last  of  these  for 
which  Egypt  was  especially  famous.  Some 
people  indeed  look  upon  Egypt  as  the  home  of 
the  plant.  Egypt  was  proverbial  for  its  riches 
(Ex.  12.35;  Ezelc.  32.12;  Heb.  11.26).  In 
addition  to  its  valuable  vegetable  products,  it 
had  mines  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  iron, 
emeralds,  and  sulphur,  situated  in  the  upper 
country.  The  mines  were  worked  chiefly  by 
slave  labour,  which  was  so  cruelly  conducted 
that  the  mortality  was  great.  In  later  times, 
when  Egypt  was  passing  from  the  hand  of  one 


conqueror  to  another,  the  mines  were  gradually 
abandoned. 

The  Social  Life  of  the  Egyptians  was  that 
of  a  people  of  intelligence  and  culture,  familiar 
with  art,  dwelling  amidst  majestic  monuments 
of  their  own  past,  accustomed  to  the  display 
of  wealth  and  to  intercourse  with  other  peoples. 
In  morals  they  were  lax ;  in  their  relations 
with  each  other  they  were  ceremonious ;  in 
their  persons  they  were  cleanly.  Polygamy 
was  permitted,  and  marriage  of  brother  and 
sister  practised.  They  dressed  mainly  hi  liner^ 
and  used  ornaments  of  gold  and  silver,  or 
of  flowers.  Slavery  existed  (Gen.  12.16). 
Captives  were  largely  employed  on  the  monu- 
mental works  dear  to  successive  monarchs. 

Egypt  was  ruled  by  successive  Dynasties,  as  to 
most  of  which  definite  historical  information 
is  available.  Menes,  the  first  historical  king, 
reigned  about  4000  B.C.  Under  the  fourth 
dynasty,  Cheops  and  others  built  the  three 
largest  pyramids  at  Gizeh.  Confusion  reigned 
in  the  time  of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth 
dynasties,  and  prepared  the  way  for  the  sub- 
jugation of  Egypt  by  foreign  invaders.  They 
are  known  as  the  Hyksos  or  Shepherd  Kings. 
Their  yoke  was  broken  and  their  last  strong- 
hold captured  about  1600  B.C.  Of  diplomatic 
and  personal  affairs  under  Amenophis  in.,  of 
the  eighteenth  dynasty,  much  information  has 
been  gained  from  the  Tel  el-Amarna  tablets. 
Rameses  n.  (of  the  nineteenth  dynasty),  the 
greatest  of  the  temple-builders,  has  been 
identified  with  the  Pharaoh  of  the  oppression, 
and  his  son  Meneptah  with  the  Pharaoh  of  the 
Exodus. 

The  Egyptian  bondage  of  the  Israelites 
lasted  about  400  years,  the  sojourn  in  Egypt 
extending  in  all  to  430  years  (Ex.  12.40).  The 
facts  of  the  oppression  and  the  tragic  separa- 
tion kept  the  two  peoples  apart,  if  not  in  actual 
enmity,  until  the  days  of  David  and  Solomon. 
Solomon  cemented  the  renewed  friendship  by 
marrying  the  daughter  of  Pharaoh,  and  received 
as  her  dower  the  city  of  Gezer  (1  K.  9.16). 
Then  for  a  long  time  there  were  periods  of 
coldness,  alternating  with  warm  alliances.  The 
inevitable  happened.  Israel,  used  as  a  cat's- 
paw  by  her  bigger  and  more  unscrupulous  ally, 
usually  suffered  severely.  The  Egyptian  alli- 
ances led,  in  fact,  to  the  final  overthrow  of 
the  Jewish  kingdom,  as  foretold  by  Isaiah 
(/sat.  36.6). 

Taken  by  Persia  less  than  a  century  after  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar, 
Egypt  itself  became  a  Persian  province,  and 
thenceforward  became  the  prey  of  one  foreign 
ruler  after  another. 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  Bible 
references  to  Egypt :  It  is  called  also  "  Land 
of  Ham  "  (Ps.  78.51, 105.23,  27),  and  "  Rahab  " 
(Ps.  87.4,  89.10;  Isai.  51.9);  watered  by 
Nile  and  artificial  irrigation  (Deut.  11.10,11); 
rain  rare  (Deut.  11.10, 11 ;  Zech.  14.18) ;  remark- 
ably fertile  (Gen.  13.10) ;  especially  the  Delta, 
near  the  east  side  of  which  was  the  land 


EGYPTIAN] 


140 


[ELAM 


of  Goshen  (Gen.  46.28,34,  47.1-6,11);  pro- 
ductive of  grain  and  vegetables  (Ex.  9.31,32; 
Num.  11.5 ;  /sat.  19.7),  of  papyrus  (Ex.  2.3), 
of  horses,  oxen,  camels,  asses,  sheep  (Gen.  12.16, 
41.19  ;  Ex.  9.3  ;  Deut.  17.16  ;  1  K.  10.28,  29), 
of  crocodiles,  frogs,  and  locusts  (Ex.  8.2-5, 
10.3-6,12,19;  Ps.  74.13,14);  famous  for 
textile  fabrics  (Prov.  7.16  ;  Isai.  19.9),  and  for 
pottery  (Ex.  1.14).  Was  the  residence  of 
Abraham  (Gen.  12.10-20,  13.1) ;  scene  of 
Joseph's  captivity  (Gen.  37.28,  36,  39,  40)  and 
administration  (Gen.  41-47) ;  visited  by  Jacob's 
sons  for  corn  (Gen.  42,  43) ;  residence  of  Jacob 
and  his  sons  (Gen.  46-49  ;  Acts  7.15) ;  scene  of 
Israelite  oppression  (Ex.  1 ;  Isai.  52.4 ;  Acts 
7.19),  of  ten  plagues  and  magicians'  enchant- 
ments (Ex.  7-9),  of  Israel's  deliverance  by 
Moses  (Ex.  12.  31-42,  13.17-22,  14).  Egyptian 
converts  admitted  to  the  congregation  of 
Israel  (Deut.  23.7,  8) ;  idolatry  of  Egypt  adopted 
by  the  Israelites  (Ex.  32.4,8;  Josh.  24.14; 
i  K.  12.28;  Ezek.  20.7,8).  Alliance  with 
lladad  the  Edomite  (1  K.  11.17-20);  with 
Solomon  (1  K.  3.1,  7.8,  9.24,  10.28,29). 
Pharaoh  took  Canaanite  city  Gezer  (1  K.  9-16) ; 
Shishak  (Sheshenk  ?)  received  Jeroboam  when 
fleeing  from  Solomon  (1  K.  11.40) ;  took  Jeru- 
salem in  Rehoboam's  reign  and  made  him 
tributary  (1  K.  1425,26;  2  Ch.  12.2-9); 
Zcrah  (Usarken  1  or  2  ?)  routed  by  Asa,  king  of 
Judah  (2  Ch.  14.9-15,  16.8) ;  aid  of  So  (Shebek) 
sought  by  Hoshea,  kins  of  Israel,  when  he 
revolted  from  Assyria  (2  K.  17.4 ;  Ezek.  17.1-21) ; 
Tirhakah  (Tehrak)  advanced  against  Senna- 
cherib in  aid  of  Hezekiah,  king  of  Judah  (2  K. 
19.9 ;  Isai.  36.6,  37.9).  Necho,  marching 
to  attack  the  king  of  Assyria,  encountered  by 
Josiah,  king  of  Judah,  who  was  defeated  and 
killed  at  Megiddo  (2  K.  23.29, 30  ;  2  Ch.  35.20- 
24) ;  deposed  Jehoahaz  and  made  Judah 
tributary  (2  K.  23.33,  34 ;  2  Ch.  36.1-4) ; 
routed  by  Nebuchadnezzar  at  Carchemish 
(Jer.  46.2),  with  loss  of  the  Assyrian  dominion 
previously  belonging  to  Egypt  (2  K.  24.7). 
Egypt  the  asylum  of  Urijah  (Jer.  26.20-23). 
Ilophra  sent  army  to  aid  Zedekiah,  so  that 
the  siege  of  Jerusalem  was  raised  for  a  tune 
(Jer.  37.5-11;  Ezek.  17.11-18);  received 
Jeremiah  and  other  fugitives  from  Jerusalem 
when  it  was  taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (Jer. 
43.1-7).  Egypt  overrun  by  Nebuchadnezzar, 
as  foretold  (Jer.  44.30,  46.13-26  ;  Ezek.  29-32). 
Reliance  on  Egypt  condemned  by  prophets 
(2  K.  18.21 ;  Isai.  7.18,  30.1-7,  31.1-3, 
36.6;  Ezek.  17.15,  29.6;  Eos.  12.1);  pro- 
phecy fulfilled  in  the  disappearance  of  Memphis 
and  its  idols  (Jer.  46.19 ;  Ezek.  30.13) ;  in  the 
disappearance  of  papyrus  (Isai.  19.6,  7) ;  in 
the  filling  up  of  the  natural  channels  of  the 
Nile  (Isai.  19.5-10) ;  in  the  absence  of  a  native 
ruler  (Ezek.  30.13).  Promise  of  blessing  (7»at. 
19.19-25). 

Egyptian.— The  Egyptian  of  Acts  21.38, 
u-lio  led  out  4000  Assassins  (R.V.)  or  Sicarii, 
in  the  time  of  Felix,  is  mentioned  by  Josephus, 
but  is  otherwise  unidentified. 


ETii. — A  son  of  Benjamin  (Gen.  46.21),  appar- 
ently the  same  as  Ahiram  (Num.  26.38),  Aher 
(1  Ch.  7.12),  and  Aharah  (1  Ch.  8.1). 

E'hud. — 1.  A  descendant  of  Benjamin  (1  Ch. 
7.10).  2.  A  son  of  Gera,  the  second  judge, 
or  deliverer,  of  the  Israelites  (Judg.  3.15). 
The  Israelites  sent  Ehud  to  pay  tribute  to 
Eglon,  a  king  of  Moab  at  Jericho.  He,  smarting 
under  the  degradation,  obtained  a  private 
audience  of  Eglon  and  stabbed  him  to  death. 
Ehud  fled  towards  Mount  Ephraim,  and 
summoning  the  oppressed  Israelites  to  his 
side  they  secured  the  fords  of  the  Jordan,  so 
that  the  Moabites,  who  held  the  land  by  force 
of  several  garrisons,  could  not  escape.  Then  he 
fell  upon  the  enemy,  cut  them  to  pieces,  and  so 
freed  his  country.  Ehud,  like  many  of  his 
countrymen,  was  left-handed,  and  it  was  with 
his  left  hand  that  the  fatal  blow  was  dealt  to 
Eglon. 
"E'ker.— A  descendant  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  2.27). 

Ek'ron. — The  most  northerly  of  the  five  towns 
belonging  to  the  lords  of  the  Philistines  (Josh. 
13.3).  It  was  in  the  lowlands,  and  was  allotted 
to  Judah  (Josh.  15.11, 45, 46).  It  was  also 
given  to  Dan  (Josh.  19.43),  but  was  recovered 
by  the  Philistines.  It  was  the  last  Philistine 
town  to  which  the  ark  was  sent  before  it  was 
returned  to  the  Israelites  (1  Sam.  5.10).  The 
mortality  at  this  place  was  greater  than  at 
cither  Ashdod  or  Gath.  It  was  a  sanctuary 
for  the  worship  of  Baal-zebub  (2  K.  1.2-6).  In 
Amosl.8  ;  Zeph.  2.4,  and  Zech.  9.5  the  doom  of 
Ekron  is  foretold.  Its  present  name  is  Akri,  a 
few  miles  south-west  of  Ramleh. 

El.— [GOD.] 

Ela.— [ELAH  2.] 

Ela'dah. — One  of  the  descendants  of  Ephraim 
(1  Ch.  7.20). 

E'lah.— Terebinth  :  1.  A  prince  of  Edorn  (Gen. 
36.41).  2.  Father  of  Shimei,  a  Benjamite,  and 
one  of  Solomon's  commissariat  officers  (1  K. 
4.18).  3.  The  son  and  successor  of  Baasha, 
king  of  Israel.  During  a  drunken  debauch 
he  was  assassinated  by  Zimri,  one  of  his  own 
officers,  in  the  house  of  his  steward  Arza.  He 
reigned  only  a  little  over  a  year  (1  K.  16.6). 
4.  The  father  of  Hoshea  the  last  king  of  Israel 
(2  K.  15.30).  5.  A  son  of  Caleb  (1  Ch.  4.15). 
6.  A  member  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  and  a 
chief  (1  Ch.  9.8). 

E'lah,  Valley  of. — A  valley  in  Judah  where 
David  slew  Goliath.  It  runs  in  a  north-westerly 
direction  into  the  Philistine  plain,  and  is  now 
called  Wady  Es-Sunt  (1  Sam.  17.2).  It  received 
its  name  from  the  number  of  terebinth  trees 
growing  in  it. 

E'lam. — 1.  The  eldest  son  of  Shem,  whose 
family  gave  his  name  to  a  district  south  of 
Syria  and  east  of  Persia.  From  him  sprang 
the  Elamites  and  Persians  (Gen.  10.22).  The 
country  was  in  Lower  Mesopotamia,  at  the  head 
of  the  Persian  Gulf,  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Assyria,  and  on  the  west  by  Persia.  It  was  a 
powerful  kingdom  under  Chedorlaomer  (Gen. 
14.1),  but  its  overthrow  was  foretold  in  Jer. 


ELAMITES] 


141 


[ELEAZAR 


25.25,  49.34  and  Ezek.  32.24.  It  was  a  pro- 
vince of  Babylon  in  the  time  of  Belshazzar 
(Dan.  8.2),  when  Shushan  was  the  capital  town. 
Shushan  or  Susa  was  one  of  the  oldest  cities  of 
the  East,  and  its  kings,  even  after  they  had  lost 
their  predominant  position,  still  remained  in  a 
semi-independent  position,  though  the  country 
had  been  subject  to  Babylon  from  the  time  of 
Nebuchadnezzar.  The  Elamites  were  warlike, 
and  distinguished  as  bowmen  (Isai.  22.6 ; 
Jer.  49.35).  That  many  Jews  lived  in  the 
country  is  evidenced  from  the  number  that  had 
travelled  to  Jerusalem,  and  were  there  on  the 
day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  2.9).  [SHTTSHAN.]  2.  A 
son  of  Shashak  (1  Ch.  8.24).  3.  A  Levite,  son 
of  Meshelemiah,  and  one  of  the  "  sons  of  Asaph  " 
(1  Ch.  26.3).  4.  A  family  of  Elamites  who  came 
up  from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.7). 
They  numbered  1254,  71  others  returning 
later  with  Ezra.  Members  of  this  family  were 
among  those  who  put  away  their  foreign  wives 
(Ezra  10.26).  One  of  them  was  signatory  to  the 
covenant  (Nch.  10.14).  5.  Another  family 
of  the  same  name,  and  containing  the  same 
number  of  persons,  who  also  returned  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.31).  This  family  is  called 
the  "  other  Elam  "  for  the  sake  of  distinction. 
6.  A  priest  who  assisted  in  the  dedication  of 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem  after  its  restoration 
(Neh.  12.42). 

E'lamites.— Ezra  4.9  ;  Acts  2.9.     [ELAM.] 

Ela'sah. — God  has  made :  1.  A  priest  who 
had  married  a  foreign  wife  hi  the  time  of 
Ezra  (Ezra  10.22).  2.  An  ambassador  from 
king  Zedekiah  to  Nebuchadnezzar  at  Babylon, 
fie  also  carried  a  letter  to  the  Jewish  captives 
at  Babylon  (Jer.  29.3).  [ELEASAH.] 

E'lath,  E' loth.— An  Edomite  seaport,  now 
called  Eyleh,  and  situated  at  the  head  of  the 
Arabian  Gulf.  It  originally  belonged  to  the 
Edomites,  being  situated  in  the  country  of 
Iduma^a.  When  David  conquered  Edom,  and 
"  throughout  all  Edom  put  he  garrisons " 
(2  Sam.  8.14),  he  began  to  establish  commercial 
intercourse  with  the  outside  world.  Elath 
became  a  port  of  consequence,  and  a  place  of 
considerable  size.  In  the  reign  of  Solomon, 
Elath,  with  its  near  neighbour  Eziongeber, 
became  still  more  important  on  account  of 
the  ships  which  he  built  and  fitted  out  there 
for  the  purpose  of  trading  with  Ophir,  for  gold 
and  other  precious  commodities  (2  Ch.  8.17). 

Elath  remained  in  the  possession  of  the 
Israelites  150  years,  when,  in  the  reign  of 
Jehoram,  the  Edomites  recovered  it  (2  K.  8.20). 
It  was  retaken,  however,  by  Uzziah,  king  of 
Judah,  who  again  fortified  it,  rep  copied  it  with 
his  own  subjects,  and  restored  the  trade  to 
Ophir.  This  prosperity  it  continued  to  enjoy 
until  the  time  of  Ahaz,  who  lost  it  to  the  king 
of  Damascus.  Once  more  the  population  of  the 
town  was  changed.  The  Jews  were  expelled,  this 
time  for  good,  and  were  supplanted  by  Syrians, 
put  there  by  king  Rezin  (2  K.  14.22,  16.6). 

El  Beth'el—  God  of  Hie  House  of  God  (Gen. 
35.7).  [BETHEL.] 


Elcla'ah. — God  has  called :  one  of  the  sons  of 
Midian  (Gen.  25.4  ;  1  Ch.  1.33). 

El'dad. — One  of  a  body  of  seventy  elders 
appointed  by  Moses  on  the  advice  of  Jethro 
to  help  in  governing  the  people.  The  seventy 
having  been  gathered  around  the  Tabernacle, 
two,  Eldad  and  Medad,  were  missing.  A 
young  man  reported  that  they  were  in  the  camp 
and  prophesying.  Joshua  proposed  then*  rebuke, 
but  Moses  refused  it  (Num.  11.16-29). 

Elders. — In  early  forms  of  government 
authority  was  vested  in  those  who  from  age  and 
consequent  experience  were  able  to  act  as 
representatives  of  the  people.  The  institution 
was  by  no  means  peculiar  to  Israel :  Egypt, 
Moab,  and  Midian  each  had  their  "  elders " 
(Gen.  50.7  ;  Num.  22.7) :  so  had  the  Greeks 
and  Romans.  In  the  history  of  Israel  thay 
first  appear  before  the  Exodus  (Ex.  3.16-18, 
4.29,  12.21),  and  continually  afterwards  are 
mentioned  as  the  representatives  of  the  whole 
people  and  medium  of  communication  from  and 
to  the  leaders  of  the  nation — Moses  and  Joshua, 
the  Judges  and  Samuel.  Moses,  under  the 
burden  of  the  administration  of  justice  and  at 
the  advice  of  Jethro  his  father-in-law,  appointed 
magistrates  of  various  degrees  of  authority, 
delegating  to  them  all  but  the  "  hard  causes  " 
(Ex.  18.13-26) :  it  is  clear  from  ver.  12  that  these 
were  chosen  from  the  "  elders  of  Israel."  In- 
stances of  these  judicial  functions  are  found  in 
Deut.  19.12,  21.2,  22.15,  25.7;  Josh.  20.4; 
Ruth  4.2.  The  narrative  of  Num.  11  tells 
how  Moses  under  Divine  direction  appointed  a 
council  of  seventy  elders  to  help  and  relieve 
him :  as  the  commonwealth  of  Israel  was 
essentially  religious,  they  are  made  partakers  of 
the  Spirit  which  was  upon  Moses.  To  this  inci- 
dent Jewish  tradition  carries  back  the  institution 
of  the  Sanhedrin. 

It  was  the  elders  of  Israel  who  asked  Samuel 
to  make  them  a  king  (1  Sam.  8.5).  For  their  in- 
fluence in  the  various  events  of  the  monarchy, 
see  2  Sam.  3.17,  5.3,  17.4 ;  1  K.  8.1,  12.6,  etc. 
After  the  exile  they  still  continued  to  represent 
the  people  (Ezra  5.5, 9,  6.7, 14,  10.8). 

[For  Elders  (Presbyters)  in  the  N.T.  see 
CHURCH,  BISHOP,  PRESBYTER.] 

El'ead. — God  is  witness :  a  descendant  of 
Ephraim  (1  Ch.  7.21). 

Eleadah.— [ELADAH.] 

Elea'leh. — God  is  exalted :  a  Moabite  town, 
north  of  Heshbon,  allotted  to  Reuben  (Num. 
32.3).  It  lay  to  the  east  of  Jordan  in  a  pastoral 
country.  It  was  denounced  by  both  Isaiah  and 
Jeremiah.  Its  ruins,  called  El-A'al,  may  still 
be  seen  on  the  top  of  a  hill  surrounded  by  a 
wide  plain  (Isai.  15.4,  16.9  ;  Jer.  48.34). 

Elea'sah.  —  God  has  made  (the  same  name 
as  ELASAH,  which  see).  A  son  of  Helez  of 
the  family  of  Hezron,  a  descendant  of  Judah 
(1  Ch.  2.39).  2.  A  son  of  Rapha  or  Rephaiah, 
a  descendant  of  Saul  (1  Ch.  8.37,  9.43). 

Elea'zar.— God  has  helped  :  1.  Third  son  of 
Aaron  by  Elisheba,  daughter  of  Amminadab, 
a  descendant  of  Judah  through  Pharez  (Gen* 


ELECT,  ELECTION] 


142 


[ELEMENTS 


38.29;  Ex.  6.23;  Ruth  4.18).  He,  and  his 
family  following  him,  succeeded  Aaron  in  the 
office  of  High  Priest,  and  held  it  till  the  time 
of  Eli.  His  two  elder  brothers,  Nadab  and 
Abihu,  were  struck  dead  because  of  their 
sinfulness,  although  they  had  been  consecrated  to 
the  sacerdotal  office.  Eleazar,  being  the  eldest 
surviving  son,  succeeded  his  father,  and  was 
himself  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son  Phinehas 
and  his  heirs,  according  to  the  covenant  (Num. 
25.12,  13),  until  in  Eli  the  sacred  office 
passed  for  a  time  to  the  family  of  Ithamar. 
Why  the  sacerdotal  succession  was  transferred 
from  Elearar  to  Ithamar  we  are  not  told,  but 
we  are  informed  that  it  reverted  to  the  family 
of  Eleazar  because  of  the  evil  lives  of  the  sons 
of  Eli.  Thenceforward  the  office  of  Chief 
Priest  remained  with  the  family  of  Eleazar 
until  the  Captivity.  [ABIATHAB.]" 

2.  A  son  of  Abinadab  to  whose  care  the  ark 
was  committed  when  it  was  sent  back  by  the 
Philistines.     He  was  appointed  to  the  task  by 
his  fellow-townsmen  of  Kirjath-jearim  (1  Sam. 
7.1). 

3.  One  of  the  chief  captains  of  David's  army 
(2  Sam.  23.9).     He  was  an  Ahohite,  a  son  of 
Dodo,  and  a  man  of  great  personal  courage 
(1  Ch.  11.12). 

4.  A  Merarite  and  a  son  of  Mahli  (1  Ch.  23.21). 

5.  A  priest  who  assisted  in  the  dedication 
of  the  restored  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Nth.  12.42). 

6.  A  son  of  Phinehas  (Ezra  8.33). 

7.  See  Ezra  10.25. 

8.  Son  of  Elihud,  a  name  in  the  genealogy  of 
Joseph,  the  husband  of  Mary  (Matt  1.15). 

Elect,  Election.— In  the  A.V.  of  the  O.T.  the 
term  "  mine  elect "  occurs  four  times  in  the  second 
part  of  Isaiah  (42.1,  45.4,  65.9, 22) :  in  each 
instance  R.V.  substitutes  "  my  chosen,"  and 
the  numerous  passages  must  be  added  in  which 
Israel  is  referred  to  as  God's  "  chosen  people  " 
(e.g.  Deut.  4.32-40,  7.6-11 ;  Pa.  78.67-72,  105.6  ; 
/sat.  41.8).  The  record  of  God's  redeeming 
grace  to  mankind  is  pervaded  with  the  con- 
ception of  the  Divine  choice  of  instruments 
for  His  purposes — national  and  individual 
(Moses,  Ps.  106.23 ;  David,  1  K.  11.34,  etc.). 
In  the  great  prophecy  of  the  '*  servant  of  the 
Lord"  (Isai.  42-53)  the  servant  is  identified 
now  with  the  whole  nation,  now  with  the 
faithful  remnant,  and  finally  with  the  ideal 
Figure  of  52.13-53.12:  the  fulfilment  is  found 
in  Lk.  9.35  (R.V.),  "  This  is  my  Son,  my  chosen." 
The  term  election  does  not  occur  in  the  O.T. 

In  the  N.T.  the  election  of  Israel  is  referred 
to  in  Acts  13.17,  and  especially  in  Paul's  vindica- 
tion of  the  Divine  dealings  with  God's  people 
(Rom.  9-11).  The  promises  of  God  had  always 
been  to  those  whom  He  chose,  and  the  rejection 
of  all  but  a  remnant  of  Israel  was  clearly  fore- 
told in  Scripture.  In  the  course  of  the  argu- 
ment there  is  bald  assertion  of  the  Divine 
sovereignty  (9.15-21),  but  this  is  advanced 
rather  in  rebuke  of  the  arrogance  of  Jewish 
privilege  than  as  the  end  of  the  whole  matter. 
The  hardening  of  Israel  was  that  the  "  fulness 


of  the  Gentiles  "  might  come  in  :  by  the  mercy 
shown  to  them  the  Jews  also  would  obtain  mercy, 
and  so  God  would  reach  His  purpose  of  having 
"  mercy  upon  all."  That  is  Paul's  doctrine 
of  "  election,"  and  as  he  contemplates  the 
issue  in  the  salvation  of  the  world  he  breaks  out 
into  the  doxology  which  closes  the  discussion 
(11.25-36). 

But,  apart  from  these  historical  references 
to  the  Jewish  people,  the  O.T.  conception 
of  election  is  in  the  N.T.  transferred  to  spiritual 
Israel,  the  Christian  Church.  So,  explicitly,  in 
1  Pet.  1.2,  2.9, 10,  and  in  the  term  "  the  elect," 
as  used  of  believers  (Matt.  24.22, 31 ;  Rom.  8.33  ; 
Col.  3.12;  IThess.  1.4,  etc.).  The  stress,  of 
course,  is  not  upon  national  privilege,  but  upon 
a  spiritual  reality,  which  is  to  be  maintained 
against  temptation  to  apostasy  (Matt.  22.14, 
24.24),  and  used  with  diligence  to  be  made 
"sure"  (2  Pet.  1.10;  cf.  Phil.  3.12;  Col.  1.23, 
3.1).  The  method  and  import  of  this  election 
are  set  forth  in  Eph.  1.3-14. 

The  choice  of  individuals  for  special  service 
appears  notably  in  the  case  of  the  apostles 
(John  15.16;  Acts  1.2):  also  in  that  of  Paul 
(Acts  9.15),  and,  as  already  noted,  is  consum- 
mated in  Jesus  Christ  (Lk.  23.35).  As  applied  by 
Paul  to  Rufus  (Rom.  16.13  "  the  chosen  [elect] 
in  the  Lord  ")  the  term  seems  to  mark  special 
eminence  in  Christian  character  and  service.  In 
this  same  sense  the  word  may  be  applied  to  the 
unnamed  person,  **  the  elect  lady,"  to  whom 
St.  John  addresses  his  Second  Epistle  (2  John  1) : 
more  probably,  perhaps,  the  phrase  is  used 
symbolically  of  a  church  to  which  the  apostle 
writes,  and  to  which  (ver.  13)  he  sends  the  greeting 
of  his  own  church  ("  The  children  of  thy  elect 
sister  salute  thee ").  Similarly,  "She  that 
is  in  Babylon,  elect  together  with  you  "  (1  Pet. 
5.13,  R.V.)  may  be  a  designation  of  the  church 
in  Rome.  [BABYLON.] 

El-Elo'he-Israel.— God,  the  God  of  Israel :  the 
name  given  by  Jacob  to  an  altar  which  he  erected 
on  a  site  near  Shechem,  purchased  from  the  sons 
of  Hamor  (Gen.  33.20). 

El-Elyon.— God  most  high  (Gen.  14.18,  R.V. 
marg.).  [Goo.] 

Elements. — The  word  so  rendered  in  Gal.  4.3 
has  several  meanings :  (1)  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet,  and  hence  the  rudiments  ("  the 
a  b  c  ")  of  any  branch  of  knowledge  ;  (2)  the 
physical  elements  of  which  the  world  is  com- 
pounded— earth,  air,  water,  fire ;  (3)  the 
heavenly  bodies,  as  constituent  parts  of  the 
universe. 

In  2  Pet.  3.10,  "  the  elements  shall  melt  with 
fervent  heat,"  expositors  are  divided  between 
meanings  (2)  and  (3) :  R.V.  marg.  has  "  the 
heavenly  bodies,"  and  perhaps  this  sense  better 
links  on  to  the  preceding  "  the  heavens  shall 
pass  away,"  and  affords  the  required  contrast 
with  the  following  "  the  earth  also  .  .  .  shall 
bo  burned  up." 

In  Heb.  5.12  "  the  first  principles  of  the  oracles 
of  God"  R.V.  correctly  indicates  meaning  (1) 
"  the  rudiments." 


ELEPH] 


143 


[ELIAM 


There  remain  four  Pauline  passages,  in 
which  the  meaning  is  doubtful.  In  each 
case  (virtually  in  Gal.  4.9,  see  ver.  3)  the  phrase 
is,  "  the  elements  of  the  world."  Under  these 
the  Galatians  had  heen  in  bondage,  to  these 
("  weak  and  beggarly "  as  they  were)  they 
were  turning  again  (Gal.  4.3, 9).  After  these, 
and  not  "  after  Christ,"  the  Colossians  were 
in  danger  of  being  drawn  away  by  a  "  philo- 
sophy and  vain  deceit " :  from  these  they  had 
died  with  Christ  (Col.  2.8,  20).  The  usual  inter- 
pretation, "  the  rudiments  of  the  world,"  takes 
"  world  "  in  the  ethical  sense  :  the  teaching 
condemned  by  the  apostle  is  at  once  unspiritual 
("  of  the  world  ")  and  elementary,  as  opposed 
to  the  fulness  which  is  in  Christ.  It  is  possible, 
however,  that  "  world  "  is  used  in  its  physical 
sense,  and  that  by  "  the  elements  of  the  world  " 
St.  Paul  means  the  heavenly  bodies,  and  indeed 
all  natural  objects  which  in  their  totality  con- 
stitute the  physical  universe.  The  reference 
would  then  be  to  the  belief  that  all  things  were 
animated  by  spiritual  beings  and  had  their 
special  angels  (cf.  Rev.  7.1-2,  14.18,  16.5, 
19.17).  From  this  "  worshipping  of  the  angels  " 
(probably  those  specifically  worshipped  at 
Colossae)  (Col  2.18)  the  apostle  recalls  his 
readers  to  Christ,  Son  of  God  (Gal.  4.4),  in 
whom  "dwelleth  all  the  fulness  of  the  Godhead 
bodily  "  (Clo.  2.9). 

E'leph. — The  ox :  a  town  near  Jerusalem, 
allotted  to  Benjamin  (Josh.  18.28).  Now  the 
village  of  Lifta. 

Elha'nan. — God  is  gracious:  1.  According  to 
1  Ch.  20.5,  the  son  of  Jair,  who  slew  Lahmi,  the 
brother  of  Goliath  the  Gittite.  In  2  Sam.  21.19 
the  R.V.  correctly  has  "  Elhanan  the  son  of 
Jaare-oregirn  the  Beth-lehemite  slew  Goliath 
the  Gittite."  The  relation  of  the  two  state- 
ments to  one  another  and  to  the  narrative  of 
1  Sam.  17  is  not  clear.  2.  The  son  of  Dodo  the 
Bethlehemite,  and  the  second  of  David's  thirty 
mighty  men  (2  Sam.  23.24 ;  1  Ch.  11.26). 

Eli. — Exalted :  a  High  Priest  and  Judge  of 
Israel.  He  immediately  preceded  Samuel,  and 
was  descended  from  Aaron  through  Ithamar 
(compare  2  Sam.  8.17  ;  1  K.  2.27  ;  1  Ch.  24.3). 
In  consequence  of  the  loose  hold  he  kept  upon 
his  two  sons,  Ilophni  and  Phinehas,  he  was  told 
that  God  would  punish  him  through  them.  The 
message  was  communicated  to  him  through  the 
child  Samuel  (1  Sam.  3). 

Twenty -seven  years  later  the  prophecy  was 
fulfilled,  Hophni  and  Phinehas  being  killed 
while  fighting  the  Philistines,  into  whose  hands 
on  the  same  occasion  the  ark  fell.  Eli,  ninety- 
eight  years  of  age,  was  so  overcome  with  the 
evil  news  brought  to  him  by  runners  from  the 
battlefield  that  he  swooned,  fell  backward  off 
his  seat,  and  died  by  breaking  his  neck  (1  Sam. 
4).  He  was  a  man  of  blameless  public  life,  and 
had  "  judged  Israel  forty  years  "  (1  Sam.  4.18). 

Eli  was  the  first  of  his  house  to  hold  the  office 
of  High  Priest,  and  it  was  part  of  the  punish- 
ment foretold  to  him  by  Samuel  that  the  office 
should  revert  to  the  family  of  Eleazar.  Then, 


his  sons  being  killed,  his  grandson  Ahitub 
(1  Sam.  14.3)  received  the  office,  but  Abiathar, 
the  grandson  of  Ahitub,  was  "  thrust  out  from 
being  priest  unto  the  Lord"  (1  K.  2.27), 
because  he  had  joined  the  rebellion  of  Adonijah 
against  Solomon.  Zadok  was  made  High  Priest 
in  his  stead  (1  K.  2.35). 

EK,  EH. — [ELOI.] 

Eli'ab.— God  is  father:  1.  A  son  of  Helon, 
and  leader  of  the  tribe  of  Zebulun  at  the  time 
of  the  census  in  the  wilderness  of  Sinai  (Num. 
1.9).  2.  A  son  of  Pallu  (Num.  26.8),  and  father 
of  Dathan  and  Abiram  (Num.  16.1).  He  was 
a  member  of  one  of  the  chief  families  in  the 
tribe  of  Reuben,  and  his  sons  were  leaders  in 
the  revolt  against  Moses  (Num.  16.1-12  ;  Deut. 
11.6).  3.  The  eldest  son  of  Jesse  and  brother 
of  David  (1  Sam.  16.6).  In  1  Ch.  27.18  he  is 
called  Elihu.  His  daughter  Abihail  married 
Rehoboam  (2  Ch.  11.18).  4.  A  Levite  who 
lived  in  the  time  of  David  and  who  combined 
the  duties  of  porter  (doorkeeper)  and  musician 
(1  Ch.  15.18,  16.5).  5.  A  Gadite  and  leader 
of  his  people.  He  was  of  a  warlike  nature, 
and  united  his  fortunes  to  those  of  David  when 
the  latter  fled  to  the  wilderness  from  Saul 
(1  Ch.  12.9).  6.  A  Kohathite  Levite,  son  of 
Nahath,  from  whom  was  descended  the  prophet 
Samuel  (I  Ch.  6.27).  In  other  statements  of 
the  genealogy  he  is  called  Elihu  (1  Sam.  1.1) 
and  Eliel  (1  Ch.  6.34). 

Elia'da.— Whom  God  cares  for:  1.  One  of 
the  youngest  of  David's  sons,  born  after  the 
latter  had  established  himself  in  Jerusalem 
(2  Sam.  5.16 ;  1  Ch.  3.8).  [BEELIADA.]  2.  A 
mighty  warrior  who  led  a  vast  army  of  200,000 
men  of  his  tribe  to  the  support  of  Jehoshaphat. 
He  was  a  Benjamite  (2  Ch.  17.17).  3.  (A.V. 
Eliadah).  An  Aramite  of  Zobah,  father  of 
Rezon,  and  the  captain  of  a  marauding  band 
which  annoyed  Solomon  (1  K.  11.23). 

Eli'ah  (R.V.  Elijah).— Jehovah  is  God:  1.  A 
principal  man  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  and  the 
son  of  Jeroham  (1  Ch.  8.27).  2.  One  of  the 
Bene-Elam  in  the  time  of  Ezra  who  had  married 
a  strange  wife  (Ezra  10.26). 

Eliah'ba. — God  hides:  a  Shaalbonite,  one  of 
David's  famous  guard  of  thirty  heroes  (2  Sam. 
23.32 ;  1  Ch.  11.33). 

EliaTdm.— Whom  God  establishes:  1.  One 
of  Hezekiah's  court  officials.  He  succeeded 
Shebna  as  master  of  the  royal  household  ;  and 
was  appointed  to  treat  with  the  king  of  Assyria, 
who  was  then  besieging  Jerusalem  (2  K.  18  and 
19 ;  Isai.  22.20).  2.  Son  and  successor  of  king 
Josiah.  He  was  subsequently  called  JehoiaJcim 
(2  K.  23.34).  [JEHOIAKIM.]  3.  A  priest  who 
assisted  in  the  dedication  of  the  wall  in  the 
time  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  12.41).  4.  and  5. 
Ancestors  of  Christ  (Matt.  1.13  ;  Lk.  3.30). 

Eli'am. — God  is  kinsman :  1.  The  father  of 
David's  wife,  Bathsheba  (2  Sam.  11.3).  In 
1  Ch.  3.5  Eliam  appears  as  Ammiel  and  Bath- 
sheba as  Bathshua.  2.  Son  of  Ahithophel  and 
one  of  David's  thirty  mighty  men  (2  Sam.  23.34). 
Perhaps  the  same  as  1, 


ELIAS] 


144 


[ELIJAH 


Ettas. — The  Greek  form  of  Elijah  used 
in  A.V.  of  the  N.T. ;  the  K.V.  always  has 
Elijah. 

Etta'saph. — God  has  added :  1.  Son  of  Deuel 
and  head  of  the  tribe  of  Gad  at  the  time  of  the 
census  in  the  Wilderness  (Num,  1.14).  2.  The 
son  of  Lael,  a  chief  of  the  Gershonites  (Num. 
3.24). 

Eb'a'shib. — God  restores :  1.  A  high  priest  who 
made  an  improper  use  of  the  temple  as  a  refuge 
for  a  relative,  Tobiah  the  Ammonite,  and  ex- 
cited the  wrath  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  13.4-7). 
His  grandson  married  the  daughter  of  Sanballat 
the  Horonite  (Neh.  13.28).  He  first  appears 
helping  to  rebuild  the  walls  of  the  city  (Neh.  3). 
2.  A  priest  (1  Ch.  24.12).  3.  A  descendant  of 
the  house  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  3.24).  4.  A  temple 
musician  (Ezra  10.24).  5.  (Ezra  10.27). 
6.  (Ezra  10.36).  7.  Father  of  Jehohanan 
or  Johanan  (Ezra  10.6;  Neh.  12.22,  23). 
Perhaps  the  same  as  1. 

Elia'thah. — God  is  come :  a  son  of  Heman, 
appointed  to  the  twentieth  division  of  the 
service  of  song  in  the  sanctuary  in  the  time  of 
David  (1  Ch.  25.4,  27). 

Eli'dad. — God  has  loved :  a  chief  of  Benjamin 
who  was  chosen  to  represent  his  tribe  at  the 
partition  of  Canaan  (Num.  34.21). 

Eliehoe'nai. — To  Jehovah  are  mine  eyes : 
R.V.  in  1  Ch.  26.3  (A.V.  Elioenai)  and  Ezra  8.4 
A.V.  Elihoenai). 

Eti'eL — God  is  God:  1.  The  great-grand- 
father of  the  prophet  Samuel  (1  Ch.  6.34). 
2.  (1  Ch.  5.24).  3.  (1  Ch.  8.20).  4.  (1  Ch.  8.22). 

5.  (1  Ch.  11.46).    6.   (1  Ch.  11.47).     7.  (1  Ch. 
12.11).    8.  A  chief  Levite  who  assisted  in  bring- 
ing the   ark  from  Obed-Edom  (1  Ch.  15.9, 11). 
9.  (2  Ch.  31.13). 

Elie'nai  (perhaps  for  ELTEHOENAI).  —  To 
Jehovah  are  mine  eyes:  a  Benjamite  (1  Ch. 
8.20). 

Efie'zer. — God  is  help :  1.  Abraham's  chief 
servant,  called  by  him  "  Eliezer  of  Damascus  " 
(Gen.  15.2).  The  statement  in  ver.  3  that  he 
was  "  son  of  my  house  "  merely  implies  that 
ho  was  a  member  of  the  household,  not  born  in 
it.  This  was  the  "eldest  servant  "  (Gen.  24.2) 
who  was  sent  by  Abraham  to  procure  a  wife  for 
Isaac.  2.  Second  son  of  Moses  (Ex.  18.4 ; 
1  Ch.  23.15,17).  3.  Grandson  of  Benjamin 
(1  Ch.  7.8).  4.  (1  Ch.  15.24).  5.  (1  Ch.  27.16). 

6.  A  prophet  who  rebuked  Jehoshaphat  (2  Ch. 
20.37).      7.    (Ezra     8.16).     8.    (Ezra     10.18). 
9.    (Ezra    10.23).     10.  (Ezra    10.31).     11.    An 
ancestor  of  Joseph  in  the  genealogy  of  Christ 
(Lk.  3.29). 

Elihoe'nai.— [ELIEHOENAI.] 

Eliho'reph. — God  of  autumn :  a  scribe  to 
Solomon  (1  K.  4.3). 

Eli'hu.— (My)  God  is  He:  1.  Son  of  Barachel, 
the  Buzite,  of  the  kindred  of  Ram.  He, 
although  a  younger  man,  intervened  in  the 
controversy  between  Job  and  his  friends, 
judging  all  to  be  in  the  wrong  (Job  32-37). 
2.  Ancestor  of  the  prophet  Samuel  (1  Sam. 
1.1).  [ELIAB  6.]  3.  (1  Ch.  12.20).  4.  (I  Ch. 


26.7).      5.   A     brother     of     David     who    was 
chief   of    the  tribe    of    Judah   (1    Ch.   27.18). 

[ELIAB  3.] 

Eli'jali. — Jehovah  is  God:  1.  Elijah, the  "grand- 
est and  the  most  romantic  character  that  Israel 
ever  produced,"  was  a  T:shbite,  a  native  of 
Gilead,  a  country  on  the  east  of  the  Jordan. 
His  appearance  is  dramatic.  Under  Ahab, 
king  of  Israel,  influenced  by  his  wife,  Jezebel, 
the  nation  had  lapsed  into  idolatry  and  forsaken 
the  covenant  of  Jehovah.  Suddenly  came  the 
terrible  message  to  Ahab  tlirough  Elijah,  "  As 
the  Lord  the  God  of  Israel  liveth,  before  whom  I 
stand,  there  shall  not  bo  dew  nor  rain  these  years, 
but  according  to  my  word  "  (1  K.  17.1). 

Elijah  was  of  a  fiery  and  impetuous  nature, 
a  native  and  lover  of  the  hill  country.  From 
the  narrative  we  can  gather  also  certain  personal 
traits  and  appearances.  His  hair  was  long  and 
abundant  (2  K.  1.8).  He  was  also  strong  and 
wiry,  or  he  could  not  have  run  so  far  before 
Ahab's  chariot,  or  endured  the  forty  days'  fast. 
His  clothing  consisted  of  skins,  fastened  with  a 
leathern  girdle,  and  the  sheepskin  mantle,  which 
has  become  proverbial  (1  K.  19.13). 

The  drought  thus  brought  upon  the  country 
by  the  wickedness  of  king  and  people  lasted  for 
three  years  and  six  months  (Lk.  4.25  ;  Jos.  5.17). 
The  consequent  famine  was  severe,  and  the 
districts  which  suffered  in  the  dire  visitation 
included  Phoenicia. 

Elijah  having  delivered  his  message  hid 
himself  from  Ahab  in  a  deep  valley  east  of  the 
Jordan,  in  which  ran  the  brook  Cherith.  There 
"  the  ravens  brought  him  bread  and  flesh  hi  the 
morning,  and  bread  and  flesh  in  the  evening; 
and  he  drank  of  the  brook  "  (1  K.  17.6).  "  After 
a  while "  the  brook  Cherith  dried  up,  and 
Elijah  was  commanded  to  seek  another  abode 
at  Zarephath  in  Sidon,  Jezebel's  own  country 
(1  K.  17.8,  9).  There  he  fell  in  with  the  widow 
gathering  sticks  to  cook  the  last  meal  she  and 
her  son  would  have  before  they  died  of  starva- 
tion. When  Elijah  asked  for  some  of  this  last 
morsel  of  bread,  she  did  as  the  prophet  com- 
manded. Her  faith  was  rewarded,  for  though  the 
famine  lasted  for  three  years  longer,  neither  her 
meal  nor  her  oil  gave  out  (1  K.  17.10-16 ;  cf. 
Lk.  4.26).  During  his  residence  at  Zarephath, 
Elijah  had  another  opportunity  to  show  the 
power  of  Jehovah,  for  the  widow's  son  sickened 
and  died.  The  distracted  mother  charged  him 
with  bringing  this  calamity  upon  her,  but  was 
compelled  by  the  restoration  of  her  son  to  life 
to  confess,  "  Now  I  know  that  thou  art  a  man 
of  God  "  (1  K.  17.17-24). 

By  the  third  year  the  drought  and  conse- 
quent famine  were  so  severe  that  Ahab  himself 
and  the  chief  of  his  household,  Obadiah,  had  to 
search  everywhere  for  fodder  to  keep  the  horses 
and  mules  alive.  So  preparations  were  made  at 
Samaria  for  an  expedition  ;  and  then  the  Lord 
commanded  Elijah  to  go  and  meet  Ahab,  at 
the  same  time  promising  that  He  would  send 
rain,  and  so  end  the  drought.  On  the  way 
Elijah  met  Obadiah,  allayed  his  natural 


ELIJAH] 


145 


[ELIPHAL 


fears  of  the  king,  and  bade  him  fetch  Ahab 
(1  K.  18.7-10). 

The  encounter  of  king  and  prophet,  the 
challenge  on  Mount  Carmel  of  the  servant  of 
Jehovah  to  the  prophets  of  Baal,  with  its  issue,  the 
coming  of  the  rain,  are  told  in  a  narrative  un- 
surpassed for  dramatic  splendour  (1  K.  18.17-46). 

By  his  relentless  slaughter  of  the  prophets  of 
Baal  (see  Deut.  13.5,  18.20)  Elijah  had  aroused 
the  fierce  anger  of  Jezebel,  who  cried  that  even 
as  he  had  done  to  the  priests  of  Baal  so  she  would 
do  to  him.  Elijah  could  face  an  angry  king, 
but  this  threat  of  an  angry  woman  drove  him 
again  to  the  wilderness,  where,  despairing,  he 
wished  that  he  might  die.  But  God,  mindful 
of  His  own,  sheltered  and  fed  him  and  guided 
him  through  forty  days'  journey  in  the  wilder- 
ness, until  he  came  to  Horeb,  "  the  mount  of 
God." 

Then,  after  manifestations  of  the  dread  forces 
of  Nature  in  the  wind,  the  earthquake,  and  the 
fire,  there  came  the  "  still  small  voice,"  and 
Elijah  knew  that  he  was  in  the  presence  of  God. 
The  searching  question,  "  What  doest  thou 
here,  Elijah  ?  "  elicits  a  protestation  of  loyalty 
to  Jehovah,  mingled  with  sense  of  defeat  and 
loneliness  and  peril  of  life.  The  prophet  is 
simply  bidden  go  back  to  his  abandoned  task, 
with  the  consciousness  that  the  cause  of  God 
stands  sure.  Rebuked,  and  yet  encouraged, 
Elijah  returned  to  his  duty,  meeting  with 
Elisba,  his  destined  successor,  on  the  way,  over 
whom  he  casts  his  mantle,  and  draws  him  from 
his  ploughing  (1  K.  19). 

Two  years  after  this  event  Elijah  was  com- 
manded to  warn  and  reprove  Ahab  for  his  sin 
in  the  matter  of  Naboth's  vineyard.  Ahab's 
uneasy  mind  cries  aloud  when  he  sees  Elijah 
approaching,  "  Hast  thou  found  me,  0  mine 
enemy?"  (1  K.  21.20).  HLs  penitence  post- 
pones the  judgment  on  his  sins,  but  does  not 
cancel  it.  [AHAB,  NABOTH.] 

Afterwards  Elijah  appears  as  God's  messenger 
to  reprove  Ahaziah,  Ahab's  son,  who  had 
succeeded  to  the  throne,  for  seeking  strange 
gods.  Ahaziah's  plan  to  secure  the  person 
of  the  prophet  is  frustrated  by  the  calling  down 
of  fire  from  heaven  (2  K.  1 ;  cf.  Lk.  9.54-56). 

While  on  a  visitation  to  the  schools  of  the 
prophets  at  Bethel  and  Jericho,  it  is  made  known 
to  Elijah  that  his  earthly  career  was  about  to 
end  (2  K.  2).  As  Elijah  and  Elisha  left  Jericho 
and  proceeded  to  the  place  beyond  Jordan,  they 
were  followed  by  fifty  of  the  students,  who 
thus  became  witnesses  of  the  miraculous 
parting  of  the  river  by  means  of  Elijah's  mantle 
(2  K.  2.8).  Elisha's  request  for  a  double  portion 
of  Elijah's  spirit,  i.e.  that  he  might  be  heir 
to  his  ministry  and  influence  (an  allusion  to  the 
double  share  which  the  first-born  received  on 
the  father's  death),  is  answered  by  him 
to  the  effect  that  though  the  request  was  very 
great  yet  it  would  be  granted,  if  Elisha  was 
permitted  to  witness  his  actual  departure. 
While  they  were  talking  the  translation  took 
place.  Elijah  was  carried  to  heaven  in  * 

10 


chariot  of  fire,  and  Elisha  saw  it  (2  K.  2.1-12). 
[ELISHA.] 

Every  part  of  Elijah's  character  is  marked  by 
a  moral  grandeur  which  is  heightened  by  the 
obscurity  thrown  around  his  connexions  and 
his  private  history.  His  appearances  are  as  of  a 
supernatural  messenger  suddenly  issuing  from 
another  world,  to  declare  the  commands  of 
heaven,  and  to  awe  kings  by  the  menace  of 
fearful  judgments.  His  boldness,  his  loyal 
zeal  for  the  honour  of  God,  his  austerity,  are 
the  characters  of  a  "  man  of  God."  He  was 
called  out  to  combat  the  fearful  idolatry  of  the 
age,  to  demonstrate  the  being  and  power  of 
Jehovah,  and  to  reclaim  or  punish  those  who 
had  forsaken  Him.  He  "  arose  as  fire,  and 
his  word  burned  like  a  torch  "  (Ecclus.  48.1). 

The  closing  prophecy  of  the  O.T.  in  its  out- 
look upon  "the  day  of  the  Lord"  predicts, 
"  Behold,  I  will  send  you  Elijah  the  prophet 
before  the  great  and  terrible  day  of  the  Lord 
come"  (Mai.  4.5,  R.V.).  By  N.T.  tunes  this 
prophecy  had  passed  into  the  current  ex- 
pectations of  Messiah:  He  was  to  be  heralded 
by  the  coming  of  Elijah  (Matt.  16.14,  17.10 ; 
John  1.21).  Jesus  declared  this  prophecy  ful- 
filled in  John  the  Baptist  (Matt.  11.14, 17.12, 13 ; 
see  also  Lk.  1.17).  In  the  vision  on  the  Mount 
of  Transfiguration  Moses  and  Elijah  appeared, 
the  representatives  of  the  Law  and  the  Prophets  : 
they  passed  away,  and  the  disciples  saw  "  Jesus 
only"  (Matt.  17.1-8).  An  indication  of  the 
place  held  by  Elijah  in  the  popular  imagina- 
tion is  seen  in  the  suggestion  that  he  might 
appear  to  save  our  Lord  from  the  cross  (Mk. 
15.35,36).  The  Epistle  of  James  emphasises 
the  humanity  of  Elijah :  a  "  righteous  man," 
yet  "  of  like  passions  with  us,"  he  "  prayed 
fervently,"  and  his  prayers  for  drought,  and 
again  for  rain,  were  answered  (Jas.  5.17, 18). 
(With  the  R.V.  marg.  of  Rom.  11.2  compare 
Mk.  12.26,  R.V.).  2.  (Ezra  10.21).  3  and  4. 

[ELIAH.] 

Eli'ka.— One  of  David's  guard  (2  Sam.  23.25). 

E'lim. — Palm  trees  :  the  second  encampment 
of  the  Israelites  after  crossing  th»  Red  Sea, 
celebrated  for  its  twelve  springs  and  seventy 
palm  trees  (Ex.  15.27  ;  Num.  33.9, 10).  It  is 
probably  the  raised  and  undulating  plain  on 
the  south  bank  of  Wady  Ghurundel. 

Eli'melech.— God  is  King  :  the  husband  of 
Naomi,  Ruth's  mother-in-law.  He  belonged 
to  the  Hezronite  family  dwelling  in  Bethlehem- 
Ephratah  at  the  time  of  the  Judges.  He  re- 
moved with  his  family  to  Moab  in  consequence 
of  a  great  dearth.  Both  Elimelech  and  his 
sons  died  in  Moab,  and  then  Naomi  and  her 
daughter-in-law  Ruth  returned  to  Bethlehem, 
where  the  latter  married  Boaz,  her  kinsman, 
"of  the  family  of  Elimelech"  (Ruth  1.2,3, 
2.1,  3,  4.3,  9).  [Rura.J 

Elioe'nai. — To  Jehovah  are  mine  eyes :  1.  (See 
1  Ch.  3.23,  24).  2.  (1  Ch.  4.36).  3.  (1  Ch.  7.8). 
4.  (Ezra  10.22).  5.  (Ezra  10.27).  6.  (Neh. 
12.41).  7.  (1  Ch.  26.3).  [ELIBHOENAI.] 

Eli'phal. — God   has  judged :    one  of  David's 


ELIPHALET] 


146 


[ELISHA 


captains  (1  Ch.  11.35).  Also  named  Eliphelet 
(2  Sam.  23.34). 

Elipha'Iet.— [ELIPHELET.  ] 

Eli'phaz. — 1.  The  son  of  Esau  and  Adah,  the 
daughter  of  Elon  (Gen.  36.4  ;  1  Ch.  1.35).  2. 
The  chief  of  Job's  three  friends.  He  was  a 
Temanite,  from  a  province  of  Idumaea,  which 
had  been  settled  by  a  son  of  Esau  (Gen.  36.10, 
11;  cf.  Jer.  49.7,20).  Eliphaz  is  the  chief 
upholder  of  the  argument  that  Job's  troubles 
are  a  visitation  from  Jehovah,  because  of  secret 
sin.  He  deals  more  gently  with  Job  than  cither 
Zophar  or  Bildad.  The  great  truth  he  demon- 
strates is  the  awful  purity  and  majesty  of  God 
(Job  4.12-21).  [JOB,  BOOK  OF.] 

Eliphe'leh  (R.V.  Eliphelehu).— God  is  Dis- 
tinction :  a  Levite  who  played  the  harp  when 
the  ark  was  brought  from  Obed-Edom  (1  Ch. 
15.18,  21). 

Eliphe'let. — God  a  way  of  escape :  1.  One  of 
David's  sons,  born  in  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  5.16), 
A.V.  Eliphalet ;  in  1  Ch.  14.5  Elpalet  (A.V.) 
or  Elpelet  (II.  V.).  2.  Apparently  another  of 
David's  sons  (1  Ch.  3.6,  cf.  ver.  8).  3.  (2  Sam. 
23.34) ;  also  named  Eliphal  (1  Ch.  11.35).  4. 
(1  Ch.  8.39).  5.  (Ezra  8.13).  6.  (Ezra  10.33). 

Elis'abeth. — God  is  an  oath :  the  wife  of 
Zacharias  and  mother  of  John  the  Baptist 
(Lk.  1.5).  She  was  a  descendant  of  Aaron,  and 
was  probably  named  after  Elisheba,  his  wife. 
She  was  a  woman  of  exalted  character,  and  kins- 
woman to  Mary  the  mother  of  our  Lord  (Lk. 
1.36). 

Elise'us.— The  Greek  form  of  Elisha  (Lk.  4.27, 
A.V. :  R.V.  Elisha). 

Elisha. — God  is  Salvation :  Elisha,  son  of 
Shaphat,  was  the  disciple  and  successor  of  Elijah. 
Elijah,  having  received  God's  command  to 
anoint  Elisha  as  a  prophet,  went  to  Abel- 
meholah,  where  he  found  Elisha  busy  ploughing 
with  twelve  pairs  of  oxen,  and  throwing  his 
mantle  over  him  (1  K.  19.19)  abruptly  passed  on. 
Elisha  ran  after  him,  and  begged  to  be  allowed 
to  bid  farewell  to  his  people  ;  on  receiving  an 
enigmatical  answer,  he  at  once  killed  a  yoke 
of  oxen,  cooked  the  bodies  with  the  broken-up 
plough,  and  gave  a  farewell  feast  to  his  neigh- 
bours. After  this  he  went  and  ministered  unto 
Elijah  until  the  translation  of  the  latter,  when 
he  received  the  prophet's  fallen  mantle,  and  was 
endued,  according  to  his  request,  with  that 
"  double  portion  "  of  his  spirit  which  marked 
him  out  as  heir  and  successor  to  Elijah's  ministry 
(2  K.  2). 

On  the  removal  of  Elijah,  Elisha  first  tested 
his  endowment  with  a  prophet's  gifts  by  parting 
the  waters  of  Jordan  with  Elijah's  mantle 
(2  K.  2.14).  The  "  sons  of  the  prophets  "  publicly 
acknowledged  his  claim  (2  K.  2.15-18).  Then 
almost  immediately  followed  the  second  and 
third  of  his  miracles,  the  sweetening  of  the  water 
of  Jericho  (2  K.  2.19-22),  and  the  destruction 
of  the  mocking  children  by  bears  (2  K.  2.23,  24). 
When  the  king  of  Moab,  who  had  paid  tribute 
since  the  days  of  David,  rebelled  against  the  king 
of  Israel,  Jehoram  and  his  allies,  the  kings  of 


Judah  and  Edom,  marched  into  the  desert  in 
the  hope  of  surprising  the  king  of  Moab,  and 
wore  suffering  from  thirst.  At  the  entreaty  of 
Jehoshaphat,  Elisha  prophesied  a  remarkable 
deliverance  (2  K.  3.1-25),  which  was  fulfilled  to 
the  letter. 

The  chronology  of  Elisha's  life  is  not  very 
clearly  indicated,  but  as  he  died  during  the  reign 
of  Joash  (2  K.  13.14)  his  ministry  must  have  ex- 
tended over  the  four  reigns  of  Jehoram,  Jehu, 
Jehoahaz,  and  Joash,  lasting  altogether  about 
fifty-seven  years.  The  deepest  lesson  of  this 
long  ministry  was  not  the  exhibition  of  the  power 
and  might  of  Jehovah,  but  the  tender  care,  the 
sufficient  provision,  and  the  ever-present 
help  which  the  Lord  extends  to  His  own 
servants  and  people.  This  is  shown  in  the  case 
of  the  widow  whose  husband  had  feared 
Jehovah  (2  K.  4.1-7).  Because  of  the  subsequent 
poverty  of  the  family  the  creditor  seized  the 
widow's  sons.  In  so  doing  he  availed  himself 
of  his  legal  rights  (Leo.  25.39),  though  his  action 
was  unjustifiably  harsh.  Elisha,as  the  prophet  of  a 
merciful  God,  could  not  resist  the  appeal  for  help. 
Again,  in  his  journeyings  from  Carmel,  Elisha 
was  in  the  habit  of  calling  at  Shunem  and 
stopping  to  rest  amid  the  quiet  of  a  pious 
Israelitish  home.  [SHUNEM.]  The  Shunam- 
mite  woman  was  childless,  a  great  calamity 
among  Jewish  wives,  and  the  prophet  as- 
sured her  that  God  would  rescue  her  from 
that  condition  (2  K.  4.8-17).  Several  years 
afterwards  the  woman's  son  was  smitten  with 
sunstroke  and  died.  Laying  the  body  upon 
the  prophet's  bed,  she  set  off  on  an  ass  to  find 
Elisha,  who  was  instrumental  in  restoring  her 
son  to  life  (2  K.  4.26-37).  [SHTTNAinnrE.] 

Some  time  after  the  above  event,  during 
a  time  of  great  scarcity,  Elisha  was  at  Gilgal, 
teaching  the  sons  of  the  prophets  and  helping 
them  by  his  presence  during  this  time  of  hard- 
ship. A  poisonous  plant  was  gathered  for  the 
pot,  but  the  prophet  rendered  the  food  innocuous 
by  casting  in  meal  (2  K.  4.38-4 1 ).  [GFLGAL.] 

The  miracle  of  the  twenty  loaves  and  the 
full  ears  of  corn  belongs  to  the  same 
period.  The  next  miracle  wrought  by  Elisha  is 
told  in  striking  narrative  (2  K.  5).  The  Syrians 
in  one  of  their  incursions  had  carried  away 
a  little  maid,  who  was  taken  into  the  service 
of  Naaman,  a  man  of  high  authority,  "but 
he  was  a  leper."  [LEPROSY.]  Naaman  was 
brought  to  Elisha,  and  cured  through  the 
instrumentality  of  the  humble  Jewish  maid. 

The  story  of  the  miraculously  recovered 
axehead  incidentally  shows  the  growing 
influence  of  Elisha.  The  sons  of  the  prophets 
flocked  to  him  to  be  instructed.  Their  number 
at  Jericho  was  now  too  large  for  the  institution, 
and  they  begged  permission  to  build  on  the 
banks  of  the  Jordan,  where  the  necessary 
timber  was  abundant  (2  K.  6.1-7). 

After  this  (when,  we  do  not  know ;  for  the 
events  recorded  in  these  chapters  are  not  given 
in  chronological  sequence)  Elisha  was  able  to 
warn  the  king  of  several  plots  by  which  the 


ELISHA] 


147 


[ELKANAH 


king  of  Syria  hoped  to  seize  his  person.  Th« 
Syrian  monarch  was  not  able  to  account  for 
Jehoram's  discovery  of  plans  laid  with  the 
utmost  secrecy,  until  it  was  suggested  to  him 
that  the  miracle-working  prophet  of  Israel 
might  have  revealed  them  all.  Then, 
having  learned  where  Elisha  was  to  be  found, 
he  sent  soldiers  to  Dothan  to  capture  the 
prophet.  But  Elisha  prayed  that  Benhadad's 
army  might  be  smitten  with  blindness.  His 
prayer  was  heard,  and  in  this  condition  he  led 
them  within  the  walls  of  Samaria.  In  refusing 
to  allow  Jehoram  to  massacre  the  army  he  had 
thus  trapped,  ElLsha  exhibits  the  humaneness 
of  his  nature.  He  also  showed  the  Syrian 
king  the  futility  of  his  attempts  to  contend 
against  the  God  of  Israel  (2  K.  6.19-23). 

Though  Benhadad  abandoned  his  marauding 
forays,  he  gathered  together  a  regular  army 
and  laid  siege  to  Samaria,  where  the  king  of 
Israel  and  Elisha  both  were.  The  city  was 
reduced  to  great  straits  for  food,  so  that  an  act 
of  cannibalism  came  to  the  king's  knowledge. 
Grieved  beyond  measure,  Jehoram  accused 
Elisha  of  being  the  cause  of  all  their  misfortunes, 
and  sent  to  kill  him.  The  prophet,  forewarned 
of  what  was  taking  place,  and  also  knowing  that 
the  king's  mind  was  changing,  secured  the 
messenger  of  death  (2  K.  6.32),  and  then  in- 
formed the  king  that  on  the  following  day 
food  would  be  plentiful  and  cheap,  which 
came  to  pass  (2  K.  7). 

He  next  appeared  in  Damascus,  the  capital 
of  Syria,  where  he  executed  the  Divine  command 
to  Elijah  of  declaring  that  Hazael  should  be 
king  (2  K.  8.7-13).  The  next  year  Elisha 
anointed  Jehu  king  over  Israel.  [jEiru.] 

Elisha  died  in  his  own  house  after  sixty 
years  of  public  service,  at  the  age  of  ninety 
years  (2  K.  13.14-19).  For  the  account  of 
certain  miraculous  events  that  occurred  after 
his  death  see  2  K.  13.20-22. 

The  contrast  between  Elijah  and  his  successor 
has  been  finely  drawn  by  Dean  Stanley : 
"  The  succession  was  close  and  immediate,  but 
it  was  a  succession  not  of  likeness,  but  of  con- 
trast. .  .  .  His  life  was  not  spent,  like  his 
predecessor's,  in  unavailing  struggles,  but  in 
widespread  successes.  He  was  sought  out 
not  as  the  enemy,  but  as  the  friend  and  coun- 
sellor of  kings.  .  .  .  His  deeds  were  not  of 
wild  terror,  but  of  gracious,  soothing,  homely 
beneficence,  bound  up  with  the  ordinary  tenor 
of  human  life.  .  .  .  One  only  trait,  and  that 
on  the  very  threshold  of  his  career,  belongs 
entirely  to  that  fierce  spirit  of  Elijah  which 
called  down  our  Lord's  rebuke  —  when  he 
cursed  the  children  of  Bethel  for  their  mockery. 
The  act  itself,  and  its  dreadful  sequel,  are  as 
exceptional  in  the  life  of  Elisha  as  they  are 
contrary  to  the  spirit  of  the  Gospel.  At  his 
house  by  Jericho  the  bitter  spring  is  sweetened  ; 
for  the  widow  of  one  of  the  prophets  the  oil 
is  increased  ;  even  the  workmen  at  the  prophets' 
huts  are  not  to  lose  the  axehead  which 
has  fallen  through  the  thickets  of  the  Jordan 


into  the  eddying  stream ;  the  young  prophets, 
at  their  common  meal,  are  saved  from  the 
deadly  herbs  which  had  been  poured  from  the 
blanket  of  one  of  them  into  the  cauldron ; 
and  enjoy  the  multiplied  provision  of  corn. 
At  his  home  in  Carmel  he  is  the  oracle  and 
support  of  the  neighbourhood ;  and  the  child 
of  his  benefactress  is  raised  to  life,  with  an 
intense  energy  of  sympathy  that  gives  to  the 
whole  scene  a  charm  as  of  the  tender  domestic 
life  of  modern  times.  And  when,  at  last,  his 
end  comes,  in  great  old  age,  he  is  not  rapt 
away  like  Elijah,  but  buried  with  a  splendid 
funeral ;  a  sumptuous  tomb  was  shown  in 
after  ages  over  his  grave,  in  the  royal  city 
of  Samaria  ;  and  funeral  dances  were  celebrated 
round  his  honoured  resting-place.  Alone  of 
all  the  graves  of  the  saints  of  the  O.T.,  there 
were  wonders  wrought  at  it,  which  seemed 
to  continue  after  death  the  grace  of  his  long 
and  gentle  life "  (Lectures  on  the  Jewish 
Church,  xxxi.). 

Eli'shah. — Eldest  son  of  Javan,  a  grandson 
of  Noah  (Gen.  10.4),  whose  descendants  settled 
in  the  "  Isles  of  Elishah,"  and  furnished  the 
Phoenicians  with  their  purple  dyes  (Ezek.  27.7). 
The  locality  of  these  islands  is  unknown,  but 
they  probably  included  all  the  groups  of  small 
islands  about  the  coasts  of  Greece. 

Elisha 'ma. — God  has  heard:  1.  A  chief  man 
of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim  and  grandfather  of 
Joshua  (Num.  1.10;  1  Ch.  7.26).  2.  A  son 
of  King  David,  born  in  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  5.16  ; 
1  Ch.  3.8).  3.  Another  son  of  David  (1  Ch.  3.6), 
who  is  called  Elishua  in  the  other  lists.  4. 
(1  Ch.  2.41).  5.  (2  K.  25.25).  6.  (Jer.  36.12). 

7.  A  priest  (2  Ch.  17.8). 

Elisha'phat.— God  has  judged:  one  of  the 
"  captains  of  hundreds  "  (2  Ch.  23.1). 

ElisheHba. — God  is  an  oath  :  the  wife  of  Aaron 
and  daughter  of  Amminadab  (Ex.  6.23).  Her 
marriage  with  Aaron  united  the  royal  and 
priestly  tribes.  (Same  name  as  Elisabeth, 
which  see.) 

Eli'shua. — God  is  Saviour:  a  son  of  David 
(2  Sam.  5.15).  [ELISHAMA  3.] 

Blind.— (Matt.  1.14). 

Eliza'phan. — God  has  protected:  1.  Son  of 
Uzziel  (Num.  3.30 ;  1  Ch.  15.8 ;  2  Ch.  29.13 : 
identical  with  Elzaphan,  Ex.  6.22  ;  Lev.  10.4). 
2.  A  prince  of  Zebulun  who  was  appointed  to 
assist  in  apportioning  the  land  (Num.  34.25). 

Eli'zur. — God  is  a  rock:  a  chief  of  Reuben 
who  assisted  to  take  the  census  in  the  wilder- 
ness (Num.  1.5,  2.10,  7.30,  10.18). 

Elka'nah. — God  has  possessed:  1.  (See  Ex. 
6.24).  2.  Father  of  Samuel  (1  Sam.  1.1-23; 
1  Ch.  6.27,34).  He  lived  in  the  time  of  Eli, 
had  two  wives,  one  of  whom,  Hannah,  in 
answer  to  prayer,  gave  birth  to  Samuel.  3.  A 
Levite ;  apparently  the  same  as  1,  and  an  early 
ancestor  of  2  (1  Ch.  6.23).  4.  Apparently  a 
nearer  ancestor  of  2  (1  Ch.  6.26).  5.  (1  Ch. 
9.16).  6.  A  Korahite  who  joined  David  at 
Ziklag  (1  Ch.  12.6).  7.  A  Levite  (1  Ch.  15.23). 

8.  An  officer  of  King  Ahaz  (2  Ch.  28.7). 


ELEOSH] 


148 


[EMBROIDERY 


Elkosh. — Birthplace  of  Nahum  the  prophet, 
who  is  styled  the  Elkoshite  (Nah.  1.1).  Its 
site  is  unknown :  Elkosh  has  been  identified 
with  a  village  in  Galilee  and  with  Eleuthero- 
polis  in  Judaea,  but  it  was  probably  in  Galilee. 
There  is  also  a  town  in  Syria  named 
Alkush,  where  tradition  places  the  prophet's 
tomb. 

Elko'shite.— [ELKOSH.] 

Ella'sar. — The  dominions  of  King  Arioch 
(Gen.  14.1).  In  the  time  of  Abraham  it  was 
the  capital  of  a  kingdom  owning  allegiance 
to  Elam.  It  has  been  identified  as  the  old 
Chaldean  town  Larsa,  now  Senkereh. 

Elm.— (Eos.  4.13 :  so,  wrongly,  A.V. ;  R.V. 
terebinth). 

Elma'dam,  Elmo/dam. —  Mentioned  in  the 
genealogy  of  Joseph  (Lk.  3.28). 

Etaa'am. — God  is  pleasantness  (1  Ch.  11.46). 

Elna'than. — God  has  given :  1.  Father  of  Neh- 
ushta  (2  K.  248).  2.  (Jer.  26.22, 36.12, 25).  Per- 
haps identical  with  1.  3.  The  name  of  three 
Levites  (Ezra  8.16). 

Elohim.— [GOD.] 

Eloi. — My  God  (pronounce  as  a  trisyllable, 
E16I):  St.  Mark  (15.34)  gives  the  cry  of  Jesus 
from  the  cross  in  the  form,  "  Eloi,  Eloi,  lama 
sabachthani  ? "  St.  Matthew  has,  "  Eli,  Eli, 
etc."  The  difference  arises  from  the  degree 
in  which  the  Aramaic  (or  vernacular)  has 
been  substituted  for  the  Hebrew  of  the  quoted 
Psalm  (Ps.  22.1).  In  both,  sabachthani  is 
Aramaic  for  the  Heb.  azabhtani  ("  hast  Thou 
forsaken  me  "),  but  Matthew  retains  the  Heb. 
Eli  ("my  God"),  for  which  Mark  gives 
the  (apparently)  Aramaic  equivalent  Eloi. 
Reverence  will  shrink  from  too  confident 
assertion  of  what  the  cry  meant  for  the  con- 
sciousness of  Jesus.  It  was  a  quotation  from 
a  Psalm  in  which  the  appeal  of  a  faith  dis- 
tressed by  the  delay  of  God's  help  passes  into 
a  shout  of  victory. 

E'lon.— Terebinth :  1.  Father  of  Esau's  wife 
(Gen.  26.34).  2.  Son  of  Zebulun  (Gen.  46.14). 
3.  Another  Zebulunite,  one  of  the  judges  (Judg. 
12.11,12).  4.  A  town  belonging  to  Dan 
(Josh.  19.43). 

E'lon  Beth-Ha'nan.— Terebinth  of  the  House 
of  Grace:  one  of  the  three  Danite  towns  that 
formed  one  of  Solomon's  commissariat  districts 
(1  K.  4.9). 

Elonites—  (Num.  26.26). 

Eloth.-(l  K.  9.26).    [ELATH.] 

Elpa'aL — God  doing  works:  a  Benjamite 
(1  Ch.  8.11). 

Elpa'tet.— [ELTPHELET.] 

Elpa'ran.— (Gen.  14.6).     [PARAN.] 

Elpelet— [ELIPHELET.] 

Elteke,  Elte'keh.— A  city  of  Dan  (Josh.  19.44) 
assigned  to  the  Levites  (Josh.  21.23). 

Elte'kon. — A  town  in  the  highlands  of  Judah 
(Josh.  15.59).  Its  site  is  uncertain.  Perhaps 
the  same  as  Tekoa. 

Elto'lad.— A  city  in  the  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  15.30)  allotted  to  Simeon  (Josh.  19.4), 
and  still  in  the  possession  of  that  tribe  at  the 


tune  of  King  David  (1  Ch.  4.29,  where  it  is 
called  Tolad). 

Elu'l.— The  sixth  month  of  the  sacred  year 
of  the  Jews,  roughly  corresponding  to  the  present 
October  (Neh.  6.15).  [Mourns.] 

Elu'zaL — God  is  my  strength  :  a  Benjamite 
warrior  who  cast  in  his  fortunes  with  David  at 
Ziklag  (1  Ch.  12.5). 

El'ymas. — Wise  man  or  sorcerer :  a  false 
prophet  who  withstood  Saul  and  Barnabas  at 
Paphos  in  Cyprus  (Acts  13.8).  [BARJESTJS.] 

Elza'bad. — God  has  given :  1.  One  of  the 
eleven  heroes  who  crossed  the  Jordan  to  assist 
David  at  Ziklag  (1  Ch.  12.12).  2.  (1  Ch.  26.7). 

Elza'phan.— [ELIZAPHAN  1.] 

Embalming. — The  earliest  records  of  em- 
balming are  to  be  found  on  the  Egyptian  monu- 
ments. The  custom  arose  from  the  supposed 
necessity  to  preserve  the  body  for  the  future 
occupation  of  the  dead,  when  he  had  finished 
all  his  transmigrations. 

The  art  of  embalming  was  brought  to  a  state 
of  perfection  very  early.  Indeed,  the  best 
preserved  mummies  are  those  that  date  back 
the  furthest. 

Only  two  instances  of  embalmment  occur 
in  the  Bible — Jacob  and  Joseph — both  in  con- 
nexion with  Egypt  (Gen.  50.2,  3,  26).  The 
Hebrews  did  not  embalm,  though  they  made 
great  use  of  spices  and  aromatic  herbs  in  their 
burials — Asa  was  laid  "  in  the  bed  which  was 
filled  with  sweet  odours  and  divers  kinds  of 
spices  prepared  by  the  apothecaries'  art " 
(2  Ch.  16.14),  and  in  John  19.39,  40  we  read 
how  Nicodemus  cared  for  the  body  of  the  Saviour. 

Herodotus  describes  several  modes  of  embalm- 
ment hi  use  in  Egypt,  the  prices  ranging  from  a 
small  sum  up  to  £300.  In  the  costliest  mode 
the  brain  was  removed  through  the  nose  with 
an  iron  instrument,  and  the  cavity  filled  with 
medicaments.  Then  the  trunk  was  opened, 
the  organs  removed,  and  the  space  filled  with 
myrrh,  cassia,  and  other  spices.  After  which, 
for  sixty  or  seventy  days,  the  body  was  steeped 
in  natron  ;  finally  it  was  swathed  in  linen  band- 
ages, in  the  folds  of  which  were  aromatic  spices 
and  gums,  and  sent  home  to  the  relatives,  who 
laid  it  in  a  wooden  case  shaped  to  the  body, 
and  placed  it  upright  in  the  sepulchral  chamber 
in  the  house  for  a  year  or  more,  when  it  was 
finally  deposited  in  the  family  vault.  In  the 
cheapest  methods  of  embalming,  the  body 
was  steeped  in  natron  after  the  cavities  had 
been  filled  with  cedar  oil  and  then  emptied. 
This  gave  to  the  mummy  the  appearance  of 
being  only  skin  and  bone.  [BURIAL.] 

Embroidery. — The  art  of  decorating  linen 
or  cloth  by  artistic  designs  wrought  by  loom 
or  needle  is  of  high  antiquity.  It  may  have 
been  derived  by  the  Hebrews  from  Babylon 
(Josh.  7.21)  or  from  Egypt  (Ezek.  27.7).  Note- 
worthy Biblical  references  are  (1)  the  High 
Priest's  garment  (Ex.  28,  R.V.  chequer-work, 
probably  an  effect  produced  by  the  blending 
of  different  stuffs) ;  (2)  the  curtains  and  veils 
of  the  Tabernacle  (Ex.  26.36)  ;  (3)  Judg. 


EMEK-KEZIZ] 


149 


[ENGINE 


5.30;  Ezek.  16.10,13,18,  26.16,  27.7,16,24. 
The  preparation  of  the  gold  wire  for  embroidery 
is  described  in  Ex.  39.3. 

E'mek-ke'ziz.— [KEZIZ.] 

Emerald. — A  gem  highly  valued  by  all  the 
ancients.  An  emerald  was  in  the  second  row  of 
gems  in  the  High  Priest's  breastplate  (Ex.  28.18, 
39.11).  It  is  mentioned  as  one  of  the  precious 
stones  with  which  the  king  of  Tyre  was  decked 
(Ezek.  28.13),  and  as  amongst  the  merchandise 
brought  to  Tyre  (Ezek.  27.16).  An  emerald  is 
named  amongst  the  foundations  of  the  New 
Jerusalem  (Rev.  21.19). 

Emerods  (i.e.  haemorrhoids  or  piles,  a 
complaint  common  among  Eastern  peoples). — 
The  word  occurs  (in  A.V.)  in  two  contexts :  (1) 
Deut.  28.27  (R.V.  marg.  "  or  tumours  or  plague- 
boils  ") ;  (2)  of  the  judgment  sent  upon  the  Philis- 
tines for  their  capture  of  the  ark  (1  Sam.  5,  6). 
Throughout  this  passage  the  R.V.  has  tumours 
(see  R.V.  marg.  1  Sam.  5.6),  probably  some 
form  of  plague. 

E'mim,  E'mims.  —  The  terrible  ones :  an 
ancient  tribe  of  giants  who  inhabited  the 
country  east  of  Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea.  They 
were  allied  to  the  Anakim  (Deut.  2.10, 11)  and 
other  tribes  of  gigantic  stature.  They  were 
defeated  by  Chedorlaomer  at  Shaveh-Kiriathaim 
(Gen.  14.5). 

Emman'ueL— The  Greek  form  of  the  Heb. 
Immanuel  (Matt.  1.23).  [!MMANUEL.] 

Emma' us.  — Hot  springs  :  a  village  7  or  8 
miles  from  Jerusalem,  the  site  of  which  has  not 
yet  been  identified,  although  several  places  have 
been  suggested  as  likely  spots.  It  was  on  the 
way  to  this  village  that  our  Lord  joined  and 
spoke  with  two  of  His  disciples  on  the  day 
of  His  resurrection  (Lk.  24.13). 

Em'rnor.— [HAMOE.] 

Ena'im,  E'nam. — The  double  spring :  an 
unidentified  town  in  the  lowlands  of  Judah 
(Gen.  38.14,  R.  V. ;  A.V.,  "  an  open  place  "  ; 
Josh.  15.34). 

E'nan. — Fountains  :  father  of  Ahira 
(Num.  1.15). 

Encamp,  Encampment.— In  Num.  33,  forty- 
one  encampments  or  stations  on  the  journey 
through  the  wilderness  are  mentioned.  We  are 
not,  however,  to  suppose  that  the  encampments 
of  the  Israelites  were  fashioned  after  a  strict 
military  pattern ;  there  was,  for  instance, 
nothing  in  the  nature  of  entrenchments  or  other 
means  for  repelling  attack ;  yet  for  health 
purposes  most  strict  regulations  were  drawn  up 
and  enforced  (Num.  5.3  ;  Deut.  23.14). 

The  form  of  encamping  is  prescribed  in 
Num.  2,  3.  The  whole  body  of  the  people  were 
formed  into  four  divisions,  three  tribes  consti- 
tuting a  division,  so  that  the  tabernacle  was 
enclosed  in  a  hollow  square.  Each  of  these 
divisions  had  a  standard  (Num.  1.52,  2.2),  as 
well  as  each  tribe,  and  also  each  large  family 
association  making  up  the  tribe. 

The  sanitary  laws  of  the  camp  were  most 
minute  and  very  stringent.  The  dead  were 
buried  outside  (Lev.  10.4),  and  outside  all 


who  had  come  into  contact  with  the  bodies  had 
to  remain  for  seven  days  (Num.  31.19).  Lepers 
were  strictly  excluded  (Lev.  13.46).  Also  out- 
side the  camp  was  a  place  where  all  the  rubbish 
and  offal  were  deposited  and  burnt  (Lev.  4.12 ; 
Deut.  23.10). 

Enchanter,  Enchantment.— The  practice  of 
enchantment  is  allied  with  witchcraft  and 
sorcery,  and  is  condemned  by  the  law  of 
Moses  (Deut.  18.9-12).  Special  terms  are  used  in 
Scripture  to  denote  enchantments :  (1 )  in  Ps.  58.5 
to  mutter,  to  speak  with  a  low  voice,  like 
magicians  hi  their  magical  operations  ;  (2) 
secrets,  as  where  Moses  speaks  of  the  enchant- 
ments wrought  by  Pharaoh's  magicians;  (3) 
the  deluding  of  peoples'  eyes  and  senses  by 
those  who  practise  jugglery,  witchery,  and  tricks 
(2  Ch.  33.6);  (4)  snake  charming,  that  is, 
making  gentle  and  sociable  what  was  before 
fierce,  dangerous,  and  un tractable  (Deut.  18.11). 

Endor. — Fountain  of  Dor :  a  town  in  the 
tribe  of  Manasseh,  where  the  witch  resided 
whom  Saul  consulted  before  the  battle  of 
Gilboa  (Josh.  17.11;  1  Sam.  28).  Endor  is 
also  named  as  the  place  of  the  great  victory  of 
Barak  over  Sisera  (Ps.  83.10).  It  still  exists 
under  the  name  of  Endur,  a  deserted  village 
about  four  miles  south  of  Tabor,  on  the  slope  of 
a  mountain  which  is  full  of  caves. 

En-egla'im. —  Fountain  of  the  two  calves: 
a  place  near  the  Dead  Sea  near  to  where  the 
Jordan  enters ;  named  in  connexion  with  En- 
gedi  (Ezek.  47.10).  It  has  not  been  identified. 

En-gan'nim. — Fountain  of  gardens. — 1.  A 
town  in  the  lowlands  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.34). 
2.  A  city  in  Issachar,  now  the  modern  and 
thriving  village  of  Jenin,  17  miles  north  of 
Shechem  on  the  border  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon. 
Beautiful  and  copious  streams  of  clear  water 
from  the  hills  flow  through  the  village,  and 
account  for  the  numerous  gardens  in  its  neigh- 
bourhood, and  also  for  its  name  (Josh.  19.21). 

En-gedi.— Fountain  of  the  kid:  this  is  the 
modern  Ain  Jidi,  a  town  in  the  wilderness 
of  Judah  on  the  west  of  the  Dead  Sea  and 
about  midway  between  the  north  and  south 
ends  (Josh.  15.62;  Ezek.  47.10).  Its  ancient 
name  was  Hazezon-tamar,  "  clefts  of  the  palms  " 
(Gen.  14.7 ;  2  Ch.  20.2).  It  is  watered  by  a 
warm,  ever-flowing  spring,  and  was  celebrated 
for  its  palm  trees  and  vineyards  (Cant. 
1.14).  In  the  wilderness  behind  the  pass  are 
numberless  caverns,  in  which  David  and  his 
men  found  refuge  (1  Sam.  23.29,  24.1-3).  It 
was  on  the  route  followed  by  the  Moabites 
and  Ammonites  when  they  went  against 
Jehoshaphat  (2  Ch.  20.1,2). 

The  fountain  still  exists,  and  bursts  forth 
at  once  a  fine  stream  upon  a  terrace  on  the 
mountain  side,  more  than  400  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  Dead  Sea,  into  which  it  flows. 
From  it,  going  towards  Jerusalem,  there  was  a 
steep  ascent  "  by  the  cliff  of  Ziz  "  (2  Ch.  20.16), 
which  seems  to  have  been  none  other  than  the 
present  pass,  which  is  still  traversed. 

Engine. — The  word  is  twice  applied  in  A.V.  to 


ENGKAVE,  GRAVE] 


150 


[EPAPHHAS 


implements  of  warfare.  In  2  Ch.  20.15  R.V.  it  is 
recorded  of  Uzziah  that  "he  made  in  Jerusalem 
engines,  invented  by  cunning  men,  to  be  on  the 
towers  and  upon  the  battlements,  to  shoot 
arrows  and  great  stones  withal "  (the  word 
here  rendered  "  engines  "  occurs  also  in  Eccles. 
7.29  "  inventions  ").  In  Ezek.  2G.9,  "  engines 
of  war,"  the  R.V.  has  "  battering  engines," 
i.e.  the  "  batter  ing  ram  "  of  Ezek.  4.2,  etc. 
In  addition  to  these,  "  forts  "  were  used  (2  K. 
25.1),  movable  towers  of  wood  gradually 
advanced  by  the  besiegers  of  a  fortified  city. 

Engrave,  Grave. — Used  in  Scripture  of  any 
carver  or  sculptor  in  wood,  stone,  metal,  or 
jewels.  (See  Ex.  28.11,  21,  35.35,  38.23.)  This 
beautiful  art  was  very  widely  known  and  highly 
developed  throughout  the  ancient  world. 
[GRAVEN  IMAGE.] 

En-had'dah.— One  of  the  border  towns  of 
Issachar  (Josh.  19.21).  Now  probably  Kefr 
'Adan,  2  miles  from  the  Mediterranean,  near 
Mount  Carmel. 

En-hakko're. — Fountain  of  tiie  partridge  or 
caller:  the  spring  whieh  burst  forth  and 
refreshed  Samson  after  his  slaughter  of  the 
Philistines  (Judg.  15.19).  The  name  is  a  play 
on  the  word  yihra  ("  he  called  ")  in  ver.  18. 

En-ha'zor.  —  Fountain  of  the  enclosure :  a 
fenced  city  in  Naphtali,  near  Kedesh  (Josh. 
19.37).  It  has  been  identified  with  Hazireh. 

En-mish'pat.  —  Fountain  of  judgment :  an 
Amorite  city  taken  by  Chedorlaomer  and  his 
confederate  kings  (Gen.  14.7).  It  is  the  same 
place  as  Kadesh-Barnea,  which  see. 

E'noch.— 1.  The  eldest  son  of  Cain  (Gen.  4.17), 
after  whom  the  first  city  mentioned  in  Scripture 
is  named.  2.  The  father  of  Methuselah,  "  the 
seventh  from  Adam "  (Jude  14)  in  the  line 
of  Sqth  (Gen.  5.1-24).  We  are  told  that  he 
"walked  with  God"  (Gen.  5.22),  an  expres- 
sion denoting  the  closest  intimacy  (Gen.  6.9 : 
cf.  Mic.  6.8 ;  Mai  2.6).  The  record  continues : 
"  and  he  was  not ;  for  God  took  him,"  an  enig- 
matic phrase,  thus  interpreted  by  the  writer  to 
the  Hebrews,  "  By  faith  Enoch  was  translated 
that  he  should  not  see  death  ;  and  he  was  not 
found,  because  God  had  translated  him  "  (Heb. 
11.5).  Later  Jewish  tradition  ascribed  to  Enoch 
the  invention  of  writing,  arithmetic,  and  astro- 
nomy, as  well  as  making  him  the  recipient  of 
many  visions  and  revelations.  Hence  there 
gathered  about  his  name  a  large  apocalyptic 
literature,  of  which  the  most  notable  survival 
is  the  Ethiopic  "  Book  of  Enoch,"  dating  from 
the  second  and  first  centuries  B.C.  This 
apocryphal  work  is  quoted  by  Jude  (vers. 
14,  15).  [NON-CANONIC AT.  BOOKS.] 

Enos,  Enosh. — Man :  the  son  of  Seth,  not- 
able because  in  his  time  "  men  began  to  call 
upon  the  name  of  the  Lord  "  (Gen.  4.26). 

En-rirn'mon.  —  Fountain  of  Rimmon  :  a  city 
of  Judah,  occupied  after  the  return  from 
the  exile  (Neh.  11.29).  Probably  the  same 
place  is  referred  to  in  passages  where  the 
existing  text  has  "Ain,  and  Rimmon "  (Josh. 
15.32,  19.7  ;  1  Ch.  4.32).  [RIMMON.] 


En-rogei.  —  The  fuller's  fountain  :  a  spring 
which  was  on  the  boundary  between  Judah  and 
Benjamin  (Josh.  15.7,  18J6)  near  Jerusalem 
(2  Sam.  17.17).  Here  Jonathan  and  Ahimaaz 
waited  for  news  from  the  city,  which  they  took 
to  David  when  he  had  been  driven  out  of  his 
capital  by  the  rebellious  Absalom.  Here  it 
was  also  that  Adonijah  made  a  feast  for  his 
followers  when  he  conspired  against  David 
(1  K.  1.9).  Probably  to  be  identified  with  the 
present  "  Fountain  of  the  Virgin,"  on  the  east 
side  of  Ophel.  It  yields  an  intermittent  supply 
of  water,  which  flows  underground  to  the  Pool 
of  Siloam. 

Ensample  (i.e.  Examplc).~The  R.V.  retains 
the  Old  English  word  from  the  A.V.,  where  the 
sense  is,  a  good  example,  one  to  be  followed 
(Phil.  3.17 ;  1  Thess.  1.7 ;  2  Thess.  3.9 ;  1  Pet.  5.3), 
but  substitutes  **  example  "  in  1  Cor.  10.11 
2  Pet.  2.G. 

En-she'mesh. — Fountain  of  the  sun  :  a  spring 
forming  one  of  the  landmarks  on  the  boundary 
between  Judah  and  Benjamin,  at  the  east  of 
Jerusalem  and  the  Mount  of  Olives.  It  is  now 
called  Ain  HOd,  about  a  mile  from  Bethany, 
on  the  road  to  Jericho  (Josh.  15.7, 18.17). 

Ensign. — A  military  token,  or  signal.  In 
the  A.V.  "  ensign "  represents  two  Hebrew 
words :  one  which  means  the  standard  of  a  small 
division  of  an  army  (Num.  2.2 ;  Ps.  74.4),  the 
other  a  sign  specially  used  as  a  signal  to  gather 
the  people  together  for  military  or  other  pur- 
poses (Isai.  5.26, 11.10, 12,  18.3,  30.17,  31.9). 

The  brazen  serpent  was  lifted  up  on  an 
ensign  pole  (Num.  21.9),  and  to  this  our  Lord 
compares  His  own  "  lifting  up  "  (John  3.14) ; 
in  consequence  He  will  draw  all  men  to  Him, 
as  men  follow  an  ensign  (John  12.32). 
[BANNEE,  STAND ABD.] 

En-tappu'ah. — Fountain  of  the  citron  :  a 
town  on  the  border  between  Manasseh  and 
Ephraim  (Josh.  17.7).  The  same  as  Tappuab, 
but  to  be  distinguished  from  Beth-Tappuah  in 
Judah. 

Epae'netus. — One  of  Paul's  first  converts 
in  the  Roman  province  of  Asia,  i.e.  probably 
Ephesus  (Rom.  16.5,  R.V. :  A.V.,  wrongly, 
Achaia,  i.e.  Corinth). 

Ep'aphras.  — A  Colossian  (Col.  4.12)  and 
founder  of  the  Church  in  Colossae  (Col.  1.7, 
R.V.,  "  even  as  ye  learned,"  not  as  A.V.,  "  as 
ye  also  learned  ").  Paul  styles  him  his  "  beloved 
fellow-servant  ...  a  faithful  minister  of 
Christ  on  our  behalf "  (Col.  1.7),  and  honours 
him  with  the  title  elsewhere  reserved  for  himself 
and  Timothy  alone,  "  a  bond-servant  of  Christ 
Jesus  "  (Col.  4.12  ;  see  also  ver.  13).  He  had 
come  to  Paul  in  Rome  bringing  tidings  of  his 
converts,  to  which  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians 
was  the  response.  Apparently  he  became 
involved  in  Paul's  imprisonment,  though  the 
expression  "  my  fellow-prisoner  in  Christ 
Jesus  "  (PhUem.  23)  may  be  figurative.  The 
name  is  an  abbreviated  form  of  Epaphroditus, 
but  the  Colossian  pastor  is  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  Philippian  messenger. 


EPAPHRODITUS] 


iol 


[EPHESUS 


Epaphrodi'tus. — A  minister  and  messenger 
of  the  Philippians,  who  was  sent  by  that  Church 
to  carry  a  money-gift  to  Paul,  then  in  prison  at 
Home.  He  remained  with  the  apostle,  and 
served  him  with  such  zeal  that  he  brought  on 
a  serious  illness  (Phil.  2.25,  4.18).  Later  on, 
having  heard  that  the  Philippians  were  greatly 
concerned  about  his  health,  he  returned  to 
Philippi,  taking  with  him  Paul's  Epistle  to  the 
Philippians  (Phil.  2.25-30,  4.18). 

E'phah. — 1.  A  son  of  Midian,  grandson  of 
Abraham  (Gen.  25.4 ;  1  Ch.  1.33  ;  /sat.  60.6). 
2.  (1  Ch.  2.46).  3.  (1  Ch.  2.47). 

E'phah. — A  measure  for  things  both  dry  and 
liquid.  The  dry  measure  contained  three  pecks 
and  three  pints.  The  ephah  for  liquids  con- 
tained ten  homers,  or  seven  gallons  four  pints.  It 
was  of  the  same  capacity  as  the  bath  (Ex.  16.36). 

E'phai. — One  whose  sons  were  among  the 
"  captains  of  the  forces  "  left  in  Judah  after  the 
carrying  away  into  Babylon  (Jer.  40.8).  They 
submitted  to  Gedaliah,  the  representative  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  and  with  him  were  murdered 
by  Ishmael  (Jtr.  40.13,  41.3). 

E'pher. — 1.  Young  deer :  second  son  of 
Midian  (Gen.  25.4  ;  1  Ch.  1.33).  2.  A  son  of 
Ezra  (1  Ch.  4.17).  3.  A  chief  of  Manasseh 
(1  Ch.  5.24). 

E'phes-Dam'mun. — End  of  bloodshed:  the 
site  of  the  Philistine  encampment  when  David 
overcame  Goliath  (1  Sam.  17.1).  In  1  Ch.  11.13, 
Pas-Dammim. 

Ephesians,  Epistle  to  the.— The  auffwrship  of 
this  epistle  is  usually  regarded  as  clear,  both 
on  external  and  internal  grounds.  From  the 
time  of  Marcion  (c.  140  A.D.)  it  appears  in  all 
lists  of  St.  Paul's  writings.  It  is,  however, 
suggested  by  some  that  it  may  have  been 
written  about  the  year  90  by  a  follower  of  St. 
Paul ;  but  this  is  very  improbable.  The  letter 
is  closely  connected  in  character  and  origin  with 
the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians,  and  the  two 
letters  may,  with  advantage,  be  read  together. 
The  two  epistles  are  amongst  the  parts  of  the 
N.T.  which  in  the  ancient  texts  show  the  fewest 
variations. 

The  dale  of  the  epistle  may  be  gathered  from 
the  narrative.  It  was  written  about  the  same 
time  as  the  Epistles  to  the  Colossians  and  to 
Philemon,  whilst  Paul  was  a  prisoner  at  Rome, 
but  whether  it  was  earlier  or  later  than  the 
Epistle  to  the  Philippians  is  disputed.  Accord- 
ing to  the  former  view,  his  confinement  has 
become  closer  ;  others  rather  than  himself  now 
preach  the  Gospel  in  Home  (cf.  Phil.  1.13-18 
with  Eph.  6.19,  20).  He  is  anticipating  the 
speedy  decision  of  his  case,  and  its  termination, 
either  in  death,  or,  as  he  thinks  more  likely,  in 
release  (Phil.  1.25,  27,  2.23,  24).  It  appears  also 
that  there  had  been  time  for  the  Philippians  to 
hear  of  his  imprisonment,  to  raise  and  send  con- 
tributions to  him,  to  be  informed  of  the  illness 
of  their  messenger  Epaphroditus  at  Rome ; 
and  further  for  Paul  to  receive  tidings  of  their 
deep  concern  on  that  account  (Phil.  2.25-30, 
4.10-18).  On  the  other  hand,  in  PhUem.  22  he 


asks  that  a  lodging  may  be  prepared  for  him, 
and  the  whole  tone  of  Ephesians  and  Colossians 
suggests  a  long  time  for  meditation.  No  doubt  the 
letter  was  written  from  Rome  about  the  year  62 
or  63  A.D.  (60  or  61  in  the  revised  chronology). 
It  is  probable  that  Ephesians  was  in  its  origin  a 
circular  letter  ("  epistle  from  Laodicea "  of 
Col.  4.16)  intended  for  all  the  Churches  of 
Asia  Minor. 

The  occasion  of  the  epistle  recalls  the 
ministry  of  St.  Paul  at  Ephesus.  His  first  visit 
to  Ephesus  was  very  brief,  including  only  a  single 
Sabbath,  on  his  return  from  his  second  missionary 
journey.  But  the  work  which  he  then  began 
among  the  Jews  was  carried  on  by  Aquila  and 
Priscilla,  and  by  Apollos  (Acts  18.19-21,  24, 26) ; 
so  that  on  his  second  visit,  in  the  autumn  of 
the  year  54,  he  found  some  preparations  already 
made  for  his  further  labours.  These  he  pursued 
for  more  than  two  years,  in  the  face  of  severe 
persecution  (Acts  20.19 ;  1  Cor.  15.32),  but  with 
very  remarkable  success  among  both  Jews  and 
Gentiles,  not  only  in  the  city,  but  throughout  the 
whole  province  (Acts  19.10).  Thus  were  founded 
the  "  Seven  Churches  in  Asia."  By  incessant 
toil  and  assiduity  (Acts  20.18-20)  Paul  built  up 
in  Ephesus  itself  a  large  and  flourishing  Church, 
to  which  in  the  following  year,  oahis  last  journey 
to  Jerusalem,  he  addressed  through  its  elders  a 
solemn  parting  charge  (Acts  20.17-35).  This 
Church  he  subsequently  committed  to  the 
oversight  of  Timothy  (1  Tim.  1.3). 

The  characteristics  of  the  epistle  are  dis- 
tinctive. It  is  not  personal  or  epistolary  in 
the  same  degree  as  other  letters  of  St.  Paul.  It 
is,  on  the  other  hand,  remarkable  for  its  matured 
and  careful  outline  of  the  Gospel  St.  Paul 
proclaimed.  Its  language  is  that  of  a  warm 
and  glowing  heart ;  it  breathes  an  ardent  spirit, 
catholic  in  its  aims,  and  generous  in  all  its 
aspects.  There  are  many  correspondences 
between  the  language  of  Ephesians  and  that 
of  Colossians ;  but  also  some  words  and 
phrases  the  usage  of  which  is  noteworthy.  Five 
tunes  in  this  epistle  occurs  the  phrase  "  heavenly 
places  "  ;  and  "  grace  "  no  less  than  twelve 
times.  "  Riches "  is  another  recurrent  ex- 
pression, "  riches  of  grace,"  1.7,  2.7  ;  "  riches 
of  glory,"  1.18,  3.16 ;  "  riches  of  Christ,"  3.8. 
"  Mystery,"  in  the  sense  of  a  secret  once  hid 
but  now  revealed,  is  characteristic  indeed 
generally  of  Paul,  but  characteristic  specially  of 
this  epistle,  in  which  it  is  five  times  used  (1.9, 
3.3,  4,  9,  6.19),  and  each  time  with  remarkable 
emphasis ;  see  Robinson's  Ephesians,  p.  234. 
The  comparison  of  the  Church  to  a  magnificent 
building,  and  the  allegory  drawn  from  the 
armour  of  a  Roman  soldier,  have  their  fullest 
expression  in  this  epistle  (2.20-22,  6.13-17). 
The  omission  of  personal  greetings  has  been 
already  noted. 

The  contents  of  the  epistle  are  in  two  main  parts 
—chapters  1  to  3  being  chiefly  doctrinal ;  and 
4  to  6  almost  wholly  practical. 

Ephesus. — A  city  in  what  is  now  called  Asia 
Minor,  on  the  river  Cayster,  some  6  miles  from 


EPHLAL] 


152 


[EPHRAIM,  CITY  OF 


its  mouth.  It  was  a  free  city,  the  centre  of  the 
Roman  administration,  and  had  many  Jewish 
inhabitants.  Ephesus  was  widely  famous  for 
its  temple  of  Artemis  (Diana),  which  was  of 
extreme  magnificence,  enriched  with  immense 
treasures,  and  regarded  as  one  of  the  wonders 
of  the  world.  This  temple  was  425  feet  long, 
220  broad,  and  was  adorned  with  paintings  and 
statues.  It  was  destroyed  by  fire  on  the  day 
that  Alexander  the  Great  was  born,  and  lay  in 
ruins  for  some  time.  Alexander  offered  to 
rebuild  it  if  the  Ephesians  would  place  on  it  an 
inscription  which  denoted  the  name  of  the  bene- 
factor. The  offer  was  refused,  and  the  inhabit- 
ants rebuilt  the  temple  themselves  in  greater 
magnificence  than  ever.  The  ruins  of  Ephesus 
are  to  be  seen  near  the  Turkish  town  of  Ayasluck. 
But  many  of  the  marbles  and  other  precious 
stones  used  in  the  construction  of  its  magnificent 
buildings  were  carried  to  Constantinople  and 
other  great  cities  on  the  Mediterranean,  while 
the  mass  of  its  masonry  served  the  neighbour- 
hood for  centuries  as  a  quarry. 

The  Book  of  Acts  mentions  two  visits  of  Paul 
to  Ephesus  (18.19, 19.1).  The  first  time,  on 
his  way  to  Jerusalem,  he  preached  on  one 
Sabbath  in  the  synagogue,  leaving  behind  him 
Priscilla  and  Aquila,  who  were  shortly  after- 
wards joined  by  Apollos.  On  his  second  visit 
Paul  remained  there  more  than  two  years ; 
probably  on  account  of  the  importance  of  the 
place,  as  a  principal  seat  of  idolatry  and  a  great 
centre  of  influence,  and  his  labours  were  crowned 
with  signal  success,  both  among  the  citizens  and 
the  surrounding  country.  According  to  early 
tradition,  John,  the  apostle  and  evangelist,  lived 
at  Ephesus  in  the  later  years  of  his  life.  [PAUL, 
DIANA.] 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  Bible 
references  to  Ephesus :  Site  of  temple  and  statue 
of  Diana,  which  suggested  illustrations  to  Paul 
(1  Cor.  3.9-17;  Eph.  2.19-22;  1  Tim.  3.15; 
2  Tim.  2.20).  Scene  of  Paul's  labours  at  close 
of  his  second  tour  (Acts  18.19-21);  and  for 
nearly  three  years  in  the  course  of  his  third  tour 
(Acts  19.1-20,  20.31).  Scene  of  the  uproar  of 
Diana  worshippers  (Acts  19.21-41,  20.1 ;  1  Cor. 
15.32) ;  after  which  Paul  sent  for  Ephesian 
elders  to  meet  him  at  Miletus  (Acts  20.16-18). 
Scene  of  Timothy's  ministry  (1  Tim.  1.3) ;  of  the 
labours  of  Aquila  and  Priscilla  (Acts  18.18, 19  ; 
2  Tim.  4.19);  of  Apollos  (Acts  18.24);  of 
Trophimus  and  Tychicus  (Acts  20.4,  21.29 ; 
2  Tim.  4.12).  Residence  of  disciples  of  John  the 
Baptist  (Acts  19.1-3) ;  of  Onesiphorus  (2  Tim. 
1.16-18,  4.19);  of  Alexander  the  coppersmith 
(2  Tim.  4.14) ;  of  Demetrius  (Acts  19.24) ;  of 
the  sons  of  Sceva  (Acts  19.14);  of  Hymenaeus 
and  Alexander  (1  Tim.  1.20 ;  2  Tim.  4.14) ;  of 
Phygelus  and  Hermogenes  (2  Tim.  1.15).  Site 
of  one  of  the  seven  Churches  addressed  in  the 
Apocalypse  (Rev.  1.11, 2.1),  to  which,  with  others, 
Paul  addressed  from  Rome  the  Epistle  to  the 
Ephesians.  (See  the  preceding  article.) 

Ephlal.— (1  Ch.  2.37). 

Ephod. — The  father  of  Hanniel,  who  was  on« 


of  those  appointed  to  assist  in  the  division  of 
Canaan  among  the  tribes  (Num.  34.23). 

Epliod. — The  linen  ephod  was  the  distinguish- 
ing garment  of  the  ministering  priest,  some  sort 
of  tunic  bound  round  with  a  girdle  (1  Sam. 
2.18,  28,  14.3,  22.18  ;  2  Sam.  6.14).  The 
ephod  of  the  High  Priest  is  described  in 
Ex.  28,  39 ;  'Lev.  8.7.  It  was  an  elaborately 
ornamented  garment  wrought  in  gold,  blue, 
purple,  scarlet,  and  fine  linen.  It  consisted 
of  two  parts,  one  covering  the  back  and  the 
other  the  breast,  and  united  over  the  shoulders. 
On  each  shoulder  was  a  large  onyx  stone  worn 
as  an  epaulette,  upon  which  were  engraved 
the  names  of  the  twelve  tribes,  six  names  on 
each  stone.  In  this  garment  the  girdle  was 
woven  in  one  piece  with  the  front  part  (Ex.  28.8). 
Over  all  was  worn  the  breastplate,  in  which  a 
pocket  contained  the  Urim  and  Thummim,  or 
sacred  lots.  The  sacredness  attaching  to  the 
ephod  seems  to  have  led  David  to  a  super- 
stitious and  even  idolatrous  abuse.  We  are 
told  that  Gideon  used  the  spoils  of  the  Midian- 
ites  to  make  an  ephod,  an  act  which  became 
a  snare  to  the  Israelites  (Judg.  8.27).  Micah 
having  made  an  idol,  must  needs  also  make 
an  ephod,  and  consecrate  one  of  his  sons  as 
priest  (Judg.  17.5,  18.14-20).  Some  have 
thought  that  the  amount  of  gold  used  by  Gideon 
implies  that  he  used  the  metal  in  making  an 
idol,  and  that  the  term  which  originally  denoted 
the  priest's  coat  became  applied  to  the  coating 
or  casing  with  gold  of  an  idolatrous  image  used 
in  divination. 

Ephphatha.  —  An  Aramaic  word  meaning 
"  be  opened  "  (Mk.  7.34). 

Ephra'im.  —  Fertile:  the  second  son  of 
Joseph,  bora  in  Egypt  (Gen.  41.52).  When 
brought  before  the  patriarch  Jacob  with 
Manasseh,  Jacob  laid  his  right  hand  on 
him.  Joseph  desired  to  change  the  posi- 
tions of  the  two,  but  Jacob  refused  (Gen. 
48.8-20). 

Ephraim,  Tribe  oi— The  descendants  of 
Ephraim  occupied  one  of  the  most  fruitful 
parts  of  Palestine,  with  the  Mediterranean 
to  the  west  of  them,  and  the  Jordan  protecting 
them  on  the  east.  The  northern  boundary  was 
occupied  by  Manasseh,  while  Dan  and  Ben- 
jamin closed  it  in  on  the  south.  Ephraim  had 
come  out  of  Egypt  enormously  strong  in 
numbers  (Num.  2.18,19),  and  Joshua,  himself 
an  Ephraimite,  gave  them  the  portion  de- 
scribed above  (Josh.  16.1-10).  The  ark  and 
the  tabernacle  remained  long  in  this  tribe,  at 
Shiloh  ;  and,  after  the  revolt  and  separation 
of  the  ten  tribes,  the  capital  of  their  kingdom 
was  always  within  the  bounds  of  Ephraim,  so 
that  the  whole  people  is  sometimes  called 
Ephraim  (Jer.  31.9,  18,  20). 

Ephraim,  City  of. — A  town  "  near  to  the 
wilderness  "  to  which  our  Lord  retired  from 
the  hostility  of  the  Jews  of  Jerusalem  (John 
11.54).  Probably  the  same  as  Ephrain  (2  Ch. 
13.19),  and  Ophrah  (which  see).  Whether  this 
is  identical  with  the  Ephraim  of  2  Sam.  13.23, 


EPHRAIM,  FOREST  OF] 


153 


[ESDRAS,  BOOKS  OF 


in  the  neighbourhood  of  Absalom's  sheep-farm, 
is  doubtful. 

Ephraim,  Forest  of. — The  forest  or  wood 
of  Ephraim  (1  Sam.  14.25;  2  K.  2.24)  was 
situated  east  of  the  Jordan  near  Jabesh-Gilead, 
and  was  memorable  for  the  battle  between  David 
and  the  rebel  army  under  Absalom  (2  Sam.  18.6). 

Ephraim,  Gate  of. — One  of  the  Jerusalem 
gates  near  that  now  known  as  the  Damascus 
gate  (2  K.  14.13  ;  2  Ch.  25.23  ;  Nek.  8.16). 

Ephraim,  Mount  (Josh.  17.15,  19.50,  20.7, 
etc. :  R.V.  always  "  the  hill  country  of 
Ephraim  "). — The  name  was  given  to  the  range 
of  highlands  running  right  through  the  pos- 
sessions of  Ephraim  from  north  to  south.  The 
soil  on  both  west  and  east  slopes  was  fertile. 

Eph'rain  (R.V.  Ephron).— A  city  near  Bethel, 
in  the  wilderness  of  Judah  (2  Ch.  13.19).  With 
other  towns  it  was  captured  by  Abijah  from 
Jeroboam. 

Eph'ratah,  Eph'rathah,  Eph'rath.— Fruitful : 

1.  The  ancient  name  of  Bethlehem  (Ruth  4.11; 
Ps.  132.6)  and  burial-place  of  Rachel  (Gen.  35.19). 

2.  The  second  wife  of  Caleb  (1  Ch.  2.50). 
Ephrathite.— 1.  An  inhabitant  of   Bethlehem 

(Ruth  1.2).  2.  An  Ephraimite  (1  Sam.  1.1 ;  1  K. 
11.26). 

Eph'ron.— Strength :  a  Hittite  who  owned 
the  field  containing  the  cave  of  Machpelah 
bought  by  Abraham  for  400  shekels  of  silver 
(Gen.  23.8-17,  25.9,  49.29,30).  2.  A  moun- 
tain forming  a  landmark  with  the  surround- 
ing district  on  the  north  boundary  of  Judah 
(Josh.  15.9).  3.  [EPHEAIN.] 

Epicure 'ans. — A  Greek  philosophical  sect,  some 
of  whom,  with  the  Stoics,  encountered  Paul 
at  Athens  (Acts  17.18).  [STOICS.] 

Er. — Watcher :  1.  The  first-born  son  of 
Judah  by  a  Canaanite  wife  (Gen.  38.3-7  ;  Num. 
26.19).  The  particular  wickedness  for  which 
the  Lord  slew  him  is  not  named,  but  it  was 
probably  connected  with  the  Canaanitish 
idolatries.  2.  A  son  of  Shelah,  youngest  son 
of  Judah  (1  Ch.  4.21).  3.  Son  of  Jose  (R.V. 
Jesus),  in  the  genealogy  of  our  Lord  (Lk.  3.29). 

E'ran.— Watchful :  the  head  of  the  family 
of  the  Eranites  (Num.  26.36). 

Erastus. — One  of  those  who  ministered  to 
Paul  at  Ephesus,  and  thence  sent  with  Timothy 
to  Macedonia  (Acts  19.22).  A  little  later 
"  Erastus  the  treasurer  of  the  city  "  (i.e.  of 
Corinth)  sends  salutation  to  the  Church  in 
Rome  (Rom.  16.23);  later  still  Paul  tells 
Timothy  that  "  Erastus  abode  at  Corinth " 
(2  Tim.  4.20).  There  are  no  sufficient  data  to 
identify  these  three  references. 

E'rech.— The  second  of  the  four  cities  founded 
by  Nimrod  in  the  land  of  Shinar  (Gen.  10.10). 
It  was  the  burial-place  of  the  Assyrian  kings, 
the  whole  neighbourhood  being  covered  with 
mounds  and  strewn  with  bricks  and  coffins.  It 
is  the  same  as  Orchoe",  82  miles  south  and  43 
east  of  Babylon.  Its  modern  name  is 
Warka,  in  the  marshes  of  the  lower  Euphrates. 
Samaria  was  colonised  by  people  from  Erech 
(Ezra  4.9). 


E'ri,  Erites. — Watcher:  a  family  of  Gad 
(Gen.  46.16  ;  Num.  26.16). 

Esai'as.— The  Greek  form  of  Isaiah  (Matt. 
3.3,  etc.  :  R.V.  always  Isaiah). 

E'sar-had'don.— (Assyrian  "  Assur  has  given 
a  brother"):  the  son  of  Sennacherib,  and,  on 
his  murder,  his  successor  to  the  kingdom  of 
Assyria  (2  K.  19.37 ;  Isai.  37.38).  He  was  one 
of  the  greatest  of  the  Assyrian  kings,  a  wise  and 
conciliatory  ruler,  and  a  successful  general. 
He  rebuilt  Babylon,  which  his  father  had 
destroyed,  and  made  it  a  capital  of  his  kingdom, 
second  only  to  Nineveh :  hence  when  his 
armies  overran  Palestine  it  was  to  Babylon 
that  Manasseh  was  carried  captive  (2  Ch.  33.11). 
He  seems  to  have  added  colonies  in  Samaria  to 
those  originally  founded  by  Sargon  (Ezra  4.2). 
By  successive  campaigns  Egypt  was  reduced 
to  an  Assyrian  province,  and  it  was  on  the 
march  to  punish  a  revolt  there  that  Esar- 
haddon  died  in  668  B.C.,  after  a  reign  of  thirteen 
years  (from  680). 

Esau. — Hairy  :  the  son  of  Isaac  and  Rebekah, 
and  twin  brother  of  Jacob.  His  name  is 
attributed  to  his  appearance  at  birth,  "  red, 
all  over  like  a  hairy  garment"  (Gen.  25.25). 
His  other  name,  Edom  (red),  borne  by  his 
descendants,  was  derived  from  the  pottage  of 
red  lentils  which,  when  he  was  famished,  he 
obtained  from  Jacob  (Gen.  25.30).  Esau  was  a 
hunter,  a  man  of  the  field,  impetuous  and 
chivalrous,  a  great  contrast  to  the  smooth, 
peaceful,  and  prudent  Jacob.  He  was  a  frank 
and  honourable  "  man  of  the  world." 

The  conduct  of  Esau  in  selling  his  birthright 
was  both  wayward  and  profane.  It  was 
profane,  because  the  blessings  of  the  birth- 
right were  spiritual  as  well  as  civil  :  the 
promises  of  God  to  Abraham  descended  in  the 
line  of  the  first-born.  These  high  privileges 
were  despised  by  Esau,  who  is  therefore  in- 
stanced by  the  writer  to  the  Hebrews  as  a  type 
of  all  apostates  from  Christ  (Heb.  12.16, 17). 

When  he  was  forty  years  of  age  Esau  married 
two  Canaanitish  wives,  an  act  which  gave  great 
offence  to  Isaac  and  Rebekah  (Gen.  26.34).  In 
the  matter  of  the  transference  of  the  covenant 
blessing,  Esau  was  greatly  wronged  by  Jacob,  and 
vowed  vengeance  (Gen.  27.41).  But  Rebekah 
sent  Jacob  away  to  her  relatives  in  Mesopo- 
tamia (Gen.  27.43).  By  the  time  Jacob  had 
returned  Esau  had  become  rich  and  prosperous, 
and  being  of  a  generous  nature  he  not  only 
forgave  his  brother,  but  offered  to  escort  him 
to  his  home  at  Mount  Seir  ;  an  invitation  which 
Jacob  accepted,  though,  conscience  pricking  him, 
he  evidently  feared  to  use  the  offered  escort 
(Gen.  32.6-8). 

The  next  meeting  of  Esau  and  Jacob  was 
at  the  burial  of  Isaac,  nearly  20  years  afterwards. 
Esau  now  gathered  up  his  portion  of  the  inherit- 
ance, and,  giving  up  all  further  thought  of  the 
blessing,  returned  to  Mount  Seir,  determined  to 
make  that  country  his  home,  driving  out  its  earlier 
inhabitants  (Gen.  36.8).  [JACOB,  EDOM.] 

Esdras,  Books  oL— [NON-CAXONICAL  BOOKS.] 


ESEK] 


154 


[ESTHEK,  BOOK  OF 


E'sek. — Strife :  a  well  dug  by  Isaac's  servants 
in  the  valley  of  Gerar,  and  the  cause  of  a  con- 
tention between  Gerar's  herdsmen  and  Isaac's 
(Gen.  26.20). 

Eshan, — [ESHBAN.] 

Eshba'aL — A  man  of  Baal:  the  fourth  son  of 
Saul,  identical  with  Ishbosheth  (1  Ch.  8.33, 

9.39).      [ISHBOSHETH.] 

EshTjan.— (1  Gen.  36.26  ;   1  Ch.  1.41). 

Esh'coL — Cluster  of  grapes :  brother  of 
Mamre  the  Amorite,  who,  with  Abraham,  re- 
captured Lot,  who  had  been  carried  off  by  the 
four  kings  (Gen.  14.13  fi.). 

Esh'col,  The  Valley  oL— A  valley  near  Hebron, 
receiving  its  name  from  the  abundance  of  its 
grapes.  This  valley  was  visited  by  the  spies 
sent  out  by  Moses  (Num.  13.23,24,  32.9; 
Deal.  1.24). 

Esh'ean  (R.V.  Eshan). — A  town  in  the 
mountains  of  Judah,  unidentified  (Josh.  15.52). 

E'shek. — A  descendant  of  Saul,  through 
Jonathan  (1  Ch.  8.39). 

Esh'kalonites    (R.V.    Ashkelonites).  —  (Josh. 

13.3).       [ASHKELON.] 

Eshta'oL — Hollowed  out :  a  town  in  the  low- 
lands of  Judah,  near  Mahaneh-Dan,  allotted  to 
Dan  (Josh.  15.33,  19.41).  Now  called  Esh'ua. 

Eshtau'lites  (R.V.  Eshtaolites).— The  inhabit- 
ants of  Eshtaol  (1  Ch.  2.53). 

Eshtemo'a,  Eshtemoh.— A  town  allotted 
to  the  Levites  (Josh.  15.50;  1  Ch.  6.57),  in  the 
mountains  of  Judah,  9  miles  south  of  Hebron. 
Now  Es  Semu'a.  2.  A  descendant  of  Judah 
(1  Ch.  4.17, 19). 

Eshton.— Womanly,  effeminate  (1  Ch.  4.11,12). 

Esli. — A  name  in  the  genealogy  of  Christ 
(Lk.  3.25). 

Espouse,  Espousal — [MARRIAGE,  BETROTHAL.] 

Es'rom  (R.V.  Hezron).— A  name  in  the 
genealogy  of  Christ  (Matt.  1.3  ;  Lk.  3.33). 

Esther.— Star :  it  was  customary  for  Eastern 
monarchs  to  change  the  names  of  individuals 
whom  they  honoured  (Gen.  41.45).  Thus  it  was 
that  the  new  name  of  Esther  was  given  to  the 
Jewish  maiden,  Hadassah  (myrtle),  when  she 
was  elevated  to  the  rank  of  queen.  She  was 
born  an  exile  in  the  land  of  Persia.  Her 
father's  name  was  Abihail.  Having  lost  her 
parents  when  very  young,  she  was  adopted  by 
her  cousin,  Mordecai.  After  the  dismissal  of 
Queen  Vashti,  and  when  all  the  fairest  maidens 
that  could  be  found  were  brought  before  King 
Ahasuerus,  his  choice  fell  upon  Esther,  and 
she  was  crowned  queen  with  great  splendour. 
[AHASUEUUS.]  Soon  after  her  elevation  Esther 
received  a  communication  from  Mordecai,  which 
she  laid  before  the  king,  to  the  effect  that  two 
of  the  king's  chamberlains  had  conspired  against 
his  life.  The  matter  was  found  to  be  as  reported, 
and  the  conspirators  were  executed.  So  far,  the 
nationality  of  the  new  queen  was  not  recognised, 
as  her  relations  feared  the  jealousy  of  the  Persian 
nobles.  Not  knowing  the  race  to  whom  Esther 
belonged,  the  king,  in  a  careless  moment  of 
good-natured  generosity,  listened  to  the  prayer 
of  Haman — who  was  angry  because  Mordecai 


had  refused  to  bow  down  to  him — and  gave  him 
permission  to  destroy  all  the  Jews,  young  and 
old,  and  seize  their  possessions.  Esther  was  in 
retirement,  and  knew  nothing  of  what  was  going 
on,  but  Mordecai  found  means  to  see  her,  and 
secured  her  interposition  on  behalf  of  their 
countrymen.  Queen  Esther  faced  a  real  danger 
when  she  appeared  before  Ahasuerus  unannounced 
and  uninvited.  According  to  Persian  law,  such 
a  proceeding  merited  death,  unless  the  monarch 
should  extend  his  sceptre  towards  the  oSending 
person.  After  three  days  of  humiliation  and 
prayer,  Esther  appeared  before  the  king,  who 
extended  his  sceptre  to  her.  Esther  invited 
the  king  to  a  banquet,  and  there  disclosed  to 
him  the  plot  of  Haman,  who  was  also  present. 
Hainan  was  executed,  and  a  new  decree  gave 
the  Jews  power  to  defend  themselves  when 
attacked.  [ESTHER,  BOOK  OF.] 

Esther,  Book  of.— The  date  of  this  narrative 
is  that  of  the  period  between  the  completion 
of  the  Temple  and  the  mission  of  Ezra  (516-458 
B.C.).  Xerxes,  called  in  this  book  "  Abasuerus," 
the  son  of  the  Darius  mentioned  in  Ezra  (Darius 
Hystaspes),  was  now  upon  the  throne  of  Persia. 
His  tyranny  is  vividly  depicted  by  Herodotus 
(ix.).  Probably  the  series  of  festivals  described 
in  chap.  1  was  held  to  inaugurate  Xerxes'  expedi- 
tion to  Greece,  and  the  marriage  with  Esther, 
"  in  the  seventh  year  of  his  reign,"  took  place 
after  the  king's  defeats  at  Salamis,  Platea,  and 
Mycale",  480-479  B.C.  Xerxes,  according  to 
Herodotus,  consoled  himself  under  his  humilia- 
tion by  the  delights  of  his  harem  (ix.  108). 

The  source  of  this  narrative  may  have  been 
the  records  of  the  Persian  kingdom  (see  2.23, 
6.1).  This  supposition  accounts  for  the  details 
given  concerning  the  empire  of  Xerxes,  and  for 
the  exactness  with  which  the  names  of  his 
ministers  and  of  Haman's  sons  are  recorded  ; 
also  for  the  Jews  being  mentioned  only  in  the 
third  person,  and  Esther  being  frequently 
designated  by  the  title  of  "the  queen,"  and 
Mordecai  by  the  epithet  of  "  the  Jew." 

Such  a  source  should  account  for  the  secular 
tone  of  the  book,  the  name  of  God  being  not 
once  mentioned.  But  although  the  name  of 
God  is  not  found  hi  the  book,  His  hand  is  plainly 
seen,  anticipating  threatened  evil,  defeating  and 
overruling  it  to  the  greater  good  of  the  Jews, 
and  even  of  the  heathen  (1,  2,  4-10). 

Let  the  importance  of  the  facts  described  be 
remembered  ;  it  was  not  the  safety  of  the  Jews 
in  Persia  only  that  was  in  peril ;  for  if  Hainan 
had  succeeded,  as  the  power  of  Persia  was  then 
supreme  at  Jerusalem  and  throughout  Asia, 
the  Jews  would  probably  everywhere  have 
perished,  and  with  them  the  whole  of  the  visible 
Church  of  God. 

The  institution  of  the  festival  of  Purim  ("  the 
Lots  "),  observed  by  the  Jews  in  all  lands  with 
mirth  and  thanksgiving,  a  month  before  the 
Passover,  is  a  standing  memorial  of  this  national 
deliverance.  In  the  morning  the  Megillah  of 
Esther  is  read  and  expounded  in  the  synagogues, 
the  rest  of  the  day  being  devoted  to  holiday 


ETAM] 


155 


[ETERNAL,  ETERNITY 


amusements.  According  to  Jewish  tradition, 
"  all  the  feasts  shall  cease  in  the  days  of  the 
Messiah,  except  the  Feast  of  Purim."  Some 
have  thought  that  the  Purim  was  "  the  feast " 
mentioned  John  5.1.  Otherwise  there  is  no 
reference  to  the  book  in  the  New  Testament. 

The  contents  of  this  book  are  as  follows  :  The 
elevation  of  Esther  to  be  queen  in  the  place  of 
Vashti  (1,  2) ;  Hainan's  plot  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Jews  (3) ;  their  consequent  distress  ; 
the  defeat  of  Hainan's  plot ;  the  triumph  of 
the  Jews  over  their  enemies  ;  and  the  institu- 
tion of  the  festival  commemorating  their 
deliverance  (4-10),  and  the  advancement  of 
Mordecai. 

The  lessons  of  the  narrative  are  distinct.  In 
the  two  books  which  in  our  Canon  precede  Esther 
there  has  been  shown  God's  mercy  towards  the 
Jews  who  returned  from  Babylon  to  their  own 
land.  From  Esther  we  learn  that  those  also 
who  remained  in  heathen  countries  were  also 
the  objects  of  His  watchful  care.  The  book 
exhibits,  also,  the  wonderful  manner  in  which 
He  who  sees  and  "  declares  the  end  from  the 
beginning  "  provides  for  the  execution  of  His 
purposes  ;  exercising  an  absolute  though  unseen 
control  even  over  the  results  of  men's  free 
actions.  It  shows,  further,  how  easy  it  is  for 
Him  to  "  put  down  the  mighty  from  their 
seats,"  and  to  "  exalt  them  of  low  degree  "  ; 
and  teaches  us  how  safe  it  is  to  put  our  trust 
in  God,  and  to  walk  humbly  with  Hun.  It  is 
thus  excellently  adapted  to  repress  pride  and 
vainglory,  to  administer  comfort  under  trial, 
and  to  confirm  faith  and  hope. 

E'tam. — Place  of  birds  of  prey :  1.  A  Simeonite 
village  (1  Ch.  4.32).  It  is  to  be  found  now  in 
a  ruin  called  'Aitun,  near  En-Rimmon.  2.  A 
fortified  city  of  Judah,  rebuilt  by  Rehoboam 
(2  Ch.  11.6;  perhaps  also  'l  Ch.  4.3).  It  was 
near  Bethlehem,  and  from  the  springs  for  which 
the  place  is  famous  Solomon's  Pools  were 
supplied.  Its  modern  name  is  ain  'Atan. 
3.  Samson  took  refuge  "  in  the  cleft  of  the  rock 
of  Etam"  (Judg.  15.8,11);  apparently  near 
Lehi. 

Eternal,  Eternity.  —  (The  abstract  word 
eternity  occurs  only  once  in  the  text  of  A.V.  and 
R.V.,  Isai.  57.15,  "  that  inhabiteth  eternity," 
a  phrase  which  many  Hebraists  render  "  that 
dwelleth  for  ever  "  :  see  also  marg.  of  A.V. 
ISam.  15.29;  Jer.  10.10;  Hie.  5.2;  and  the 
marg.  of  R.V.  in  Eccles.  3.11 ;  Isai.  9.6,  all 
doubtful).  The  word  eternal  means  literally 
"  age-long,"  and  this  conception  of  an  "  age  " 
or  indefinite  time  underlies  both  the  Hebrew  and 
Greek  expressions  for  endlessness. 

In  the  O.T.  the  words  rendered  eternal  (A.V. 
only  Deut.  33.27 ;  Isai.  60.15)  or  everlasting,  for 
ever,  for  ever  and  ever,  are  applied  primarily  to 
God  ;  then  to  His  dealings  with  men,  His  mercy, 
His  covenant,  His  kingdom,  the  Messianic  King 
and  Priest,  etc.  The  phrase  "  the  everlasting 
hills"  (Gen.  49.26;  Deut.  33.15;  Ildb.  3.6) 
is  exceptional  and  poetical  (cf.  Isai.  54.10). 

In  the  N.T.  we  find  the  Greek  word  for  age 


employed  in  various  phrases  to  express  endless- 
ness :  endless  duration  in  the  past  is  "  from 
the  age  or  ages,"  in  the  future  "  unto  the  age, 
the  ages,  the  ages  of  the  ages,"  even  "  unto  all 
the  generations  of  the  age  of  the  ages  "  (Eph.  3.21 ). 
Chief  importance,  however,  attaches  to  the  corre- 
sponding adjective,  literally  age-long,  everlasting. 
The  simple  sense  is  seen  in  PhUem.  15  R.V., 
"  that  thou  shouldest  have  him  (Onesimus)  for 
ever."  By  far  the  most  frequent  use  of  the 
term  is  in  the  phrase  "  eternal  life  "  (so  always 
R.V.  ;  A.V.  in  14  out  of  44  instances  "  ever- 
lasting life").  The  expression  occurs  8  times  in 
the  Synoptic  Gospels  (in  three  contexts  only, 
Matt.  19.16-29  and  parallels ;  Matt.  25.46 ;  Lk. 
10.25),  twice  in  Acts  (13.46,48),  11  times  in 
Paul,  once  in  Jude  (ver.  21),  23  times  in 
the  Gospel  and  the  First  Epistle  of  John. 
That  is,  the  phrase  is  especially  characteristic 
of  St.  John,  and  it  is  certain  that  he  means 
by  it  something  far  other  and  deeper  than 
mere  endless  future  existence.  He  speaks 
not  of  duration  but  of  quality  of  life,  a  life 
possessed  here  and  now  by  the  believer  in 
Christ  (John  3.36,  5.24,  6.47, 54, 68,  17.3 ; 

1  John   5.11,13).     It    is    in   accordance   with 
this  that  our  Lord  identifies  eternal  life  with  life 
(Lk.  10.25  and  10.28),  and  that  Paul  uses  as 
equivalent  expressions  "  lay  hold  on   the  life 
eternal  "  and  "  lay  hold  on  the  life  which  is 
life  indeed  "  (1  Tim.  6.12, 19). 

This  transference  of  stress  from  duration  to 
quality  was  furthered  by  the  contrast  repeatedly 
drawn  between  "  this  age  "  and  "  the  age  to 
come  "  (Matt.  12.32,  etc.).  The  age  (or  world) 
to  come  is  the  Messianic  kingdom,  the  unseen 
world,  in  which  all  that  is  earthly  and  transitory 
falls  away  and  only  spiritual  realities  abide 
eternally.  And  it  is  to  realities  belonging  to 
this  unseen,  supersensuous  world  that  the  term 
we  are  considering  is  regularly  applied.  The 
R.V.  rightly  marks  this  aspect  of  the  word  by 
always  substituting  "  eternal "  for  the  A.V. 
"  everlasting."  Thus  our  Lord  speaks  of  eternal 
(not  everlasting)  fire,  life,  punishment,  sin, 
habitations  (Matt.  25.41,46;  Mk.  3.29 ;  Lk.  16.9); 
St.  Paul  writes  of  eternal  weight  of  glory — a 
house  in  the  heavens — "destruction  from  the  face 
of  the  Lord,"  etc.  (see  2  Cor.  4.17, 18,  5.1  ; 

2  Thess.  1.9,  2.16 ;  1  Tim.  6.16 ;  2  Tim.  2.10 ;  and 
cf.  1  Pet.  5.10  ;  2  Pet.  1.11 ;  Jude  1 ;  Rev.  14.6). 
It  is  not  to  be  denied  that  the  tune-element  belongs 
to  the  original  significance  of  the  word  ;  the 
context  may  in  some  instances  make  it  pro- 
minent ;  but  a  study  of  the  passages  shows  that 
this  is  but  the  first  rung  of  the  ladder  by  which 
a  higher  conception  is  reached.     The  negative 
notion    of   endlessness    takes    on    the   positive 
characteristics  of  what  belongs  to  God's  world 
of    spirit   and    reality.     Nowhere,   apart   from 
the  phrase  "  eternal  life,"  is  this  aspect  more 
emphasised  than  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 
The  writer's  one  theme  is  a  contrast  of   the 
temporary,  provisional,  imperfect  foreshadowings 
of  Judaism  with  the  substance  realised  in  Jesus 
Christ.     And  this  is  just  the  word  he  wants  to 


ETERNAL  LIFE] 


156 


[ETERNAL  LIFE 


mark  the  finality  of  God's  revelation  "  in  His 
Son."  Christ  is  the  author  of  "  eternal  salva- 
tion," obtained  "  eternal  redemption,"  offered 
Himself  through  His  "eternal  Spirit";  the 
Christian  inheritance,  covenant,  judgment  are 
all  "eternal"  (Hcb.  5.9,  6.2,  9.12,14,15, 
13.20). 

Another  word,  simpler  in  its  reference  to 
mere  duration,  occurs  twice  (Rom.  1.20 ;  Jude  6). 
In  both  passages  R.V.  rightly  has  "  everlasting." 

Eternal  Life.— 1.  O.T.  Teaching.— No  clear 
doctrine  of  a  future  life  is  revealed  in  the  O.T. 
So  many  hints,  however,  are  given,  that 
it  is  possible  to  arrive  at  a  definite  con- 
clusion. The  truth  of  man's  relation  to  God  as 
an  individual  soul,  rightly  understood,  involves 
a  future  for  the  soul,  and  the  unexplained 
anomalies  of  life  here  point  to  explanation 
hereafter.  If  this  were  all,  it  would  be  sufficient 
to  prepare  us  for  the  revelation  of  the  N.T., 
and  the  reticence  of  the  O.T.  is  rela- 
tively a  better  thing  than  the  superstitious 
vagaries  of  pagan  teaching  as  to  the  world 
beyond.  But  the  O.T.  is  only  compara- 
tively reticent.  It  speaks  of  She'ol,  the 
word  which  is  translated  Hell  in  the  Authorised 
Version.  The  word  means  "  hollowness "  or 
"  emptiness."  There  the  dead  still  lire,  but 
deprived  of  all  that  really  belongs  to  life.  It  is 
a  place  of  darkness,  of  forgetfulness,  of  sleep, 
of  ignorance  ;  there  is  neither  hope  nor  praise  ; 
it  is  a  place  of  corruption,  a  horrible  pit ;  there 
is  no  return  (see  Job  7.9,  14.7-12  ;  Ps.  88  and 
115;  Eccles.  9.5;  Isai.  14.11).  This  aspect  of 
O.T.  teaching  sprang  into  existence  mainly 
through  the  visible  surroundings  of  death.  But 
it  is  not  the  only  aspect.  We  get  the  story  of 
Enoch  and  his  uninterrupted  walk  with  God, 
the  triumphant  passing  of  Elijah,  the  mysterious 
vision  of  Samuel  at  Tekoa,  all  illustrations  of 
the  great  truth  that,  as  man  has  communion 
with  God,  no  death  can  really  break  that  com- 
munion. The  oft-repeated  phrase,  "  I  am  the 
God  of  Abraham,  of  Isaac,  and  of  Jacob,"  illus- 
trates that  communion  in  concrete  form,  and 
ought  to  have  carried  to  the  Jewish  mind  the 
lesson  that  our  Lord  taught  from  it.  In  the 
Psalms  and  some  of  the  Prophets,  especially  in 
the  Psalms,  the  fact  that  the  pious  Jew  stands 
in  a  close  relationship  to  God  is  his  security 
even  in  death  ;  he  knows  little  of  the  life  beyond 
the  grave,  but  he  can  trust  his  God.  "  Thou 
wilt  not  leave  my  soul  in  She'ol."  "  I  shall  be 
satisfied  when  I  awake  with  Thy  likeness." 
"  Thou  shalt  guide  me  with  Thy  counsel,  and 
afterward  receive  me  to  glory."  The  vision 
of  the  dry  bones  in  Ezek.  37  teaches  a  similar 
lesson  (cf.  also  Isai.  26.19  and  Dan.  12.2). 
Alongside  this  teaching  there  existed  in  the 
Jewish  mind  the  connection  of  death  and  sin, 
although  it  never  quite  pierced  the  mystery 
of  that  connexion.  In  the  Wisdom  Literature, 
viz.  Ecclesiast.es,  Proverbs,  Job,  and  some  of  the 
Psalms,  the  Jew  was,  moreover,  taught  the  truth 
of  a  future  life  by  another  process  of  argument. 
The  exigencies  of  life,  its  apparent  injustice, 


its  inexact  retribution,  the  obvious  fact  that 
suffering  is  not  always  the  result  of  sin,  raised 
a  question,  of  which  the  only  explanation  is  a 
future  life.  It  has  been  well  said :  O.T. 
theology  ends  in  an  attitude  of  resigna- 
tion not  unhopeful.  Firm  trust  in  God  involves 
eternity.  The  Jew  learned  to  trust,  and  caught 
many  a  glimpse  of  the  radiant  glory  yet  to  be 
revealed. 

2.  N.T.  Teaching.  —  Here  perfectly  defi- 
nitely the  doctrine  of  eternal  or  everlasting 
life  is  taught.  The  Greek  word,  translated 
indiscriminately  "  eternal  "  or  "  everlasting  " 
(aionios),  comes  from  a  noun  meaning  an  age 
or  a  period  of  time.  The  adjective  takes  its 
character  largely  from  the  noun  to  which  it  is 
applied,  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  English 
word  "  everlasting  "  in  vulgar  use  does.  Applied 
to  God  or  to  life  it  must  mean  eternal  in  its 
fullest  sense.  Applied  to  a  slave's  service,  it 
means  a  lifetime  :  "  he  shall  serve  him  for 
ever "  (Ex.  21.6).  God's  lifetime  is  eternity  : 
the  lifetime  of  those  who  are  to  be  ever  with 
Him  must  be  equally  eternity ;  and  equally,  as 
the  same  word  is  used,  the  lifetime  of  those 
who  are  to  be  ever  absent  from  Him  would  seem 
to  be  eternity.  About  the  eternity  of  life 
there  can  be,  there  never  has  been,  amongst 
Christians,  any  manner  of  doubt.  "  God's 
good  things  are  endless  and  eternal,"  wrote 
Irenaeus  seventeen  centuries  ago.  Knowledge 
of  God,  the  personal  experience  of  vitai 
communion  with  Him,  begins  at  conversion, 
and  "  while  God  and  I  shall  be,  I  am  His,  and 
He  is  mine."  To  be  with  Him  is  heaven,  to 
be  apart  from  Him  is  hell.  Irenseus  added  : 
"  The  deprival  of  them  (God's  good  things)  is 
therefore  eternal  and  endless,  just  as  light  is 
continuous,  and  they  who  are  blinded  are  con- 
tinuously deprived  of  the  enjoyment  of  it." 
And,  as  a  modern  writer  has  commented,  "  the 
deprival  of  eternal  life  is  itself  eternal  punish- 
ment, whatever  happens  to  the  persons 
punished."  Conceptions  of  heaven  and  hell  have 
often  been  too  material.  God  is  a  Spirit ; 
heaven  is  life  with  Him  ;  and  therefore  spiritual 
and  therefore  eternal,  and  we  must  not  interpret 
it  in  material  terms.  Its  blessedness  is  beyond 
conception,  and  the  best  of  human  words,  even 
St.  John's,  can  only  faintly  paint  its  glory.  Hell, 
at  the  very  least,  is  privation  of  the  endless  life ; 
it  is  actual  suffering,  it  is  final  exclusion  from  the 
blessedness  of  the  saved  ;  it  is  a  condition  of 
moral  and  spiritual  destitution  in  which  one 
has  no  fellowship  with  God.  The  awful  desola- 
tion of  hell  is  beyond  conception.  Scripture 
speaks  of  both  heaven  and  hell,  life  and  death, 
and  of  both  as  eternal  (Malt.  25.31-46),  equally 
eternal. 

The  human  mind,  especially  the  human  mind 
which  is  touched  with  Divine  love,  shrinks  from 
the  dread  alternative,  and  many  theories  have 
been  evolved  by  which  the  eternity  of  heaven 
is  to  be  secured  on  the  one  hand,  and  a  period 
put  to  the  duration  of  hell  on  the  other.  Scrip- 
true  lends  no  authority  to  such  theories.  Divine 


ETHAM] 


157 


[EVANGELIST 


justice  will  do  right ;  exactly  how  we  know  not. 
The  parable  of  the  few  and  the  many  stripes 
(Lk.  12.41-48)  supplies  some  suggestive  ideas, 
but  in  the  last  analysis  eternal  life  remains  for 
the  righteous,  and  punishment,  eternal  punish- 
ment, for  the  wicked.  [IMMORTALITY  OF  THB 
SOUL.] 

E'tham. — An  early  station  of  the  Israelites 
in  their  journeyings  (Num.  33.6, 8).  It  was  part 
of  the  great  desert  of  Shur,  which  lay  around 
the  north  of  the  western  gulf  of  the  Red  Sea. 
Exact  position  is  uncertain. 

E'than.— 1.  An  Ezrahite  remarkable  for  his 
wisdom  (1  K.  4.31  ;  1  Ch.  2.6 ;  Ps.  89,  title). 
2.  A  Merarite,  and  leader  of  the  Temple  music 
(1  Ch.  6.44,  15.17).  3.  A  Kohathite,  ancestor 
of  Asaph  (1  Ch.  6.42). 

Etna'nim. — The  seventh  month  of  the  sacred 
year  of  the  Hebrews,  from  the  last  new  moon 
of  October  till  the  first  one  of  November  (1  K. 
8.2).  [MONTHS,  YEAR.] 

Ethba'al.— With  Baal:  king  of  Sidon,  and 
father  of  Jezebel,  the  wife  of  Ahab  (1  K.  16.31). 
lie  was  that  priest  of  Astarte,  named  Ithobal, 
who,  after  having  murdered  Pheles,  king  of 
Tyre,  seized  the  throne  and  reigned  for  thirty- 
two  years. 

E'ther. — Abundance :  a  lowland  city  of 
Judah,  given  to  Simeon  (Josh.  15.42,  19.7). 
It  has  not  been  identified. 

Ethiopia,  Ethiopian.— The  Hebrew  word  Cush, 
which  in  Acts  8.27  is  translated  Ethiopia,  was 
applied  to  at  least  three  distinct  countries.  In 
Zeph.  3.10,  where  the  prophet  speaks  of  Judah's 
return  from  captivity,  it  refers  to  the  country 
east  of  the  Tigris,  which  is  called  Cuthah  (2  K. 
17.24),  and  also  Cush.  In  Num.  12.1  the 
word  Ethiopian  has  been  referred  to  a  country 
of  Southern  Arabia,  lying  along  the  Red  Sea ; 
elsewhere  called  Cushan  (Hob.  3.7).  In  Isai. 
45.14 ;  Jer.  13.23 ;  EzeJc.  29.10,  etc.,  it  must  be 
understood  as  Ethiopia  proper,  lying  south  of 
Egypt.  The  northern  part  of  this  territory 
was  called  by  the  Hebrews  Seba  (Isai.  43.3), 
after  the  eldest  son  of  Cush  (Gen.  10.7),  and 
by  the  Romans  Meroe,  of  which  Candace  (Acts 
8.27)  was  probably  queen.  [<3usH.] 

Eth-kazin. — PTTAH-KAZIN.] 

Eth'nan.— (1  Ch.  4.7). 

Eth'ni.— (1  Ch.  6.41). 

Eubu'lus. — A  Christian  disciple  at  Rome 
who  joined  Paul  in  saluting  Timothy  (2  Tim. 
4.21). 

Euni'ce.— The  mother  of  Timothy  (2  Tim.  1.5), 
a  Christian  Jewess,  married  to  a  Greek  (Acts  16.1). 

Eunuch. — The  word  is  rendered  both 
"  officer  "  and  "  chamberlain,"  though  these 
officers  were  not  always  eunuchs.  Eunuchs 
were  employed  by  eastern  kings  to  take  charge 
of  the  apartments  of  the  princes,  and  also  of 
the  secluded  princesses  (Esth.  2.3).  In  Persian 
and  African  courts  the  principal  offices  are 
held  by  eunuchs  (Acts  8.27),  who  were  also 
guardians  of  the  harems.  In  Matt.  19.12  our 
Lord  speaks  of  those  who,  for  the  sake  of  the 
kingdom  of  heaven,  deny  themselves  marriage. 


Eup'dias  (R.V.  correctly  Euo'dia).— She  was 
a  Christian  woman  of  Philippi,  at  variance  with 
Syntyche  (Phil.  4.2). 

Euphrates.— This  is  the  largest,  longest, 
and  most  important  river  of  Western  Asia. 
It  has  two  sources  in  the  mountains  of  Armenia, 
the  north  branch,  the  Frat  being  the  true 
Euphrates.  This  branch  is  itself  400  miles 
long,  while  the  Murad  Chai,  the  south  branch, 
flows  for  270  miles  before  it  joins  the  Frat 
at  Kebban-Maden.  The  united  stream  flows 
through  the  Taurus  and  Anti-Taurus,  in  a 
south-east  by  south  direction.  Opposite 
Seleucia  the  Euphrates  approaches  the  Tigris, 
and  then  flows  through  the  flat  plain  of 
Babylonia,  spreading  wide  over  the  land,  and 
forming  stagnant  pools  and  lakes.  After 
running  nearly  parallel  with  the  Tigris  for  a 
considerable  distance  it  finally  joins  that  river 
60  miles  from  the  Persian  Gulf,  into  which  the 
united  stream  discharges.  From  source  to 
mouth  the  Euphrates  measures  1780  miles. 

The  Euphrates  was  one  of  the  four  rivers  of 
Eden  (which  see)  (Gen.  2.14),  and  formed  the 
eastern  limit  of  the  land  promised  to  Abraham's 
seed  (Gen.  15.18  ;  Deut.  1.7,  11.24  ;  Josh.  1.4). 
The  Reubenites  held  the  country  as  far  as  the 
Euphrates  (1  Ch.  5.9) ;  it  was  possessed  also  by 
David  (2  Sam.  8.3),  in  this  instance  being  called 
"  the  River,"  and  by  Solomon  (1  K.  4.21 ;  2  Ch. 
9.26).  The  dominion  of  Egypt  was  extended  to 
the  Euphrates  by  Necho,  the  king  of  that  country 
(2  K.  23.29),  but  was  wrested  from  him  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Babylon  (2  K.  24.7 ; 
Jer.  46.2-10).  The  river  was  visited  by 
Jeremiah  (Jer.  13.4-7).  The  last  mention  of  it 
in  the  Bible  is  in  Revelation,  where  it  is  used 
symbolically  (9.14,  16.12). 

Like  most  large  rivers  having  its  origin  in 
high  lands,  the  Euphrates  was  subject  to  annual 
risings  when  the  snows  melted.  Of  old  time 
the  flood  water  was  carefully  utilised, 
by  irrigation,  over  a  large  tract  of  country. 
It  was  navigable,  and  for  ages,  with  the 
help  of  the  caravan  routes,  constituted  a 
highway  of  traffic  between  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  Persian  Gulf.  Boats  made  of  wicker, 
coated  with  pitch,  and  rafts  were  used  for  the 
conveyance  of  goods.  Besides  Babylon  there 
were  numerous  populous  towns  on  the 
Euphrates  ;  the  Chaldeans  lived  in  the  country 
each  side  of  its  mouth.  Owing  to  the  rapid  silting 
up  of  the  river,  there  is  much  marsh  land  along  its 
course,  and  especially  at  its  mouth.  It  is  said 
that  the  ancient  city  of  Eridu  was  originally 
a  seaport. 

Euroc'lydon.  —  A  surge  raised  ly  the  east 
wind:  the  name  (according  to  A.V.)  of  the 
tempestuous  wind  which  descended  from  Crete 
on  the  ship  conveying  Paul  (Acts  27.14).  The 
R.V.  has  Euraquilo,  a  term  which  signifies  the 
direction  "  east  by  north." 

Eu'tychus. — A  young  man  who  was  miracu- 
lously restored  to  life  by  Paul  (Acts  20.9, 10). 

Evangelist. — Preacher  of  good  tidings  :  the 
word  occurs  three  times  in  the  N.T.— (1)  It 


EVE] 


158 


[EXODUS,  BOOK  OF 


stands  third  in  the  order  of  the  gifts  of  Christ 
to  His  Church  ;  apostles,  prophets,  evangelists, 
pastors  (shepherds),  and  teachers  (Eph.  4.11): 
the  term  is  absent  from  the  corresponding  lists 
in  Rom.  12.6-8 ;  1  Cor.  12.28.  (2)  Timothy 
is  bidden  by  Paul  to  "  do  the  work  of  an  evan- 
gelist "  (2  Tim.  4.5).  (3)  Philip,  one  of  the 
seven  (Acts  6.5),  is  called  "  the  evangelist " 
(Acts  21.8).  The  title  seems  to  denote  a 
"  missionary  "  function  :  the  evangelist  carried 
tho  "  gospel  "  to  places  where  it  was  still  un- 
known, and  paved  the  way  for  more  permanent 
instruction  and  organisation.  The  application 
of  the  term  to  the  writers  of  the  four  Gospels  is 
much  later. 

Eve.— Living :  the  name  given  by  Adam 
to  the  first  woman  (Gen.  3.20).  Tempted 
by  the  serpent,  she  ate  of  the  forbidden 
fruit,  and  gave  it  to  Adam  (Gen.  3).  Eve 
had  three  sons,  Cain,  Abel,  and  Seth.  After 
the  birth  of  Seth  her  name  drops  out  of  the 
Bible  narrative,  except  by  reference  (2  Cor. 
11.3  ;  1  Tim.  2.13). 

Everlasting.— [ETERNAL.] 

E'vi. — Desire',  a  prince  of  Midian,  who  was 
slain  in  the  plains  of  Moab,  and  whose  lands 
were  given  to  Reuben  (Num.  31.8  ;  Josh.  13.21). 

Evil-mer'odach.  —  Son  and  successor  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Babylon.  He  con- 
tracted a  friendship  with  Jehoiachin,  king  of 
Judah,  who  was  a  prisoner,  and  placed  him 
over  all  the  other  captive  kings  at  Babylon. 
He  reigned  about  two  years,  when  he  was 
murdered  by  his  brother-in-law,  who  seized  the 
crown  (2  K.  25.27  ;  Jer.  52.31). 

Exchangers. — The  bankers  of  the  time  (Matt. 
25.27  :  R.V.  bankers).  [USURY,  CHANGERS  OF 
MONEY.] 

Exodus.— The  departure  of  the  Israelites 
from  the  Egyptian  bondage.  When  Abraham 
went  down  into  Egypt,  and  afterwards  at  the 
immigration  of  Jacob  and  his  family,  the  country 
was  under  the  hated  rule  of  the  Hyksos,  or 
"  shepherd  kings,"  chiefs  of  an  Arabian  tribe 
that  had  vanquished  the  native  rulers,  and 
held  the  country  for  a  little  over  five  hundred 
years.  Hence  the  cordial  reception  at  the 
Pharaoh's  court,  first  of  Abraham,  afterwards 
of  Jacob,  and  the  assignment  to  the  Israelites 
of  a  separate  district,  shepherds  being  "  an 
abomination  unto  the  Egyptians  "  (Gen.  46.34). 

The  "  new  king,  which  knew  not  Joseph  " 
(Ex.  1.8),  was  one  of  the  dynasty  which  succeeded 
the  expulsion  of  these  "  shepherd  kings,"  and  the 
Pharaoh  of  the  great  oppression  is  shown  by 
concurrent  evidences  to  have  been  Rameses  n., 
tho  ruins  of  whose  "  treasure  cities  "  (Ex.  1.11) 
remain  to  this  day,  bearing  the  recorded  boast 
that  they  were  built  entirely  by  the  labours  of 
an  alien  people.  The  bricks,  both  with  and 
without  straw,  still  further  illustrate  the  history 
of  the  period.  According  to  Professor  Sayce, 
"  The  Amu,  the  representatives  of  the  Semitic 
race  generally,  are  depicted  as  brick-makers, 
and  literally  hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of 
water." 


The  Exodus,  in  all  probability,  took  place 
in  the  reign  of  Meneptah,  son  and  successor 
of  Rameses,  who,  in  fact,  explicitly  mentions 
Israel.  The  interpretation*  of  the  inscription 
is,  "  The  Israelites  are  ruined  ;  their  crops  are 
destroyed." 

The  immediate  cause  of  the  Exodus  was  the 
oppressive  slavery  to  which  the  Israelites  were 
subjected  by  Rameses  and  Meneptah.  The 
descendants  of  Jacob  had  multiplied  so  greatly 
(Ex.  1.7)  that  they  overspread  the  country  and 
aroused  the  fears  of  these  Pharaohs.  To  check 
their  increase  they  were  first  subjected  to  cruel 
bondage  (Ex.  1.8-14).  Then  the  Hebrew 
midwives  were  commanded  to  kill  all  the  male 
children,  but,  under  the  fear  of  God,  they  evaded 
the  order  (Ex.  1.15-21).  Lastly,  all  the  male 
children  were  ordered  to  be  drowned  (Ex.  1.22). 
Because  of  these  and  other  acts  of  oppression, 
God  raised  up  Moses  as  a  deliverer,  and  obtained 
the  release  of  His  chosen  people,  and  their 
final  establishment  in  the  Land  of  Promise. 

After  the  settlement  of  Israel  in  Canaan, 
the  relations  of  Israel  and  Egypt  appear  to 
have  been  amicable  for  some  generations,  a 
state  of  general  friendliness,  which  lasted  to  the 
time  of  Solomon,  who  made  a  commercial  treaty 
with  that  country  and  married  an  Egyptian 
princess  (1  K.  3.1,  10.28,  29).  [EGYPT,  MOSES, 
JOSHUA,  PHARAOH,  PLAGUES,  WANDERINGS.] 

Exodus,  Book  of. — The  critical  questions 
associated  with  this  book  are  considered  under 
PENTATEUCH  (which  see).  The  purpose  which 
we  may  reverently  assume  to  have  underlain  the 
events  recorded  in  the  book  may  be  stated  as 
follows :  By  the  call  of  Abraham,  and  the 
covenant  of  circumcision,  the  people  from  whom 
the  promised  Saviour  was  to  come,  and  who 
were  to  be  for  many  ages  the  depositary  of  Divine 
revelation,  had  been  in  some  measure  dis- 
tinguished from  the  rest  of  the  world.  But, 
whilst  they  remained  mixed  with  other  nations 
who  had  degenerated  into  idolatry,  they  were 
in  danger  of  losing  the  true  religion.  God 
therefore  now  proceeds  to  separate  them  entirely 
from  all  other  people.  To  this  end,  He  allows 
them  to  be  subjected  to  cruel  servitude  and 
oppression,  consequent  upon  the  altered  policy 
of  the  Egyptians — changing  their  home  of 
plenty  into  a  house  of  bondage,  and  causing  them 
to  desire  deliverance  (chap.  1).  He  prepares 
for  them  a  deliverer,  Moses,  who  undertakes 
the  mission,  not  by  choice  and  self-will,  but  in 
obedience  to  an  immediate  call  from  Jehovah, 
who  revealed  Himself  by  His  covenant  name 
(2-4).  He  shows  forth  His  glory  in  Israel, 
by  releasing  them  from  their  bondage  ;  and  on 
Pharaoh,  by  punishing  his  opposition  to  Him- 
self and  His  people  (6-15).  Then  taking  the 
Israelites  under  His  special  guidance  and  dis- 
cipline, He  manifests  Himself  to  them  with  that 
material  splendour  which  was  most  suited  to 
their  low  spiritual  state  ;  and,  amidst  thunder, 
lightning,  and  earthquake,  promulgates  His  law, 
renews  ITLs  promises,  and  solemnly  avouches 
thorn  to  be  His  people ;  while  they  avouch 


EXORCIST] 


159 


[EZEKIEL,  BOOK  OF 


Him  to  be  their  God  (16-20).  And,  as  their 
Divine  King,  He  further  develops  the  regula- 
tions of  His  government  and  the  manner  of 
His  worship,  appoints  His  ministers,  and  directs 
the  construction  of  His  dwelling-place  among 
them  (21-40).  In  the  moral  laws,  God  shows 
that  His  claims  are  not  affected  by  man's 
fall ;  and  convinces  the  sinner  of  his  guilt  and 
misery,  and  consequent  need  of  a  Saviour ; 
whilst  He  supplies  His  redeemed  people  with  a 
rule  of  life,  showing  them  the  path  in  which  they 
must  walk  on  their  way  to  heaven.  The  cere- 
monial institutions  were  expressive  of  great 
truths  and  principles,  presented  in  a  simple  and 
palpable  form,  adapted  to  the  comparative 
childhood  of  the  Church  ;  and  they  were,  at 
the  same  time,  types  and  figures  of  Christian 
blessings.  In  particular,  the  Passover  was  an 
impressive  emblem  of  the  sacrifice  of  Christ, 
"the  Lamb  of  God,  who  taketh  away  the  sin 
of  the  world."  [LAW  OF  MOSES.] 

Exorcist. — Lit.  one  who  adjures,  i.e.  who 
invokes  some  more  powerful  name  for  the 
expulsion  of  demons  (see  Acts  19.13,  the  only 
occurrence  of  the  word  in  Scripture).  The 
profession  is  bound  up  with  belief  in  demoniacal 
possession,  and  was  common  among  the  Jews 
(Matt.  12.27  ;  Mk.  9.38). 

Our  Lord  cast  out  demons  by  His  own 
authority,  and  gave  His  disciples  power  to  cast 
them  out  in  His  name  (Matt.  10.1 ;  Lk.  10.17  ; 
cf.  Acts  16.18).  [DEMOXIAC.] 

EzT>ai.— The  father  of  Naarai,  one  of  David's 
"mighty  men"  (1  Ch.  11.37,  but  the  text 
is  doubtful.  In  2  Sam.  23.35  "  Paarai  the 
Arbite  "  appears). 

Ez'bon.— 1.  Son  of  Gad  (Gen.  46.16).  In 
Num.  20.16  the  name  is  given  as  Ozni.  2. 
Grandson  of  Benjamin  (1  Ch.  7.7). 

Ezekias.— (Matt.  1.9  :   R.V.  Hezekiali). 

Ezekiel. — God  strengthens  :  one  of  the  four 
greater  prophets,  and  a  priest  of  the  Jews 
(Ezek.  1.3).  He  was  the  son  of  a  priest  named 
Buzi,  and  was  carried  into  captivity  with 
Jehoiachin,  king  of  Judah,  and  was  placed  with 
many  others  of  his  countrymen  upon  the  river 
Chebar  in  Mesopotamia,  where  he  received  the 
Divine  revelations  contained  in  his  book.  He 
began  to  prophesy  about  the  fifth  year  of  his 
captivity,  and  continued  for  twenty-two  years, 
boldly  censuring  the  idolatry  and  wickedness 
of  his  countrymen.  It  was  this  fearlessness 
and  vehemence  of  condemnation  that  cost  him 
his  life.  His  memory  was  greatly  revered  not 
only  by  the  Jews  but  also  by  the  Medes  and  the 
Persians.  He  was  a  contemporary  of  Jeremiah, 
and  the  two  prophets  had  a  certain  amount  of 
epistolary  intercourse. 

His  writings  show  remarkable  vigour,  and 
he  was  evidently  well  fitted  to  oppose  "  the 
people  of  stubborn  front  and  hard  heart " 
to  whom  he  was  sent.  His  characteristic, 
however,  was  the  subordination  of  his  whole 
life  to  his  work.  He  ever  thinks  and  feels  as 
the  prophet — a  great  contrast  to  Jeremiah. 
That  he  was,  nevertheless,  a  man  of  strong 


feeling  is  clear  from  the  brief  record  he  has  given 
of  his  wife's  death  (Ezek.  24.15-18).  The  central 
point  of  Ezekiel's  predictions  is  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem.  After  this  event,  his  chief  care 
was  to  console  the  exiled  Jews  by  promises  of 
future  deliverance  and  restoration  to  their 
own  land.  He  was  put  to  death  by  a  leader 
among  his  fellow-exiles.  In  the  Middle  Ages, 
a  building  near  Bagdad  was  shown  as  his  tomb. 

Ezekiel,  Book  of. — It  is  universally  agreed 
that  this  book  is  from  the  pen  of  the  great 
prophet  whose  name  it  bears.  Its  date  appears 
from  the  fact  that  he  began  prophesying  in 
the  fifth  year  after  the  captivity  of  Jehoiachin 
(1.2),  that  is,  in  Zedekiah's  reign  (592  B.C.),  and 
continued  till  at  least  the  twenty-seventh 
year  (29.17).  The  year  of  his  first  prophesying 
was  also  the  thirtieth  from  the  commencement 
of  the  reign  of  Nabopolassar  and  from  the  era 
of  Josiah's  reform.  His  influence  with  the 
people  is  obvious,  from  the  numerous  visits 
paid  to  him  by  the  elders,  who  came  to  inquire 
what  message  God  had  sent  through  him 
(8.1,  14.1,  20.1,  etc.). 

The  book  may  be  divided  into  nine  sections, 
which  are  for  the  most  part  chronologically 
arranged  as  follows  : — 

I.  Ezekiel's  call  to  the  prophetic  office  (1-3.14), 
in    the    fifth    year    of    Jehoiachin's    captivity, 
594  B.C. 

II.  Symbolic  representations  and  predictions 
of  the  approaching  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
and  the  sufferings  of  the  people  ;  with  a  promise 
of    the    preservation    of    a    remnant    (3.15-7) ; 
delivered  hi  the  year  of  the  prophet's  call. 

III.  Visions     presented    to    the    prophet    a 
year  and  two  months  later  than  the  former, 
exhibiting  the  Temple  polluted  by  Egyptian, 
Phoenician,   and   Assyrian   idolatries,   and   the 
consequent  judgments   on   the   inhabitants   of 
Jerusalem  and  on  the  priests ;  a  few  faithful  being 
marked   for  exemption  ;  closing  with  promises 
of  better  times  and  a  purer  worship  (8-11). 

IV.  A  series  of  reproofs  and  warnings  directed 
against  the  prevalent  sins  and  errors  of  the 
people,  calls  to  repentance,  and  renewed  threaten- 
ings  of  punishment,  which  is  shown  to  be  the 
consequence  of   their  own  acts,  and  not  only 
of  the  sins  of  their  fathers  (12-19). 

V.  Another    series    of    warnings,    delivered 
about   a   year    later,    announcing   the   coming 
judgments    to    be    yet    nearer ;     accompanied 
with  promises  of  future  mercy  (20-23). 

VI.  Predictions,  uttered  two  years  and  fiv 
months  later,  in  the  ninth  year  of  Jehoiachin'a 
captivity,  announcing  to  the  exiles  the  begin- 
ning of  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  on  the  very  day 
of  the  prophecy  (cf.  2  K.  25.1),  and  assuring 
them  of  its  complete  overthrow  (24). 

VII.  Predictions     of     approaching     Divine 
judgments    on    surrounding    heathen    nations 
(25-32) ;  including  the  seven  which  had  shown 
especial   hostility   to   Judaea :    Ammon,   Moab, 
Edom,    Philistia,    Tyre,    Sidon,    and     Egypt. 
Delivered  at  intervals  from  the  eleventh  to  the 
twenty -seventh  year  of  Jehoiachin's  captivity. 


EZEL] 


160 


[EZRA,  BOOK  OF 


VIII.  Exhortations  to  the   Jews  to  repent 
and    reform,    delivered    after    the    destruction 
of  Jerusalem  ;   prophecies  of  the  future  restora- 
tion of  Israel,  as  a  flock  under  "  David  "  their 
Shepherd,    the    overthrow    of    their    enemies, 
first    of    Edom,    and    afterwards    of    "  Gog, 
from   the   land   of  Magog,"    followed    by   the 
triumphs  of  the  kingdom  of  God  upon  earth 
(33-39). 

IX.  Representations    of    the    establishment 
and  prosperity  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ,  under 
the  symbols  of  a  new  partition  of  the  land 
of  Canaan,  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple,  and 
the  reorganisation  of  its  services  (40-48). 

The  book  is  largely  written  in  poetical 
prose,  although  many  passages  of  pure  poetry 
are  introduced. 

E'zel. — Departure:  the  stone  near  Saul's 
residence  where  David  parted  from  Jonathan 
as  he  fled  from  the  court  of  the  king  (1  Sam. 
20.19).  This  stone  or  "heap  of  stones" 
was  between  Rama  and  Nob. 

E'zem. — Strength:  a  town  of  Simeon  (Josh. 
15.29,  19.3 ;  1  Ch.  4.29 :  A.V.  Azem).  It  was 
near  the  Edomite  border,  but  the  site  has  not 
been  identified.  Perhaps  identical  with  Azmon. 

E'zer. — Help,  union :  there  are  six  persons 
mentioned  bearing  this  name.  One  who  was 
slain  by  the  inhabitants  of  Gath  (1  Ch.  7.21). 
A  priest  (Neh.  12.42).  A  Judahite  (1  Ch.  4.4). 
A  Gadite  (1  Ch.  12.9).  A  son  of  Jeshua 
(Neh.  3.19).  A  Horite  (Gen.  36.21). 

E'zion-ga'ber,  Ezion-geber.— <?)  Giants  lack- 
bone:  the  site  of  an  Israelite  encampment. 
An  Arabian  city  at  the  head  of  the  Elanitic 
Gulf,  adjoining  Elath  (which  see).  It  was  here 
that  Solomon  equipped  his  navy  for  trade 
with  Ophir :  here  also  Jehoshaphat  engaged  in 
a  similar  enterprise,  but  failed  (Num.  33.35  ; 
Deut.  2.8  ;  1  K.  9.26,  22.48 ;  2  Ch.  8.17,  20.36). 

Eznite.— A  title  given  to  ADINO  (2  Sam.  23.8), 
but  the  Hebrew  text  seems  to  be  corrupt 
(cf.  1  Ch.  11.11). 

Ezra. — Help  :  1.  Ezra,  the  son  (or  grandson) 
of  Seraiah  (2  K.  25.18-21 ;  Ezra  7.1),  and 
descendant  of  Aaron,  was  born  at  Babylon  in 
the  fifth  century  B.C.  He  was  "  a  priest  and 
ready  scribe  in  the  Law  of  Moses  "  (Ezra  7.6). 
Although  born  in  the  land  of  captivity,  yet  by 
the  study  of  the  law,  and  inquiry  among  his 
countrymen,  he  had  obtained  some  adequate 
conception  of  the  land  and  temple  of  his  fathers, 
and  the  result  of  this  knowledge  was  a  strong 
desire  for  a  moral  and  religious  revival  among 
the  Jews  of  Palestine. 

In  the  seventh  year  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus 
(458  B.C.),  Ezra  received  permission  to  return 
to  his  own  land  with  any  of  his  people  who 
wished  to  accompany  him,  and  with  material 
and  money  for  the  Temple  and  its  services. 
The  king's  decree  is  given  in  full  in  Ezra  7. 

Then  follows  Ezra's  own  account  of  the 
company  who  went  with  him  (some  1800), 
of  the  halt  and  fast  at  the  river  Ahava,  with 
prayer  for  Divine  protection  on  the  way,  of 
the  arrival  after  four  months  at  Jerusalem, 


and  of  the  steps  taken  in  furtherance  of  the 
king's  decree  (Erza  8). 

But  now  Ezra's  plans  for  religious  revival 
met  with  a  check.  The  princes  of  the  people 
bring  him  tidings  that  there  had  been  whole- 
sale intermarrying  with  heathen  women.  Ezra 
tells  how  when  he  heard  it  he  rent  his  garment, 
plucked  out  his  hair  and  beard  (signs  of  intense 
grief),  and  sat  down  stunned.  After  a  day  of 
humiliation  he  "  prayed  and  made  confession, 
weeping  and  casting  himself  down  before  the 
house  of  God."  The  effect  was  a  voluntary 
covenant  entered  into  by  all  the  people  to  put 
away  their  foreign  wives  (Ezra  9-11). 

We  hear  nothing  more  of  Ezra,  until  thirteen 
years  later  we  find  him  again  at  Jerusalem 
with  Nehemiah  at  the  great  scene  of  the  read- 
ing of  the  Law  to  the  assembled  multitude, 
repeated  daily  during  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles 
(Nek.  8). 

This  is  the  last  recorded  act  of  Ezra.  Jewish 
tradition  ascribes  to  him  the  completion  of  the 
O.T.  Canon  and  the  authorship  of  several  of 
its  books,  as  well  as  the  institution  of  the 
Synagogue. 

2.  A  priest  who  returned  from  exile  with 
Zerubbabel  and  Joshua  (Neh.  12.1).  3.  (1  Ch. 
4.17 :  R.V.  Ezrah). 

Ezra,  Book  of.  —  Portions  of  this  book 
(4.8-6.18,  7.12-26)  are  written  in  Aramaic,  and 
show  incorporated  material,  consisting  chiefly 
of  conversations  or  decrees  in  that  tongue. 
Ezra  appears  in  the  first  person  as  the  author  of 
7.27,  8.34,  9  :  other  narrative  portions  of  the 
book  speak  of  him  in  the  third  person.  The 
whole  period  comprehended  in  the  book,  which 
is  evidently  a  continuation  of  Chronicles  (2  Ch. 
36.22,23  and  EzeJc.  1.1-3),  extends  from  536 
to  457  B.C.,  or  about  seventy-nine  years.  The 
Book  of  Nehemiah,  part  of  Ezra  in  the  Hebrew 
canon,  narrates  the  joint  activity  of  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah  from  445-432. 

The  history  in  this  book  consists  of  two 
portions,  separated  from  each  other  by  fifty- 
eight  years,  including  the  whole  reign  of  Xerxes. 
The  former  part,  ending  6.22,  contains  the 
history  of  the  returning  exiles,  and  of  the 
rebuilding  of  the  Temple,  which  had  been 
decreed  by  Cyrus,  in  the  year  536  B.C.,  and  was 
completed  in  the  reign  of  Darius  the  son  of 
Hystaspes  (generally  distinguished  by  historians 
as  Darius  Hystaspis)  in  the  year  515  B.C. 
The  latter  portion,  from  7.1,  contains  the 
personal  history  of  Ezra's  journey  to  Jerusalem, 
with  commission  from  Artaxerxes  Longimanus, 
in  the  year  457  B.C.  ;  and  his  exertions  for  the 
reformation  of  the  people. 

The  contents  may  be  summarised  as  follows  : — 

I.  The  return  of  the  first  company  of  Jews 
from  Babylon,  and  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple  : 
comprising  the  proclamation  of  Cyrus  (1 ) : 
a  list  of  those  who  returned  with  Zerubbabel ; 
with  their  offerings  for  the  Temple  (2) :  the 
setting  up  of  the  altar,  and  the  commencement 
of  the  Temple  (3) :  the  opposition  of  the 
Samaritans,  and  suspension  of  the  building 


EZRAHITE] 


161 


[FAITH 


(4) :  the  prophesying  of  Haggai  and  Zechariah  ; 
recommencement  of  the  building  ;  visit  of  the 
governors,  and  their  letter  to  Darius ;  the 
king's  favourable  decree ;  completion  and 
dedication  of  the  Temple  (5,  6). 

II.  Ezra's  journey  to  Jerusalem  with  a 
large  company,  and  the  reformations  which 
he  effected  :  including  Ezra's  commission  from 
Artaxerxes,  and  his  journey  to  Jerusalem  with 
his  companions  (7,  8) :  intermarriages  of 
the  Jews  with  their  heathen  neighbours ; 
Ezra's  distress,  and  prayer ;  the  repentance 
and  reformation  of  the  people  (9,  10). 

Part  I.  should  be  read  in  connexion  with  the 
contemporaneous  prophecies  of  Haggai  and 
Zechariah.  The  coincidences  with  the  former 
have  been  thought  to  show  that  Haggai  was 
the  annalist  before  Ezra's  day.  Cf.  Ezra 


5.1,  2  with  Hag.  1  ;  Ezra  3.6, 10-12  with  Hag. 
2.18 ;  as  well  as  the  repeated  references  in 
both  books  to  the  Law  of  Moses. 

In  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  Babylon  we 
see  the  fulfilment  of  prophecy  (/sat.  44.28 ; 
Jer.  25.12,  29.10).  This  restoration  of  the 
Jewish  Church,  Temple,  and  worship  was  an 
event  of  the  highest  consequence,  as  tending 
to  preserve  true  religion  in  the  world,  and  pre- 
paring the  way  of  our  Lord. 

Ez'rahite.— The  family  name  of  Ethan  and 
Heman  (1  K.  4.31  ;  Ps.  88  and  89,  titles).  It 
probably  is  the  same  as  Zerathite,  Zerah,  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  being  their  father  (1  Ch.  2.6). 
Another  Ethan  and  Heman  are  found  in  1  Ch. 
15.17  and  elsewhere. 

Ezri.  —  One  of  David's  overseers  (1  Ch. 
27.26). 


Fable.— There  are  only  two  fables,  in  the 
ordinary  acceptation  of  that  term,  in  the 
Bible — that  of  the  trees  choosing  their  king 
(Judg.  9.8-15)  and  that  of  the  cedar  of  Lebanon 
and  the  thistle  (2  K.  14.9).  The  "fables"  of 

1  Tim.  1.4,  4.7;  2  Tim.  4.4;  Tit.  1.14  refer  to 
Jewish   legends   and    allegories,    of   which   the 
many  tales  in  the  Talmud  are  examples.     In 

2  Pet.  1.16  things  which  are  false  and   unreal 
are  intended.      [ALLEGORY,  PARABLE.] 

Fair  Havens. — Roadstead  on  south  coast  of 
Crete,  near  Lasea,  where  the  ship  conveying 
Paul  to  Rome  Avas  brought  to  anchor  ( Acts  27.8). 
It  is  still  known  by  its  old  Greek  name  of  Kaloi 
Limenes.  A  little  to  the  west  of  Fair  Havens 
the  coast  trends  suddenly  to  the  north.  The 
ship  remained  at  Fair  Havens  because  she  was 
not  able  to  cope  with  the  violent  north-west 
winds,  in  the  teeth  of  which  she  would  have 
to  run  on  continuing  the  voyage. 

Fairs. — Should  be  translated  "  wares " 
throughout  Ezek.  27. 

Faith.— 1.  The  Word  Defined.— Faith  quite 
simply  implies  the  frame  of  mind  which  relies 
on  another.  It  differs  from  credulity  because 
that  on  which  faith  relies  is  true  in  fact,  and, 
although  often  transcending  reason,  is  not 
contradicted  by  it.  Credulity  feeds  on  the 
imaginary,  is  cultivated  by  mere  imagination. 
Faith  differs  from  belief  because  it  is  heart- 
reliance,  not  solely  intellectual  acquiescence. 
Religious  faith  is  such  trust  in  some  person 
or  position  as  influences  men's  mental  and 
spiritual  processes,  and  should  normally  in- 
fluence their  life.  Faith  is  an  attitude,  and 
should  be  an  impulse.  Christian  faith  is 
reliance  on  Christ,  so  full  and  complete  that  it 
involves  union  with  Him  and  the  living  of  the 
life  of  which  He  would  approve.  It  is  not 
blind,  unreasoning  acceptance  ;  it  is  based  on 
the  facts  of  His  life,  His  work,  His  power,  His 
Word.  Revelation  is  a  pre-requisite  to  faith. 

II 


Faith  is  described  as  "  a  simple  but  profound 
reliance  upon  Him  who  has  so  shown  His  face 
in  the  light  that  it  becomes  the  instinct  of  His 
true  worshippers  to  trust  His  will  in  the  dark." 
And  further,  "  The  secret  of  a  beautiful  character 
lies  in  the  formative  power  of  a  perpetual 
contact  with  a  trusted  Christ"  (Bishop  Moule). 
Faith's  simplest  definition  then  is  heart-reliance. 

2.  Faitft  in  the  O.T. —The  attitude  towards 
God     which     faith     denotes     in     the     N.T. 
is  largely  denoted   in    the   O.T.    by  the  word 
"  fear."     Fear    rather    than    faith :    reverence 
rather  than  trust.     But  it  is  quite  clear  that 
confidence  in  God  is  an  essential  of  O.T.  re- 
ligion, particularly  clear  in  those  parts  of  the 
O.T.  which  deal  with  the  underlying  principles 
of  things,  the  Psalmists  and  the  Prophets.     We 
do  not  go  far    wrong   when   we  suggest  that 
"  the  fear  of  the  Lord  "  contains  at  least  the 
germ  of  N.T.  faith  in  its  phrasing.     The  word 
"  trust "  (noun  and  verb,  the  noun  once,  the  verb 
many  times)  occurs  not  infrequently,  and  the 
most  famous  instance  is  of  course  in  connexion 
with  Abraham,  in  Gen.  15. 6,  which  in  both  Jewish 
and  Christian  writings  came  to  be  looked  upon 
as  a  typical  example  of  faith  in  active  exercise. 

3.  Faith  in  the  Gospels. — Faith  is  one  of  the 
commonest  and  most  distinctive  words  in  the 
N.T.     Its   meaning   varies   somewhat,    but   all 
the   variations  lie   very  close  together.     It  is 
most  simply  used  to  denote  the  confidence  of 
some  one,  directly  or  otherwise,  brought  into 
contact  with  Jesus,  in  relation  to  some  word  or 
promise    to    which    He    has    given    utterance. 
These  utterances  are  always,  or  almost  always, 
definitely  connected  with  the  work  and  word 
of   God.     So    faith  in  this  sense  is  confidence 
in  the  work  or  word  of  God  or  Christ.     This 
use  is  the  common  use  of  the  first  three  gospels 
(Matt  9.29,  13.58,  15.28  ;  Mk.  5.34-36,  9.23 ; 
Lk.  17.5,  6).     This  faith  at  least  once  implies 
the  confidence  of  the  disciples  to  do  the  work 


FAITH] 


162 


[FALL,  THE 


which  Christ  empowered  them  to  do  (Mk.  \ 
11.22-24 — it  is  significant  to  notice  that  it  is 
called  faith  in  God),  the  faith  to  work  wonders. 
But  faith  has  a  far  wider  and  more  important 
N.T.  signification,  a  signification  not  indeed 
absent  from  the  first  tliree  gospels  (Matt. 
9.2  ;  Lk.  7.50),  viz.  saving  faith  in  Christ,  the 
reliance  that  means  salvation.  This  is  the 
general  use  of  the  fourth  gospel,  though  very 
curiously  the  noun  faith  nowhere  occurs  in  that 
gospel,  the  verb  "  believe "  being,  however, 
most  common.  In  that  gospel  faith  is 
depicted  as  springing  from  God's  work  for  us 
(John  6.44),  as  being  definite  reliance  upon  and 
appropriation  of  the  work  and  power  of  Christ, 
and  as  being  the  instrument,  thus  exerted, 
of  bringing  us  into  life  and  light  (John  3.15-18, 
4.41-53,  19.35,  20.31,  etc.).  Our  Lord  in  each  of 
the  gospels  proclaims  Himself  as  Saviour,  and 
demands  faith  as  the  attitude  of  mind  which  we 
must  acquire,  the  instrument  which  we  must 
use  whereby  we  may  appropriate  the  salvation 
He  offers.  The  position  is  clearer  in  St.  John 
than  in  the  Synoptists,  but  it  is  sufficiently 
clear  in  the  latter  (Matt.  18.6;  Lk.  8.12, 
22.32). 

4.  Faith  in  St.  Paul's  Epistles.— Si.  Paul's 
life  was  concerned  with  two  great  controversies, 
akin  to  each  other,  and  each  closely  connected 
with  a  true  view  of  the  place  of  faith  in  religion. 
Both  controversies  were  waged  with  Jewish 
opponents,  the  first  with  the  exclusiveness  of 
Judaism,  which  ended  in  the  admission  of  the 
Gentiles  to  the  Church  of  Christ  on  equal  terms 
with  the  Jews  ;  the  second  with  the  ritualism 
of  Judaism,  which  ended  in  a  clear  setting  forth 
of  the  two — the  only  two — pre-requisites  to 
salvation,  repentance  and  faith.  The  contro- 
versies involved  a  careful  consideration  of  the 
respective  places  of  faith  and  works  in  the 
Christian  life  :  and  no  simpler  or  more  definite 
issue  could  have  been  arrived  at.  We  are  justi- 
fied, accounted  righteous,  simply  for  the  merits 
of  Jesus  Christ.  Works  have  no  value,  they 
are  the  works  of  rebels.  Faith  is  not  the  cause 
of  our  justification,  but  faith  is  the  instrument, 
the  stretched -out  hand,  by  which  we  appropriate 
the  gift  of  justification  which  Christ  by  His 
all-atoning  merits  is  enabled  to  offer.  This 
is  the  teaching  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans 
(3-8)  and  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians. 
We  are  being  made  actually  righteous,  we  are 
being  sanctified  by  the  ever-present  work  and 
influence  of  God  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  great  gift  of 
God  through  Christ  to  the  Church  and  to  us.  And 
here,  too,  faith  has  a  part  to  play,  the  same 
part,  viz.  that  of  the  instrument  by  which  we 
yield  ourselves  to  the  Spirit's  working  (Eph. 
3.16-19,  etc.). 

5.  Faith  and  Works. — A  contradiction  has 
been  alleged  between  St.  Paul  and  St.  James 
as  to  the  place  of  faith  and  works  generally, 
and  specially  in  relation  to  Abraham  (Rom. 
4.2  ;  Jas.  2.21).  As  a  careful  comparison  will 
speedily  reveal,  St.  James  means  by  faith  a 
speculative  and  barren  belief,  mere  orthodoxv. 


without  any  germinant  life  springing  from  it. 
By  works  he  means  the  works  of  faith.  We 
have  already  seen  what  St.  Paul  means  by  faith. 
It  is  the  work  and  gift  of  God  in  its  origin 
(cf.  Matt.  16.17) ;  it  is  seated  in  the  heart, 
not  merely  in  the  head  ;  it  is  full  conviction  of 
the  truth  of  God's  promises  in  Christ  and  re- 
liance on  Him  ;  it  naturally  and  inevitably 
produces  works,  for  it  is  a  living  faith,  a  faith 
that  worketh  by  love  (Gal.  5.6).  Paul  condemns 
the  works  which  ignore  faith  and  claim  merit 
for  themselves  ;  James  commends  the  works 
which  follow  faith  and  justification,  which 
indeed  prove  the  latter.  James  condemns  a 
dead  faith  ;  Paul  praises  a  living  faith.  There 
is  no  contradiction.  Living  faith,  the  faith 
that  justifies — good  works,  works  which  please 
God — can  be  combined  in  the  phrase  already 
quoted,  "  faith  that  worketh  by  love." 

6.  Faith  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.— The 
teaching  of  this  Epistle  on  the  subject  of  faith 
is  in  general  agreement  with  that  of  St.  Paul. 
The  writer,  however,  adds  and  illustrates  a 
description  of  faith  in  action  (chap.  11).  He 
tells  us  that  faith  is  the  assurance  of  things 
hoped  for,  the  proving  of  things  not  seen. 
This  description  is  intended  to  tell  us  what 
faith  means  to  our  state  of  mind,  and  the 
verses  that  follow  illustrate  the  effect  of  that 
state  of  mind  on  conduct.  "  Assurance  "  in 
this  connexion  means  "  that  which  gives 
reality  to."  "  The  proving  of  things  not  seen  " 
implies  not  only  the  testing  of  things  which 
we  cannot  see,  but  a  definite  conviction  about 
them  as  the  result  of  our  testing.  The  whole 
verse  is  not  really  a  definition  but  a  descrip- 
tion. It  tells  us  that  faith  gives  reality  to 
the  things  for  which  we  hope,  and  proves  to 
us  the  existence  of  things  which  we  do  not 
see.  Then  the  writer  goes  on  to  show  by 
many  an  illustration  from  the  O.T.  that 
faith  really  does  all  this.  For  instance,  Moses 
endured,  as  seeing  Him  who  is  invisible.  It 
was  by  faith,  for  faith  made  the  object  and 
hope  of  Moses'  quest  a  reality  to  him,  and 
made  the  Invisible  God  a  fact  in  his  life.  Just 
as  St.  Paul  in  1  Cor.  13  fails  to  define  love, 
and  only  describes  what  it  does,  so  here  the 
writer  does  not  try  to  define  faith — he  explains 
and  illustrates  its  method  of  action. 

Falcon.— [KITE,  VULTURE.] 

Fall,  The. — The  word,  though  not  so  used  in 
Scripture,  commonly  denotes  the  departure  of 
man  from  the  state  of  primeval  innocence  to 
the  state  of  sinfulness  which  pervades  humanity. 
The  story  of  that  departure  is  told  in  Gen.  3. 
That  chapter  has  been  interpreted  both  literally 
and  figuratively.  Much  in  the  story  suggests 
that  which  is  figurative  and  metaphorical, 
e.g.  the  two  trees  are  decidedly  not  ordinary 
trees,  and  the  serpent  is  something  more  than 
a  mere  reptile.  But  "  whatever  opinion  may  be 
held  as  to  the  literary  materials  and  composition 
of  the  narrative,  it  commends  itself  as  in  all 
essential  features  a  unique  and  authoritative 
record  of  great  fundamental  facts  of  human 


FALL,  THE] 


163 


[FASTING  AND  FASTS 


life  and  history  ;  and  its  Divine  inspiration  is 
sufficiently  attested  by  the  profound  truthfulness 
and  significance  of  its  moral  and  religious 
teaching  "  (Hastings,  Dictionary  of  Christ  and 
the  Gospels),  It  is  no  place  here  to  enter  into 
the  critical  question.  But  however  the  narrative 
is  explained,  the  facts  behind  the  narrative  stand. 
It  is  with  these  facts  we  have  to  deal.  Man 
is  created,  not  perfect,  not  in  his  highest  stage 
of  development,  but  sinless,  innocent.  He  is 
bound  to  God  by  certain  simple  laws  of  obedience ; 
he  violates  those  laws  ;  the  first  act  of  violation 
constitutes  the  fall ;  he  is  conscious  of  that 
fall ;  and  in  his  first  consciousness  of  sin  there 
comes  an  inkling  of  the^  Divine  purpose  of 
redemption.  Moreover,  he  is  taught  that  in 
some  mysterious  way  the  first  sin  is  not  merely 
the  sin  of  an  individual,  but  it  touches  and 
contaminates  the  race.  Adam  is  representative  ; 
he  is  the  first  head  of  the  human  race  ;  in  him 
all  have  sinned,  all  die  ;  exactly  how  and  why, 
the  human  mind  has  never  been  able  to  decide. 
Scripture  reveals  it,  and  human  experience 
testifies  to  the  actuality  of  it.  The  age-long 
struggle  with  sin,  and  the  assurance  that  ulti- 
mately good  will  emerge  victorious,  revealed 
in  the  Protevangel  of  Gen.  3.15,  concern  not 
Adam  alone,  but  the  whole  race.  Human  life 
has  to  face  the  one  and  live  in  the  hope  of  the 
other,  or  life  would  be  inexplicable. 

One  or  two  points  call  for  special  notice. 

1.  The  Origin  of  Evil— Ultimately  the  problem 
id  insoluble  ;   but  enough  is  clear  to  satisfy  our 
reasonable  inquiries.     This  life  is  a  life  of  pro- 
bation.     We   are  prepared,   trained,   educated 
for   a    better    world    beyond.     Probation   and 
training  imply  defect.     And  so  St.  Augustine 
has  taught  us  that  evil  has  no  origin  ;    it  is 
the  negation  of  good  :  it  is  flaw,  defect,  failure. 
All  this  is  true,  and  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  the 
character  of  man  could  be  trained  without  the 
possibilty  of  the  choice  of   evil.     But   it   does 
not   wholly    answer    the    question.      God,    the 
self-existent  One,  wholly  good,  could  have  made 
us   wholly  good.     The   capacity  to   sin    might 
have    been    denied    to    us    by   an    unswerving 
rectitude   of  heart  and   conscience.     God   did 
not  will    it   so  ;     He    willed  our    being    made 
perfect  through  the  suffering  of  temptation,  a 
suffering  which  Christ  Himself  endured,  and  we 
must  be  content  to  fight  the  battle  out  to  its 
glorious  victory  through  Him. 

2.  The  Fall  and  Christ.— The  N.T.   accepts 
and   illustrates    the   dual   doctrines   of   siu   as 
absolute  evil,  and  of  men  as  universally  sinful, 
and  in  himself  utterly  helpess  ;  but  refers  little, 
u  at  all,  to  the  fall  itself.     Our  Lord  never  refers 
to  the  story  of  the  fall,  but  takes  the  fall  itself 
for    granted    in    all    His    teaching.     All    have 
sinned  ;    sin  is  a  deep-rooted  evil  of  the  inner 
life  ;   man  cannot  save  himself  ;   yet  man  is  of 
superior   worth   and   dignity.     All   this   Christ 
teaches,    and    in    the    parables   of   Lk.   15,    as 
elsewhere,  He  couples  man's  sinfulness,  man's 
fall,  with  Ilis  own  redemption  and  re-creative 
work.     St.   Paul,   as  has  been  already  noted, 


bases  his  doctrine  of  sin  and  the  Atonement 
on  the  fact  of  the  fall.  With  him  the  doctrine 
of  original  sin  as  a  result  of  the  fall,  implied 
elsewhere,  is  explicitly  taught  (Rom.  5.12-21  ; 

1  Cor.  15.22,  44-47). 

3.  The  Fall  and  the  Incarnation.  —  The 
question  has  been  sometimes  asked,  if  man 
had  not  sinned,  would  Christ  have  become 
man  ?  The  question  is  a  fruitless  one,  and  we 
cannot  answer  it.  Let  it  be  remembered  that 
the  Incarnation  and  the  death  of  Christ  go  to 
make  up  the  Atonement.  Revelation  suggests 
that  Christ  became  incarnate  for  the  purpose 
of  Redemption  (Matt.  20.28;  Lk.  19.10; 
Gal.  4.4,  sqq.).  The  fall,  the  Incarnation, 
the  Atonement,  and  the  final  restoration  are 
facts  of  human  history,  as  they  were  also  of 
Divine  foreknowledge.  Before  the  fall  com- 
munion with  God  was  perfect ;  in  the  Kingdom 
it  will  be  perfect  again  ;  whether,  if  man's 
probation  had  been  sinless,  the  Son  of  God 
would  have  become  man  for  a  purpose  of  love, 
is  a  metaphysical  question,  the  solution  of 
which  would  carry  no  practical  advantage. 
[Snr.] 

Fallow-deer.— The  word  thus  translated  in 
Deut.  14.5  and  1  K.  4.23  means  the  roebuck, 
which  is  identical  with  the  British  species.  It 
has  been  wrongly  supposed  to  include  the  "  wild 
ox  "  also,  which  see. 

Familiar.— 1.  Friend  (Ps.  41.9;  Jer.  20.10). 
2.  [DIVINATION]. 

Famine.— The  famines  of  Palestine  mentioned 
in  Scripture  were  due  to  the  failure  of  the  heavy 
rams  of  November  and  December.  The  famines 
of  Egypt  were  produced  by  a  deficiency  in  the 
rise  of  the  Nile.  The  most  famous  famine  was 
that  which  lasted  for  seven  years  in  Egypt, 
when  Joseph  was  in  charge  of  Pharaoh's  store- 
houses (Gen.  41.53-56).  For  other  famines  see 
Gen.  12.10  and  2  K.  6,  sqq.  The  sufferings 
of  the  people  on  these  occasions  were  almost 
beyond  the  power  of  imagination. 

Fan. — The  fork  used  in  winnowing  (laai.  30. 
24;  Matt.  3.12). 

Farthing.— In  Matt.  10.29  and  Lk.  12.6  the 
reference  is  to  a  Roman  coin  called  the  as,  equal 
to  about  a  halfpenny  of  our  money.  The  coin 
signified  in  Malt.  5.26  and  Mk.  12.42  b  the 
quadrant,  only  the  fourth  of  an  a*. 

Fasting  and  Fasts.— Only  on  one  day  in  the 
year  did  the  Law  require  all  the  Israelites  to 
fast,  viz.  on  the  Day  of  Atonement  (Lev.  16.29, 
31).  During  the  Exile  four  annual  fast-days 
were  established — for  the  fall  of  Jerusalem 
(Jer.  52.6),  for  the  destruction  of  the  Temple 
(2  K.  25.8,9;  Jer.  52.12),  for  the  murder  of 
Gedaliah  (2  K.  25.25  ;  Jer.  41.1,  2),  and  for 
the  beginning  of  the  siege  (2  K.  25.1  ;  Jer.  52.4  ; 
Zech.  8.19,  20).  In  the  O.T.  fasting  is  associated 
with  mourning  for  the  dead  (1  Sam.  31.13 ; 

2  Sam.  1.12),  with  distress  and  sorrow  (Judg. 
20.26;     1     Sam.    1.7,   20.34;     Neh.    1.4;     Ps. 
35.13,  109.24 ;  Joel   1.14,    2.12,  15),   and   with 
expressions  of  penitence  (Deut.  9.18  ;    1  Sam. 
7.6 ;    1  K.  21.27  ;    Ezra  10.6 ;   Neh.  9.1 ;    Ps. 


FAT] 


164 


[FEVER 


69.10;  Jonah  3.5).  The  Pharisees  fasted  twice 
in  the  week  (Lk.  18.12),  on  Monday  and 
Thursday.  Fasting  and  prayer  were  united 
in  the  practice  of  Gentile  believers  (Acts  13.1-3, 
14.23).  St.  Paul  warns  us  against  attaching 
an  independent  value  to  fasting  (Rom.  14.2,  16, 
17,21;  Col  2.16,21-23;  1  Tim.  4.3-5,8,  5.23). 
In  Matt.  17.21 ;  Mk.  9.29 ;  1  Cor.  7.5  "  fasting  " 
is  omitted  in  the  best  manuscripts. 

Fat. — 1.  Certain  portions  of  the  fat  of 
animals  offered  in  sacrifice  were  forbidden  to 
be  eaten  (Lev.  3.3,  9, 17,  7.3,  23),  on  the  ground 
that  the  fat  was  the  richest  part  of  the  animal 
and  belonged  to  Jehovah  (Lev.  3.16).  Other 
parts  of  the  fat  of  sacrifices  and  the  fat  of  other 
animals — unless  they  had  died  of  disease  or 
were  torn  by  other  animals — might  be  eaten 
(Lev.  7.24).  The  Hebrews  fully  appreciated 
well-fatted  meat  (1  K.  4.23 ;  Jer.  46.21  ; 
Lk.  15.23).  2.  Signifies  "  vat "  in  Joel  2.24,  3.13. 

Father. — This  word,  besides  its  common 
acceptation,  is  used  in  Scripture  for  grand- 
father, great-grandfather,  or  the  founder  of  a 
family,  however  remote.  So  the  Jews  in  our 
Saviour's  tune  called  Abraham,  Isaac,  and 
Jacob  their  fathers.  Jesus  Christ  is  called  the 
Son  of  David,  though  David  was  many  genera- 
tions distant  from  Him.  By  "  father  "  is  also 
understood  the  institutor,  teacher,  or  prime 
examp!e  of  a  certain  profession.  Jabal  "  was 
father  of  such  as  dwell  in  tents,  and  such  as  have 
cattle."  Jubal  "  was  father  of  all  such  as  handle 
the  harp  and  pipe  "  (Gen.  4.20, 21,R.V.).  It  is  also 
used  of  spiritual  relationship,  whether  good  (as 
with  God)  or  evil  (as  with  the  devil).  The  latter 
is  also  called  the  father  of  lies  (John  8.44). 
Abraham  is  the  father  of  the  faithful.  He  is 
also  called  "  the  father  of  many  nations," 
because  many  people  sprung  from  him.  In  the 
patriarchal  age  the  authority  of  the  father  over 
his  household  was  absolute,  although  he  had  not 
the  power  of  death  over  his  child  (Deut.  21.18-21). 

Fathom.— [MEASUBES.  ] 

Feasts. — [FESTIV  ALS.  ] 

Feet. — [DUST,  MOURNING*,  SANDAL,  WASHING.] 

Felix. — Antonius  Felix  was  governor  of 
Judaea  in  the  days  of  the  apostles,  from  52  to 
58  A.D.  He  resided  at  Csesarea  when  Paul  was 
brought  there  for  safety  under  an  escort  of 
Roman  soldiers  (Acts  23.26,27,  24.1).  The 
apostle  delivered  a  notable  address  before  him 
and  his  wife  Drusilla.  On  account  of  his  cruelty 
and  misgovernment  Felix  was  recalled  to  Rome 
58  A.D.  (hardly  as  late  as  60),  and  narrowly 
escaped  punishment  at  the  hands  of  the  em- 
peror. It  was  in  order  to  propitiate  the  Jews, 
who,  he  knew,  would  accuse  him  before  the 
emperor,  that  Felix  left  St.  Paul  in  bonds  for 
two  years. 

Feller.— A  cutter  of  wood  (/sat.  14.8). 

Felloes. — The  curved  pieces  forming  the 
circumference  of  a  wheel  (1  K.  7.33). 

Fenced  Cities. —  Cities  where  there  were 
permanent  defences,  consisting  of  walls  crowned 
with  battlemented  parapets  and  having  towers 
at  regular  intervals  (2  Ch.  32.5  ;  Jer.  31.38). 


In  later  times  engines  of  war  were  placed  on  the 
walls,  and  a  constant  watch  was  kept  in  time  of 
war  (Judg.  9.45 ;  2  K.  9.17  ;  2  Ch.  26.9,  15). 
Jerusalem  was  surrounded  with  three  walls,  on 
which  it  is  said  there  were  90,  14,  and  60 
towers  respectively.  In  many  towns  there 
was  a  keep  or  citadel  as  a  last  resort  for  the 
defenders,  as  at  Shechem  and  Thebez  (Judg. 
8.17,  9.46,  51 ;  2  K.  9.17). 

Ferret.— One  of  the  unclean,  creeping  things 
forbidden  as  food  in  Lev,  11.30.  It  is  not  the 
animal  that  we  so  name,  which  is  not  a  native 
of  Palestine,  but  a  lizard,  perhaps  the  gecko 
(R.V.),  which  is  extremely  common. 

Festivals. — Some  of  these  were  associated  with 
the  periodic  changes  of  the  moon  and  with  the 
recurring  seasons  of  the  year  ;  for  example, 
tbe  New  Moon  and  Sabbaths  and  the  three  great 
annual  Pilgrimage- Feasts — the  Passover  and 
Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread,  the  Feast  of  Pente- 
cost, and  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles.  The  Passover 
was  on  the  fourteenth  of  the  first  month,  the 
Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread  followed  immediately, 
beginning  on  the  fifteenth  and  lasting  seven  days. 
Pentecost  was  the  fiftieth  day  after  the  sixteenth 
of  the  first  month,  and  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles, 
lasting  seven  days,  began  on  the  fifteenth  day  of 
the  seventh  month.  The  first  month,  known  as 
Abib,  roughly  corresponds  with  our  April.  The 
Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread  marked  the 
beginning  of  the  corn  harvest,  and  the  Feast  of 
Pentecost  marked  the  end  of  it,  while  the 
Feast  of  Tabernacles  was  essentially  a  vintage- 
feast.  For  particulars  as  to  these  Feasts,  see 
the  respective  articles.  Every  male  in  the  nation 
was  enjoined  to  attend  the  services  of  the 
sanctuary  on  the  occasion  of  these  three  great 
Feasts  (Ex.  23.14-17,  34.23;  Deut.  16.16), 
and  it  was  expressly  forbidden  to  come  empty- 
handed.  Ps.  120-134  may  be  described  as  the 
Pilgrims*  Hymn- Book.  The  conflux  of  Jews 
from  all  parts  of  the  world  to  Jerusalem  for  the 
celebration  of  the  three  great  Feasts,  especially 
that  of  Pentecost  (Acts  2.9),  was  enormous, 
sometimes  exceeding  two  millions.  Among  the 
festivals  instituted  after  the  return  from  the 
exile  was  the  Feast  of  Purim  (Esth.  9.21),  in 
memory  of  the  deliverance  of  the  nation  from 
the  designs  of  Haman. 

Festus,  Porcius. — Succeeded  Felix  as  governor 
of  Judaea  58  A.D.  Felix  had  left  Paul  in 
prison  at  Caesarea  (Acts  24.27),  and  when  Festus 
arrived  he  was  entreated  by  the  principal  Jews 
to  condemn  the  apostle  or  send  him  up  to 
Jerusalem,  they  having  conspired  to  assassinate 
him  on  the  way.  Festus,  however,  answered 
that  it  was  not  customary  with  the  Romans  to 
condemn  any  man  without  hearing  him,  and 
listened  to  his  plea  in  the  presence  of  Agrippa  n. 
and  Bernice.  When  Paul  appealed  to  C?esar 
he  was  sent  to  him  by  Festus.  Feskis  died  two 
years  later,  62  A.D. 

Fetters. — Generally  made  of  brass,  though 
iron  was  sometimes  employed  for  the  purpose 
(Ps.  105.18,  149.8).  [CHAINS.] 

Fever. — Febrile    diseases    are  very  common 


FIELD] 


165 


[FIRST-BORN 


in  all  Eastern  countries.  Medical  men  divided 
fevers  into  "  great  "  and  "  less,"  and  Luke,  as 
a  physician,  is  precise  in  stating  that  Peter's 
wife's  mother  suffered  from  "  a  great  fever  " 
(Lk.  4.38 ;  contrast  the  parallel  narratives  of 
M alt.  8.14  ;  M k.  1.30).  Others  with  fever  were 
the  nobleman's  son  (John  4.52)  and  the  father  of 
Publius  (Acts  8.28). 

Field. — The  word  as  now  used  by  us  involves 
the  idea  of  enclosure  ;  in  the  Bible  this  idea  is 
absent.  It  generally  means  merely  cultivated 
land— whether  of  limited  extent  (Gen.  23.13, 17 ; 
Isai.  5.8)  or  a  man's  whole  inheritance  (Lev. 
27.16  ;  Ruth  4.5  ;  Jer.  32.9,  25).  The  absence 
of  fences  rendered  the  fields  liable  to  damage 
from  straying  cattle  (Ex.  22.5).  The  "  fruitful 
field"  of  Ezek.  17.5  means  a  field  suited  for 
planting  suckers,  but  often  it  is  a  translation  of 
the  Hebrew  word  Carmel  (which  see),  as  in 
Isai.  10.18.  Unwalled  villages  and  scattered 
houses  were  ranked  in  the  eyes  of  the  Law  as 
fields  (Lev.  25.31). 

Field,  The  Fuller's.— [FULLER.] 

Field,  The  Potter's.— [ACELDAMA,  POTTEB'S 
FIELD.] 

Fig,  Fig  Tree. — Very  common  in  Palestine. 
It  divides  into  many  branches,  well-furnished 
with  leaves  and  affording  the  most  complete 
shade  against  the  Eastern  sun.  We  read  of 
every  man  under  his  fig  tree  (1  K.  4.25  ;  Mic. 
4.4  ;  Zech.  3.10).  Nathanael  under  his  fig  tree 
was  probably  engaged  in  his  devotions  (John 
1.49-51).  The  fruit,  which  is  produced  from 
the  trunk  and  large  branches,  always  precedes 
the  leaves.  The  early  figs  ripen  between  May 
and  August,  according  to  situation,  and  drop 
as  soon  as  they  are  ripe  ;  falling,  as  Nahum  says 
(Nah.  3.12),  into  the  mouth  of  the  eater  upon 
the  tree  being  shaken.  The  later  figs  ripen  in 
September.  Sometimes,  if  the  winter  is  mild, 
there  is  a  third  crop  gathered  in  the  following 
spring.  The  fig  tree  of  Mk.  11.13  was  cursed  by 
our  Lord  for  its  pretentiousness  ;  for  it  must  be 
observed  that  in  this  tree  the  fruit  comes  first, 
and  not  the  leaves,  and  a  tree  with  leaves,  as  this 
one  had,  ought  to  have  had  fruit.  If  a  fig  tree 
with  leaves  has  no  fruit  at  all,  it  will  be  barren 
for  the  season.  "  It  must  be  remembered," 
says  Canon  Tristram,  "  that  this  miracle  had  a 
typical  design,  to  show  how  God  would  deal  with 
tlie  Jews,  who,  professing  like  this  precocious 
fig  tree  '  to  be  first,'  should  be  '  last '  in  His 
favour,  seeing  that  no  fruit  was  produced  in 
their  lives,  but  only  '  the  rustling  leaves  of  a 
religious  profession  without  the  good  fruit  of 
works.'"  Fig-cakes  were  given  in  cases  of 
exhaustion  (1  Sam.  30.12),  and  figs  were  applied 
to  boils  (2  K.  20.7). 

Fillet. — A  thread  or  band  round  the  base 
of  the  capitals  of  the  pillars  in  the  Temple 
(Jer.  52.21);  or  in  the  Tabernacle  and  its 
court  (Ex.  27.10,  36.38).  The  verb  means  to 
make  such  bands  (Ex.  38.28). 

Fir.  —  A  general  expression  including  not 
only  the  fir  proper,  but  also  the  cypress  and 
the  juniper.  Used  for  buildings  (1  K.  6.15), 


for  ships  (Ezek.  27.5),  and  for  musical  instruments 
(2  Sam.  6.5).  "  The  choice  fir  trees  of  Lebanon  " 
(Isai.  37.24)  are  the  Aleppo  pine,  a  very  hand- 
some tree,  not  unlike  the  Scotch  fir.  [CEDAR.] 

Fire. — God  revealed  His  presence  by  fire  in 
the  burning  bush  (Ex.  3.2),  and  descended  on 
Mount  Sinai  in  the  midst  of  flames  and  light- 
ning (Ex.  19.18).  The  fire  which  came  down 
from  heaven  first  upon  the  altar  in  the  Taber- 
nacle, and  afterwards  descended  anew  upon  the 
altar  in  the  Temple  of  Solomon,  at  its  con- 
secration, was  there  constantly  fed  and  main- 
tained by  the  priests  day  and  night.  Fire  for 
sacred  purposes  obtained  elsewhere  than  from 
the  altar  was  called  "  strange  fire,"  and  on 
account  of  their  use  of  such  Nadab  and  Abihu 
were  punished  with  death  by  fire  from  God  (Lev. 
10.1,  2 ;  Num.  3.4,  26.61).  The  use  of  fire  in 
working  metals  was  well  known  to  the  Hebrews 
at  the  time  of  the  Exodus  (Ex.  32.24).  On  the 
Sabbath  no  fire  for  any  domestic  purpose  was 
to  be  kindled  (Ex.  35.3  ;  Num.  15.32-36).  The 
worshippers  of  Moloch  either  burnt  their  children 
in  the  fire  or  made  them  pass  through  the  fire 
(2  K.  16.3,  21.6  ;  2  Ch.  33.6).  The  Holy  Ghost 
is  compared  to  fire  (Matt.  3.11 ;  Acts  2.3),  His 
work  being  to  convert  and  purify  the  soul,  and 
inflame  it  with  love  to  God  and  zeal  for  His 
glory.  The  word  of  God  is  also  compared  to 
fire  (Jer.  23.29).  Fire  or  flame  is  used  to  express 
excited  feeling  and  Divine  inspiration,  and  also 
to  describe  temporal  calamities  and  future 
punishments  (Ps.  66.12  ;  Jer.  20.9 ;  Joel  2.30  ; 
Mai.  3.2  ;  Matt.  25.41 ;  Mk.  9.43). 

Firebrand. — Denotes  the  burnt  end  of  a  stick 
(I»ai.  7.4  ;  Amos  4.11 ;  Zech.  3.2) ;  a  lamp  or 
torch  (Judg.  15.4) ;  burning  darts  or  arrows 
(Pro*.  26.18). 

Firepan. — Used  in  connexion  with  the  altar 
of  burnt-offerings  to  carry  live  coals ;  of  bronze 
(Ex.  27.3,  38.3)  or  of  gold  (2  K.  25.15  ;  Jer. 
52.19).  The  same  Hebrew  word  is  also  rendered 
"  snuff-dish,"  for  trimming  the  lamps  (Ex.  25.38, 
37.23;  Num.  4.9),  and  censer,  to  hold  incense 
(Lev.  10.1,  16.12;  Num.  16.6).  An  ancient 
firepan  found  in  Jerusalem  was  shown  in  the 
Jewish  Exhibition  at  Whitechapel,  1906.  It 
was  of  bronze,  a  foot  long  including  the 
handle,  the  shovel  itself  being  about  six  inches 
by  four. 

Firkin.— [MEASURES.] 

Firmament. —  The  Hebrew  word  used  in 
Gen.  1.7  properly  signifies  expansion,  or  some- 
thing expanded,  like  beaten-out  metal  (cf. 
Job  37.18).  The  word  "firmament"  came 
into  our  language  from  the  Vulgate,  the  Latin 
translation  of  the  Bible,  still  used  by  the  Roman 
Church,  and  properly  means  something  made 
solid. 

First-Born. — Many  privileges  attached  to  the 
first-born  or  eldest  son.  He  was  consecrated 
to  the  Lord  (Ex.  22.29),  and  under  the  Law  was 
in  every  case  to  be  redeemed  by  an  offering  not 
exceeding  five  shekels,  within  one  mouth  from 
birth.  He  had  a  double  portion  of  the  inherit- 
ance allotted  to  him  (Deut.  21.17).  The  first- 


FIRST-BORN,  DEATH  OF  THE]       166 


[FLAX 


born  son  of  a  king  usually  succeeded  to  the 
throne  (2  Ch.  21.3).  The  privileges  attaching 
to  primogeniture  might,  however,  be  forfeited 
by  misconduct,  as  in  the  case  of  Esau  (Gen. 
27.37).  The  male  first-born  of  animals  was 
also  devoted  to  God  (Ex.  13.2, 12,  13,  22.29, 
34.19,  20). 

First-Born,  Death  of  the.— [PLAGUES.] 

First-Fruits. — The  Law  enjoined  that  the 
first-fruits  of  produce  should  be  offered  in  God's 
House  at  the  three  great  annual  feasts  (Ex. 
22.29,  23.19,  34.26).  This  was  both  an  in- 
dividual and  a  national  obligation.  In  various 
other  ways  the  Jews  were  required  to  recognise 
their  indebtedness  to  God  for  the  fruitfulness 
of  the  earth  (Ex.  34.22 ;  Lev.  23.10,  20, 39 ; 
Num.  15.19;  Deut.  26.2-11).  The  minimum 
quantity  of  the  offering  was  fixed  by  custom 
at  one-sixtieth  of  the  whole  produce. 

In  "  going  up  "  to  the  Feasts,  the  practice, 
according  to  later  tradition,  was  for  companies 
of  twenty-four  persons  to  assemble  in  the 
evening  at  a  central  station,  and  pass  the  night 
in  the  open  air.  In  the  morning  they  were 
summoned  by  the  leader  of  the  Feast  with  the 
words,  "  Let  us  arise  and  go  up  to  Mount  Zion, 
the  House  of  the  Lord  our  God."  On  the  road 
to  Jerusalem  they  recited  portions  of  Ps.  122 
and  150.  Each  party  was  preceded  by  a  piper, 
and  by  a  sacrificial  bullock,  having  the  tips  of 
his  horns  gilt,  and  crowned  with  olive.  At 
their  approach  to  the  city  they  were  met  by 
priests  appointed  to  inspect  the  offerings,  and 
were  welcomed  by  companies  of  citizens  propor- 
tioned to  the  number  of  the  pilgrims.  On 
ascending  the  Temple  mount  each  person  took 
his  basket,  containing  the  first-fruits  and  an 
offering  of  turtle-doves,  on  his  shoulders,  and 
proceeded  to  the  court  of  the  Temple,  where  they 
were  met  by  Levites  singing  Ps.  30.  The  doves 
were  sacrificed  as  a  burnt-offering,  and  the  first- 
fruits  presented  to  the  priests  with  the  words 
appointed  in  Deut.  26.  The  priests  waved  the 
offerings  at  the  south-west  corner  of  the  altar. 
After  passing  the  night  at  Jerusalem  the  pilgrims 
returned  on  the  following  day  to  their  homes 
(Deut.  16.7).  [See  SACRIFICE.]  The  term  "  first- 
fruits"  is  applied  metaphorically  in  the  N.T., 
e.g.  to  Christ  (1  Cor.  15.20-23),  with  reference 
to  the  Resurrection,  and  to  Jewish  or  other 
believers  (Rom.  11.16  ft,  16.5  ;  1  Cor.  16.15). 

Fish,  Fishing.— The  Bible  divides  fish  into  two 
kinds,  the  clean  and  the  unclean.  The  latter, 
forbidden  as  food,  were  such  as  had  no  fins 
or  scales  (Lev.  11.9-12),  i.e.  all  aquatic  reptiles. 
Fish  were  abundant  in  the  Nile,  and  one  of  the 
staple  commodities  of  food  in  Egypt.  Hence 
their  destruction  by  the  plague  of  blood  was 
a  serious  visitation  (Ex.  7.21).  The  Sea  of 
Galilee  is  very  fruitful  in  fish.  "  The  density 
of  the  shoals,"  says  Canon  Tristram,  "  can 
scarcely  be  conceived  by  those  who  have  not 
witnessed  them.  They  sometimes  cover  an 
acre  or  more  on  the  surface  with  one  dense  mass, 
their  dorsal  fins  standing  out  of  the  water. 
Many  are  carried  by  the  rapid  stream  of  the 


Jordan  into  the  Dead  Sea,  where  they  are 
stupefied  and  soon  perish,  and  may  be  seen 
floating  dead  on  the  surface."  The  Sea  of 
Galilee  was  fished  principally  by  means  of  the 
drag  or  draw  net— a  large  net,  leaded  and 
buoyed,  which  is  carried  out  by  a  boat,  cast, 
and  then  drawn  in  in  a  circle  (Matt.  13.47-50). 
There  was  also  the  casting  net,  referred  to  in 
John  21.8,  which  is  used  by  fishermen  wading 
out  into  the  water.  Another  mode  was  by  weirs 
or  st  ike-nets,  formed  of  a  sort  of  cane  wattle. 
Hook  and  line  were  also  employed  in  fishing 
(Job  41.1) ;  Isai.  19.8  ;  Hob.  1.15),  and  also  ths 
fish-spear  (Job  41.7).  Fly-fishing  was  unknown. 
The  fisheries  of  the  Mediterranean  coasts 
were  almost  entirely  hi  the  hands  of  Phoenicians 
from  Tyre  and  Sidon.  These  people  supplied 
Jerusalem,  and  the  trade  must  have  been 
considerable ;  for  one  of  the  gates  of  the  city 
was  called  the  fish  gate  (2  Ch.  33.14),  in- 
dicating that  there  was  a  market  there. 

The  famous  passage  of  Job,  with  regard  to 
leviathan  (which  see),  "  Canst  thou  put  an  hook 
(a  rope  of  rushes,  R.V.  marg.)  into  his  nose  ? 
or  bore  his  jaw  through  with  a  thorn  ?  "  refers 
to  the  Egyptian  practice  of  keeping  alive  in 
tanks  fish  not  required  for  immediate  use.  A 
hook  was  put  through  the  gills,  and  this  was 
attached  to  a  stake  by  a  rope  of  rushes. 

The  Hebrews  were  forbidden  to  worship 
fishes  (Deut.  4.18),  a  form  of  idolatry  which 
was,  and  is,  prevalent  in  the  East. 

The  use  of  a  fish  in  the  catacombs  of  Rome 
as  a  symbol  of  Christianity  arose  from  the  fact 
that  the  initials  of  the  Greek  words  for  "  Jesus 
Christ,  Son  of  God,  Saviour  "  (ICHTHUS)  form 
the  Greek  word  for  fish. 

Fish  Gate. — A  gate  in  the  north  wall  of  Jeru- 
salem (Neh.  3.3, 12.39 ;  Zeph.  1.10).  [Fisn.] 

Fish-Pools. — More  correctly  "  pools,"  as  in 
R.V.  (Cant.  7.4).  [HESHBON.] 

Fitches  or  Vetches. — The  reference  in  Isai. 
28.25-27  is  to  the  plant  called  gith,  which  is  still 
widely  cultivated  for  its  seeds,  which  are  black, 
and  used  both  as  condiment  and  medicine.  The 
seeds  of  gith  are  sprinkled  on  bread  just  as 
caraway  seeds  are  used  by  us.  What  is  meant 
in  Ezek.  4.9  is  "  spelt."  The  same  Hebrew 
word  is  mistakenly  translated  "  rie "  hi 
Ex.  9.32  and  Isai.  28.25. 

Flag. — [BULRUSH.] 

Flagon. — So  rightly  in  Isai.  22.24,  as  meaning 
a  large  vessel,  but  elsewhere  a  cake  of  pressed 
raisins  (2  Sam.  6.19  ;  1  Ch.  16.3  ;  Cant.  2.5  ; 
Eos.  3.1).  In  the  first  two  passages  the  words 
"  of  wine  "  are  interpolated,  and  in  the  last  "  of 
wine  "  should  be  "  of  grapes." 

Flax.— In  Josh.  2.6  the  word  stands  for  the 
plant  in  its  undressed  state.  The  passage 
contains  a  reference  to  the  custom  of  drying 
the  flax-stalks  by  exposing  them  to  the  heat  of 
the  sun  upon  the  flat  roofs  of  houses.  Then 
followed  the  peeling  of  the  stalks  and  separation 
of  the  fibres.  Then  came  the  hackling  with 
combs.  Flax  was  anciently  one  of  the  most 
important  crops  in  Palestine  (Hos.  2.5,  9). 


FLEA] 


167 


[FOOD 


Flea. — David  compares  himself  to  a  flea 
(1  Sam.  24.14,  26.20),  meaning  to  suggest  his 
insignificance.  Fleas  are  nowhere  more  abundant 
than  in  the  East.  The  villagers  in  the  wattled 
huts  of  Northern  Syria  are  frequently  driven 
away  by  the  swarms  of  fleas,  and  are  compelled 
to  desert  their  homes  for  a  year  or  two. 

Flesh. — In  the  O.T.  the  Hebrew  word,  lasar, 
frequently  has  the  literal  sense  of  flesh,  whether 
of  man  or  beast  (Gen.  2.21,  9.4  ;  Lev.  6.10  ; 
Num.  11.13)  ;  of  all  living  creatures  (Gen. 
6.13,  17),  and  specifically  of  mankind  (Ps. 
65.2),  sometimes  with  the  suggestion  of  man's 
weakness  in  contrast  to  the  power  of  God 
(Ps.  78.39).  In  the  N.T.  the  word  sarx  is 
employed  in  the  same  way  (Matt.  13.20, 
26.41;  Heb.  2.14;  1  Pet.  1.24;  Rev.  17.16). 
St.  Paul  habitually  contrasts  flesh  and 
spirit,  and  the  life  \vhich  is  no  more  than 
service  of  the  fleshly  nature  with  the  Spirit- 
controlled  life  of  the  believer  (Horn.  7.5,  25, 
8.9;  Gal.  5.17,  etc.).  The  phrase  "flesh  and 
blood"  (Matt.  16.17  ;  Gal.  1.16)  implies  man  in 
distinction  from  God.  [FOOD.] 

Flint. — Used  for  any  hard  or  intractable 
rock.  God  brought  water  out  of  the  "  flinty 
rock"  (Deut.  8.15,  32.13;  Ps.  114.8),  which 
was  probably  one  of  the  granitic  varieties  so 
common  in  the  peninsula  of  Sinai.  In  Isai. 
50.7  and  Ezek.  3.9  it  denotes  firmness  and 
constancy.  Zipporah  used  a  flint-knife  (Ex. 
•1.25),  perhaps  as  being  more  sacred  than  a 
knife  of  metal. 

Float,  Flote.— I.e.  raft  (1  K.  5.9  ;  2  Ch.  2.16) 
formed  of  the  logs. 

Flood.— [NOAH.] 

Floor. — [THBESHINO-FLOOB.] 

Flour.— [BREAD.} 

Flowers. — They  abound  in  Palestine,  though 
very  few  are  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  Their 
beauty  is  referred  to  in  Cant.  2.12  ;  Matt.  6.28  ; 
as  emblems  of  the  transitoriness  of  human  life 
they  are  mentioned  in  Job  14.2  ;  Ps.  103.15  ; 
Isai.  28.1,  40.6  ;  Jas.  1.10. 

Flute. — Musical  instrument  used  both  at 
public  and  private  festivals  (1  K.  1.40  ;  Isai. 
5.12,  30.29  ;  Dan.  3.5,  7,  10,  15).  The  minstrels 
of  Matt.  9.23  were  players  on  the  flute,  who  were 
always  hired  as  mourners.  Popular  custom  did 
not  allow  of  fewer  than  two  players  on  the  flute 
at  the  funeral  of  persons  even  of  the  lowest 
station,  as  well  as  a  professional  woman  hired  to 
lament. 

Flux,  Bloody.— Acts  28.8,  dysentery,  a  disorder 
frequent  in  the  East. 

Fly,  Flies. — Flies  abounded  in  Egypt  and 
Palestine ;  and  one  species  which  is  found  by 
modern  travellers  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Nile, 
and  called  the  Abyssinian  fly,  is  as  large  as  a 
bee,  and  is  so  terrible  an  annoyance  to  cattle 
and  other  large  animals  as  to  oblige  them  to 
forsake  their  pastures  and  ranges,  and  flee  to 
some  place  where  they  can  roll  themselves  in  the 
mud  or  sand.  Hence  we  may  judge  of  the  terrible 
nature  of  the  plague  of  flies  (Ex.  8.24).  In  Isai. 
7.18  the  prophet  says  that  the  fly  shall  be 


found  in  the  very  places  to  which  the  cattle 
resort  to  rid  themselves  of  their  presence.  Even 
the  ordinary  Egyptian  flies  are  very  troublesome. 
They  like  to  fasten  themselves  on  the  corners  of 
the  eye  and  on  the  edge  of  the  eyelid.  The 
Egyptians  worshipped  several  sorts  of  flies  and 
insects.  Other  nations  had  deities  whose  office 
was  to  defend  them  against  flies — for  example, 
Baalzebub,  the  fly-god  of  Ekron,  and  Hercules, 
"  the  expeller  of  flies."  Jupiter  also  was  supposed 
to  have  the  power  of  expelling  flies,  and  especially 
of  keeping  his  temples  free  from  them. 

Foam. — "  As  the  foam  upon  the  water  " 
(Eos.  10.7)  should  probably  be  rendered  "  as 
a  chip  [of  wood]  on  the  face  of  the  water,"  the 
suggestion  being  utter  helplessness. 

Food. — Vegetable  food  is  much  more  common 
among  Orientals  than  animal.  Instead  of  butter, 
lard,  and  suet  they  use  olive  oil.  A  pottage  of 
beans  and  lentils,  seasoned  with  garlic  and  oil,  is 
a  favourite  dish.  Eggs,  honey,  milk,  and  especi- 
ally sour  milk,  and  garden  produce  of  every 
kind,  afford  the  principal  materials  of  Eastern 
diet.  The  most  common  dish  consists  of  rice 
cooked  with  meat,  made  into  a  kind  of  broth, 
and  coloured  blue,  red,  or  yellow.  Animal  food 
was  mostly  reserved  for  special  occasions 
(Gen.  18.7 ;  Lk.  15.23).  Wild  game,  calves, 
young  oxen,  lambs,  and  kids  are  favourite 
viands  in  the  East.  It  is  customary  to  serve 
up  at  one  meal  the  whole  of  any  animal  which 
has  been  killed.  Fish  is  a  general  and  much- 
prized  article  of  diet.  The  commonest  articles 
of  food  among  the  Egyptians  are  melons, 
cucumbers,  onions,  endive  or  succory,  purslane, 
radishes,  carrots,  leeks,  and  garlic.  Goats' 
milk  makes  a  great  part  of  the  diet  of  the  East 
from  the  beginning  of  April  till  September,  and 
cows'  milk  the  rest  of  the  year.  Roasted  meat 
is  almost  confined  to  the  meals  of  the  rich. 

The  Hebrews  ate  large  quantities  of  bread. 
Sometimes,  indeed,  the  fresh  green  ears  of  corn 
were  eaten,  the  husks  being  rubbed  off  by  the 
hand  (Lev.  23.14 ;  Deut.  23.25  ;  2  K.  4.42  ; 
Matt.  12.1;  Lk.  6.1).  More  frequently, 
however,  the  grains  were  roasted  in  a  pan  over 
a  fire  (Lev.  2.14)  and  eaten  as  parched  corn. 
This  was  an  ordinary  article  of  diet  among 
labourers  (Lev.  23.14;  Ruth  2.14;  1  Sam. 
17.17,  25.18;  2  Sam.  17.28).  Sometimes  the 
grain  was  bruised,  dried  in  the  sun,  mixed  with 
oil,  or  made  into  a  soft  cake  and  then  consumed 
(Lev.  2.14, 15, 16  ;  Num.  15.20 ;  2  Sam.  17.19  ; 
Neh.  10.37  ;  Ezek.  44.30). 

Figs,  generally  dried  and  made  into  cakes 
(1  Sam.  25.18),  grapes  in  a  dried  state  as  raisins 
(1  Ch.  12.40),  but  sometimes  pressed  into 
cakes  (2  Sam.  6.19),  pomegranates  (Cant.  8.2  ; 
Hag.  2.19),  nuts  and  almonds  (Gen.  43.11)— 
these  were  among  the  fruits  used  for  food. 

Cucumbers  (Num.  11.5  ;  Isai.  1.8)  and  lettuce 
(Ex.  12.8;  Num.  9.11)  should  be  added  to 
the  list  of  vegetables  used  in  Palestine,  in 
addition  to  the  list  given  above  as  constituting 
the  diet  of  Egyptians. 

The  Hebrews  used  a  large  number  of  spices 


FOOL,  FOOLISH,  FOOLISHNESS]    168 


[FOREST 


or  condiments  :  cummin,  dill,  coriander,  mint, 
rue,  mustard,  and  salts. 

They  were  forbidden  to  consume  the  blood  of 
any  animal  on  pain  of  death  (Lev.  3.17,  7.26, 
19.26;  Deut.  12.16;  1  Sam.  14.32;  Ezek. 
44.7, 15),  on  the  ground  that  the  blood  contained 
the  principle  of  life,  and  was  to  be  offered  on 
the  altar  (Lev.  17.11 ;  Deut.  12.23).  Animals 
which  had  died  a  natural  death  (Deut.  14.21) 
or  had  been  torn  of  beasts  (Ex.  22.31),  all  beasts 
and  birds  classed  as  unclean  (Lev.  11  and  Deut. 
14.4)  were  prohibited  as  food. 

Christians  were  forbidden  to  eat  the  flesh  of 
animals  which  they  knew  had  been  offered  to 
idols  (Acts  15.29,21.25;  1  Cor.  8.1),  lest  it 
should  seem  to  be  idolatry.  But  they  were 
allowed  to  eat  meat  bought  in  the  public 
markets,  or  given  them  at  a  feast,  without 
asking  questions  (1  Cor.  10.25-27).  African 
converts  in  our  own  days  act  in  a  similar  way. 

Fool,  Foolish,  Foolishness.— These  words  as 
used  in  Scripture  generally  denote  sin  or  wicked- 
ness, not  weakness  or  defect  of  understanding 
(2  Sam.  13.13,  15.31 ;  Job  2.10 ;  Ps.  14.1 ; 
Prov.  15.5,  19.1).  They  are  used,  however,  in 
their  modern  sense  in  1  Cor.  1.27,  4.10.  When 
our  Lord  said  (Matt.  5.22),  "  Whosoever  shall 
say  to  his  brother,  Thou  fool,  shall  be  in  danger 
of  hell  fire,"  He  was  reproving  the  scornful, 
contemptuous,  uncharitable  spirit  which  is 
utterly  at  variance  with  the  meekness  and  love 
which  should  characterise  His  disciples. 

Foot,  Feet. — To  water  with  the  foot  (Deut. 
11.10)  refers  to  a  method  of  irrigation  practised 
in  Egypt.  The  fields  are  divided  into  little 
plots  about  15  feet  long  by  6  feet  wide,  separated 
from  each  other  by  little  raised  mounds  of 
earth.  The  water  is  conveyed  from  ditches 
into  channels  formed  in  the  mounds.  By 
simply  making  a  hole  with  his  toe  in  the  mound 
the  peasant  lets  the  water  flow  over  one  plot. 
When  this  has  had  its  due  supply,  he  pushes 
the  earth  together  again  with  his  toe  and 
opens  a  way  into  another  plot.  In  this  manner 
the  whole  field  is  ultimately  watered.  Com- 
pare Prov.  21.1.  Nakedness  of  the  feet  was  a 
sign  of  respect  or  reverence,  (Ex.  3.5),  also  a 
sign  of  mourning  (Ezek.  24.17).  It  was  cus- 
tomary to  wash  the  feet  of  strangers  coming  off 
a  journey,  because  generally  they  travelled 
barefoot  or  wore  sandals,  with  the  result  that 
the  feet  became  hot  and  sore  and  dusty.  It 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  on  most  occasions, 
especially  in  dry  seasons,  or  in  desert  parts 
of  the  country,  water  was  an  expensive  because 
scarce,  commodity,  and  to  afford  it  for  purposes 
of  washing  was  by  no  means  a  cheap  mode  of 
rendering  a  service.  In  better-off  households 
the  ablution  was  performed  by  a  slave  as  a 
menial  service.  Hence  a  very  marked  lesson 
in  humility  was  the  washing  of  the  disciples' 
feet  by  the  Saviour  (John  13.5). 

Footmen. — Swift  runners  in  attendance 
on  the  king  (1  Sam.  22.17).  Such  were  Asahel 
(2  -Sam.  2.18),  Cushi,  and  Ahimaaz  (2  Sam.  18). 
The  word  means  foot  soldiers  in  Num.  11.21  ; 


1  5am.  4.10,  22.17.  Our  modern  word 
footman  owes  its  origin  to  the  old  custom  of 
domestic  servants  running  by  the  carriage  of 
their  master.  Bunyan  uses  the  word  in  its  old 
sense  in  the  title  of  a  tract,  "  The  Heavenly 
Footman,"  the  text  of  which  is  St.  Paul's 
well-known  comparison  of  the  Christian  life  to 
a  race  (1  Cor.  9.24). 

Footstool. — The  divine  glory  which  rested 
symbolically  in  the  Holy  Place  of  the  Tabernacle 
and  Temple,  between  the  cherubim  above  the 
ark,  is  supposed  to  use  the  ark  as  a  footstool 
(1  Ch.  28.2  ;  Ps.  99.5).  The  earth  is  called  God's 
footstool,  and  heaven  His  throne  (Isai.  66.1). 
The  common  manner  of  sitting  was  upon  the 
ground  or  floor  ;  thrones  or  chairs,  which  were 
used  only  on  ceremonial  occasions  by  kings  and 
high  dignitaries,  are  in  the  East  always  so  high 
as  to  make  a  footstool  necessary. 

Ford. — The  chief  ford  of  Jordan  was  near 
Jericho  ( Josh.  2.7  ;  Judg.  3.28 ;  2  5am.  19.15). 
[BETHABARA.]  There  are  also  fords  of  the  river 
Jabbok  (Gen.  32.22)  and  the  river  Arnon  (Num. 
21.13 ;  Isai.  16.2). 

Forehead. — Certain  marks  were  branded  on 
the  brows  of  slaves  to  make  known  to  whom 
they  belonged.  Those  whom  God  exempted 
from  destruction  were  marked  on  the  forehead 
(Ezek.  9.4;  Rev.  7.3,  22.4).  The  worshippers 
of  the  beast  had  also  a  distinguishing  mark  on 
the  forehead  (Rev.  13.16).  "  Hard  of  forehead  " 
is  used  in  Ezek.  3.7-9,  as  descriptive  of  audacity, 
the  reference  being  to  the  fact  that  immodest 
women  did  not  veil  their  faces,  contrary  to  the 
practice  of  virtuous  women  in  the  East. 

Foreigner. — The  term  foreigner  was  used  by 
the  Hebrews  to  designate  any  one  not  of  their 
stock,  whether  an  unknown  stranger  (Deut.  15.3) 
or  an  immigrant  into  their  country  (Ex.  12.45). 
In  Eph.  2.19  the  word  rendered  "  foreigners  " 
originally  meant  neighbours,  and  from  this 
passed  into  meaning  a  stranger  without  civil 
rights. 

The  Hebrews  were  not  in  any  sense  ex- 
clusive. While  the  Law  strictly  guarded 
against  the  danger  of  the  chosen  people  being 
merged  with  other  nations,  provision  was 
made  for  the  adoption  of  strangers  into  the 
family  of  Israel.  Foreigners  who  settled  down 
among  the  Hebrews  were  to  be  treated  with 
kindness  (Ex.  22.21,  23.9  ;  Lev.  19.33,  34,  23.22  ; 
Deut.  14.29,  16.10,  11,  24.19),  and  they  enjoyed 
in  many  things  equal  rights  with  the  true  sons 
of  Jacob  (Ex.  12.49  ;  Lev.  24.22  ;  Num.  15.15, 
35.15).  Of  course  they  were  not  permitted 
to  offend  the  religious  susceptibilities  of  the 
Hebrews. 

Forerunner. — A  word  used  only  once  in  the 
Bible  (Heb.  6.20),  where  the  reference  is  to 
our  Lord.  [See  JOHN  THE  BAPTIST,  to  whom 
the  title  is  commonly  given.] 

Forest. — The  forests  or  woods  mentioned  in 
the  Bible  are  the  wood  of  Ephraim  (Josh.  17.15), 
the  wood  of  Bethel  (2  K.  2.23,  24),  Hareth 
(1  Sam.  22.5),  and  the  wood  in  the  wilderness  of 
Ziph,  in  which  David  concealed  himself  (1  Sam. 


FORKS] 


169 


[FEET 


23.15).  See  also  1  Sam.  14.25;  2  Ch.  27.4; 
Isai.  65.10.  Portions  of  some  of  these 
forests  are  still  in  existence,  and  there  is  no 
doubt  that  at  one  time  Palestine  was  well 
wooded,  though  it  is  not  so  now.  Near 
Mahanaim  was  "  the  wood  of  Ephraim  "  (2  Sam. 
18.6),  in  which  the  battle  between  David  and 
Absalom  was  fought.  The  "  house  of  the  forest  of 
Lebanon,"  which  was  built  by  Solomon,  and 
was  magnificent  in  size  and  style  (1  K.  1.2, 
10.17,  21 ;  2  Ch.  9.16,  20),  was  so  called  from  the 
great  quantity  of  cedar  which  was  used  in  the 
construction  of  it.  The  forest  was  used  as  a 
symbol  of  pride  (2  K.  19.23  ;  Isai.  10.18,  32.19, 
37.24  ;  Jer.  21.14,  22.7,  46.23  ;  Zech.  11.2)  and 
of  unfruitfulness  as  contrasted  with  a  cultivated 
field  or  vineyard  (Isai.  29.17,  32.15  ;  Jer.  26.18  ; 
Eos.  2.12).  * 

Forks. — The  meaning  of  the  phrase  so 
translated  in  1  Sam.  13.21  is  extremely  doubt- 
ful. Perhaps  they  were  instruments  with 
three  prongs,  used  in  gathering  and  removing 
the  crops. 

Form  of  God.— In  Phil.  2.6-8  "  form  "  is 
contrasted  with  "  fashion,"  the  form  moulded 
from  within  contrasted  with  external  appear- 
ance. Thus  "  form  "  would  be  used  of  a  body, 
not  of  a  statue.  Jesus  being  in  the  form  and 
nature  of  God  takes  also  the  form  and  nature 
of  a  servant,  but  divests  Himself  of  outward 
manifestations  of  the  Godhead,  such  as  those 
with  which  God  manifested  Himself  to  the 
patriarchs  of  old,  the  insignia  of  His  visible 
glory  (Deut.  5.22-24).  These  outward  tokens  of 
divinity  Christ  laid  aside  when  He  took  upon 
Him  the  form  of  a  servant.  So  also  in  Rom. 
12.2  the  Greek  means  that  we  are  not  to  put 
on  the  fleeting  fashioas  of  this  world,  but  be 
transformed  from  within.  In  Isai.  53.2  "  form  " 
is  used  of  physical  beauty. 

Fornication. — This  word  is  used  in  Scripture 
both  in  its  literal  sense  and  as  applied  figura- 
tively to  idolatry — unfaithfulness  to  God's 
claims  to  the  exclusive  worship.  [ADULTEBY.] 

Forswear. — [OATH.] 

Fortification.— [FENCED  CITIES.] 

Fortunatus.— Mentioned  with  Stephanas 
and  Achaicus  as  being  with  St.  Paul  at  Ephesus, 
and  as  about  to  return  to  their  home  in  Corinth, 
when  he  wrote  1  Cor.  They  had  been  of  much 
help  to  him  (1  Cor.  16.15,  17). 

Fountain  Gate. — A  gate  on  the  south  side  of 
Jerusalem  near  a  fountain,  perhaps  that  of 
Siloam  (Neh.  2.14,  3.15,12.37). 

Fountains. — Springs  or  sources  of  water, 
often  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  In  the  dry  land 
of  Judaea  they  were  of  peculiar  value,  hence 
the  figurative  use  of  the  word  as  emblematic 
of  hopes,  blessings,  and  consolations.  "  The 
Lamb  shall  lead  them  unto  fountains  of  living 
water  "  (Rev.  7.17).  A  great  number  of  places 
received  their  names  from  some  fountain  in 
the  vicinity,  this  fact  being  indicated  by  the 
prefixes  Ain  and  En.  Perpetual  fountains — 
described  as  springs  of  living  water — were  greatly 
valued  (Ps.  36.7-9;  Isai.  49.10;  Jer.  2.13; 


Joel  3.18  ;  Zech.  13.1  ;  John  4.10).  Zechariah 
describes  a  fountain  that  was  to  be  opened  in 
which  all  the  impurities  of  the  house  of  David, 
and  of  Jerusalem,  might  be  washed  away,  a 
prophecy  fulfilled  in  the  atoning  blood  of 
Christ.  The  word  fountains  Is  also  used  to 
denote  children  or  posterity  (Deut.  33.28). 

Fowl,  Fowler. — The  word  fowl  may  signify 
all  kinds  of  birds.  References  to  fowling  or 
the  catching  of  birds  occur  in  Prov.  7.23  ;  Eccles. 
9.12.  [BiBD.] 

Fox. — Foxes,  or  rather  jackals,  abounded 
in  some  parts  of  Judaea.  They  live  on  birds 
and  small  quadrupeds.  "  They  shall  fall  by 
the  sword  ;  they  shall  be  a  portion  for  foxes  " 
(Ps.  63.10).  This  verse  contains  a  reference  to 
the  fact  that  jackals  followed  the  armies,  and 
consumed  such  bodies  as  might  be  left 
on  the  march.  To  prevent  jackals  getting  at 
the  contents  of  graves,  the  earth  is  well  beaten 
and  mixed  with  thorns.  Samson  destroyed 
the  standing  corn  of  the  Philistines  by  catching 
three  hundred  jackals,  tying  them  in  pairs 
by  their  tails,  inserting  a  lighted  firebrand 
between  each  pair  of  tails,  and  sending 
them  into  the  fields  (Judg.  15.4,  5).  The 
number — three  hundred — shows  that  jackals 
must  have  been  very  common.  The  fact  that 
jackals  go  about  in  large  packs  would  facilitate 
the  capture  of  so  many  by  means  of  snares. 
If  the  rope  connecting  the  two  tails  was  of  fair 
length,  the  pair  would  naturally  run  together, 
as  jackals  are  very  gregarious.  In  an  ancient 
Roman  festival  it  was  customary  to  couple 
foxes  in  a  similar  way,  with  a  brand  between 
them.  The  foxes,  or  jackals,  wrought  great 
havoc  in  the  vineyards  (Cant.  2.15).  The 
common  jackal  of  Palestine  is  of  a  tawny 
yellow  colour. 

Frankincense. — A  dry,  resinous,  aromatic 
substance  of  a  yellow  tinge,  bitter  and  acrid  to 
the  taste,  but  exceedingly  odoriferous.  The 
tree,  whence  the  gum  is  obtained  by  incision 
of  the  bark,  grows  in  Arabia  and  India.  The 
prefix  frank  is  derived  from  the  freeness  with 
which  it  burns  and  gives  forth  its  odours.  It 
was  one  of  the  ingredients  in  the  perfume 
of  the  sanctuary  (Ex.  30.34),  and  was  used 
as  an  accompaniment  of  the  meat-offering  (Lev. 
2.1,16,  6.15,  24.7).  It  is  employed  symbolic- 
ally to  represent  agreeable  qualities  and  devo- 
tional fervour  (Cant.  3.6,  4.6,14;  Mai.  1.11). 
The  substance  which  is  generally  used  in 
modern  times  as  incense  is  the  production  of 
the  Norway  pine. 

Freedom. — The  law  of  Moses  permitted 
slaves  to  win  then:  freedom  under  certain 
conditions  (Ex.  21.2-4,  7,  8 ;  Lev.  25.39-42,  47-55 ; 
Deut.  15.12-18).  Under  the  Roman  law  the 
freeman  was  one  born  free  ;  the  freedman  was 
a  slave  who  had  been  granted  or  had  purchased 
his  liberty.  He  had  not  equal  rights  with  the 
freeman  (Acts  22.28). 

Fret. — Used  in  the  sense  of  devour  (Lev. 
13.55).  It  signifies  in  this  passage  the  leprosy 
spot  which  has  eaten  into  a  garment. 


FEINGES] 


170 


[FULLER'S  FIELD,  THE 


Fringes. — The  hem  or  border  of  a  Jewish 
garment.  When  the  Sabbath-breaker  was 
stoned  to  death  (Num.  15.32-41)  Moses  was 
commanded  to  speak  to  the  children  of  Israel 
and  "  bid  them  make  fringes  in  the  borders  of 
their  garments  throughout  their  generations," 
and  that  they  should  "  put  upon  the  fringe  of 
the  borders  a  ribband  of  blue,"  as  a  constant 
remembrancer  of  God's  commandments  and 
a  visible  warning  against  forbidden  indulgence. 
These  fringes  were  a  species  of  tassel,  and  were 
principally  upon  the  "  corners  "  of  the  dress. 
It  was  this  tassel  of  special  sacredness  on  our 
Lord's  dress  that  the  woman  touched  (Matt. 
9.20).  At  the  synagogue  services  the  Jews 
still  wear  a  kind  of  scarf,  from  three  to  five 
feet  long,  and  one  foot  wide,  which  is  furnished 
with  fringes  at  the  corners.  These  long  tassels 
consist  of  eight  white  woollen  threads,  knotted 
with  five  knots  like  small  buttons,  and  open 
and  untwisted  at  the  end. 

Frog. — A  plague  of  frogs  was  one  of  the  ten 
plagues  sent  upon  the  Egyptians  (Ex.  8).  The 
edible  frog  still  abounds  in  that  country,  filling 
the  air  at  night  with  its  deafening  croaking 
in  marshy  places.  The  first  marshy  pool 
examined  will  appear  almost  to  break  up  and 
ranish,  as  the  frogs  which  filled  it  en  masse 
move  away  in  detachments.  But  they  do  not 
cease  croaking  because  they  are  disturbed. 
They  will  surround  the  intruder  and  croak 
apparent  defiance  on  all  sides.  The  green 
toad  and  the  beautiful  little  tree  frog  are  common 
in  Palestine.  In  Rev.  16.13  unclean  spirits 
are  spoken  of  as  being  in  the  likeness  of  frogs 
which  came  out  of  the  mouth  of  the  dragon. 

Frontlets  or  Phylacteries.— The  method  of 
making  the  frontlet  or  phylactery  for  the  head 
has  been  thus  described  :  the  Jews  take  four 
pieces  of  parchment  and  write  on  each  of  these 
a  certain  passage  of  Scripture.  The  followiog 
are  the  four  passages  employed :  Ex.  13.1-10, 
11-16;  Deut.  6.4-9,  11.13-21.  These  four 
pieces  of  parchment  are  enclosed  in  a  piece 
of  tough  skin,  making  a  square.  This  square  is 
put  on  the  middle  of  the  forehead,  and  attached 
to  the  head  with  thongs  or  ribbands. 

But  there  is  also  the  phylactery  for  the  hand, 
in  accordance  with  the  literal  obedience  to  the 
words  of  Moses  :  "  These  commandments  shall 
be  for  a  sign  unto  thee  upon  thine  hand,  and 
for  a  memorial  between  thine  eyes."  Accord- 
ingly the  Jews  made  two  inscribed  rolls  of 
parchment,  rolled  up  to  a  point  and  enclosed 
in  a  sort  of  case  of  black  calf-skin.  They  were 
then  put  upon  a  square  bit  of  the  same  leather, 
whence  hung  a  thong  of  the  same,  about  a  finger 
in  breadth,  and  about  2  feet  long.  These  rolls 
were  placed  at  the  bending  of  the  left  arm,  and 
the  thong  was  wound  about  the  arm  in  a  spiral 
line,  which  ended  at  the  top  of  the  middle  finger. 
Before  the  Babylonish  captivity  no  traces  of 
phylacteries  appear  in  the  history  of  the  Jews ; 
the  prophets  never  inveigh  against  the  neglect 
of  them ;  nor  was  there  any  question  con- 
cerning them  in  the  reformation  of  manners 


at  any  time  among  the  Hebrews.  Our  Lord 
does  not  censure  the  Pharisees  for  wearing 
them,  but  for  making  them  broad  out  of 
ostentation.  The  Pharisees  in  our  Lord's  time 
apparently  wore  them  always ;  the  common 
people  used  them  only  at  prayers ;  but  the 
practice  of  using  them  was  universal.  There  is 
no  doubt  that,  whatever  its  origin,  it  de- 
generated into  a  superstition.  Hence  the  Greeks 
translated  the  Hebrew  word  by  "  phylactery," 
which  means  "  an  amulet,"  or  device  for  "  pro- 
tection." The  modern  Jews  only  wear  them 
at  morning  prayers.  They  are  worn  only  by 
males  from  the  age  of  thirteen. 

Frost. — Jacob,  relating  his  hardships  to  Laban, 
says  that  the  frost  consumed  him  by  night 
(Gen.  31.40).  He  was  in  Mesopotamia  at  this 
time.  The  nights  there  are  as  piercingly  cold 
as  the  day  is  scorchingly  hot.  Other  references 
to  frost  are  Job  37.10;  Ps.  78.47  ;  Jer.  36.30. 

Fuel. — The  scarcity  of  fuel  in  the  East 
obliges  the  inhabitants  to  use,  by  turns,  every 
kind  of  combustible  matter.  The  withered  stalks 
of  herbs  and  flowers,  the  tendrils  of  the  vine, 
the  small  branches  of  myrtle,  rosemary,  and 
other  plants,  are  all  used  in  heating  their  ovens. 
Our  Lord  refers  to  "  the  grass  of  the  field, 
which  to-day  is,  and  to-morrow  is  cast  into 
the  oven "  (Matt.  6.30).  The  grass  in  this 
passage  includes  herbs  in  general.  Hence  also 
"  the  crackling  of  thorns  under  a  pot  "  (Eccles. 
7.6).  Sometimes  the  people  were  so  far 
reduced  as  to  use  dung  for  fuel  (Ezek.  4.12-16). 
We  read  in  Amos  4.11  of  "  a  brand  plucked  out 
of  the  burning."  This  is  a  reference  to  the 
vine  twigs  and  other  brushwood  which  the 
Orientals  use  for  fuel,  and  which  in  a  few 
minutes  are  consumed  if  they  are  not  snatched 
out  of  the  fire.  The  knowledge  of  this  fact 
renders  the  striking  figure  of  the  prophet  still 
more  impressive. 

Fulfilled. — The  expression  "  that  it  might  be 
fulfilled  "  occurs  frequently  in  the  N.T.  (Matt. 
2.15, 17,  23,  8.17,  12.17).  This  does  not  imply 
generally  that  those  concerned  had  knowledge 
of  the  fact  that  they  were  fulfilling  a  prophecy. 
The  sense  in  most  cases  would  be  accurately 
conveyed  thus — "  in  this  event  was  verified 
what  was  said  by,"  etc. 

Fuller. — The  business  of  the  fuller  was  to 
cleanse  garments  and  whiten  them  (Alk.  9.3). 
The  garments  were  placed  in  tubs  of  water,  in 
which  some  substance  answering  to  our  soap 
had  been  dissolved  (Mai.  3.2).  The  fullers  trod 
the  garments  with  their  feet  or  beat  them. 
Nitre,  vegetable  alkali,  and  bean-meal  mixed 
with  water  were  among  the  substances  used  as 
soap.  Garments  were  whitened  by  rubbing  into 
them  chalk  or  earth  of  some  kind,  such  as 
potter's  clay  or  marl.  The  practice  of  the 
trade  caused  offensive  smells,  and  extensive 
space  was  necessary  for  drying  clothes  ;  hence 
it  was  that  "  the  fuller's  field "  was  outside 
the  city  of  Jerusalem. 

Fuller's  Field,  The.— This  place  so-called  is 
mentioned  incidentally  as  giving  its  name  to 


FULLER'S  SOAP] 


171 


[GAD 


a  highway  or  embanked  road,  which  highway 
was  "  the  conduit  of  the  upper  pool  "  (2  K. 
18.17,  26  ;  Isai.  7.3,  36.2).  It  was  situated  in 
the  north  of  Jerusalem,  and  so  close  to  the  walls 
that  a  person  speaking  from  "  the  fuller's  field  " 
could  be  heard  on  them.  The  fountain  of 
Siloah  or  Gihon,  which  rises  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Moriah,  formed  two  pools,  called  "  the 
upper  pool"  or  "king's  pool"  (Neh.  2.14; 
Isai.  7.3)  and  the  "  lower  pool  "  (Isai.  22.9). 
The  aqueduct  which  connected  the  upper  pool 
with  the  fountain  or  with  the  lower  pool,  or 
with  the  city,  is  called  "  the  conduit  of  the  upper 
pool."  The  "  pool  "  and  the  "  conduit  "  would 
be  sufficient  reasons  for  the  presence  of  the 
fullers.  The  "  field  "  was,  doubtless,  an 
enclosure  appropriated  to  the  drying  and 
bleaching  of  clothes. 

Fuller's  Soap.— [FULLER.] 

Funeral.— [BUBIAL.] 

Furlong. — A  Greek  measure,  equal  to  606J 
feet  (Lk.  24.13).  A  furlong  of  our  measure  is 
660  feet  or  one-eighth  of  a  mile. 

Furnace. — Furnaces  were  used  for  smelting 
the  precious  metals  (Prov.  17.3).  The  furnace 
into  which  Nebuchadnezzar  cast  the  young 
Hebrews  who  refused  to  worship  his  image 
(Dan.  3.22,  23)  was  a  large  one,  built  like  a  brick- 
kiln with  an  opening  at  the  top  to  receive  the 
materials,  and  with  a  door  on  the  ground  by 
which  the  metal  was  extracted.  This  sort  of 
furnace  would  also  be  in  constant  requisition 
for  the  disposal  of  the  dead,  which  among  the 


Babylonians  was  by  cremation.  A  baker's 
furnace  or  oven  (Gen.  15.17  ;  Neh.  3.11) 
was  a  large  pot,  narrowing  towards  the  top. 
When  it  was  heated  by  a  fire  made  within,  the 
dough  was  spread  over  the  heated  surface, 
and  thus  baked.  The  Greek  word  translated 
"  furnace  of  fire  "  (Matt.  13.42)  is  applied  to 
a  potter's  furnace,  a  blacksmith's  furnace,  and 
a  calcining  furnace.  [OVEN.] 

Furniture. — We  read  that  Rachel  concealed 
her  father's  idols  in  the  camel's  furniture 
(Gen.  31.34).  The  word  signifies  a  covered  box, 
like  the  body  of  a  carriage,  which  is  sometimes 
hung  upon  the  animal,  as  with  the  howdah  in 
India.  In  these  females  may  ride,  and  be 
sheltered  from  the  heat.  They  are  not  unlike 
a  roofed  cradle,  with  back,  head,  and  sides  like 
an  easy-chair.  Folds  of  carpeting  or  other 
thick  stuff  are  spread  upon  the  back  of  the 
animal  for  this  contrivance  to  rest  upon.  Every- 
where else  in  the  Bible  furniture  means  vessels 
or  implements. 

Furrows. — "  If  my  land  cry  against  me,  or 
the  furrows  thereof  complain"  (Job  31.38) 
means,  "  If  I  have  employed  the  poor  to  till  my 
ground,  without  paying  them  for  their  labour."  In 
Ezek.  17.7-10  the  translation  should  be  "  beds." 

Fury.— When  this  is  attributed  to  God  (as 
in  Jer.  10.25  and  elsewhere)  we  must  re- 
member that  the  inspired  writers  are  speaking 
after  the  manner  of  men.  God's  fury  is  simply 
His  afflictive  judgments.  We  must  not  attribute 
passion  or  malevolence  to  God. 


Qa'al. — Beetle :  the  son  of  Ebed  and  the 
leader  of  a  revolt  against  Abimelech,  king  of  the 
Shechemites.  He  was  defeated  and  put  to 
flight,  and  his  partisans  were  scattered  and 
destroyed  (Judg.  9.26,  41). 

Ga'ash. — A  hill  in  the  mountains  of  Ephraim, 
on  the  north  side  of  which  was  Joshua's  burial- 
place  (Josh.  24.30;  Judg.  2.9).  It  was  the 
native  place  of  one  of  David's  guards  (2  Sam. 
23.30  ;  1  Ch.  11.32). 

Gaba.— [GEBA.] 

Gab T>ai.— Exactor  of  tribute :  the  head  of  an 
important  family  of  Benjamin  resident  at 
Jerusalem  (Neh.  11.8). 

Gab'batha. — A  Hebrew  or  Aramaic  word 
apparently  meaning  a  raised  platform,  outside 
the  praetorium  of  Jerusalem,  whore  was  placed 
the  judgment-seat,  from  which  Pilate  delivered 
our  Lord  to  death  (John  19.13).  It  is  called 
in  Greek  "  the  Pavement,"  probably  from  the 
fact  that  it  was  paved  with  stones  of  tessellated 
work  —  a  common  practice  in  palaces  and 
public  offices.  Mosaic  pavement  was  fashion- 
able among  the  Romans. 

GaT>riel. — Man  of  God :  the  name  of  an 
angel  who  was  sent  to  the  prophet  Daniel  to 
explain  his  visions  ;  also  to  Zacharias  to  announce 


to  him  the  future  birth  of  John  the  Baptist. 
Six  months  afterwards  he  was  sent  to  Nazareth 
to  the  Virgin  Mary  (Dan.  8.16,  9.21;  Lk.  1.19, 
26).  [ANOEL.] 

Gad. —  Fortunate :  1.  A  son  of  Jacob  by 
Zilpah,  Leah's  handmaid  (Gen.  30.9,  10,  11). 
Gad  had  seven  sons  (Gen.  46.16),  and  the  tribe 
of  Gad  came  out  of  Egypt  in  number  45,650. 
After  the  defeat  of  the  kings  Og  and  Sihon,  Gad 
and  Reuben  desired  to  have  their  allotment 
east  of  Jordan,  as  being  much  more  suitable 
than  the  west  country  for  their  great  herds  of 
cattle.  Moses  granted  their  request,  on  con- 
dition that  they  should  accompany  their 
brethren  and  assist  in  conquering  the  land  west 
of  Jordan.  The  inheritance  of  Gad  was  bounded 
by  Manasseh  on  the  north,  Jordan  on  the  west 
Reuben  on  the  south,  and  the  mountains  of 
Gilead  on  the  east — but  the  limits,  except  on 
the  west,  are  extremely  uncertain.  The  territory 
of  Gad  was  a  combination  of  rich  arable  and 
pasture  lands  with  fine  forests.  It  is  also  a 
land  of  rivers  and  springs,  and  the  gorges 
through  which  the  streams  find  their  way  from 
the  plateau  to  the  Jordan  valley  are  of  great 
beauty.  But,  fierce  and  warlike,  the  tribe  soon 
extended  itself  beyond  its  original  limits  and 


GAD,  THE] 


172 


[GALATIA,  GALATIAN 


covered  the  whole  of  Gilead.  Eleven  heroes  of 
Gad  joined  David  at  the  time  of  his  greatest 
distress  (1  Ch.  12.8).  They  were  frequently 
engaged  in  hostilities  with  the  Ammonites, 
Midianites,  Hagarites,  and  other  wandering 
Ishmaelite  tribes  whom  they  had  dispossessed 
(1  Ch.  5.19-22).  Jephthah,  a  native  of  Mizpeh 
(Judg.  11),  was  a  Gadite,  so  was  Barzillai  (2  Sam. 
19.32-39),  and  probably  also  Elijah.  Many 
battles  were  fought  in  the  territory  of  Gad 
during  the  long  and  fierce  struggles  between 
Syria  and  Israel,  and  naturally  the  country 
suffered  greatly  in  consequence  (2  K.  10.33 ; 
Amos  1.3).  Gad  was  carried  into  captivity  by 
Tiglath-pileser  (1  Ch.  5.26),  and  in  the  time 
of  Jeremiah  the  cities  of  the  tribe  were  in- 
habited by  the  Ammonites  (Jer.  49.1). 

2.  The  seer :  a  prophet  and  a  particular 
friend  of  David  (1  Sam.  22.5).  He  was  on 
more  than  one  occasion  God's  messenger  to 
David  (1  5am.  22.5;  2  -Sam.  24.13-19;  1  Ch. 
21.9-11),  and  was  also  one  of  David's  bio- 
graphers (1  Ch.  29.29). 

Gad,  The. — The  Hebrew  word  rendered  in 
Isai.  65.11  as  "  troop  "  should  be  "  the  Gad," 
the  god  or  goddess  of  Fortune  (R.V.  Fortune), 
a  heathen  deity,  mentioned  in  several  passages 
of  Scripture:  Baal-Gad  (Josh.  11.17)  and  the 
tower  of  Gad  (Josh.  15.37).  Those  who  prepare 
the  table  for  Gad  are  allotted  to  the  sword 
(laai.  65.11).  The  reference  may  be  to  the 
heathen  custom  of  setting  apart  a  splendid 
couch  in  the  house  for  Gad,  this  couch  not  being 
used  in  any  other  way.  In  like  manner  the 
Babylonians  spread  a  table  for  their  god  Bel, 
and  the  Ethiopians  for  the  sun. 

Gad,  The  River  of  (2  Sam.  24.5).— R.V.  has 
"  valley  of  Gad,"  marg.  "  valley  toward  Gad." 
Both  text  and  interpretation  are  uncertain. 

Gad'ara. — Now  Um-Keis.  A  large  fortified 
city  of  Perea  on  the  north-west  extremity  of 
the  mountains  of  Gilead,  5  miles  east  of  the 
Jordan,  6  miles  south-east  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee  ; 
one  of  the  towns  which  formed  the  Decapolis. 
In  the  time  of  our  Lord,  Gadara  was  in  the 
main  a  Greek  city,  though  with  a  strong  Jewish 
element  in  the  population,  and  possibly  many 
Judaised  Aramaeans.  The  ruins  include  two 
theatres,  a  basilica,  a  temple,  and  a  fine  street 
with  a  colonnade  on  each  side.  Along  the 
borders  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  near  Gadara, 
may  still  be  seen  the  remains  of  ancient  tombs 
hewn  in  the  rocks  which  face  the  water.  In 
the  time  of  our  Saviour  they  had  become  the 
resort  of  wretched  men,  afflicted  by  diseases, 
and  made  outcasts  of  society.  In  the  account 
of  the  cure  performed  by  the  Saviour  upon  a 
demoniac  in  the  country  of  the  Gadarenes, 
these  tombs  are  particularly  referred  to  :  "  There 
met  Him  out  of  the  tombs  a  man  with  an  unclean 
spirit,  who  had  his  dwelling  among  the  tombs  " 
(Mk.  5.2,  3  ;  Lk.  8.26).  [GADABENES.] 

Gad'arenes. — The  inhabitants  of  Gadara  and 
the  surrounding  district.  According  to  Matt. 
8.28  (R.V.)  it  was  in  "the  country  of  the 
Gadarenes  "  that  our  Lord  healed  the  demoniac 


and  permitted  the  devils  to  enter  into  a  herd 
of  swine;  but  in  Mk.  5.1;  Lk.  8.26,  37,  the 
R.V.  has  "  Gerasenes."  The  exact  situation  of 
the  miracle  was  probably  a  town  called  Kersa, 
the  ruins  of  which  still  exist  near  the  mouth  of 
Wady  Semakh.  It  is  within  a  few  rods  of  the 
shore,  and  a  high  hill  rises  directly  above  it, 
in  which  are  ancient  tombs,  out  of  which  the 
two  men  possessed  of  the  devils  may  have 
issued  to  meet  Jesus.  The  lake  is  so  near  the 
base  of  the  mountain  that  the  swine,  rushing 
madly  down  it,  could  not  stop,  but  would  be 
hurried  out  into  the  water  and  drowned.  This 
Kersa  (or  Gerasa)  may,  as  Matt,  suggests,  have 
been  included  in  the  territory  of  Gadara.  In 
all  three  accounts  there  is  a  various  reading 
"  Gergesenes."  [GEHASENES,  GERQESENES.] 

Gad'di. — My  fortune :  son  of  Susi  and  a  chief 
of  Manasseh,  sent  with  others  to  spy  out  the 
land  (Num.  13.11). 

Gaddi'eL — Gad  is  my  fortune  :  son  of  Sodi 
and  a  chief  of  Zebulun ;  one  of  the  spies  sent  to 
"  search  the  land  of  Canaan  "  (Num.  13.10). 

Ga'di. — Fortunate  :  father  of  Menahem,  who 
seized  the  throne  of  Israel  from  Shallum 
(2  K.  15.14,  17). 

Gadites.— [GAD.] 

GaTiam. — Son  of  Nahor,  Abraham's  brother, 
by  his  concubine  Reumah  (Gen.  22.24). 

GaTiar. — One  of  the  Nethinim,  descendants 
of  whom  came  up  with  Zerubbabel  to  Jerusalem 
(Ezra  2.47  ;  Neh.  7.49).- 

GaL— (1  Sam.  17.52,  R.V.).  A.V.  has  "  the 
valley." 

Gai'us. — 1.  Gaius  of  Macedonia,  a  companion 
of  Paul  in  travel,  who  with  Aristarchus  was 
seized  by  the  mob  in  the  tumult  at  Ephesus 
(Acts  19.29). 

2.  Gaius    of    Derbe,    probably    representing 
that  church   in   the  delegation   which   accom- 
panied Paul   when   he   took  to  Jerusalem  the 
contributions  of  the  Gentile  churches  (Acts  20.4). 

3.  Gaius  of  Corinth,  Paul's  "  host "  in  that 
city  (Rom.  16.23  ;   1  Cor.  1.14). 

4.  Gaius  to  whom  in  terms  of  warm  affection 
and   commendation   John    addresses  his   third 
Epistle  (3  John  1). 

It  is  impossible  to  say  whether  any  of  these 
are  identical.  The  name  was  common. 

Ga'lal. — 1.  A  Levite.  One  of  the  sons  of 
Asaph  (1  Ch.  9.15).  2.  Another  Levite  of  the 
family  of  Elkanah,  son  of  Jeduthun  (1  Ch.  9.16  ; 
Neh.  11.17). 

Galatia,  Galatian. — The  name  occurs  in  the  N.T. 
in  three  forms.  (1)  The  country  Galatia.  Paul 
writes  of  "  the  churches  of  Galatia  "  (1  Cor.  16.1 ; 
Gal.  1.2) ;  Crescens  had  gone  "  to  Galatia  "  (2  Tim. 
4.10;  R.V.  marg.,  "to  Gaul");  Peter  mentions 
Galatia  in  the  enumeration  of  the  Roman 
Provinces  of  Asia  Minor  to  which  his  First  Epistle 
was  addressed  (1  Pet.  1.1).  (2)  The  inhabitants, 
Galatians  (Gal.  3.1,  and  in  the  title  of  the  same 
Epistle).  (3)  In  the  references  in  Acts  the  country 
is  not  designated  by  the  substantive  Galatia, 
but  by  the  adjective  Galatian  :  the  true  render- 
ing of  Acts  16.6  is,  "  they  went  through  the 


GALATIANS,  EPISTLE  TO  THE]    173    [GALATIANS,  EPISTLE  TO  THE 


Phrygian  and  Galatian  region  " ;  of  18.23,  "  he 
went  through  the  Galatian  region  and  Phrygia." 

Now  Galatia  has  a  double  meaning,  earlier  and 
later,  ethnic  and  political,  and  it  is  uncertain 
in  which  sense  Paul  and  Luke  use  the  name,  a 
question  vitally  affecting  the  recipients  and  the 
date  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians.  The  origi- 
nal country  Galatia  was  a  strip  of  land  south  of 
Bithynia,  so  called  because  occupied  (c.  280  B.C.) 
by  Celts,  Gauls  or  Galatians,  who  poured  down 
upon  Asia  Minor  from  Gaul  and  North  Italy. 
After  a  century  of  turbulence  they  were  defeated 
by  the  Romans  under  Manlius,  189  B.C.  They 
became  faithful  allies  of  Rome,  retained  a 
measure  of  independence,  being  governed  by 
their  own  princes  and  receiving  fresh  grants  of 
territory,  till  their  last  king,  Amyntas,  left  by 
will  to  Rome  a  kingdom  stretching  south  to  the 
Mediterranean  and  east  to  Cilicia  (25  B.C.).  Out 
of  this  Augustus  constituted  the  Roman  Province 
of  Galatia,  and  to  this  the  "  Galatia  "  of  1  Pet. 
1.1  undoubtedly  refers.  To  whom,  then,  did 
Paul  address  his  Epistle — to  the  half-civilised 
Celtic  population  of  Galatia  proper  (the  North 
Galatian  theory),  or  to  churches  founded  in 
more  accessible  cities  of  the  Roman  province 
(the  South  Galatian  theory)  ?  The  former  is  the 
traditional  view,  maintained  by  Bishop  Light- 
foot  ;  the  latter  view  has,  in  recent  years, 
especially  through  the  brilliant  advocacy  of 
Professor  Ramsay,  gained  increasing  support. 
The  discussion  turns  in  part  upon  a  minute 
examination  of  the  Lukan  and  Pauline  designa- 
tion of  the  countries  of  the  apostle's  missionary 
labours,  whether  by  geographical  or  political 
names  respectively.  But  the  main  difficulties 
of  the  older  view  ara  (1 )  that  Paul  should  have  so 
far  deviated  from  his  settled  plan  of  evangelising 
along  the'  main  lines  of  communication  in  the 
Roman  Empire,  as  to  take  a  long  and  difficult 
journey  to  reach  a  half-savage  people,  and  (2) 
that  the  only  record  in  Acts  of  the  founding  of 
an  important  group  of  churches  should  be  the 
bare  reference  of  16.6,  18.23. 

It  would  appear  from  Gal.  4.13  that  two  visits 
had  preceded  the  writing  of  the  Epistle  :  in  the 
North  Galatian  theory  these  would  be  the  ones 
recorded  hi  the  passages  just  cited,  on  the  second 
and  third  missionary  journeys.  But  the  Province 
Galatia  included  the  towns  of  Pisidian  Antioch, 
Iconium,  Derbe,  and  Lystra,  visited  by  Paul  on 
his  first  journey  (Acts  13.14),  and  again  on  his 
second  (Acts  16.1-6).  Thus  an  earlier  date  is 
made  possible  for  the  Epistle  than  on  the  older 
view,  some  recent  investigations  placing  it  shortly 
after,  or  even  before,  1  and  2  Thessalonians. 
The  controversy  is  not  yet  closed. 

Galatians,  Epistle  to  the. — The  view  taken 
of  the  destination  and  the  date  of  this  Epistle 
is  dependent  upon  the  meaning  attached  to 
the  word  Galatia.  [GALATIA,  GALATIANS.] 
On  the  North  Galatian  theory  the  two  previous 
visits  to  the  Galatian  churches  (Gal  4.13) 
are  those  of  the  second  and  third  journeys, 
and  the  Epistle  falls  within  the  later  part 
of  the  third  journey,  dating  probably  from  the 


latter  period  of  the  apostle's  stay  at  Ephesus, 
or  from  some  part  of  his  tour  in  Macedonia 
(Acts  20.1,  2)  on  his  way  to  Corinth,  where 
he  wrote  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  It  is  in 
fact  an  outline,  or  preliminary  rough  draft, 
of  the  argument  in  that  great  Epistle  ;  while 
in  its  vindication  of  his  own  apostolic  authority 
it  resembles  part  of  2  Cor.  Between  these 
two  Epistles,  therefore,  it  may  probably  be 
placed.  This  chronological  arrangement  fully 
accords  with  the  word  soon  (or  "  quickly," 
R.V.),  1.6. 

If,  however,  the  South  Galatian  theory  be 
accepted,  the  two  visits  are  those  of  the  first 
and  second  journeys,  and  the  letter  comes 
before  the  visit  recorded  Acts  18.23.  Professor 
Ramsay,  impressed  by  Lightfoot's  argument 
as  to  the  affinity  of  thought  with  the  Corinthian 
and  Roman  Epistles,  and  so  desiring  to  place 
Galatians  as  late  as  possible,  dates  it  from 
Antioch  (Acts  18.22),  immediately  before 
the  third  journey.  Mr.  Rendall,  on  the  other 
hand,  finds  traces  of  early  date  in  the  Epistle 
itself,  and  places  it  during  the  second  journey, 
probably  at  Corinth  before  Paul  was  rejoined 
by  Silas  and  Timothy,  whose  names  are  joined 
with  the  apostle's  in  1  and  2  Thess.,  but  not 
in  Gal.  On  this  view  the  Epistle  would  be  the 
earliest  of  Paul's  letters. 

The  occasion  of  the  Epistle  is  manifest  from 
its  contents.  The  Galatian  churches  con- 
sisted in  part  of  Jewish,  but  probably  chiefly 
of  Gentile,  converts  (4.8) ;  who  appear,  however, 
to  have  been  familiar  with  the  O.T.  (see  4.21-31). 
They  received  the  Gospel  at  first  with  readiness 
and  joy,  and  for  a  time  faithfully  persevered 
(5.7).  But  not  long  after  the  apostle's  second 
visit  to  the  Galatian  churches,  some  Judaising 
teachers  (probably  emissaries  from  the  Pharisaic 
party  at  Jerusalem  :  see  Acts  15.1,  2)  visited 
the  churches  in  Galatia,  and  taught  them  that 
converted  Gentiles  must  submit  to  circum- 
cision and  the  observance  of  the  Mosaic  ritual 
in  order  to  salvation.  They  also  attacked 
Paul's  authority,  representing  it  as  inferior 
to  that  of  Peter  and  the  rest  of  the  Twelve, 
whom  they  professed  to  follow  (chaps.  1,  2) ; 
and  they  accused  him  of  want  of  uprightness 
in  observing  the  law  himself  whilst  among 
the  Jews,  and  yet  persuading  the  Gentiles 
to  renounce  it  (5.11). 

By  such  representations  they  succeeded 
in  sowing  the  seeds  of  discord  and  division 
(5.15) ;  and  in  leading  astray  many  of  the 
Galatian  Christians  (1.6,  3.1,  4.9),  who 
embraced  the  party  of  their  new  teachers 
with  the  same  zeal  which  they  had  formerly 
shown  for  their  father  in  the  faith.  Against 
these  errors  Paul  had  already  testified  in  person 
(1.9,  4.16) ;  but  on  learning  that  they  were 
rapidly  gaining  ground,  h«  wrote  this  Epistle. 

In  character  and  am,  the  abruptness  and 
severity  with  which  this  Epistle  begins,  and 
the  earnest  and  tender  appeals  which  it  contains, 
show  the  apostle's  sense  of  the  urgency  and 
greatness  of  the  danger  which  he  has  to  meet. 


GALBANUM] 


174 


[GALL 


His  principal  object  is  to  prove  that  the  doctrine 
of  the  Juclaisers  did,  in  fact,  destroy  the  very 
life  and  soul  of  Christianity  ;  but  he  prepares 
the  way  for  his  main  argument  by  first  con- 
tradicting the  falsehoods  which  his  opponents 
had  propagated  respecting  himself,  and  vindi- 
cating his  apostolic  office  and  authority. 

The  chief  contrast  between  the  method  of 
this  Epistle  and  that  of  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans,  is  that  the  great  topic  of  justification 
is  there  introduced  as  part  of  a  detailed  argu- 
ment, and  without  reference  to  any  special 
circumstances ;  here  all  is  treated  contro- 
versially, with  immediate  reference  to  the 
Judaising  teachers. 

The  apostle  is  contending,  not  against 
Gentiles  who  regarded  good  works  as  a  title 
to  a  Divine  reward  ;  nor  against  unbelieving 
Jews  who  rejected  Christianity,  ho Idingobedience 
to  the  law  to  be  the  only  way  of  justification  ; 
but  against  Jews  professing  to  embrace  the 
Gospel,  yet  teaching  that  the  observance  of 
the  ceremonial  law,  as  well  as  faith  in  Christ, 
was  necessary  to  salvation.  He  shows  that 
it  was  never  designed  for  that  purpose,  that  it  is 
now  abrogated,  and  that  those  who  observe 
its  requirements  with  the  object  of  securing 
God's  favour,  do  thereby  renounce  the  one  only 
way  of  salvation. 

The  errors  condemned  as  subversive  of  the 
Gospel  were  propagated  by  men  who  professed 
Christianity  without  understanding  its  first 
principles,  and  to  whom  he  "  would  not  give 
place  for  an  hour."  The  mistaken  views  of  the 
Mosaic  law  which  he  represents  in  Rom.  14,  15, 
as  proper  subjects  of  forbearance  on  the  part  of 
the  better  informed,  are  those  of  sincere  but 
partially  enlightened  Christians,  who  looked  to 
Christ  alone  for  salvation,  but  were  not  yet 
satisfied  as  to  the  abolition  of  the  Mosaic  ritual. 

The  Epistle  naturally  divides  itself  into  three 
portions,  each  comprising  two  chapters.  The 
two  former  sections  are  mainly  controversial, 
and  the  third  practical  and  admonitory. 

I.  Paul  asserts  and  proves  his  Divine  calling 
and  authority,  as  an  apostle  of  Christ  (1,  2). 

II.  He  establishes  his  principal  proposition, 
that  justification  is  entirely  by  faith,  not  by  the 
works  of  the  law  (3,  4). 

III.  He  concludes  with  warnings  and  practical 
directions,  and  a  brief  review  of  the  chief  topics 
of  the  Epistle  (5,  6). 

Galba'num. — A  bitter  and  resinous  gum ;  an 
ingredient  in  the  incense  burned  at  the  golden 
altar  in  the  holy  place  (Ex.  30.34). 

Oa'leed. — Heap  of  witness  :  the  name  given 
by  Jacob  to  the  cairn  or  heap  made  by  Laban 
and  himself  on  Mount  Gilead  as  an  evidence  of 
the  agreement  between  them  (Gen.  31.47,  48). 
Laban  called  it  Jegar-Sahadutha. 

Galilsean.— An  inhabitant  of  Galilee  (Mk. 
14.70). 

Gal'ilee. — One  of  the  divisions  of  Palestine. 
It  contained  the  territory  anciently  apportioned 
to  four  tribes,  viz.  Issachar,  Zebulun,  Naphtali, 
and  Asher,  a  part  also  of  Dan,  and  of  Perea 


beyond  the  river.  The  boundaries  were  Anti- 
Libanus  on  the  north,  Phoenicia  on  the  west, 
Samaria  on  the  south,  the  Sea  of  Galilee  and  the 
Jordan  on  the  east.  Upper  Galilee  was  termed 
"  Galilee  of  the  Gentiles,"  its  population  includ- 
ing Egyptians,  Arabians,  and  Phoenicians,  as  well 
as  Jews.  Galilee  was  populous,  the  inhabitants 
were  industrious,  and  consequently  the  pro- 
vince was  rich,  paying  200  talents  in  tribute 
to  its  Roman  governors.  Christ  is  called  Jesus 
of  Galilee  (Matt.  26.69)  because  He  was  brought 
up  in  that  province,  and  there  lived,  taught, 
and  called  His  first  disciples  (Matt.  4.13-23, 
13.55;  Mk.  1.39;  Lk.  4.44,  8.1,  23.5;  John 
7.1).  Galilee  became  a  name  of  contempt  both 
among  Jews  and  Gentiles,  because  its  inhabitants 
were  a  mixed  race  and  used  a  corrupted  dialect, 
which  originated  in  the  amalgamation  of  the 
Jews,  who  settled  there  after  the  Captivity,  with 
the  Gentile  foreigners  (John  1.46,  7.52;  Acts 
2.7).  Peter's  mode  of  speech  at  once  proved 
the  place  of  his  nativity  (Matt.  26.69,  73  ; 
Mk.  14.70).  During  the  whole  life  of  Christ 
the  ruler  or  tetrarch  of  Galilee  was  Herod 
Antipas.  Remains  of  splendid  synagogues 
still  exist  in  many  of  the  old  towns  and  villages, 
attesting  the  prosperity  as  well  as  the  numbers 
of  the  Jews  in  former  days. 

Gal'ilee,  Sea  of  (in  Lk.  5.1,  "  Lake  of  Gen- 
nesaret "  ;  in  John  6.1,  21.1,  "  Sea  of  Tiberias  "  ; 
in  O.T.,  Sea  of  Chinnereth  or  Chinneroth).— This 
inland  sea  is  12J  miles  from  north  to  south  and 
from  4  to  7J  miles  in  breadth.  Its  surface  is 
682  feet  below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean  : 
its  depth  from  80  to  100  feet.  The  Jordan 
enters  in  26  miles  from  its  source,  and  in  that 
distance  there  is  a  fall  in  the  river  of  1682  feet, 
or  more  than  60  feet  to  the  mile.  It  is  27  miles 
east  of  the  Mediterranean  and  about  60  miles 
north-east  of  Jerusalem.  The  lake  is  surrounded 
by  lofty  country,  on  the  east  side  the  mountains 
coming  close  to  the  shore.  Its  surface  is  in 
general  as  smooth  as  that  of  the  Dead  Sea,  but 
it  is  liable  to  sudden  short-lived  squalls,  caused 
by  gusts  from  the  mountains,  especially  when 
the  strong  current  formed  by  the  Jordan  is 
opposed  by  a  wind  from  the  south-east,  sweep- 
ing from  the  mountains  with  the  force  of  a 
hurricane.  We  must  imagine  the  Sea  of 
Galilee  as  in  the  time  of  Christ  covered  with 
ships  and  boats,  and  the  beaches  sparkling  with 
the  houses  and  palaces,  the  synagogues  and  the 
temples  of  the  Jewish  or  Roman  inhabitants. 
Much  of  our  Lord's  public  life  was  spent  on  the 
shores  of  this  inland  sea. 

Gall.— In  the  O.T.  a  plant  and  its  fruit  which 
were  exceedingly  bitter  (Deut.  29.18,  32.32  ; 
Ps.  69.21  ;  Jer.  8.14,  9.15,  23.15  ;  Lam.  3.5, 19  ; 
Amos  6.12).  The  same  Hebrew  word  is  trans- 
lated "  hemlock  "  in  Hos.  10.4.  It  was  a  quick- 
growing  plant,  possibly  the  poppy.  The  literal 
meaning,  as  the  fluid  secreted  by  the  liver,  is 
referred  to  in  Job  16.13,  20.14,  25.  The 
"  vinegar  mingled  with  gall "  given  to  our 
Lord  (Matt.  27.34)  was  a  weak,  acid  wine, 
mingled  with  a  drug  called  "  myrrh "  in 


GALLERY] 


175 


[GARDEN 


Mk.      15.23,     and      was      used      to     stupefy 
sufferers. 

Gallery.— In  Cant.  7.5  R.V.  has  "  the  king 
is  held  captive  in  the  tresses  thereof."  Else- 
where the  word  means  "  watering-troughs,"  and 
perhaps  the  tresses  of  hair  are  compared  to  the 
channels  of  running  water  seen  in  the  pasture- 
grounds  of  Palestine.  The  words  so  rendered 
in  Ezek.  41.15,  16,  42.3,  5,  appear  to  mean 
colonnades  in  cloisters. 

Galley. — A  ship  rowed  with  oars:  only  in 
Isai.  33.21,  where  Jerusalem  is  pictured  as 
defended  by  broad  waters,  into  which  no  enemy's 
"  galley  with  oars  "  or  "  gallant  (i.e.  magnificent) 
ship  "  shall  enter. 

Gal'lim. — Fountains  :  a  city  of  Benjamin 
(1  Sam.  25.44  ;  Isai.  10.30). 

Gal'lio. — Brother  of  Seneca,  the  Stoic  philo- 
sopher, and  made  Proconsul  of  Achaia  by  the 
Emperor  Claudius.  St.  Paul  was  brought 
before  him  for  teaching  "  men  to  worship  God 
contrary  to  the  law  "  (Acts  18.12,  13) ;  but 
Gallio  cared  for  none  of  these  things,  meaning 
simply  that  he  did  not  wish  to  interfere  in 
religious  controversies.  It  is  an  unkind  stroke 
of  fate  that  his  name,  as  that  of  a  person  in- 
different to  religion,  should  have  passed  into  a 
proverb  of  reproach.  The  conduct  of  Gallio 
shows  the  friendly,  or  at  least  impartial,  attitude 
of  the  Roman  authorities  towards  Christianity 
in  its  early  days.  Gallio  was  put  to  death  by 
Nero. 

Gama'liel. — Reward  of  God :  an  illustrious 
doctor  of  the  Jewish  law,  a  Pharisee,  and  St. 
Paul's  tutor  (Acts  22.3).  The  learned  family 
to  which  he  belonged  enjoyed  peculiar  privileges, 
especially  in  relation  to  the  study  of  Greek 
literature,  which  was  generally  prohibited 
among  the  Jews.  When  the  apostles  were 
brought  before  the  rulers,  Gamaliel  advised  the 
assembly  to  treat  them  with  caution :  and  ac- 
cordingly they  were  liberated  (Acts  5.34). 

Games. — There  are  several  striking  references 
in  the  N.T.  to  the  public  games  so  well  known 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  The  prizes 
for  the  winners  were  placed  in  a  very  con- 
spicuous place  near  the  course,  so  that  the 
competitors  might  be  stimulated  by  having  them 
always  hi  then*  sight.  The  "  goal  "  was  always 
clearly  visible  from  one  end  of  the  stadium  to 
the  other,  so  that  the  runner  could  make  straight 
for  it.  No  doubt  it  was  of  these  facts  that  St. 
Paul  was  thinking  when  he  said,  "  I  press  on 
toward  the  goal,  unto  the  prize  of  the  high 
calling  of  God  in  Christ  Jesus  "  (Phil  3.14,  R.V.). 
The  competitors  at  these  games  formed  quite 
a  class,  the  athletce  or  athletes.  They  submitted 
to  very  severe  training  preparatory  to  these 
contests,  inuring  their  bodies  to  fatigue,  living 
on  very  plain  food  (such  as  dried  figs,  nuts, 
soft  cheese,  and  coarse  bread),  and  drinking 
no  wine.  "  Every  man  that  striveth  in  the 
games  is  temperate  in  all  things.  ...  I  buffet 
my  body,  and  bring  it  into  bondage"  (1  Cor. 
9.25-27,  R.V.).  There  is  also  a  reference  to 
boxing  in  this  passage  :  "So  fight  I,  as  not 


beating  the  air."  The  hands  and  arms  were 
bound  with  a  band  of  leather  studded  with 
nails,  which  very  much  increased  the  severity 
of  the  blow.  The  skill  of  the  combatant  was 
shown  in  so  avoiding  the  blows  of  his  adversary 
that  they  were  expended  on  the  air.  The  Greek 
word  rendered  "castaway"  (R.V.  rejected)  hi 
this  passage  is  that  which  was  applied  to  the 
rejected  claimants  for  a  prize.  The  athletes 
took  care  to  disencumber  their  bodies  of  every 
article  of  clothing  which  could  in  any  manner 
hinder  or  incommode  them.  In  the  race  they 
were  anxious  to  carry  as  little  weight  as  possible. 
The  Christian  also  must  "  lay  aside  every  weight 
and  the  sin  which  doth  so  easily  beset  "  him 
(Heb.  12.1).  The  words  "  a  cloud  of  witnesses  " 
liken  the  victorious  heroes  of  faith  of  chap.  11  to 
the  immense  number  of  spectators  who,  from  the 
tiers  of  seats,  witnessed  the  games.  The  apostle 
exhorts  Timothy  to  observe  the  precepts  of  the 
Gospel,  without  which  he  can  no  more  hope  to 
obtain  the  approbation  of  God,  and  the  possession 
of  the  heavenly  crown,  than  a  competitor  hi  the 
public  games,  who  disregarded  the  established 
rules,  could  hope  to  receive  from  the  hands  of 
his  judge  the  promised  reward  (2  Tim.  2.5). 
The  rewards  for  the  winners  consisted  of  crowns 
or  wreaths  of  various  kinds — wild  olive,  pine, 
parsley,  or  laurel,  according  to  the  different 
places  where  the  games  were  celebrated.  After 
the  judges  had  given  their  award,  a  public 
herald  proclaimed  the  name  of  the  victor  ; 
one  of  the  judges  put  the  crown  upon  his  head 
and  a  branch  of  palm  into  his  right  hand.  Then 
the  herald  conducted  him  through  the  stadium, 
proclaiming  aloud  his  name  and  country ; 
while  the  delighted  multitudes  at  the  sight  ol 
him  redoubled  their  acclamation  and  applause. 
So  the  Christian  will  receive  a  crown  of  glory, 
but  one  which  never  fades,  reserved  hi  heaven 
(1  Pet.  1.4,  5.4).  "  I  have  finished  the  course," 
says  St.  Paul ;  ...  "  there  is  laid  up  for  me 
the  crown  of  righteousness  which  the  Lord,  the 
righteous  Judge,  shall  give  to  me  at  that  day  " 
(2  Tim.  4.8).  Foot  races,  riding  on  horseback, 
and  chariot  races  were  the  items  in  the  pro- 
grammes of  the  games.  Reference  is  made  to 
the  Roman  circus  and  its  bloody  sports  in 
1  Cor.  4.9  and  1  Cor.  15.32.  The  men  who 
fought  with  wild  beasts  were  sometimes  pro- 
fessional performers,  but  more  usually  criminals, 
deprived  of  any  means  of  defence. 

The  only  children's  sports  mentioned  in  the 
Bible  are  keeping  tame  birds  (Job  41.5)  and 
playing  at  marriages  and  funerals  (Matt.  11.16) : 
but  see  Zech.  8.5. 

Gamma 'dim.  —  Mentioned  among  the  de- 
fenders of  Tyre:  meaning  uncertain  (Ezek. 
27.11 ;  R.V.  marg.,  valorous  men). 

Ga'muL — Weaned:  a  priest;  the  leader  of  the 
twenty-second  course  in  the  service  of  the 
sanctuary  (1  Ch.  24.17). 

Garden. — The  gardens  of  the  Hebrews  were 
chiefly  devoted  to  fruit  and  shade  trees,  aro- 
matic plants  and  herbs  (1  K.  21.2  ;  Cant.  4.12-16). 
Gardens  of  roses  and  olives  are  also  referred  to 


GAREB] 


176 


[GEBA 


in  the  Scriptures.  Owing  to  the  fierce  heat  of 
the  summer  season  a  supply  of  water  was 
indispensable,  either  in  the  form  of  a  fountain, 
well,  or  stream  passing  through  (Gen.  2.10, 
13.10  ;  Prov.  21.1 ;  Eccles.  2.5,  6  ;  Isai.  58.11). 
A  "  well-watered  garden "  and  a  "  garden 
having  no  water  "  are  the  symbols  of  blessing 
and  curse.  Gardens  were  used  as  burying- 
places  (John  19.41)  and  as  places  of  religious 
worship  and  retirement  (7saz.  1.29,  65.3). 
Esculent  vegetables  were  planted  in  some  fertile 
spot  in  the  garden.  Watchmen  were  stationed 
to  guard  the  harvest  (Job  27.18  ;  Jer.  4.16,  17), 
but  these  keepers  were  not  allowed  to  prevent 
one  from  taking  from  the  field  enough  for  the 
supply  of  his  immediate  wants  (Deut.  23.24). 
In  the  Garden  of  Gethsemane,  on  the  slopes  of 
Olivet,  are  eight  aged  olive  trees  marking  the 
site  which  tradition  has  connected  with  the 
agony  of  our  Lord.  "  Their  gnarled  stems  and 
almost  leafless  branches,"  says  Mr.  W.  A. 
Wright,  "  attest  an  antiquity  as  venerable  as 
that  which  is  claimed  for  them." 

Qa'reb. — 1.  One  of  the  heroes  of  David's 
army  (2  Sam.  23.38).  2.  A  hill  on  the  north 
side  of  Jerusalem  (Jer.  31.39). 

Garlick. — One  of  the  good  things  of  Egypt 
which  the  Israelites  remembered  with  regret  in 
the  wilderness  (Num.  11.5). 

Garment.— [DRESS.  ] 

Gar'mite,  The.— The  descendant  of  Gerem 
(1  Ch.  4.19). 

Garrison.— A  fortified  post  (1  Sam.  14).  In 
Ezek.  26.11,  for  "  thy  sti«bng  garrisons," 
K.V.  has  "  the  pillars  of  thy  strength,"  i.e. 
obelisks,  the  monoliths  which  were  regarded 
as  symbols  of  the  presence  of  the  deity. 

Gash'mu.— (Nth.  6.6).     [GESHEM.] 

Ga'tam. — Son  of  Eliphaz  and  grandson  of 
Esau  (Gen.  36.11,  16  ;  1  Ch.  1.36). 

Gate. — Gates  of  houses,  as  of  cities,  were  of 
wood,  iron,  or  brass  (1  Sam.  4.18;  Acts  12.10, 13). 
The  gates  of  the  cities  were  the  places  of  greatest 
concourse  for  business,  judicial  proceedings,  con- 
versation, and  idling  (Gen.  19.1;  Deut.  17.5, 
25.7;  Ruth  4.1-12;  2  Sam.  15.2;  2  K.  7.1; 
Neh.  8.1;  Job  29.7;  Prov.  22.22,  31.23; 
Amos  5.10,  12,  15).  As  a  remnant  of  old 
Oriental  custom  and  language,  the  court  of 
Constantinople  is  still  called  the  Sublime  Porte. 
The  gates  of  cities  contained  chambers  over  the 
gateway.  The  gates  were  two-leaved,  closed 
with  locks  and  fastened  with  metal  bars.  The 
Beautiful  Gate  of  the  Temple  (Acts  3.2)  was  made 
entirely  of  Corinthian  brass,  and  twenty  men 
were  required  to  close  it. 

Gath. —  Wine  press:  one  of  the  five  Philistine 
strongholds,  the  native  place  of  Goliath 
(1  Sam.  6.17,  17.4).  In  the  times  of  the 
Hebrew  kings  it  was  always  a  thorn  in  the 
side  of  Israel.  It  has  been  identified  as  Tell 
es-Safi,  16  miles  east  of  Ashdod.  The  inhabit- 
ants of  Gath  are  called  Gittites  (Josh.  13.3). 

Gath-Hepher  or  Gittah-Hepher. —  Wine-press 
of  digging  :  the  birthplace  of  the  prophet  Jonah 
(2  K.  14.25).  Joshua  assigned  the  city  to  the 


tribe  of  Zebulun  (Josh.  19.13;  A.V.  wrongly 
Gittah-Hepher).  It  has  been  identified  with  the 
present  village  of  el  Mesh-hed,  2£  miles  east  of 
Sepphoris  (Seffurich),  with  a  population  of  a 
few  Moslems.  The  supposed  tomb  of  Jonah  is 
still  venerated  there. 

Gath-Rim'mon. —  Wine  press  of  Rimmon :  1.  A 
city  in  the  territory  of  Dan,  north-east  of  Joppa 
(Josh.  19.45,  21.24  ;  1  Ch.  6.69).  2.  A  city  of 
Manasseh,  west  of  Jordan  (Josh.  21.25). 

Ga'za  or  Azzah. — The  strong  place:  a  city  of 
the  Philistines,  made  by  Joshua  part  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah.  It  was  one  of  the  five  strong- 
holds of  the  Philistines,  situated  towards  the 
southern  extremity  of  Palestine  (1  Sam.  6.17), 
between  Raphia  and  Askelon,  60  miles  south-west 
of  Jerusalem.  Joshua  was  not  able  to  subdue  it ; 
and  though  Judah  did  conquer  it,  it  did  not 
remain  long  in  their  hands.  Its  gates  were 
carried  away  by  Samson  (Judg.  16.1-3).  Here 
he  was  afterwards  a  prisoner  and  "  did  grind  in 
the  prison  house."  Here  he  also  pulled  down 
the  temple  of  Dagon  and  slew  "  all  the  lords  of 
the  Philistines,"  himself  also  perishing  in  the 
ruin  (Judg.  16.21-30).  In  the  reigns  of  Jotham 
and  Ahaz  it  recovered  its  independence,  but 
was  again  subdued  by  Hezekiah  (2  K.  18.8). 
It  was  afterwards  subject  to  the  Egyptians, 
Persians,  and  Chaldeans,  and  was  captured 
by  Alexander  the  Great  after  a  five  months' 
siege.  It  was  afterwards  taken  by  Alexander 
Jannaeus,  and  frightful  barbarities  were  inflicted 
on  the  inhabitants.  Gabinius  rebuilt  it  and 
placed  it  under  Roman  protection.  Only  a 
remnant  of  its  former  greatness  remains.  The 
modern  Ghuzzeh  stands  on  an  elevation  ;  the 
houses  are  built  of  stone,  but  of  very  mean 
appearance.  The  scenery  around  is  beautiful, 
and  the  vegetable  productions  are  luxuriant 
and  fragrant. 

Ga'zathi'tes,  Gazites. — The  inhabitants  of  Gaza 
(Josh.  13.3;  Judg.  16.2). 

Gazelle.— [RoE,  DORCAS.] 

Ga'zer.— {2  Sam.  5.25;  1  Ch.  14.16:  TV. 
Gezer,  which  see). 

Ga'zez.— 1.  A  son  of  Caleb  by  Ephah  his 
concubine  (1  Ch.  2.46).  2.  Grandson  of  Caleb 
and  of  Ephah  (1  Ch.  2.46). 

Ga'zites.— [GA  ZATHITES  .  ] 

Gaz'zam. — The  sons  of  Gazzam  were  among 
the  families  of  the  Nethinim  who  returned  from 
the  exile  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.48  ;  Neh.  7.51). 

Geba  (A.V.  Gaba).— Hill :  now  Jeba,  6  miles 
north  of  Jerusalem  on  the  top  of  a  rocky  ridge 
on  the  south  edge  of  Wady  es-Suweintt,  which 
separates  it  from  Michmash  (1  Sam.  14.5)  and 
commanding  the  pass.  Town  of  Benjamin  on  the 
north  boundary  of  the  tribe  and  of  the  kingdom 
of  Judah  (Josh.  18.24  ;  1  Sam.  13.16  ;  2  Sam. 
5.25;  2  K.  23.8;  1  Ch.  8.6);  assigned  to  the 
priests  (Josh.  21.17 ;  1  Ch.  6.60) ;  scene  of 
conflict  between  the  Philistines  and  Jonathan 
(1  Sam.  13.3) ;  and  of  victory  of  David  over 
the  Philistines  (2  Sam.  5.25);  fortified  by 
Asa  (1  K.  15.22 ;  2  Ch.  16.6) ;  occupied  by 
the  Assyrian  army  on  their  way  to  Jerusalem 


GEBAL] 


177 


[GEMAEIAH 


(Isai.  10.29),  and  by  some  who  returned  from  the 
Captivity  (J&ra2.26;  Neh.  7.30,  11.31,  12.29). 

Getal. — Boundary  :  town  on  coast  of  Phoe- 
nicia, unconquered  by  the  Israelites  (Josh.  13.5) ; 
the  inhabitants  (A.V.  Giblites,  R.V.  Gebalites) 
were  famed  as  masons  and  shipwrights  (1  K. 
5.18;  Ezek.  27.9).  Now  called  Jebeil,  with 
ruins  which  indicate  its  former  greatness  and 
magnificence.  Whether  this  Gebal  is  intended 
in  Pa.  83.7,  or  another  south  of  the  Dead  Sea,  is 
doubtful. 

Ge'ber  (R.V.  Ben-geber).— Strong :  1.  See 
1  K.  4.13.  2.  A  commissariat  officer  of  Solomon 
whose  district  included  the  modern  Belka,  the 
great  pasture-ground  of  the  tribes  east  of  the 
Jordan  (1  K.  4.19). 

Ge'bim.— Cisterns,  ditches:  a  city  of  Ben- 
jamin (Isai.  10.31). 

Gecko  (Lev.  11.30  R.V.).— A.V.  has  "ferret." 
The  gecko  is  a  repulsive-looking  lizard. 

Gedali'ah. — Jah  is  great :  he  was  appointed 
by  Nebuchadnezzar  to  take  charge  of  the  people 
of  Judah  after  he  had  subdued  it  and  de- 
stroyed the  temple  and  capital  of  the  nation 
(2  K.  25.22).  He  was  joined  by  Jeremiah,  and 
took  measures  to  resettle  the  scattered  Jews, 
but  after  two  months'  beneficent  rule  he  was 
assassinated  by  a  party  of  the  royal  family  of 
Judah,  headed  by  Ishrnael  (Jer.  40,  41).  He  was 
a  gentle,  pious  man,  who  governed  the  people 
well,  and  whose  death  is  still  commemorated  in 
the  Jewish  calendar  as  a  national  calamity. 

Ged'eon. — The  Greek  form  of  the  Hebrew 
name  Gideon  (H eb.  11.32;  R.V.  Gideon). 

Ge'der. —  Wall :  a  city  of  the  Canaanites, 
lying  west  of  the  Jordan  ( Josh.  12.13). 

Gede'rah. — Enclosed  place  :  a  lowland  city  in 
Judah  (Josh.  15.36  ;  1  Ch.  4.23  R.V.).  It  has 
been  identified  with  Jedireh,  9  miles  south 
of  Ludd.  [LYDDA.] 

Gede'rathite.— Either  a  native  of  Gederah, 
or  of  Gedor,  in  Benjamin  (1  Ch.  12.4).  [See 
GEDOB  1.] 

Gede'rite.— An  inhabitant  of  Geder  (1  Ch. 
27.28)  or  of  Gederah. 

Gede'roth.  —  Walls :  a  town  in  the  low 
country  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.41  ;  2  Ch.  28.18). 

Gederotha'im. — Two  walls :  one  of  the 
fourteen  cities  in  the  low  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  15.36).  As  the  fourteen  are  complete 
without  it,  perhaps  an  accidental  repetition  of 
Gederah. 

Ge'dor. — A  wall :  1.  A  town  of  Judah  in  its 
mountainous  region  (Josh.  15.58).  Identified 
with  Jedur,  about  2  miles  west  of  the  road 
from  Hebron  to  Bethlehem.  Perhaps  the  same 
as  the  Gedor  of  1  Ch.  12.7,  which  was  a  town 
of  Benjamin.  [GEDERATHITE.]  2.  In  1  Ch. 
4.39  (probably  a  mistake  for  Gerar),  between  the 
south  of  Judah  and  Mount  Seir,  i.e.  Petra.  3.  An 
ancestor  of  Saul  (1  Ch.  8.31,  9.37).  4.  A  mem- 
ber of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  4.4,  18). 

Ge-hara'shim  (1  Ch.  4.14,  R.V.).  — [CHARA- 
SHIM,  THE  VALLEY  OF.] 

Geha'zi. — Valley  of  vision  :  the  confidential 
servant  of  Elisha,  prominent  in  the  story  of  the 

12 


Shunammite's  son  (2  K.  4  and  8).  When  the 
prophet  cured  Naaman  of  leprosy,  the  latter 
offered  him  a  handsome  gift,  which  he  declined. 
Gehazi,  however,  by  falsehood  obtained  a  part 
of  this  gift.  Elisha  punished  him  by  inflicting 
leprosy  upon  him  and  his  posterity  (5.15-27). 

Gehen'na.—  (The  first  syllable  represents  the 
Hebrew  word  for  valley.)  The  Greek  form  in  the 
N.T.  (not  used  in  the  LXX)  of  the  place  known 
in  Hebrew  as  the  Valley  of  Hinnom,  or  more  fre- 
quently Valley  of  the  Son  of  Hinnom  (Children 
in  2  K.  23.10,  but  see  R.V.  marg.).  The  first 
mention  is  in  Josh.  15.8,  as  part  of  the  boundary 
of  Judah,  separating  that  tribe  from  Benjamin 
(Josh.  18.16),  and  running  west  and  south  of 
Jerusalem.  In  the  days  of  Ahaz  and  Manasseh 
the  valley,  and  especially  a  place  in  it  called 
Topheth,  was  the  scene  of  the  idolatrous  worship 
of  Molech,  accompanied  with  human  sacrifice 
by  fire  (2  K.  16.3,  21.6  ;  2  Ch.  28.3,  33.6;  Jer. 
7.31,  32.35).  In  consequence  the  valley  was 
"  denied  "  by  Josiah,  "  that  no  man  might  make 
his  son  or  his  daughter  to  pass  through  the 
fire  to  Molech  "  (2  K.  23.10).  A  revival  of 
these  abominations  under  Jehoiakim  (Jer. 
11.10-13  ;  Ezek.  20.31)  brought  down  the  curse 
of  Jeremiah  upon  the  valley,  and  the  prophecy 
that  it  should  "  no  more  be  called  Tophet,  nor 
The  Valley  of  the  Son  of  Hinnom,  but  The 
Valley  of  Slaughter  "  (Jer.  7.32,  19.1-13).  The 
use  of  the  name  to  designate  a  place  of  punish- 
ment after  death  does  not  appear  in  the  O.T., 
although  the  valley  is  probably  referred  to  in 
Isai.  50.11,  66.24.  This  symbolism  would  be 
the  more  natural  and  striking  if  the  late  Jewish 
tradition  (c.  1200  A.  P.)  is  well  founded,  that  the 
place  was  made  the  receptacle  for  the  filth  of 
the  city  and  the  bodies  of  criminals,  fires  being 
kept  continually  burning  to  consume  and 
purify.  At  any  rate,  by  N.T.  times  this  figura- 
tive usage  was  established,  and  the  name 
Gehenna  is  used  in  this  sense  by  our  Lord,  and 
outside  His  words  only  in  the  Epistle  of  James 
(Matt.  5.22,  29,  30,  10.28,  18.9,  23.15,  33  ; 
Mk.  9.43,  45,  47  ;  LJc.  12.5  ;  Jas.  3.6  :  in  each 
instance  A.V.  and  R.V.  "  hell  ").  Compare  also 
the  symbolic  language  of  Matt.  8.12,  13.42,  etc., 
and  Rev.  19.20,  etc.  Of  course  to  recognise 
that  our  Lord  spoke  in  symbols  does  not  affect 
the  solemn  warning  of  His  words.  [HELL, 


Geli'loth.  —  Circles  (perhaps  stone  circles,  or 
rolling  stones):  a  place  on  the  south  boundary 
line  of  Benjamin  (Josh.  18.17),  and  so  on  the 
north  boundary  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.7,  where  it 
is  called  Gilgal).  The  Hebrew  word  occurs  also 
Josh.  13.2,  22.10,  11;  Ezek.  47.8;  Joel  3.4 
(A.V.  borders,  coasts,  country  ;  R.V.  region). 

Gemal'li.  —  Camel  owner  :  father  of  Ammiel  ; 
one  of  the  twelve  spies  sent  to  explore  the  land 
of  Canaan  (Num.  13.12). 

Gemari'ah.  —  Jehovah  hath  completed  :  1.  A 
prince  of  Judah,  from  whose  window  Baruch 
read  Jeremiah's  alarming  prophecy  to  the 
people.  HP  begged  Jehoiakim  not  to  burn  the 
roll  (Jer.  30).  2.  Zedekiah's  ambassador  to  tU« 


GENEALOGY] 


178 


[GENESIS,  BOOK  OF 


king  of  Babylon,  by  whom  Jeremiah  sent  a  letter 
to  his  countrymen  in  captivity,  warning  them 
against  the  indulgence  of  any  false  hopes  of 
redemption  (Jer.  29.3). 

Genealogy. — No  nation  was  ever  more  careful 
to  preserve  their  genealogies  than  the  Jews. 

The  genealogies,  after  the  Captivity,  had  both 
a  civil  and  a  religious  importance — as  proving 
the  rights  of  the  different  families  to  their 
respective  inheritances,  and  as  furnishing 
evidence  of  the  descent  of  the  Messiah.  In 
Ezra  (chap.  2)  and  Neh.  (chap.  7),  for 
instance,  are  two  separate  but  parallel  registers 
of  the  same  number  of  people,  though  with 
differences  of  detail.  The  Jewish  priests  were 
obliged  to  produce  an  exact  genealogy  of  their 
families  before  they  were  admitted  to  exercise 
their  function.  Wherever  placed,  the  Jews 
kept  tables  of  genealogy  in  their  several  families, 
the  originals  of  which  were  lodged  at  Jerusalem, 
to  be  consulted  occasionally.  These  authentic 
monuments,  during  all  their  wars  and  persecu- 
tions, were  taken  great  care  of,  and  from  time 
to  time  renewed.  But,  since  the  last  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem  and  the  dispersion  of  the 
people,  their  ancient  genealogies  have  been 
lost  (1  Ch.  5.1, 17,  9.1 ;  2  Ch.  12.15  ;  Ezra  2.62  ; 
Heb.  7.3,  14). 

The  genealogy  of  our  Saviour  is  deduced  by 
Matthew  from  Abraham,  by  Luke  from  Adam 
to  Joseph,  through  a  space  of  4000  years  and 
upwards.  It  is  probable  that  both  forms  of 
His  genealogy  give  the  descent  of  Joseph,  not 
of  Mary,  the  reason  being  that  in  the  public 
registers,  from  which  we  may  assume  that  the 
genealogies  were  transcribed,  Jesus,  the  son  of 
Mary,  the  espoused  wife  of  Joseph,  could  only 
appear  as  Joseph's  son.  Lord  Arthur  C.  Harvey 
wrote  :  "  The  simple  principle  that  one  evange- 
list (Matthew)  exhibits  that  genealogy  which 
contained  the  successive  heirs  to  David's  and 
Solomon's  throne,  while  the  other  (Luke)  exhibits 
the  paternal  stem  of  him  who  was  the  heir,  ex- 
plains all  the  anomalies  of  the  two  pedigrees, 
their  agreements  as  well  as  their  discrepancies 
and  the  circumstance  of  there  being  two  at  all." 
Mary  was  in  all  probability  the  first  cousin  of 
Joseph,  so  that  in  point  of  fact,  though  not  of 
form,  both  the  genealogies  are  as  much  hers 
as  her  husband's.  "Genealogies"  in  1  Tim. 
1.4 ;  Tit.  3.9.  refer  to  such  fanciful  enumerations 
as  are  found  in  the  Book  of  Jubilees.  [CHRON- 
ICLES, GENERATION.] 

Generation.— The  word  is  used  in  Ps.  24.6 
to  denote  a  particular  class  of  people.  It  is 
practically  equivalent  to  "genealogy"  in  Matt. 
1.1  and  to  "history"  in  Gen.  2.4.  In  the 
long-lived  patriarchal  age  a  generation  seems  to 
have  been  computed  at  100  years  (Gen.  15.16)  ; 
the  later  reckoning  was  from  thirty  to  forty  years 
(Job  42.16). 

Genesis,  Book  of. — The  critical  questions  as- 
sociated with  this  book  are  discussed  under 
PENTATEUCH,  which  see. 

The  contents  of  the  book  may  be  summarised 
as  follows  ; — 


1.  From  the  Creation  to  the  Deluge:  including 
the  creation  of  the  world,  the  formation  of  Man 
in   the   image  of  God,   the  institution   of  the 
Sabbath  and  of  marriage  (chaps.  1,  2) ;  the  intro- 
duction of  evil  into  the  world,  the  sentence  upon 
the  Tempter  and  upon  man,  and  God's  gracious 
promise  of  a  Saviour  (3) ;    the  account  of  Cain 
and    Abel,    and    of   Cain's   descendants ;     the 
beginning  of  human  industrial  occupations,  of 
manufactures,  and  of  the  arts  (4) ;    the  line  of 
patriarchs  from  Adam  to  Noah  (5) ;  the  universal 
prevalence  of  wickedness,  the  destruction  of  the 
ungodly  world  by  the  Flood,  with  the  preserva- 
tion of  Noah  and  his  family  (6,  7). 

2.  From  the  Deluge  to  the  Call  of  Abraham: 
comprising  God's   Covenant  of  mercy  with  the 
new  world,  and  Noah's  prophecy  respecting  his 
three  sons  (9) ;   the  re-peopling  of  the  earth  by 
Noah's  descendants,  the  origin  of  national  dis- 
tinctions, and  the  commencement  of  the  principal 
ancient  empires  (10) ;  the  confusion  of  tongues, 
and  the  dispersion  of  the  human  family  over  the 
earth  (11). 

3.  From  the  Call  of  Abraham  to  the  Death  of 
Joseph.     In  this  portion  of  the  book  the  general 
affairs  of  mankind  are    only  occasionally  and 
incidentally  noticed  ;   and  it  is  chiefly  occupied 
with  the  patriarch  and  his  descendants,  whom 
God  chose  and   separated  from  the  rest  of  the 
world,  that  from  their  race  the  promised  Saviour 
might  come.     We  have  the  history  of  Abraham 
and  his  family,  with  notices  of  the  origin  and 
history  of  some  of  the  most  ancient  kings  and 
nations  (12-25) ;  of  Isaac  and  his  family  (26, 27) ; 
of  Jacob  and    his    family  (28-35) ;    and  more 
particularly  of  Joseph,  leading  to  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  house  of  Israel  into  Egypt,  where  they 
were  preserved  from  famine,  and  their  training 
and  consolidation  into  a  great  people  were  to  be 
providentially  accomplished  (37-47) ;    followed 
by  Jacob's  prophecy  respecting  his  sons  and 
their  descendants,  with  a  glimpse  of  the  future 
Redemption  (48,  49).     The  book  concludes  with 
Joseph's  commandment  concerning  his  remains, 
and  his  death  (50). 

References  in  the  New  Testament  to  the 
Book  of  Genesis  are  abundant.  The  following 
passages  are  cited  with  the  usual  formulas  of 
quotation,  as  "  It  is  written,"  "  The  Lord  said," 
and  the  like  : — 


Gen.  1.27  .  . 
2.2  .  . 
2.7  .  . 
12.3  .  . 
17.7  .  . 
21.10,  12 
22.16,  17 
25.23 . 


Matt.  19.4 

Heb.  4.4 

1  Cor.  15.45 

Acts  3.25  ;  Gal.  3.8 

Gal.  3.16,  19 

Gal.  4.30;   Heb.  11.18 

II eb.  6.13,  14;  Jas.  2.23 

Rom.  9.12 


Incidents  and  personages  in  Genesis  are 
frequently  referred  to,  as — Gen.  3.4^  5  Eve 
beguiled  by  the  serpent,  2  Cor.  11.3  ;  1  Tim. 
2.14. 

4.4  Abel's  sacrifice,  II eb.  11.4. 

5.24  Character  and  Translation  of  Enoch, 
Ueb.  11.5,  6. 


OENNESAKET,  LAKE  OF] 


179 


[GEZER 


14.18-20  Melchizedek,  Eel.  7  passim. 

19.24-26  Destruction  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah, 
Lk.  17.29,  32  ;  2  Pet.  2.6. 

22.9  Abraham's  offering  of  Isaac,  Jas.  2.21. 

25.33  Esau's  sale  of  his  birthright,  Heb.  12.16. 

47.31  Jacob's  worship,  leaning  on  his  staff 
(or  bed),  Heb.  11.21  (see  §  25). 

Add  a  whole  series  of  references  in  Stephen's 
address  to  the  Sanhedrin,  Acts  7. 

The  phrase  "In  the  beginning"  (1.1)  is 
echoed  with  a  deeper  meaning  in  John  1.1.  Man 
made  hi  the  likeness  of  God  (5.1,  9.6)  is  a  truth 
recognised  in  1  Cor.  11.7 ;  Eph.  4.24 ;  Col.  3.10 ; 
Jas.  3.9.  The  sanctity  of  the  marriage  relation 
is  enforced  from  Gen.  2.24  by  our  Lord,  Matt. 
19.5,  and  by  Paul  in  1  Cor.  6.16  :  Eph.  5.31.  The 
faith  of  Abraham  (15.5,  6)  is  repeatedly  used  as  a 
foreshadowing  of  the  Christian  character,  Rom. 
4.3  ;  Gal.  3.6  ;  Jas.  2.23.  "  Paradise  "  carries 
the  thought  back  to  "  the  Garden,"  Gen.  2.8,  9 ; 
Rev.  2.7,  22.1,  2,  and  Jacob's  ladder  is  taken  as 
an  expressive  type,  Gen.  28.12  ;  John  1.51. 

Many  verbal  accordances  also  show  how  this 
book  was  familiar  to  the  inspired  writers  of  the 
New  Testament  as  authoritative  and  Divine. 

Gennesaret,  Lake  of.— [GALILEE,  SEA  OF.] 

Gennesaret,  Land  of. — After  the  miracle  of 
feeding  the  5000,  our  Lord  and  His  disciples 
crossed  over  the  Sea  of  Galilee  and  "  came  into 
the  land  of  Gennesaret "  (Malt.  14.34 ;  Mk. 
6.53).  The  district  is  so  called  from  Chinnereth, 
the  ancient  name  of  a  city  (Josh.  19.35)  and  ad- 
joining tract,  extending  4  miles  along  the  north- 
west shore  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  This  district 
possessed  a  singular  fertility,  with  a  delightful 
climate  and  an  abundance  of  many  kinds  of  fruit. 
The  shores  of  the  lake  at  this  part  are  strewn 
with  shapeless  ruins,  marking  the  sites  of  some  of 
those  towns  and  villages  in  which  Christ  taught. 

Gentiles  (i.e.  nations). — A  term  applied  by 
the  Hebrews  to  all  peoples  outside  the  pale  of 
Israel. 

Genu'bath. — The  son  of  Hadad,  an  Edomite. 
His  mother  was  an  Egyptian  princess.  He  was 
brought  up  like  one  of  the  sons  of  Pharaoh 
(1  K.  11.19,20). 

Ge'ra. — The  son  of  Bela,  and  a  descendant  of 
Benjamin  (Gen.  46.21  ;  1  Ch.  8.3). 

Gerah. — A  small  weight,  or  coin,  and  a 
twentieth  part  of  a  shekel  (Ex.  30.13).  Trans- 
lated as  obelos  in  LXX. 

Ge'rar. — Now  Umm  el-Jerar.  Town  and 
district  in  the  country  of  the  Philistines,  south 
of  Gaza  (Gen.  10.19)  and  Beersheba,  residence  of 
Abimelech  ;  of  Abraham  after  the  destruction 
of  Sodom  (Gen.  20.1,  2) ;  and  of  Isaac  when 
there  was  a  famine  in  Canaan  (Gen.  26.1-26); 
spoiled  by  Asa  in  his  overthrow  and  pursuit  of 
the  Ethiopians  under  Zerah  (2  Ch.  14.13,  14). 

Gerasenes.— [GERGESENES.] 

Gergese'nes. — The  country  of :  according  to 
A.V.  of  Malt.  8.28  the  scene  of  the  cure  of  the 
demoniac.  The  true  reading,  however,  in  Matt. 
is  Gadartnes,  and  in  Mk.  and  Lk.  Gerasenes  (but 
see  R.V.  marg.  Lk.  8.2G).  'Hie  Gerasa  of  Gilead, 
some  30  miles  south-east  of  the  lake,  cannot  be 


intended  :  this  Gerasa  as  well  as  "  Gergesa  " 
must  be  identified  with  the  modern  Kersa, 
[GADARENES.] 

Geri'zim. — Barren  :  a  mountain  2849  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  south  of  the  entrance 
of  the  valley  of  Shechem,  opposite  Ebal ;  scene 
of  reading  the  blessings  and  curses  when  the 
Israelites  entered  Canaan  (Deut.  11.29,  27.12  ; 
Josh.  8.33) ;  of  Jotham's  parable  to  the  men  of 
Shechem  (Judg.  9.7) ;  site  of  Samaritan  temple 
(John  4.20)  and  worship  to  the  present  day.  Now 
called  Jebel  et-Tor. 

Gershom. — Explained  as  meaning  "  a  stranger 
there  "  :  1.  The  first-born  son  of  Moses  (Ex.  2.22, 
18.3).  Jonathan  the  son  of  Gershom  was  the 
first  priest  in  the  irregular  worship  of  the  tribe 
of  Dan  (Judg.  18.30).  2.  A  member  of  the  family 
of  Phinehas  who  accompanied  Ezra  from  Babylon 
(Ezra  8.2). 

Gershon. — The  eldest  of  the  sons  of  Levi 
(Gen.  46.11 ;  1  Ch.  6.1,  etc.) ;  called  also  Gershom 
in  1  Ch.  6.16,  17,  62,  71,  15.7.  The  line  of 
Kohath,  a  younger  son,  rose  to  pre-eminence, 
for  Aaron  and  the  priests  belonged  to  it. 
The  most  distinguished  of  the  Gershonites 
was  Asaph  (1  Ch.  6.39-43).  They  had  charge  of 
the  coverings,  curtains,  hangings,  and  cords  of 
the  Tabernacle  (Num.  3.25, 26,  4.25,  26).  Thir- 
teen cities  were  apportioned  to  them  among  the 
northern  tribes  (Josh.  21.27-33;  1  Ch.  6.62, 
71-76). 

Gershonites.— [GERSHON.] 

Geruth-Cliimham  (Jer.  41.17).— [CHIMHAM.] 

Ge'sham  (U.V.  Geshan).—  See  1  Ch.  2.47. 

Ge'shem  (in  Neh.  6.G  Gashmu). — An  Arabian, 
and  one  of  those  who  opposed  Nehemiah  in  the 
rebuilding  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  2.19, 
6.1). 

Ge'shur. — Small  kingdom  east  of  the  Jordan, 
south  of  Mount  Hermon,  north  of  Bashan 
(Josh.  12.5) ;  taken  by  Jair,  son  of  Manasseh 
(Deut.  3.14  ;  1  Ch.  2.23),  but  inhabitants  not 
expelled  (Josh.  13.2,  11,  13);  under  the 
government  of  Talmai,  whose  daughter  was 
married  to  David,  and  was  the  mother  of 
Absalom  (2  Sam.  3.3) ;  Absalom's  asylum  after 
killing  his  brother  Amnon  (2  -Sam.  13.37,  38, 
14.23,  32,  15.8). 

Geshu'ri,  Geshurites.— 1.  The  inhabitants  of 
Geshur  (Deut.  3.14;  Josh.  12.5,  13.2,  11,  13; 
1  Ch.  2.23).  2.  A  tribe  mentioned  in  the  south 
with  the  Amalekites  (1  Sam.  27.8)  and  the 
Gezrites. 

Ge'ther. — The  third  of  the  four  sons  of  Aram 
(Gen.  10.23). 

Gethsem'ane. — Oil  press  :  garden  just  outside 
Jerusalem,  across  the  Kedron,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Mount  of  Olives,  the  frequent  resort  of  our  Lord, 
and  the  scene  of  His  agony  (Matt.  26.30,  36  ; 
Mk.  14.26,  32  ;  Lk.  22.39  ;  John  18.1,  2). 

Geu'eL — Greatness  of  God  :  a  son  of  Machi,  a 
prince  of  Gad,  and  one  of  the  spies  sent  by  Moses 
to  examine  the  land  (Num.  13.15). 

Ge'zer  (see  also  Gazer). — Sleep  :  a  royal  city 
of  the  Canaanites  taken  by  Joshua  (Josh.  10.33, 
12.12) ;  in  the  south  boundary  of  Ephraim 


GEZRITES] 


180 


[GIDOM 


(Josh.  16.3  ;  1  Ch.  7.28) ;  assigned  to  the  Ko- 
hathites,  and  made  a  city  of  refuge  ;  inhabitants 
not  expelled  (Josh.  16.10,  21.21  ;  Judg.  1.29; 
1  Ch.  6.67);  limit  of  David's  pursuit  of  the 
Philistines  (2  Sam.  5.25  ;  1  Ch.  14.16);  taken 
and  burnt  by  Pharaoh,  given  to  his  daughter, 
the  wife  of  Solomon,  and  rebuilt  by  him  (1  K. 
9.15-17).  Now  known  as  Tell  Jezer,  a  few 
miles  south  of  Ramleh.  The  investigation  of 
the  ruins  shows  that  it  was  inhabited  from 
2500  B.C.  continuously  until  recent  times. 
Among  the  discoveries  made  were  skeletons 
of  children  sacrificed  at  the  building  of  new 
houses,  a  row  of  large  standing  stones  used 
in  connexion  with  the  worship  of  the  sun, 
and  a  tongue  of  gold,  recalling  Achan's  theft 
(Josh.  7.21). 

Gezrites  (A.V.  marg.  Gerzites-,  R.V.  Gir- 
zites,  marg.  Gizrites). — Apparently  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Gezer,  but  possibly  another  tribe 
(1  Sam.  27.8). 

Ghost  (Anglo-Saxon  gasl,  a  spirit). — To 
"  give  up  the  ghost "  ( Jer.  15.9 ;  John  19.30)  is 
to  die.  [Goo,  SPIRIT,  TRINITY.] 

Gi'ah. — Fountainhead  :  place  near  which 
Joab  and  Abishai  pursued  Abner  (2  Sam.  2.24). 

Giant. — For  "  giants  "  in  Gen.  6.4,  etc.,  see 
NEPHILIM  ;  in  Deut.  2.11,  etc.,  see  RKPHAIM. 
[ANAK,  ZAMZUMMIM,  ZUZIM.] 

For  "  giant "  in  Job  16.14,  the  R.V.  margin 
gives  "  mighty  man,"  the  word  being  elsewhere 
used  of  "mighty  men,"  where  the  thought  is 
rather  of  prowess  than  of  size. 

Giants,  Valley  of  the.— [REPHAIM,  VALLBT  OP]. 

Gib'bar. — Hero :  one  who  came  up  with 
Zerubbabel  from  Babylon  (Ezra2.20-,inNeh.  7.25 
Gibeon). 

Gibbe'thon. — Height :  Philistine  town  allotted 
to  Dan  ;  assigned  to  Kohathites  (Josh.  19.44, 
21.23) ;  recovered  by  Philistines  and  besieged 
by  Nadab,  king  of  Israel  (1  K.  15.27,  16.15,  17). 
Now  Kibbieh. 

Gib'ea.— Highlander  :  there  is  little  doubt 
that  in  1  Ch.  2.49  a  place,  and  not  a  person,  is 
meant,  namely,  Gibeah  in  Judah. 

Gib'eah. — Hill:  1.  Town  in  the  mountains 
of  Judah  (Josh.  15.57).  2.  Gibeah  of  Ben- 
jamin. Scene  of  wrong  which  led  to  the  almost 
entire  extirpation  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin 
(Judg.  19  and  20) ;  home  of  Saul  (1  Sam.  10.26, 
etc.) ;  whence  Jonathan  set  out  to  dislodge  the 
Philistines  from  Geba  (1  Sam.  13.2,  3) ;  where 
Saul's  seven  sons  were  hanged  (2  Sam.  21.1-9) ; 
home  of  three  of  David's  mighty  men  (2  Sam. 
23.29  ;  1  Ch.  11.31,  12.3) ;  of  Uriel  (2  Ch.  13.2) ; 
occupied  by  the  Assyrian  army  on  their  way  to 
Jerusalem  (Isai.  10.29,  a  passage  which  shows 
that  Gibeah  and  Geba  are  not  the  same) ;  seat 
of  idolatry  (Hos.  5.8,  9.9,  10.9).  Identified  with 
themodern  Tell  el-Ful,  a  village  on  the  main  road 
running  north  from  Jerusalem.  [GIBEATH.] 
In  2  Sam.  6.3  R.V.  has  "  the  house  of  Abinadab 
that  was  in  the  hill  "  ;  cf.  1  Sam.  7.1. 

Gibeath  ( Josh.  18.23).— [GIBEAH  2.] 

Gibeathite.— An  inhabitant  of  Gibeath  (1  Ch. 
12.3), 


Gib 'eon. — Five  miles  north-west  of  Jeru- 
salem, on  the  top  of  a  low,  isolated,  oblong  hill, 
in  the  midst  of  a  rich  upland  plain,  the  "  land 
of  Benjamin."  A  chief  city  of  the  Hivites ;  its 
inhabitants  made  a  league  with  Joshua  (Josh. 
9.3-17).  It  was  consequently  assaulted  by 
Canaanite  kings,  but  relieved  by  Joshua  (Josh. 
10) ;  allotted  to  Benjamin  and  assigned  to  the 
priests  (Josh.  18.25,  21.17);  was  the  scene  of 
encounter  between  the  men  of  David  and  of 
Lshbosheth  under  Joab  and  Abner,  and  of 
Asahel's  death  (2  Sam.  2.12-17,24,  3.30);  of 
Amasa's  death  by  Joab  (2  Sam.  20.5-10)  and  of 
Joab's  death  by  Benaiah  (1  K.  2.28-34).  It 
was  the  site  of  the  tabernacle  of  the  congregation 
under  David  and  Solomon  (1  Ch.  16.39 ;  2  Ch. 
1.3),  the  ark  being  at  Jerusalem  (2  Ch.  1.4)  ; 
visited  in  state  by  Solomon  at  the  beginning  of 
his  reign  (1  K.  3.4-15,  9.2  ;  2  Ch.  1.3-13) ;  and 
again  for  the  removal  of  the  tabernacle  and  its 
furniture  to  the  temple  (1  K.  8.4) ;  occupied 
by  some  of  those  who  returned  from  captivity 
(Neh.  3.7,  7.25).  It  was  the  residence  of 
Hananiah,  the  false  prophet  (Jer.  28.1);  scene 
of  recovery  of  IshmaePs  captives  by  Johanan 
(Jer.  41.12,  16).  The  modern  name  is  El- Jib. 

Gibeonites,  The.— The  inhabitants  of  Gibeon 
(2  Sam.  21). 

Giblites,  The. —  The  inhabitants  of  Gebal 
(Josh.  13.5  ;  R.V.  Gebalites).  [GEBAL.] 

Giddal'ti. — /  magnify  God  :  a  son  of  Heman, 
the  king's  seer,  and  hence  a  Kohathite  (1  Ch. 
25.4,  29). 

Gid'del.— He  hath  magnified  :  1.  Children  of 
Giddel  returned  from  the  Captivity  with  Zerub- 
babel (Ezra  2.47  ;  Neh.  7.49).  2.  Sons  of  Giddel, 
amongst  the  "  servants  of  Solomon"  who  returned 
to  Judaea  in  the  same  caravan  as  1  (Ezra  2.56). 

Gid'eon. — The  hewer  :  the  son  of  Joash,  of 
the  tribe  of  Manasseh ;  also  called  Jerubbaal 
(Jw<fy.6.32,etc.)and  Jerubbesheth  (2Sam.  11.21 ). 
He  dwelt  in  the  city  of  Ophra,  and  was  chosen 
by  God  in  a  very  extraordinary  manner  to 
deliver  the  Israelites  from  the  oppression  of  the 
Midianites,  under  which  they  had  suffered  for 
seven  years.  These  cruel  and  rapacious  hordes 
annually  destroyed  all  the  produce  of  Canaan, 
except  such  as  could  be  concealed  in  mountain 
fastnesses.  Gideon's  stratagem  was  well  cal- 
culated to  throw  consternation  into  the  night 
camp  of  a  vast  undisciplined  army.  The  flash 
of  torches  and  the  reverberating  echoes  of  the 
shouting  and  the  three  hundred  trumpets  among 
the  hills  caused  a  panic  which  ended  in  the  over- 
whelming defeat  of  the  Midianites.  He  was 
the  seventh  judge  of  Israel,  and  judged  for 
fifty  years.  He  refused  to  be  king  of  Israel. 
Unfortunately  he  allowed  himself  to  be  enticed 
into  idolatry  in  the  fabrication  of  an  ephod 
which  "  became  a  snare  to  him  and  his  house." 
Nevertheless  he  is  honourably  mentioned  in 
Heb.  11.32.  See  Judg.  6.14-27,  8.1-24,  etc. 

Gideo'ni.— Father  of  Abidan  (Num.  1.11,  etc.). 

Gidom. — A  cutting  off  :  a  place  named  as 
the  limit  to  which  the  pursuit  of  Benjamin 
wiUfiultxl  alter  the  battle  of  Gibeah.  Hence 


GIEK  EAGLE] 


181 


[GILGAL 


it  was  between  Gibeah  and  the  cliff  Rimmon 
(now  called  Rummon),  about  three  miles  east 
of  Bethel  (Judg.  20.45). 

Gier  Eagle. — This  is  one  of  the  birds  forbidden 
for  food  (Lev.  11.18;  Deut.  14.17  :  R.V.  vulture), 
identical  with  the  modern  Egyptian  vulture, 
about  the  size  of  a  raven,  which  feeds  upon  offal 
and  carrion.  On  the  wing  it  is  a  handsome 
creature,  with  a  bold  contrast  of  colours  in  the 
pure  white  and  dark  brown  of  its  plumage. 
It  has  been  described  as  the  foulest  feeder  that 
lives ;  when  it  cannot  obtain  rotten  fish,  carrion, 
or  excrementary  matter,  it  preys  upon  rats, 
mice,  small  lizards,  snakes,  and  insects.  It 
is  commonly  called  Pharaoh's  ben  in  the  East, 
and  is  everywhere  protected  on  account  of  its 
great  value  as  a  scavenger. 

Gift. — The  practice  of  making  presents  is  very 
common  in  Oriental  countries  ;  rulers  and  kings, 
realising  the  difficulties  and  dangers  of  collect- 
ing revenue  by  taxation,  encouraged  their  sub- 
jects to  offer  them  presents  freely  (ISam.  10.27). 
The  practice  and  the  expectation  was  that  who- 
ever approached  the  king  or  his  officers  should 
come  with  a  gift  (Prov.  18.16).  The  practice 
was  liable  to  serious  abuse,  opening  the  door  wide 
to  bribery  and  corruption,  which  are  strongly 
condemned  in  many  passages  of  Scripture 
(Ex.  23.8 ;  Deut.  10.17 ;  Ps.  15.5 ;  /sat.  1.23,  and 
elsewhere).  Sometimes  the  king  when  he  made 
a  feast  presented  vestments  to  all  the  guests  that 
were  invited,  with  which  they  clothed  themselves 
before  they  sat  down  to  it  (Gen.  45.22 ;  2  K.  10.22  ; 
Rev.  3.5).  The  refusal  of  a  present  was  regarded 
as  a  great  insult.  Yet  giving  is  frequently 
only  an  Oriental  move  in  a  bargain  (see  Gen. 
23  :  2  Sam.  24.22). 

Gi'hon.— Stream  :  1.  One  of  the  rivers  of 
Eden,  which  see  (Gen.  2.13).  2.  The  scene  of 
Solomon's  anointing  and  proclamation  as  king 
(1  K.  1.33,  38,  45),  in  the  valley  of  the  Kedron, 
east  of  Jerusalem  (2  Ch.  33.14),  where  was  a 
spring  whose  waters  were  diverted  into  the  city 
of  David  on  the  approach  of  the  Assyrian  army 
(2  Ch.  32.30). 

Gila'lai. — A  priest  who  was  present  at  the 
dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh. 
12.36). 

Gil  boa. — Mountain  range  in  Issachar,  west 
of  the  Jordan,  where  Saul  and  Jonathan  were 
defeated  by  the  Philistines  and  slain  (1  Sam. 
28.4,  31.1,8;  2  Sam.  1.6,21,  21.12;  1  Ch. 
10.1,  8).  At  the  village  of  Jelbon,on  the  southern 
part  of  the  range,  there  is  still  a  perennial 
spring  of  water,  whence  doubtless  the  name 
Gilboa  was  derived.  The  ridge  itself  is  barren, 
but  there  are  rich  valleys  on  either  side.  There 
are  nine  villages  on  the  slopes  of  Gilboa,  the  most 
important  of  which  is  Jezreel,  now  known  as 
Zer'in. 

Gil'ead. — Hard,  rocky  region  :  1.  A  moun- 
tainous district  east  of  the  Jordan,  occupied  by 
Reuben,  Gad,  and  half-tribe  of  Manasseh; 
occasionally  the  word  signifies  the  whole  region 
east  of  the  Jordan  (Deut.  34.1  ;  Josh.  22.9  ; 
Judg.  20.1).  The  country  was  hilly,  richly 


wooded,  picturesque,  affording  rich  pasturage 
(Num.  32.1),  producing  spices  and  aromatic 
gums  (Gen.  37.25  ;  Jer.  8.22,  46.11).  It  was  the 
site  of  Jacob's  encampment  when  overtaken  by 
Laban  (Gen.  31 .21, 25);  was  taken  by  the  Israelites 
(Num.  21.24,  25,  32-35  ;  Deut.  2.32-36,  3.1-10) ; 
was  the  home  of  Jair  (Judg.  10.3),  of  Jephthah 
(Judg.  10.1,  11.7-11),  and  of  Elijah  (1  K.  17.1) ; 
the  refuge  of  Israelites  from  Philistines  (1  Sam. 
13.7),  of  Saul's  sons  (2  Sam.  2.8, 9),  of  David  when 
fleeing  from  Absalom,  who  followed  him  thither 
(2  Sam.  17.24,  26) ;  was  taken  by  Hazael,  king  of 
Syria,  in  the  reign  of  Jehu  (2  K.  10.33).  The 
"  balm  of  Gilead  "  was  the  sap  of  a  tree  which 
grows  in  that  region.  It  is  a  white,  sticky 
substance,  which  quickly  coagulates,  and  is 
valuable  in  the  cure  of  inflammations.  In  the 
tune  of  Alexander  the  Great  it  was  estimated  as 
worth  twice  its  weight  in  silver.  Mahanaim, 
the  southern  capital  of  Gilead,  still  exists  as 
Mukhmah.  The  name  of  Jabesh-gilead,  in  the 
north,  survives  in  that  of  Wady  Yabis.  North- 
west of  Rabbath-ammon,  in  the  south,  the  ruins 
of  Jubeihah  mark  the  site  of  Jogbehah,  to  which 
Gideon  pursued  the  Midianites  (Judg.  8.11). 
Succoth,  where  Jacob  went  after  Esau  departed 
from  him,  is  identified  with  Tell  Der'ala,  north 
of  the  Jabbok,  and  Mizpeh  with  Suf. 

2.  The  word  Gilead  is  also  found  as  the  name 
of  persons  (Num.  26.29  ;  Judg.  11.1 ;  1  Ch.  5.14). 

Gilead,  Mount. — In  Judg.  7.3  "  depart  from 
Mount  Gilead  "  cannot  be  right,  as  Gilead  is 
east  of  Jordan,  and  Gideon's  army  was  en- 
camped on  Gilboa,  west  of  Jordan.  The  choice 
seems  to  be  between  reading  "  Gilboa,"  or  (with 
R.V.  marg.)  interpreting  "go  round  about  Mount 
Gilead,"  a  long  detour  to  avoid  the  enemy. 

Gileadites,  The.— A  branch  of  the  tribe  of 
Manasseh,  descended  from  Gilead  or  inhabiting 
Gilead  (Num.  26.29  ;  Judg.  12.4  ;  2  Sam.  17.27; 
1  K.  2.7  ;  Ezra  2.61  ;  Neh.  7.63). 

Gil'gal.—  A  circle  of  ttones  :  1.  Site  of  first 
Israelite  encampment  after  crossing  the  Jordan. 
Here  the  twelve  stones  taken  from  the  river  were 
set  up,  those  born  in  the  wilderness  were  circum- 
cised, first  passover  kept  in  the  land  was  observed, 
and  an  encampment  remained  during  the  early 
period  of  the  conquest  (Josh.  4.19,  20,  5.9,  10, 
9.6,  10.6-43,  14.6).  It  was  visited  by  Samuel 
as  judge  (1  Sam.  7.16).  Here  offerings  were 
presented  to  Jehovah  (1  Sam.  10.8,  11.14,  15, 
13.4-15,  15.12,  21);  Saul  was  proclaimed  king 
(1  Sam.  11.14,15);  Agag  the  Amalekite  was 
killed  (1  Sam.  15.33).  Thither  the  men  of  Judah 
came  to  welcome  David  on  his  return  to  Jeru- 
salem after  the  death  of  Absalom  (2  Sam. 
19.15-40).  It  was  occupied  after  the  return  from 
captivity  (Neh.  12.29).  The  site  of  Gilgal  is 
now  occupied  by  Tell  Jiljul,  4J  miles  from  the 
Jordan  and  If  miles  from  Er-Riha  (Jericho). 
2.  A  town  6  miles  north  of  Bethel,  whence  Elijah 
and  Elisha  set  out  before  the  translation  of  the 
former,  and  whither  Elisha  returned  (2  K.  2.1, 
4.38).  Now  called  Jiljilia.  3.  The  "  king  of  the 
nations  of  Gilgal  "  was  overthrown  by  Joshua 
( Josh.  12.23).  This  Gilgal  is  now  a  village  called 


GILOH] 


182 


[GOAT 


Jiljuliah,  north  of  Joppa,  and  6  miles  north  of 
Antipatris.  4.  Landmark  in  the  north  boundary 
of  Judah,  called  also  Geliloth,  probably  the  same 
as  Gilgal  1  (Josh.  15.7,  18.17). 

Gi'loh.—  Town  in  highlands  of  Judah  (Josh. 
15.51),  the  home  of  Ahithophel  (2  Sam.  15.12, 
23.34). 

Gi'lonite. — A  native  of  Giloh,  only  used  with 
reference  to  Ahithophel  (2  Sam.  15.12,  23.34). 

Gim'zo. — Town  in  north-west  of  Judah  taken 
by  the  Philistines  in  time  of  Ahaz  (2  Ch.  28.18). 
Now  called  Jimzu,  a  large  village  between  2 
and  3  miles  south-west  of  Lydda,  south  of  the 
road  between  Jerusalem  and  Jaffa. 

Gi'nath.— The  father  of  Tibni  (1  K.  1G.21,  22). 

Ginne  thon. — One  of  those  who  sealed  the 
covenant  (Neh.  10.6,  12.16:  in  12.4  A.V. 
Ginnetho,  R.V.  Ginnethoi). 

Girdle. — An  indispensable  article  in  the  dress 
of  an  Oriental,  used  to  tuck  up  the  long  flowing 
vestments  which  otherwise  would  be  an  im- 
pediment in  work  or  on  a  journey.  It  was 
commonly  made  of  leather,  wool,  or  linen, 
often  woven  into  a  variety  of  figures  and  made 
to  fold  several  times  about  the  body.  One  end 
of  the  girdle,  being  doubled  back  and  sewn 
along  the  edges,  served  as  a  purse.  This  is  the 
"  purse  "  which  is  mentioned  in  Matt.  10.9  and 
Mk.  6.8.  The  girdle  was  sometimes  put  to 
a  further  use  by  fixing  knives  and  daggers 
in  it ;  while  the  writers  and  secretaries  sus- 
pended in  them  their  inkhorns  (Ezek.  9.2).  To 
loose  the  girdle  and  give  it  to  another  was  a 
token  of  great  confidence  and  affection.  A 
girdle  curiously  and  richly  wrought  was  a  mark 
of  honour,  and  sometimes  bestowed  as  a  reward 
of  merit  (2  Sam.  18.11).  "  To  gird  up  the  loins" 
is  U  draw  the  girdle  tighter,  and  so  to  prepare 
for  a  journey  or  for  some  vigorous  enterprise. 

Gir'gashites,  The. — One  of  the  tribes  found 
in  possession  of  Canaan  at  its  invasion  by  the 
children  of  Israel  (Gen.  10.16,  15.21  ;  ~Deut. 
7.1 ;  Josh.  3.10,  24.11 ;  1  Ch.  1.14  ;  Neh.  9.8). 
Their  territory  was  on  the  west  of  the  Jordan. 

Gir'gasite,  The  (Gen.  10.16).— [GIEQASHITES.] 

Girzites.— [GEZRITES.] 

Gis'pa  (K.V.  Gishpa).— An  overseer  of  the 
Nethinim  after  the  Exile  (Neh.  11.21). 

Git'tah-He'pher    (Josh.    19.13).— [GATH-HE- 

PHER.] 

Git'taim. — Two  winepresses  or  place  of  a 
winepress :  a  town  of  Benjamin,  refuge  of 
Beerothites  (2  Sam.  4.3);  after  the  Captivity 
inhabited  by  Benjamites  (Neh.  11.33). 

Git'tites.  —  Inhabitants  of  Gath  (2  Sam. 
6.10,  11,  15.18,  19). 

Git'tith.— The  title  of  three  of  the  Psalms— 
8,  81,  and  84 — contains  the  phrase  "  upon 
Gittith  "  (A.V.)  or  "  set  to  the  Gittith  "  (R.V.). 
The  word  may  be  connected  with  the  city  of 
Gath,  in  which  case  it  would  denote  some  Gittite 
instrument  or  melody,  perhaps  brought  by 
David.  More  probably,  however,  it  is  derived 
from  the  Hebrew  word  for  **  winepress,"  and 
the  three  Psalms  are  "  vintage-songs,"  sung, 
perhaps,  at  the  autumn  Feast  of  Tabernacles. 


So  Thirtle  (Titles  o]  the  Psalms),  who,  however, 
attaches  the  title  to  the  preceding  Psalms — 7, 
80,  and  83. 

Gi'zonite,  The. — The  sons  of  Hash  em  the 
Gizonite  were  among  the  warriors  of  David's 
guard  (1  Ch.  11.34).  The  name  appears  as 
Jashen  in  2  Sam.  23.32. 

Gizrites.— [GEZRITES]. 

Glass. — The  invention  of  glass  dates  from, 
at  least,  2000  B.C.,  though  the  only  reference 
in  the  O.T.  is  Job  28.17  (11. V.  :  A.V.  crystal). 
The  brightness  and  transparency  of  glass  form 
part  of  the  imagery  of  the  Apocalypse  (Rev.  4.6, 
15.2,  21.18,  21).  The  art  of  making  mirrors 
from  glass,  coated  with  quicksilver,  was  not 
known,  or,  at  least,  not  practised.  Mirrors 
were  made  of  polished  metal.  In  this  sense 
must  be  understood  Ex.  38.8  ;  Job  37.18;  Isai. 
3.23  ;  1  Cor.  13.12  ;  2  Cor.  3.18  ;  and  Jas.  1.23. 
Such  a  mirror  was  liable  to  many  imperfections  ; 
hence  "  now  we  see  in  a  mirror  darkly,"  i.e. 
obscurely,  indistinctly. 

Glean. — A  special  command  was  given  to  the 
Hebrews  that  they  should  leave  some  of  the 
fruits  of  the  fields  for  poor  relations  or  the  poor 
to  gather  (Lev.  19.9,  10  ;  Judg.  8.2).  [See  also 
Ruth  2.] 

Glede. — Enumerated  among  the  unclean 
birds  in  Deul.  14.13  and  distinguished  from  the 
kite.  The  bird  intended  is  the  buzzard,  of  which 
there  are  two  varieties  in  the  Holy  Land — the 
common  buzzard  and  the  long-legged  buzzard. 
The  former,  which  is  fairly  well  known  in  the 
British  Islands,  is  a  large,  graceful  bird,  of  the 
same  tribe  as  the  falcon,  but  not  so  swift.  It 
does  not,  like  the  peregrine  or  merlin,  chase  its 
prey  or  strike  at  it  on  flight,  but  rather  watches 
for  it  from  a  position  of  vantage,  and  pounces  at 
it  unexpectedly  from  its  post. 

Gnat.— Mentioned  only  in  Matt.  23.24 — 
A.V.  "strain  at  a  gnat";  R.V.,  correctly,  "strain 
out  the  gnat,"  The  commonest  gnat  of  Pales- 
tine is  the  mosquito,  whose  sting  is  very  pain- 
ful. 

Goad. — A  long  staff  or  wand  for  driving 
cattle,  with  a  piece  of  sharply-pointed  iron  at  one 
end  (Judg.  3.31  ;  1  Sam.  13.21  ;  Eccles.  12.11). 
For  "  to  kick  against  the  pricks  "  (Acts  26.14) 
11.  V.  has  "  to  kick  against  the  goad,"  a  pro- 
verbial expression  current  both  in  Greek  and 
Latin  for  the  futility  of  resistance  to  over- 
whelming power. 

Goah.— [GOATH.] 

Goat. — The  domestic  goat  was  one  of  the 
clean  beasts,  to  be  used  for  food  or  for  sacrifice. 
The  kid  was  considered  a  delicacy  (Gen.  38.17  ; 
Judg.  15.1  ;  Lk.  15.29),  and  is  still  the  constant 
dish  at  any  feast  or  in  the  exercise  of  hospitality 
among  the  Arabs.  The  same  shepherd  who 
looks  after  the  sheep  also  herds  the  goats,  and 
they  mingle  in  their  pursuit  of  food.  At  night, 
or  when  being  driven,  they  keep  apart  in 
separate  droves.  Usually,  however,  they  are 
found  in  different  localities,  a  hilly  country 
being  better  adapted  for  the  goat  than  the 
slieop.  Syrian  goats  are  usually  black.  The 


GOAT,  WILD] 


183 


[GOD 


milk  of  the  goat  is  greatly  esteemed,  cheese 
and  butter  being  made  from  it.  The  skin 
is  used  for  water-bottles  and  wine-bottles. 
These  bottles  are  the  entire  skin  sewn  up 
where  necessary.  In  Ps.  119.83,  "I  am 
become  like  a  bottle  in  the  smoke,"  the 
reference  is  to  the  cracked  appearance  these 
skins  acquire  if  allowed  to  become  parched. 
Goats'  hair  is  used  for  clothing,  for  curtains, 
and  for  tents.  All  herds  of  goats,  however 
small,  have  as  leader  a  he-goat,  whose  move- 
ments all  the  others  follow.  Hence  he-goat  is 
used  metaphorically  for  leader  in  Jer.  50.8  and 
Zech.  10.3.  Goats  have  done  much  to  exter- 
minate shrubby  vegetation  in  southern  Syria, 
and  thus  helped  to  keep  the  region  in  a  desert 
condition.  No  animals  are  more  destructive 
to  growing  young  timber  than  goats. 

Goat,  Wild. — The  ibex  of  southern  Palestine 
is  referred  to  in  1  Sam.  24.2 ;  Job  39.1; 
and  Ps.  104.18.  Engedi  (Ain  Jiddy)  or  "  the 
fountain  of  the  goats,"  is  named  after  the  wild 
goats,  which  are  still  sometimes  to  be  seen 
there.  They  go  in  small  herds,  are  very  shy, 
and  dwell  in  the  less  accessible  fastnesses 
among  the  mountains.  The  flesh  is  excellent 
eating,  and  it  was  no  doubt  this  venison  that 
Isaac  sent  his  son  to  procure  for  him  with 
quiver  and  bow  (Gen.  27).  The  flesh  of  the 
gazelle,  the  only  common  species  of  deer  in  the 
country,  is  dry  and  inferior  meat. 

Go'ath  (K..V.  Go'ah). — An  unknown  place 
near  Jerusalem  (Jer.  31.39). 

Gob. — Cistern :  scene  of  conflict  between 
David's  forces  and  the  Philistines  (2  5am.  21.18, 
19).  In  1  Ch.  20.4  the  place  is  called  Gezer. 

God.— I.  The  Names  of  God.— OUT  English 
word  God,  which  according  to  the  Oxford 
Dictionary  is  perhaps  derived  from  the  Aryan 
ghcu,  invoke  or  sacrifice,  represents  more  than 
one  word  in  the  Bible,  (a)  That  which  is  in 
most  frequent  use  is  elohim,  strictly  speaking, 
a  plural  form,  of,  presumably,  the  word  eloah. 
But  though  plural  in  form,  when  it  refers  to 
the  one  true  God,  the  verb  of  which  it  is  the 
subject,  or  the  adjective  which  agrees  with 
it,  is  almost  invariably  in  the  singular.  The 
chief  exceptions  are  when  either  the  speaker,  or 
the  person  addressed,  is  a  heathen  (Gen.  20.13 ; 
1  Sam.  4.8).  The  cause  of  this  strange  use 
of  a  plural  form  to  indicate  God  is  not  certain, 
but  probably  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that 
in  Hebrew  the  plural  sometimes  has  an 
intensive  sense.  The  philological  meaning  of 
the  words  eloah,  elohim,  is  unknown  ;  of  the 
many  suggestions,  "  He  who  is  the  refuge 
from  our  fear,"  or  "  He  who  is  feared,"  are 
the  least  improbable.  (6)  El,  probably  "  the 
strong  one,"  also  occurs  frequently.  It  is 
found  with  additions :  El-Elyon,  "  God  most 
high "  (Gen.  14.18) ;  El-Shaddai,  "  God 
Almighty  "  (Gen.  17.1) ;  and  enters  into  the 
composition  of  many  Hebrew  names  (e.g. 
Eliab,  Michael),  (c)  Adonai,  Lord  or  Master. 
This  and  the  two  preceding  words  were 
used  of  God  as  the  God  of  the  world,  without 


special  reference  to  Israel.  _  But  (d)  Jehovah 
(which  see),  or  more  properly  Jahveh  (the  LORD, 
in  the  English  versions),  the  self-existing  One, 
who  will  ever  prove  sufficient  for  all  the  needs 
of  His  people,  designates  Him  who  was  the 
covenant-God  of  Israel  in  a  special  sense. 
(e)  Another  name,  or  rather  title,  "  The  Holy 
One  of  Israel"  (Isat.  30.11),  deserves  to  be 
mentioned  here,  because  it  embodied  the 
higher  ethical  teaching  of  the  prophets,  re- 
minding the  people  that  the  God  whom  they 
worshipped  was  far  removed  from  the  ordinary 
ways  of  men,  and  therefore  required  His 
people  to  be  like  Him  in  hatred  of  sin.  Under 
this  title  Jehovah  is  recognised  as  the  touch- 
stone, not  only  of  ceremonial,  but  also  of 
ethical,  purity.  (/)  Father.  In  primitive 
Semitic  religions  the  term  as  applied  to  the 
gods  had  a  physical  basis.  Nations  believed 
that  they  were  the  descendants  of  Divine 
beings.  In  the  O.T.,  however,  God  is  regarded 
as  the  Father  of  Israel  because  He  formed  it 
into  a  nation  bv.His  gracious  acts  (Deut.  32.6; 
Hos.  11.1;  cf.  Ex.  4.22).  In  much  the 
same  way  He  is  called  the  Father  of  the 
Davidic  line  of  kings,  because  He  chose  it  and 
made  it  supreme  (2  Sam.  7.14;  Ps.  2.7,  12; 
89.27).  Later,  God  is  said  to  pity  those 
who  fear  Him  (the  reference  is  solely  to 
Israelites  and  to  those  who  accept  the  religion 
of  Israel),  as  a  father  pities  his  children 
(Ps.  103.13  ;  Mai.  3.17). 

If  we  consider  these  names  as  a  history  of 
religion,  we  can  trace  advance.  From  primitive 
and  physical  conceits  men  are  led  to  regard 
God  as  the  object  of  fear  (?) ;  as  the  supreme 
strength  (?) ;  as  lord  and  master ;  then  as 
the  source  of  life  and  giver  of  all ;  as  the 
absolutely  holy  One  who  requires  holiness 
in  His  people ;  and  even  to  consider  in  some 
degree  His  moral  and  spiritual  Fatherhood. 
The  way  is  prepared  for  the  perfect  revelation 
in  a  Son  (Tleb.  1.1). 

For  in  none  of  this  O.T.  teaching  is  there 
that  fulness  of  meaning  which  we  associate 
with  the  name  Father.  This  is  derived  from 
the  teaching  of  the  N.T.  Further,  although 
in  one  sense  God  is  the  Father  of  all  men, 
the  N.T.  teaches  us  to  regard  Him  as  the 
Father  in  a  special  degree  of  those  who  believe 
on  Him.  Speaking  generally,  the  phrase, 
"  The  Fatherhood  of  God  and  the  Brotherhood 
of  man  "  comes  short  of  the  N.T.  conception 
of  the  personal  relation  of  God  to  true  believers, 
and  their  ensuing  relation  to  one  another. 

II.  The  Doctrine  of  God. — Certain  considera- 
tions at  onne  suggest  themselves,  (a)  There  is 
no  attempt  in  the  Bible  to  prove  the  existence 
of  God.  This  is  taken  for  granted.  To 
primitive  man,  and  to  the  human  race  in 
general,  there  has  never  been  any  doubt  of 
His  existence.  And  to-day,  although  philo- 
sophers  assure  us  that  it  is  impossible  to  prove 
that  God  is,  with  the  same  certainty  with 
which  (for  example)  we  can  prove  that  twice 
two  are  four,  yet  the  probability  in  favoui 


GOD] 


184 


[GOIIM 


of  it  is  so  overwhelming  as  to  outweigh  every 
other  kind  of  moral  certainty.  Among  the 
facts  to  be  remembered  in  this  connexion 
are  causation,  leading  back  to  a  Great  First 
Cause ;  personality,  the  highest  kind  of 
existence  that  can  be  conceived,  so  that  a 
First  Cause  lacking  personality  would  be 
inferior  to  ourselves ;  the  sense  of  beauty, 
of  morality,  of  justice ;  the  innate  craving 
after  more  than  earth,  or  even  eternity,  can 
satisfy,  if  there  be  not  One  to  whom  we  can  go. 
(6)  God  is  one  and  only  one  (Deut.  6.4,  fully 
accepted  by  the  Lord  Jesus,  Mark  12.29). 
For  if  there  were  more  than  one  Supreme 
Deity  there  might  be  conflict.  Hence,  as 
against  the  dualism  of  Zoroaster,  according 
to  which  there  are  two  supreme  beings,  one 
good,  and  one  evil,  the  Bible  rightly  makes 
God  supreme,  even  over  evil  (Isai.  45.6, 7). 
This  fundamental  fact  of  the  Unity  of  God 
the  Christian  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  does  not 
contradict,  but,  on  the  contrary,  safeguards. 

(c)  God  is  the  Creator  and  Sustainer  of  all  (Gen. 
1.1;  Acts  17.24;  Rev.  4.11;  so  also  John  1.3; 
Col.  1.16,  where  the  immediate  Agent  is   the 
Second     Person    in    the     Trinity).      We    are 
learning,  with  clearness  of  perception  increasing 
every  day,  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  dead 
and  motionless  matter,   that  the  very  stones 
are  quivering  with  energy  and  are  only  held 
together    by    tremendous    and    active    forces ; 
that  there  is  no  break  visible  in  the  various 
types  of  the  vegetable  and  the  animal  kingdoms, 
or   even    in    the    transition    between    what   is 
vegetable  and   what  is  animal ;    that  by  the 
principle  of  adaptation  to  environment  primi- 
tive   matter    has     become     more     and     more 
differentiated   into   the  marvellous   forms  and 
powers  in  which  we  now  find   it.     Our  ever- 
increasing    knowledge    of    God's    methods    in 
creation   leads    us    to   ever-increasing    praise. 

(d)  We  are  learning  also  more  of  His  relation 
to  us  as  the  Sustainer  of  all.     In  regard   to 
this   there   are   two   truths,    neither   of   which 
can  be  allowed  to  exclude  the  other,     (i)  He  is 
Transcendent,  i.e.  apart  from,  and  above,  this 
universe  (see  Isai.  40.22,  42.5;  1  Tim.   6.16). 
As  Browning  says  in  "  Pippa  Passes,"  "  God's  in 
His  heaven,  all's  right  with  the  world."     But 
if  we  insist  on  this  alone  we  rapidly  come  to 
"  Deism,  with  its  distant  God  and  mechanical 
universe."  (ii)  It  is,  therefore,  equally  important 
to  remember  that  God    is  Immanent,  i.e.   in, 
with,   and    under,    matter.     "  Speak    to    Hun 
thou,  for  He  hears,  and  Spirit  with  Spirit  can 
meet — Closer  is  He  than  breathing,  and  nearer 
than  hands  and  feet "  (Tennyson,  **  The  Higher 
Pantheism").     Thus  we,  with  all  creation,  are 
in    Hun   (Acts   17.28 ;    cf.   John   1.3,  4,    R.V. 
margin),  and  He  in  us  by  the  very  fact  that 
as   spirit   (John   4.24)    He    has    omnipresence. 
It  is  the  insistence  on  this  truth  alone  that 
lies  at  the  basis  of  the  so-called  New  Theology, 
which  is  essentially  the  teaching  of  Emerson  : 
"  Behind  nature,   throughout  nature,  spirit  is 
present,  one  and  not  compound,  it  does  not 


act  upon  us  from  without,  that  is,  in  space 
and  time,  but  spiritually,  or  through  ourselves  : 
therefore,  that  spirit,  that  is,  the  Supreme 
Being,  does  not  build  up  nature  around  us, 
but  puts  it  forth  through  us,  as  the  life  of 
the  tree  puts  forth  new  branches  and  leaves 
through  the  pores  of  the  old"  (Works,  1884, 
i.  52).  It  will  readily  be  understood  that 
the  doctrine  of  the  Immanence  of  God  (con- 
sidered alone)  easily  leads  to  Pantheism,  a 
danger  which  the  leaders  of  the  New  Theology 
try  to  avoid  by  insisting  on  the  personality 
of  God,  but  to  which  many  parts  of  their 
teaching  lead. 

III.  The  Worship  of  God.— II  religion  is  a 
necessity  of  human  nature,  worship  is  its 
visible  form.  For  although  we  can  suppose 
a  priori  that  the  man  may  prostrate  himself 
before  the  Divine  without  any  external  sign, 
yet  this  is  so  inconsistent  with  human  nature, 
and  so  contrary  to  the  demands  of  religion, 
requiring,  as  she  does,  the  adoration  of  God 
by  the  whole  of  our  complex  personality,  that 
it  may  be  disregarded. 

Hence  from  prehistoric  times  man  appears 
to  have  used  external  means  of  worship.  But 
in  proportion  as  his  culture  became  deeper 
and  wider  so  did  his  sense  of  what  was  suitable 
to  worship  develop.  Nothing  was  too  good 
or  valuable,  whether  inanimate  or  animate 
nature,  even  as  far  as  human  life  itself,  to  be 
spared  from  dedication  to  God,  and  from 
age-long  ministry.  Neither  has  Christianity 
raised  any  demurrer  against  this.  It  is  true 
that  our  Lord  says,  "  God  is  a  Spirit ;  and 
they  that  worship  Him  must  worship  in  spirit  and 
in  truth  "  (John  4.24),  and  that  in  consequence 
some  Christian  congregations  have  endeavoured 
to  reduce  the  accessories  of  worship  to  a 
minimum.  But  they  have  not  attempted  to 
discard  them  wholly,  and  a  wider  considera- 
tion of  the  interrelation  of  body  and  soul 
would  lead  them  to  use  every  means  and  form 
appealing  to  the  body,  as  well  as  to  the  soul. 
Experience,  however,  has  shown  that  for 
people  in  general  there  is  a  grave  danger  that 
the  increase  of  ritual  fixes  attention  on  the 
ritual  rather  than  on  Him  to  whom  it  is 
addressed,  and  that  external  worship  tends 
to  become  formal.  Hence  those  churches 
act  more  prudently,  and  with  a  greater  know- 
ledge of  human  nature  as  we  find  it,  who  refu.se 
to  overload  Divine  worship  with  symbols, 
and  trust  chiefly  to  simplicity  of  prayers, 
and  to  faithfulness  in  reading  and  teaching 
the  Bible,  and  in  proclaiming  the  Gospel. 
[ALTAR,  BAAL,  CHURCH,  CREATION,  ELOI,  HOLT 
SPIRIT,  JEHOVAH,  JESUS  CHRIST,  LORD,  LORD 
OP  HOSTS,  TABERNACLE,  TEMPLE,  TRINITY, 
WORSHIP.] 

Gog. — 1.  A  Reubenite,  son  of  Shemaiah 
(1  Ch.  5.4).  2.  A  chief  from  the  land  of  Magog 
(Ezek.  38  and  39).  In  Rev.  20.8,  Magog  is  a 
companion  of  Gog.  [MAGOG.] 

Goiim. — The  Hebrew  word  for  nations,  and 
so  rendered  in  the  A.V.  even  in  Gen.  14.1  and 


GOLAN] 


185 


[GRACE 


Josh.  12.23,  in  both  of  which  places  the  R.V. 
retains  (ioiirn.  In  the  former  passage  it  seems 
to  represent  certain  hordes  on  the  north  of 
Elam. 

Go 'Ian. — Naked,  lore  :  town  and  district  in 
Bashan,  allotted  to  east  half-tribe  of  Manasseh  ; 
assigned  to  the  Gershonites,  and  appointed  as 
one  of  the  cities  of  refuge  (DtnU.  4.43  ;  Josh. 
20.8,  21.27;  1  Ch.  6.71). 

Gold. — The  use  of  gold  was  common  among 
the  Hebrews.  Several  parts  of  the  temple  and 
of  its  furniture  and  utensils  were  overlaid  with 
this  precious  metal  (Ex.  36.34-38 ;  1  K.  7.48-50) ; 
and  many  of  the  vessels  of  the  wealthy,  as  well 
as  their  personal  ornaments  and  insignia  of 
office,  were  of  gold.  Ophir  (Job  28.16),  Parvaim 
(2  Ch.  3.6),  Sheba,  and  Raamah  (Ezek.  27.22, 
23)  are  mentioned  as  places  producing  gold. 
It  was  abundant  in  ancient  times  (1  Ch.  22.14  ; 
2  Ch.  1.15,  9.9  ;  Dan.  3.1 ;  Nah.  2.9),  and 
was  neither  coined  nor  used  as  a  standard  of 
value. 

Goldsmith. — [HANDICRAFT.] 

Golgo'tha. — Skull :  the  Hebrew  name  of  the 
spot  at  which  Christ  was  crucified  (Matt.  27.33  ; 
Mk.  15.22  ;  John  19.17).  [CALVARY.] 

Goli'ath.— A  famous  giant  of  Gath  who  defied 
the  armies  of  Israel,  but  was  slain  and  despoiled 
by  David  while  a  stripling  (1  Sam.  17).  His 
height  was  "  six  cubits  and  a  span."  With  a 
cubit  of  21  in.,  this  would  make  him  over  10  J  ft.  ; 
taking  the  cubit  at  18  in.,  it  would  make  him  over 
9  ft.  After  the  victory  David  cut  off  Goliath's 
head,  which  he  brought  to  Jerusalem,  while 
he  hung  the  armour  in  his  tent  (1  Sam.  17.54). 

Go'mer. — Completion,  heat :  1.  The  son  of 
Japheth  and  the  father  of  Ashkenaz,  Riphath, 
and  Togarmah  (Gen.  10.2,  3).  His  descendants 
are  mentioned  in  Ezek.  38.6.  2.  The  wife  or 
concubine  of  Hosea  (Eos.  1.3). 

Gomor'rah  or  Gomorrha. — Submersion  :  one 
of  the  five  cities  of  the  plain  (Gen.  10.19,  13.10) 
which  opposed  the  invasion  of  Chedorlaomer 
(Gen.  14.2-11);  destroyed  by  fire  and  brimstone 
(Gen.  19.24,  28) ;  its  wickedness  made  proverbial 
(Gen.  18.20;  Deut.  29.23,  32.32;  Isai.  1.9,  10; 
Jer.  23.14,  49.18 ;  Rom.  9.29) ;  its  fate  a 
warning  against  sin  (Deut.  29.23  ;  Matt.  10.15  ; 
Mk.  6.11;  2  Pet.  2.6;  Jude  7);  supplying  a 
precedent  for  the  destruction  of  Babylon  (Isai. 
13.19;  Jer.  50.40);  of  Edom  (Jer.  49.18);  of 
Moab(Z«pA.  2.9);  and  of  Israel  (Jmo*4.11).  The 
cities  of  the  plain  were  situated  in  the  Jordan 
valley  near  the  north  end  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
They  were  all  involved  in  the  catastrophe  except 
Zoar,  which  has  been  identified  with  the  modern 
Tell  esh-Shaghur,  at  the  foot  of  the  Moabite 
hills. 

Gopher  Wood.— The  substance  of  which 
Noah's  Ark  was  constructed  (Gen.  6.14).  The 
word  nowhere  else  occurs  in  Scripture,  and  is 
generally  taken  to  signify  cypress,  which  is  still 
found  in  the  regions  watered  by  the  Euphrates 
and  the  Tigris. 

Gorget.— A. V.  marg.  of  1  Sam.  17.6,  for  "a 
target"  of  brass;  R.V.  has  "javelin  of  brass." 


Go'shen.—  1.  Fertile  district  on  the  east  border 
of  Lower  Egypt,  where  Jacob  and  his  family 
settled,  and  where  their  descendants  remained 
un til  the  exodus  (Gen.  45. 10,  46.28-34,47.1-6,  27, 
50.8;  Ex.  8.22,  9.26).  When  the  Hebrews 
settled  there  it  was  not  an  organised  province 
occupied  by  an  agricultural  population,  but  a 
large  tract  of  marshland  which  might  be  given 
by  the  king  to  foreigners  without  injury  to  the 
native  population.  With  the  increase  of  the 
population,  no  doubt  the  name  Goshen  covered 
a  large  space  of  territory,  and  we  may  define 
its  boundaries  as  extending  from  the  Tanitic 
branch  of  the  Nile  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
delta  to  the  desert  of  the  Red  Sea.  2.  District  in 
south  Palestine  taken  by  Joshua  (Josh.  10.41, 
11.16).  3.  Town  in  the  highlands  of  Judah 
(Josh.  15.51). 

Gospel. — The  word,  meaning  good  news  or 
good  message,  is  applied  to  the  four  inspired 
histories  of  the  life  and  teaching  of  Christ  con- 
tained in  the  N.T.  (Matt.,  Mk.,  Lk.,  John) ;  also 
to  the  revelation  of  the  grace  of  God  which 
Christ  came  to  preach,  and  of  which  He,  in  His 
life  and  death  and  resurrection,  is  the  contents, 
and  which  means  for  men  salvation  and  peace. 
It  is  called  the  Gospel  of  His  grace,  because  it 
flows  from  His  free  love  (Acts  20.24) ;  the  Gospel 
of  the  Kingdom,  as  it  treats  of  the  Kingdom  of 
grace  and  glory  (Matt.  4.23) ;  the  Gospel  of  Christ, 
because  He  is  the  author  and  subject  of  it  (Rom. 
1.16) ;  the  Gospel  of  peace  and  salvation,  as 
it  promotes  our  present  comfort  and  leads  to 
eternal  glory  (Eph.  1.13,  6.15);  the  glorious 
Gospel,  as  in  it  the  glorious  perfections  of  God 
are  displayed  (2  Cor.  4.4) ;  and  the  everlasting 
Gospel,  as  it  was  designed  from  eternity,  is 
permanent  in  time  and  of  eternal  effect  (Rev.  14. 6). 
[See  NBW  TESTAMENT,  and  each  Gospel  under 
the  name  of  its  author.] 

Gourd. — There  has  been  much  discussion 
as  to  the  identity  of  the  plant  which  afforded 
to  the  discouraged  prophet  Jonah  a  welcome 
shade  and  a  salutary  lesson.  Opinion  inclines 
to  the  castor-oil  plant,  the  Palma  Christ!  of 
marg.  of  A.V.  and  R.V.  (Jonah  4.6-10). 

The  wild  gourds  put  into  the  pottage  of  Elisha 
(2  K.  4.39)  differ  from  the  plant  of  Jonah. 
These  were  colocynths,  from  which  a  well-known 
medicine,  bitter  and  drastic,  is  made ;  the 
flavour  would  at  once  excite  alarm,  and  the  plants, 
if  eaten  as  food,  are  highly  poisonous.  The 
colocynth  grows  abundantly  in  the  low  flats 
around  the  Dead  Sea.  When  fully  ripe  it  has 
a  rind  of  a  bright  orange  colour  and  contains 
bitter  seeds  and  dust  (see  1  K.  6.18  marg.). 

Go'zan. — District  to  which  the  Israelites  were 
carried  captive  by  the  Assyrians  (2K.  17.6, 18.11, 
19.12;  1  Ch.  5.26;  and  Isai.  37.12);  probably 
that  watered  by  the  H;ibor  (Khabour),  which 
flows  through  Mesopotamia  into  the  Euphrates, 
a  region  of  remarkable  fertility. 

Grace. — In  the  O.T.,  favour,  especially  in  the 
phrase  to  "  find  grace"  (Gen.  6.8,  etc.).  In  the 
N.T.  (except  Jos.  1.11,  where  "  grace  "  equals 
"  comeliness  "),  the  free,  unmerited  favour  of 


GEAPE] 


186 


[HABAKKUK 


God  to  man  ;  sometimes  contrasted  with  the 
Law  (Rom.  6.14)  ;  and  expressing  the  course  of 
mercy  by  which  man  is  "called"  (Gal.  1.15), 
"saved  '"  (Eph.  2.8),  "justified  "(Rom.  3.24), 
enabled  to  live  aright  (1  Cor.  15.10)  and  to  find 
this  "  sufficient  "  for  him  (2  Cor.  12.9). 

Grape.— [Vims.] 

Grass. — The  minor  vegetation  of  field  and 
meadow — in  Bible  phrase  **  the  grass  of  the  field  " 
— springing  forth  so  fair  and  abundant  in  the  early 
spring  and  quickly  withering  in  the  summer's 
heat,  is  a  frequent  emblem  of  the  frailty,  brevity, 
and  transitoriness  of  human  life  and  fortune 
(Job  8.12;  Ps.  37.2,  90.5;  Isai.  40.6,  7).  In 
winter  the  meadows  of  Palestine  are  simply 
colourless  ;  all  traces  of  the  spring  glory  are 
gone. 

Grasshopper.— [LOCUST.] 

Grave. — [  BURIAL.  ] 

Greaves. — A  piece  of  armour  for  the  legs 
(1  Sam.  17.6). 

Grecian.— [GREEK.] 

Greece,  or  Grecia. — Country  in  south-east  of 
Europe,  but  little  known  to  the  Hebrews  ; 
referred  to  in  early  Scriptures  under  the  titles 
"  Javan "  (i.e.  Ionia),  "  Chittim,"  etc.  Its 
inhabitants  purchased  Israelites  as  slaves 
(Ezek.  27.13  ;  Joel  3.6) ;  its  extension  of  empire 
foretold  (Dan.  8.21, 10.20, 11.2),  and  opposition 
by  Jews  (Zech.  9.13).  It  was  the  sphere  of 
labours  of  apostles  and  evangelists  (Acts  20.2). 
The  points  of  direct  contact  between  Greece. and 
Palestine  are  few  and  obscure.  Alexander  the 
Great  visited  Jerusalem  after  the  siege  of  Tyre, 
treating  the  high-priest  and  the  Jewish  religion 
with  great  respect.  A  fact  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance, in  view  of  the  spread  of  the  Gospel, 
was  the  existence  of  Greek  as  a  means  of  general 
communication  in  western  Asia  during  the 
period  of  our  Lord's  ministry  and  the  apostolic 
labours. 

Greeks.— In  the  N.T.  this  term  (Hellenes)  de- 
notes either  natives  of  Greece  or,  more  generally, 
Gentiles,  all  who  are  not  Jews  (Rom.  1.14 ; 
1  Cor.  1.24,  etc.).  It  must  be  carefully  dis- 
tinguished from  the  term  Hellenists,  rendered 
M  Grecians  "  in  A.V.  of  Acts  6.1,  9.29,  11.20, 


R.V.  "  Grecian  Jews."  These  were  Greek- 
speaking  Jews  settled  in  various  countries  of 
the  "  dispersion."  In  Acts  11.20  the  reading  is 
uncertain  as  between  "  Greeks  "  and  "  Grecian 
Jews,"  a  problem  of  great  interest  for  the 
interpretation  of  the  writer's  narrative  of  the 
gradual  extension  of  the  Gospel  to  the  Gentiles. 
[DISPERSION.] 

Greyhound.  —  In  Prov.  30.29-31  there  is 
mention  of  "  four  things  which  are  stately  in 
going  "  :  of  these  one  is  represented  by  a  Heb- 
rew phase,  "  Well  girt  (or  well  knit)  in  the  loins  " 
(see  R.V.  marg.).  Probably  the  greyhound  is 
intended,  though  R.V.  marg.  has  war-horse  (other 
suggestions  are  a  wrestler,  a  cock,  etc.).  The 
Persian  greyhound  is  occasionally  to  be  seen  in 
the  possession  of  Arab  sheikhs,  who  keep  it  for 
hunting  the  gazelle.  It  is  of  a  similar  breed  to 
our  greyhound,  but  stronger  built  and  more 
shaggy. 

Grisled  (Gen.  31.10,12;  Zech.  6.3,6).— 
"  Spotted." 

Grove. — The  word  occurs  some  forty  times 
in  the  A.V.  of  the  O.T.  as  a  feature  in  idolatrous 
worship,  forbidden  to  Israel  (Ex.  34.13  ;  Judg. 
6.25-30 ;  1  K.  16.33  ;  2  K.  18.4  ;  Isai.  17.8,  etc.). 
In  every  instance  R.V.  retains  the  Hebrew  word 
Asherah  or  (plur.)  Asherim,  which  seems  to  have 
been  a  sacred  pile,  planted  in  the  ground  either 
to  mark  the  place  of  heathen  worship  or  as 
some  symbol  of  the  deity  worshipped. 

The  "  grove"  of  A.V.  Gen.  21.33  ;  1  Sam.  22.6 
marg.is  rightly  rendered  "  tamarisk-tree"  by  R.V. 

Gudgo'dah. — Site  of  Israelite  encampment 
(Deut.  10.7);  probably  same  as  Hor  Hagidgad 
(Num.  33.32,  33). 

Guest. — [HOSPITALITY.] 

Gu  Hi. — Protected :  1.  A  son  of  Naphtali 
(Gen.  46.24  ;  1  Ch.  7.13),  the  founder  of  the 
family  of  the  Gunites.  2.  A  descendant  of 
Gad  ;  father  of  Abdiel,  a  chief  man  in  his  tribe 
(1  Ch.  5.15). 

Gur. — Sojourning  :  ascent  from  the  plain  of 
Jezreel  where  Ahaziah  was  fatally  wounded  when 
fleeing  from  Jehu  (2  K.  9.27). 

Gur-Ba  aL — Sojourning  of  Baal :  residence  of 
Arabians  attacked  by  Uzziah  (2  Ch.  26.7). 


H 


H. — This  letter  represents  two  different 
Hebrew  letters,  one  answering  to  our  ft;  the 
other  to  the  Scotch  ch.  Hence  words  or 
syllables  identical  in  English  may  have  very 
different  meanings. 

Haahashta'ri. — Perhaps  Royal:  a  man  or 
family  descended  from  Ashur,  father  of  Tekoa 
(1  Ch.  4.6). 

Habai'ah. — (?)  God  conceals  :  a  priestly  family 
that  had  lost  its  pedigree  (Ezra  2.61),  called 
Hobaiah  in  Neh.  7.63  (R.V.). 


Habak'kuk.  —  (?)  Wrestler :  a  prophet,  the 
author  of  the  book  bearing  his  name.  Little  can 
be  inferred  with  confidence  as  to  his  personality 
or  date.  Nothing  is  known  as  to  his  tribe  or 
parentage,  or  occupation.  From  the  fact  that  he 
makes  no  mention  of  Assyria,  and  speaks  of  the 
Chaldean  power  as  growing  with  almost  incred- 
ible rapidity,  it  is  concluded  that  he  prophesied 
in  Judah  during  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim,  shortly 
before  the  invasion  of  Nebuchadnez/ar  (1.6; 
2.3).  This  would  make  Ilabakkuk  contem- 


HABAKKUK,  BOOK  OF] 


187 


[HAGABA 


porary  with  Jeremiah.  For  an  example  of  the 
Jewish  legends  about  him,  see  Bel  and  the 
Dragon,  w.  33-39. 

Habakkuk,  Book  of. — The  contents  of  this 
book  may  be  divided  into  two  parts.  Chaps.  1 
and  2  depict  the  sins  of  Judah  ;  and  foretell  the 
punishment  of  the  people  by  the  Chaldeans, 
which  shall  be  followed  by  the  overthrow  of 
these  enemies,  announced  in  a  fivefold  series  of 
"  woes  "  against  them  (vv.  6-20).  In  chap.  3 
the  prophet  concludes  his  book  with  a  sublime 
song,  both  of  praise  and  prayer.  This 
psalm,  which  was  evidently  intended  for  use 
in  public  worship,  was  designed  to  afford 
consolation  to  pious  Jews  under  their  approach- 
ing calamities.  God's  deliverance  in  the  future 
shall  be  as  marked  as  the  deliverance  of  old 
at  Mount  Sinai. 

The  prophecy  of  Habakkuk  is  especially 
distinguished  for  its  declaration  of  the  im- 
portant truth  adopted  by  the  Apostle  Paul 
as  the  groundwork  of  his  greatest  teachings  : 
"  The  just  shall  live  by  faith  "  (Hob.  2.4  ;  Rom. 
1.17).  [FAITH.]  Besides  the  profound  declara- 
tion in  2.4,  two  sentences  by  this  prophet 
are  also  employed  with  evangelical  meaning : 
the  warning  in  1.5  which  is  quoted  by  Paul 
at  Antioch  (Acts  13.40,41),  and  the  certain, 
although  tarrying,  vision  (2.3),  used  in  Heb. 
10.37.  There  is  also  a  resemblance  between 
2.11  and  Lk.  19.40,  and  between  3.18  and 
Lk.  1.47. 

Habazini'ah,  Habazzini'ah.— The  head  of  one 
of  the  families  of  the  Rechabites  (Jer.  35.3). 

Habergeon. — A  coat  of  mail  to  protect  the 
upper  part  of  the  body  (Job  41.26).  In  Ex. 
28.32  a  linen  corselet.  [BREASTPLATE.] 

HaT)or. — Junction  :  a  river  in  ancient  Gozan 
which,  rising  in  the  mountainous  district  of 
Mesopotamia,  flows  into  the  Euphrates.  It 
watered  the  district  to  which  the  Israelites 
were  carried  captive  by  the  Assyrians  (2  K. 
17.6,  18.11  ;  1  Ch.  5.26).  The  transportation 
of  the  ten  tribes  was  begun  by  Tiglath-pileser 
and  completed  by  Shalmanezer.  Habor  is  now 
called  Khabour.  The  country  on  both  sides 
of  the  river  is  covered  with  the  remains  (shown 
only  by  mounds)  of  Assyrian  cities. 

Hacali'ah,  Hachali'ah.— Wait  for  Jehovah: 
the  father  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  1.1,  10.1). 

Hachi'lah.  —  Dark  -  coloured  :  a  mountain 
stronghold  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
wilderness  of  Jud»a  (1  Sam.  23.19,  26.1,3). 
It  was  here  that  David  hid  himself  from  Saul. 
Its  position  is  not  known. 

Hachmo'ni. — The  wise :  the  father  or 
ancestor  of  Jehiel  (1  Ch.  27.32),  who  was  tutor 
to  David's  sons. 

Hachmo'nite  (1  Ch.  11.11).— Perhaps  to  be 
transliterated  Hachmoni  and  the  same  person 
as  th«5  preceding.  [TACHMONITE  and  JASHO- 

BEAM.] 

Ha'dad  (perhaps  "  the  thunderer."  The 
title  of  the  weather-god  of  Palestine  and  Syria). 
1.  A  son  of  Ishmael,  also  called  Hadar  (Gen. 
25.15  ;  1  Ch.  1.30). 


2.  Asonof  Bedad,kingof  Edom,  whose  capital 
was  Avith  (Gen.  36.35;  1  Ch.  1.46).    [Avira.] 

3.  Another,  and  the  last  of  the  "  kings  "  of 
Edom.     After  his  death  the  rulers  of  the  country 
were  called  "  dukes  "  (1  Ch.  1.51 ).     He  occupied 
Pai   or    Pau  as   his  capital  city  (Gen.    36.39 ; 
1  Ch.  1.50).     Called  Hadar  Gen.  36.39. 

4.  The  son  of  Bedad,  king  of  Edom.     He  was 
carried  into  Egypt  by  his  father's  servants,  when 
Joab,  general  of  David's  troops,  extirpated  the 
males  of  Edom.     Hadad  was  then  but  a  child. 
The  king  of  Egypt  gave  him  position,  house,  and 
lands,  and  married  him  to  the  sister  of  his  own 
wife.     After  David's  death  Hadad  desired   to 
return  to  his  own  country.     Pharaoh  wished  to 
detain  him,  for  a  strong  friendship  had  grown 
up  between  the  families,  but  at  last  consented. 

Back  in  Edom,  Hadad  began  to  raise  dis- 
turbances against  Solomon,  though  we  are  not 
given  particulars  (1  K.  11.14-25). 

Hadade'zer. —  Hadad  is  help  :  a  king  of 
Zobah  whom  David  defeated  (2  Sam.  8.3 ;  1  K. 
11.23).  Called  Hadarezer  in  Chronicles.  The 
spoil,  a  thousand  "  shields  of  gold,"  etc.,  was 
taken  to  Jerusalem  and  devoted  to  the  service 
of  God  (1  Ch.  18.3,  4,  7).  Later  on,  at  Helam, 
he  was  again  defeated  by  David  (2  Sam.  10.16  ; 
1  Ch.  19.16),  and  his  allies  became  subject  to 
David.  [ZoBAH.] 

Ha'dadrim'mon. — Hadad  Rimmon  :  if  this  is 
a  place  it  is  the  scene  of  lamentation  in  the 
valley  of  Megiddo,  where  Josiah  died  from 
wounds  received  in  battle  with  the  Egyptians 
(Zech,  12.11 ;  see  2  K.  23.29 ;  2  Ch.  35.22).  It 
has  been  identified  as  Rummaneh.  But  per- 
haps the  lamentation  is  for  the  god  TAIIMUZ 
(Adonis),  who  may  have  had  this  joint  name 
of  the  two  gods  Hadad  and  Rimmon. 

Hadar.— [See  HADAD  1  and  3.] 

Hadare'zer. — [HADADEZER.] 

Hada'shah.—  New  (city):  a  town  in  the 
lowlands  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.37).  It  may  be 
the  modern  town  of  Adasa. 

Hadas'sah. — Myrtle  :  the  earlier  and  Jewish 
name  of  Queen  Esther  (Esth.2.1).  [ESTHER.] 

Hadat'tah. — New :  one  of  the  names  of 
Hazor  (Josh.  15.25).  [HAZOR-HADATTAH.] 

Hades.— [HELL.] 

Ha'did. — Pointed :  a  town  occupied  after 
the  return  from  captivity  (Ezra  2.33 ;  Neh. 
7.37,  11.34).  It  is  now  Haditheh,  3  miles 
east  of  Lydda. 

Had'laL— Lax  :  an  Ephraimite,  father  '  of 
Amasa,  a  chief  of  the  tribe  in  the  reign  of 
1'ekah  (2  Ch.  28.12). 

Hado'ram. — 1.  A  son  of  Joktan  the  Shemite 
(Gen.  10.27).  There  is  a  district  called  Dauram 
in  Yemen.  2.  A  son  of  Tou,  the  king  of  Hamath 
(1  Ch.  18.10).  3.  See  AooRAwand  ADONIRAM. 

Ha  drach. — A  Syrian  district  in  the  vicinity 
of  Damascus  (Zech.  9.1). 

Ha'gab.— Locust :  the  sons  of  Hagab  were 
among  the  Nethinim  who  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel  (Ezra  2.46).  The  name  is  not  in 
Nehemiah's  list. 

Haga'ba,  Haga'bah. — Locust :  another  of  the 


HAGAR] 


188 


[HAIE 


Nethinim  who  returned  (Ezra  2.45;  Keh. 
7.48). 

Hagar. — (?)  Wanderer:  an  Egyptian  slave 
belonging  to  Sarah,  and  by  her  given  to  Abraham 
that  she  might  have  children  (Qen.  16).  Hagar's 
delight  when  she  found  that  she  was  with  child 
while  her  mistress  was  childless  provoked 
Sarah  to  such  an  extent  that  Hagar  was  com- 
pelled to  flee  the  tents  of  Abraham  and  hide 
in  the  wilderness.  There  she  was  met  by  an 
angel,  who  persuaded  her  to  return  home  and 
submit  herself  to  Sarah.  In  commemoration 
of  this  vision  (Gen.  16.14)  the  place  was  called 
Beer-lahai-roi.  When  her  son  Ishmael  was 
fourteen,  and  Sarah  was  celebrating  the  weaning 
of  her  son  Isaac  with  great  rejoicing,  Hagar 
again  insulted  her.  Abraham,  perceiving 
that  the  two  women  could  not  get  on  together, 
at  the  request  of  Sarah,  sent  Hagar  away, 
this  time  finally  (Gen.  21.14).  In  the  desert 
Ishmael  is  miraculously  saved  from  death. 

The  Arabians,  who  are  the  descendants  of 
Ishmael,  call  Hagar  "  Mother  Hagar,"  and 
maintain  that  she  was  Abraham's  lawful  wife. 

The  Apostle  Paul  takes  Hagar  as  a  type  of 
the  old  covenant  (Gal.  4.22  ff.),  her  offspring 
according  to  the  old  law  being  slaves  with 
herself.  Sarah  was  free,  a  type  of  the  heavenly 
Jerusalem,  and  the  Christian  therefore  is  warned 
against  being  bound  under  the  Mosaic  Covenant, 
lest  he  finds  himself  bound  and  banned  with 
Hagar  and  Ishmael.  [ISHMAEL,  ABRAHAM.] 

Hagarites,  Hagarenes,  Hagerite.  —  Ishmael  - 
ites,  or  descendants  of  Hagar,  who,  in  the  time 
of  Saul,  were  defeated  by  the  Reubenites 
(1  Ch.  5.10,  19,  20).  That  they  were  nomads 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  spoil  consisted 
chiefly  of  tents  and  camels  (Ps.  83.6).  The 
chief  overseer  of  David's  flocks  was  Jaziz  the 
Hagerite  (1  Ch.  27-31).  [HAGGERI.]  In  later 
times  the  term  Hagarenes  was  applied  to 
Moslems,  who,  with  the  Arabians,  are  said  to 
be  descended  from  Hagar. 

Haggai.— Festal :  one  of  the  three  prophets 
of  the  Restoration.  Little  is  known  as  to  his 
personality,  but  his  date  appears  from  his  book 
and  that  of  Ezra.  He  was,  very  probably, 
born  during  the  Captivity.  He  accompanied 
Zerubbabel  and  the  other  exiles  to  Jerusalem 
in  536  B.C.  The  rebuilding  of  the  Temple 
was  begun  with  great  zeal,  but,  owing  to  the 
opposition  of  the  Samaritans,  was  suspended 
for  fourteen  years.  Then,  Darius  Hystaspes 
succeeding  to  the  Babylonian  throne,  Haggai 
was  inspired  by  God  to  exhort  Zerubbabel  and 
Joshua  to  recommence  operations  on  the  Temple. 
His  pleadings  were  effective  (Hag.  1.14,  2.1), 
and  they  resumed  the  rebuilding  in  520,  sixteen 
years  after  the  return. 

It  is  said  that  Haggai  was  buried  at  Jerusalem 
near  the  sepulchres  of  the  priests. 

Haggai,  The  Book  of.— The  contents  of  this 
book  are  divisible  into  four  prophetic  messages, 
all  delivered  in  about  four  months  (Hag.  1.1, 
2.1, 10,  20).  They  are  so  brief  that  they  are  sup- 
posed to  be  only  a  summary  of  the  original 


prophecies.  In  the  first,  Haggai  reproves  the 
Jews  for  neglecting  the  Temple,  and  promises 
that  Divine  favour  shall  attend  its  erection. 
Twenty-four  days  after  this  prophecy  the 
work  is  resumed,  and  a  gracious  message  from 
God  received.  But  a  short  month  afterwards 
the  zeal  of  the  people  again  slackened,  and 
they  began  to  doubt  the  expediency  and 
possibility  of  the  restoration.  To  remove  their 
doubts  and  revive  their  flagging  energies  Haggai 
prophesies  that  the  Lord  is  with  them  and 
that  the  glory  of  the  new  Temple  shall  be 
greater  than  that  of  the  former  (Ilag.  2.1-9). 
The  third  prophecy  was  to  rebuke  their  listless- 
ness,  and  to  further  urge  them  to  do  their  best 
(Hag.  2.10-19).  The  same  day  he  delivered 
a  fourth  prophecy,  addressed  to  Zerubbabel, 
the  head  and  representative  of  the  family  of 
David,  and  the  person  with  whom  the  genealogy 
of  the  Messiah  (Matt.  1.12;  Lk.  3.27)  began 
after  the  Captivity,  promising  the  preservation 
of  the  people  of  God,  amidst  the  fall  and  rum  of 
the  kingdoms  of  the  world  (2.20-23).  Compare 
Hag.  2.6  with  Heb.  12.26,  27. 

In  2.7  "the  desire  of  all  nations"  should 
doubtless  be  translated  "  the  desirable  things," 
etc.,  referring  to  the  gifts  of  golden  vessels,  etc., 
which  adorned  the  second  Temple,  and  were 
presented  by  Gentiles.  On  the  other  hand, 
2.9,  **  In  this  place  will  I  give  peace,"  no  doubt 
was  fulfilled  by  the  presence  of  the  Lord  Jesus 
in  the  second  Temple. 

Hag'geri  (R.V.  Hagri).— Wanderer  (1  Ch. 
11.38).  Father  of  one  of  David's  warriors. 
Perhaps  a  Hagarite  (which  see). 

Hag'gi.— Festal :  a  son  of  Gad.  The  founder 
of  the  Haggites  (Gen.  46.16  ;  Num.  26.15). 

Haggi'ah. — Feast  of  Jehovah :  a  Levite 
(1  Ch.  6.30). 

Hag'gites.— The  posterity  of  Haggi  (Num. 
26.15). 

Hag'gith. — Festal :  a  wife  of  David  and  mother 
of  Adonijah  (2  Sam.  3.4 ;  1  K.  1.5, 11,  2.13  ; 
1  Ch.  3.2). 

Hagri.— [HAOOERI.] 

Hagrite.— [HAOARITKS.] 

Ha'i.— [Ai.] 

Hair. — Hebrew  women  wore  their  hair  long, 
and  divided  into  a  number  of  tresses,  which 
were  generally  braided  together.  Black  hair  was 
regarded  by  the  Hebrews  as  most  beautiful 
(Cant.  5.11).  St.  Paul's  statement—"  Doth  not 
even  nature  itself  teach  you,  that,  if  a  man  have 
long  hair,  it  is  a  shame  unto  him  ?  But  if  a 
woman  have  long  hair,  it  is  a  glory  to  her  :  for 
her  hair  is  given  her  for  a  covering  "  (1  Cor. 
11.14,  15)  —  agrees  with  Orient?.!  custom. 
Hebrew  men  wore  their  natural  hair  trimmed, 
but  not  shorn.  That  they  took  great  pains  to 
enhance  its  natural  beauty  is  shown  by  such 
passages  as  Ruth  3.3 ;  Ps.  23.5 ;  Ecclet. 
9.8 ;  Matt.  6.17,  where  the  practice  of 
cherishing  and  beautifying  with  perfumed  oint- 
ments is  shown  to  have  been  common.  The 
Apostles  noticed  the  excessive  attention  paid  to 
the  elaborate  dressing  of  the  hair  by  the  women 


HAJEHUDIJAH] 


189 


[HAMATH 


of  their  day,  and  rebuked  it  (1  Tim.  2.9  ;  1  Pet. 
3.3).  Cutting  off  the  hair  was  a  sign  of  mourning 
( Job  1.20 ;  Jer.  7.29) ;  but  sometimes  for  the 
same  cause  the  hair  was  suffered  to  grow  long 
and  neglected.  Plucking  out  the  hair  with  the 
hands  was  a  sign  of  great  and  sudden  grief. 
One  of  the  signs  of  leprosy  was  a  change  in  the 
colour  of  the  hair :  hence  the  command  to  cut  it 
off,  as  the  seat  of  disease  (Lev.  13.4, 10, 14.8,  9). 
The  expression  "  hair  like  purple "  in  Cant. 
7.5  is  generally  taken  to  mean  the  sheen  of 
well-tended  locks.  The  hair  was  considered  the 
least  valuable  part  of  man  (2  Sam.  14.11  ;  Matt. 
10.30),  but  the  Arabs  still  swear  by  their  beards, 
and  perhaps  the  swearing  by  the  head  (Matt. 
5.36)  may  have  meant  swearing  by  the  hair 
upon  it.  [BARBER,  BKABD,  HEADDRESS,  BALD- 
NESS.] 

Some  of  the  earlier  natives  of  the  East  were 
in  the  habit  of  shaving  the  head  entirely,  and 
then  replacing  their  shorn  locks  with  wigs  of 
extravagant  and  often  fantastic  form.  Among 
the  Egyptians  and  the  Greeks  this  practice  was 
common,  partly  for  the  sake  of  cleanliness. 
Among  the  many  forms  of  dressing  hair,  powder- 
ing was  frequently  resorted  to,  Solomon's  guard, 
according  to  Joseph  us,  sprinkling  gold-dust  upon 
their  hair,  which  had  been  previously  curled 
and  perfumed.  Among  the  Medes  the  wig 
was  worn  by  the  upper  classes ;  but  while  the 
Assyrians  wore  their  hair  in  long  ringlets  it  is 
doubtful  whether  these  were  composed  of  their 
own  hair  or  of  false.  The  Hebrews  never  wore 
wigs.  The  favourite  colour  was  black,  and 
sometimes  dyes  and  stains  were  resorted  to,  to 
give  an  extra  sheen,  or  to  conceal  age. 

Hajehudijah.— [JBHUDTJAH.] 

Hakka'tan.— The  small:  the  chief  of  the  sons 
of  Azgad  (Ezra  8.12). 

Hak  koz. — The  thorn  or  briar :  a  priest 
appointed  by  David  to  the  service  of  the  Sanc- 
tuary (1  Ch.  24.10).  The  name  is  really  Koz, 
the  Ha  being  the  definite  article,  which  duplicates 
the  first  letter.  The  name  occurs  again,  without 
the  prefix,  in  Ezra  2.01.  [Coz.] 

Haku'pha. — Head  of  a  family  of  Nethinim 
(Ezra  2.51). 

Ha'lah. — A  district  to  which  some  of  the 
Israelites  were  carried  captive  by  the  Assyrians 
(2  K.  17.6;  1  Ch.  5.26).  It  probably  lay  in 
Mesopotamia. 

Ha'lak. — Bald  or  smooth  mountain :  the 
southern  limit  of  Joshua's  conquests  (Josh. 
11.17,  12.7).  Locality  unknown.  Perhaps 
the  white  cliffs  8  miles  south  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

Hal'huL — A  city  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
about  3J  miles  north  of  Hebron  (Josh.  15.58).  It 
still  bears  its  ancient  name. 

Ha'li. — (?)  Ornament :  a  town  on  the  boundary 
of  Asher  (Josh.  19.25).  Nothing  is  known  of  its 
situation. 

Hall. — [JUDGMENT  HALL.] 

Hallelujah.— [  ALLKLUI  A.] 

Hallohesh.— [HALOHESH.] 
Hallow. — To    render    sacred,    set    apart,    or 
consecrate.      The    English    \vord    is    from    the 


Saxon,  and  is  properly  to  holify,  to  make  holy  : 
hence  hallowed  things,  persons,  and  places : 
hence  also  the  name,  character,  power,  and 
dignity  of  God  is  to  be  hallowed — i.e.  profoundly 
reverenced  as  holy  (Ex.  20.11,  40.9 ;  Matt. 
6.9;  Lk.  11.2).  [HOLY.] 

Halohesh,  Hallohesh. — The  whisperer  or 
magician  :  a  name  that  occurs  in  the  two  lists 
of  returned  exiles  (Neh.  3.12, 10.24). 

Ham. — 1.  One  of  Noah's  sons,  perhaps  the 
youngest  (Gen.  5.32).  Possibly  the  name  signifies 
burnt  or  black,  which  is  peculiarly  significant  of 
the  nations  placed  among  his  descendants — viz. 
of  his  eldest  son  Gush — the  Assyrians  and  Baby- 
lonians, the  Canaanites,  Zidonians,  Egyptians, 
Libyans  (Gen.  10.6).  The  Hamites  in  general 
were  often  a  seafaring  race,  and  were  sooner 
civilised  than  their  pastoral  brethren  of  the  other 
two  families.  The  early  great  empires  of 
Assyria  and  Egypt  were  founded  by  them,  and 
the  republics  of  Tyre,  Sidon,  and  Carthage  were 
fiarly  distinguished  for  their  commerce.  But 
they  also  fell  sooner  to  decay.  Egypt,  which 
was  one  of  the  first,  became  the  last  and  "  basest 
of  the  kingdoms  "  (Ezek.  29.15),  and  has  been 
successively  in  subjection  to  the  descendants 
of  Shem  and  Japheth,  as  have  also  the  settle- 
ments of  the  other  branches  of  the  Hamites.  In 
the  reference  in  Ps.  78.51,  105.23  to  "  the  land 
of  Ham,"  the  country  so  designated  is  Egypt. 
In  1  Ch.  4.40  it  probably  signifies  ancient 
Canaanites.  [Cusn,  CANAAN,  MIZBAIM.] 

2.  Hot :  site  of  the  victory  of  Chedorlaomer 
over  the  Zuzim  (Gen.  14.5). 

Ha 'man. — The  son  of  Hammed  atha  the 
Agagite  (Esth.  3.1),  who  was  the  vizier  of  King 
Ahasuerus.  He  attempted  the  destruction  of  all 
the  Jews  in  the  Persian  Empire  as  a  revenge 
for  a  slight  put  upon  him  by  Mordecai,  a 
Jew,  and  the  uncle  of  Queen  Esther.  Mordecai 
urged  the  queen  to  intercede  with  Ahasuerus 
for  their  deliverance.  But  all  the  king  could  do, 
the  decree  having  already  been  signed,  was  to 
hang  Haman  on  the  gallows  that  had  been 
prepared  for  Mordecai,  and  issue  another  decree 
permitting  the  Jews  to  defend  themselves. 
Modern  Jews  have  a  habit  of  calling  any  common 
enemy  by  this  name.  When  Haman's  name  is 
mentioned  in  the  Synagogue  at  Purim  it  is 
greeted  in  Russia  with  stamping  and  the  rattle 
of  clappers  made  for  the  purpose.  [ESTHER, 
PURIM.] 

Ha'math,  He'math. — Fortress  or  sacred  en- 
closure :  a  city  and  kingdom  of  upper  Syria  in  the 
valley  of  the  Orontes ;  the  "  entering  in,"  being 
at  the  north  extremity  of  Lebanon,  is  the 
opening  between  that  mountain  and  the  range 
of  Bargylus  (Nusairiyeh)  on  the  north.  It  was 
the  limit  of  territory  assigned  to  the  Israelites 
(Num.  13.21),  although  the  actual  possession  of 
the  country  by  them  fell  far  short  of  this 
boundary.  In  the  time  of  David  the  name 
comes  up  again  when  King  Toi  congratulated 
him  upon  his  defeat  of  their  common  enemy, 
Hadadezer  (2  Sam.  8.9,  10).  That  Hamath 
formed  part  of  the  dominions  of  Solomon  is 


HAMATHITE] 


190 


[HANANI 


seen  from  the  fact  that  he  built  store-cities 
there  (2  Ch.  8.4;  see  also  2  K.  14.28).  It 
became  a  free  state  again,  however,  on  the 
death  of  Solomon,  and  maintained  its  inde- 
pendence until  Jeroboam  seized  it  and  destroyed 
its  fortifications  (2  K.  14.28).  Later  it  got  into 
the  possession  of  Assyria  (2  K.  18.34 ;  /sat.  10.9), 
and  was  afterwards  held  by  the  Chaldeans  in 
the  time  of  Zedekiah  (Jer,  39.5, 49.23,  52.9,  27). 
It  was  not  only  an  important  trading  post,  but 
was  remarkable  for  its  system  of  irrigation  by 
means  of  large  water-wheels,  which  raised  water 
from  the  Orontes  for  the  supply  of  the  upper 
town.  It  is  now  known  as  llama. 

Hamathite. — The  inhabitants  of  Hamath 
(Gen.  10.18).  They  were  probably  akin  to 
the  Hittites.  Many  inscriptions  written  in  the 
Hittite  language  have  been  found  at  Hamath. 

Ha'math-Zo'bah. — (?)  Fortress  of  Zobah  :  a 
place  taken  by  Solomon  (2  Ch.  8.3).  Probably 
identical  with  Hamath. 

Ham 'math. — IIol  springs :  1.  A  fortified  city," 
belonging  to  Naphtali,  one  mile  south  from 
Tiberias  (Josh.  19.35).  It  is  the  same  place  as 
Hammoth  -  Dor  ( Josh.  21.32)  and  Hammon 
(1  Ch.  6.76).  Its  waters  are  hot  and  sulphureous, 
and  still  flow,  at  a  temperature  of  144°,  from 
three  springs  at  the  extremity  of  the  ancient  city. 
2.  See  HEMATH  2. 

Hammeah. — [MEAH.] 

Hammeda'tha. — Double  :  the  father  of  Haman 
( Esth.  3. 1 ).  The  origin  of  the  name  is  Persian. 

Hamme'lech  (Jer.  36.26).—  The  king:  R.V. 
correctly,  "  Jerahmeel  the  son  of  the  king." 
So  in  38.6. 

Hammer. — One  word  for  a  hammer  made  of 
hard  metal  for  beating  or  breaking  through 
is  found  in  1  K.  6.7  ;  /sat.  44.12 ;  and  Jer.  10.4, 
and  in  nearly  the  same  form  in  Judg.  4.21. 
But  in  the  ancient  song  of  Deborah  (Judg.  5.26) 
another  word  is  employed,  meaning  a  beater  or 
mallet  made  of  wood.  The  hammer  used  by 
Jael  (Judg.  4.21)  was  a  mallet  or  maul  of 
wood  used  to  drive  the  tent  pegs  into  the  ground. 
Goldbeaters  and  silversmiths  had  their  special 
hammers  (/sat.  41.7),  as  had  also  the  quarryman 
and  stonemason  (Jer.  23.29).  Metaphorically 
"  hammer  "  is  used  for  any  smashing,  annihila- 
ting force  (Jer.  23.29,  50.23). 

Hammole'keth. — The  queen :  daughter  of 
Machir  and  sister  of  Gilead  (1  Ch.  7.17, 18). 
She  was  an  ancestress  of  Gideon,  the  judge. 
There  is  a  Jewish  tradition  that  "she  used  to 
reign  over  a  portion  of  the  land  which  belonged 
to  Gilead." 

Ham'mon  (1  Ch.  6.76).—  Hot  lath:  1.  See 
HAMMATH.  2.  A  city  of  Asher,  not  far  from 
"  Great  Zidon  "  ( Josh.  19.28,  35).  It  has  been 
identified  with  Ain  Hamul,  near  the  coast,  and 
about  ten  miles  from  Tyre.  It  was  assigned  to 
the  Gershonites  out  of  the  possessions  of  Naph- 
tali (1  Ch.  6.76). 

Ham 'moth-Dor. — Hot  springs  of  Dor  :  a  town 
of  Naphtali,  assigned  to  the  Gershonites,  and 
for  a  city  of  refuge.  It  is  the  same  place  as 
Hammath  (Josfc.  21.32). 


HammueL— [ 

Hamo  nab,. — Multitude  :  a  city  which  is  sup- 
posed to  have  got  its  name  from  the  multitudes 
of  Gog  that  were  slaughtered  and  buried  near 
there  (Ezek.  39.16). 

Ha'mon-Gog. — Gog's  multitude :  a  glen 
previously  known  as  the  "  glen  of  the  passengers 
on  the  east  of  the  sea,"  after  the  burial  there  of 
Gog  and  all  his  multitude  (Ezek.  39.11,  15). 

Hamor. — He-ass :  a  Ilivite,  from  whom 
Jacob  bought  a  piece  of  ground  (Gen.  33.19  ; 
Josh.  24.32).  He  was  the  father  of  Shechem, 
who  committed  the  calamitous  offence  against 
Dinah  (Gen.  34). 

Hamran.— [AMRAM.] 

Hamu'el,  Hammu'eL — God  w  a  sun :  a 
Simeonite  (1  Ch.  4.26). 

Ha'muL — Treated  mercifully  :  the  head  of  the 
Hamulite  family,  and  younger  son  of  Pharez 
(Perez),  son  of  Judah  (Gen.  46.12  ;  1  Ch.  2.5). 

Hamuli'tes.  —  Belonging  to  Hamul  (Num. 
26.21). 

Hamu'taL— (?)  Kin  to  the  dew  :  daughter  of 
Jeremiah  of  Libnah.  She  was  one  of  the  wives 
of  King  Josiah  and  mother  of  the  kings  Jeboahaz 
and  Zedekiah  (2  K.  23.31,  24.18  ;  Jer.  52.1). 

Hanam'eel,  Hana'meL— (?)  Grace  of  God,  or 
God  is  kind:  son  of  Shallum  and  cousin  of 
Jeremiah  the  prophet.  Jeremiah  showed  his 
faith  by  purchasing  a  field  from  Hanameel  in  a 
time  of  great  disturbance  and  uncertainty,  when 
Judaea  was  occupied  and  Jerusalem  threatened 
by  the  Chaldeans  (Jer.  32.7-12,  44). 

Ha 'nan. — Gracious  :  there  were  several 
different  persons  of  this  name,  which  is  a 
shortened  form  of  other  longer  names — com- 
pounded of  one  of  the  words  for  God,  thus 
suggesting  God's  grace  and  mercy — such  as 
Elhanan,  Hananiah,  etc.  1.  A  son  of  Shashak, 
a  Benjamite  (1  Ch.  8.23).  2.  A  descendant  of 
Saul  (1  Ch.  8.38,  9.44).  3.  One  of  David's 
heroes  (1  Ch.  11.43).  4.  One  of  those  who 
returned  from  captivity  with  Zerubbabel 
(Ezra  2.46;  Neh.  7.49).  5.  A  Levite  assisting 
when  Ezra  read  the  Law  (Neh.  8.7).  6.  A  Levite 
who  sealed  the  Covenant  with  Nehemiah  and 
the  people.  Possibly  identical  with  5  (Neh. 
10.10,  13.13).  7.  A  head  of  a  family  who 
signed  the  Covenant  (Neh.  10.22).  8.  Another 
head  of  a  family  who  signed  on  the  same  occasion 
(Neh.  10.26).  9.  The  son  of  Igdaliah,  appar- 
ently the  head  of  a  guild  of  prophets  who  had 
a  chamber  in  the  Temple  (Jer.  35.4). 

Hanan'eel.  Hanan'eL— God  is  gracious:  one 
of  the  towers  on  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  named 
after  the  man  who  built  it  (Neh.  3.1,  12.39  ; 
Jer.  31.38).  Its  position  was  between  the  sheep- 
gate  and  the  fish-gate.  It  is  mentioned  once 
more  in  Ze-ch.  14.10. 

Hana'ni. — Jehovah  is  gracious  :  1.  David's  seer 
and  head  of  the  eighteenth  course  in  the  service  of 
the  sanctuary  (1  Ch.  25.4,  25).  2.  He  rebuked 
Asa  for  buying  off  Benhadad  (2  Ch.  16.7-10). 
Probably  the  same  as  the  next.  3.  The  father  of 
Jehu,  a  seer  who  spoke  against  Baasha  (1  K. 
16.1),  and  Jehoshaphat  (2  Ch.  19.2,  20.34). 


HANANIAH] 


191 


[HANDICRAFT 


4.  A  priest  (Ezra  10..20).  5.  A  brother  of 
Nehemiah,  who  made  him  governor  of  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  1.2,  7.2).  6.  A  priest  and  musician  who 
assisted  in  the  purification  of  the  walls  of  Jeru- 
salem (Neh.  12.36). 

Hanani'ah. — Jehovah  is  gracious  :  this  name  is 
the  original  form  of  Ananias.  1.  One  of  the  three 
young  men  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  and  of  the  royal 
family,  who,  being  carried  captive  to  Babylon, 
were  selected  for  instruction  in  the  sciences  of 
the  Chaldeans,  and  for  office  in  Nebuchadnezzar's 
palace.  His  name  was  changed  to  Shadrach. 
He  refused  to  worship  the  golden  image  (Dan. 
1.7,  3.12).  [DANIEL,  SHADRACH.]  2.  The  chief 
of  the  sixteenth  course  of  musicians  of  the 
temple  service,  lie  was  one  of  the  fourteen  sons 
of  Hernan  the  singer,  who  were  employed  to 
blow  the  horns  (1  Ch.  25.4,  23).  3.  A  captain  in 
Uzziah's  army  (2  Ch.  26.11).  4.  Father  of 
Zedekiah,  a  prince  in  the  time  of  Jehoiakim 
(Jer.  36.12).  5.  A  false  prophet  of  Gibeon,  who 
in  the  reign  of  Zedekiah  foretold  before  Jeremiah 
and  all  the  people  that  within  two  years  the 
captives  and  all  the  vessels  used  in  the  temple 
service,  which  Nebuchadnezzar  had  carried 
to  Babylon,  would  be  restored  (Jer.  28.1-17). 
In  reply,  Jeremiah  prophesied  that  instead  of  a 
wooden  yoke  one  of  iron  would  be  put  on  the 
people  for  seventy  years,  and  that  Hananiah  him- 
self was  to  die  within  the  year  for  rebelling 
against  the  Lord.  6.  Grandfather  of  Irijah,  a 
captain  in  charge  of  the  gate  of  Benjamin.  He 
arrested  Jeremiah  on  a  charge  of  deserting  to  the 
Chaldeans  (Jer.  37.13).  7.  A  son  of  Shashak 
(1  Ch.  8.24).  8.  A  son  of  Zeruhbabel  (1  Ch. 
3.19,21).  9.  One  of  those  who  had  taken 
strange  wives  (Ezra  10.28).  10.  One  who  united 
the  offices  of  apothecary  (i.e.  he  prepared  the 
sacred  oil  and  incense)  and  priest  (Neh.  3.8). 
11.  One  engaged  on  the  repairs  of  the  wall  of 
Jerusalem  (Neh.  3.30).  Perhaps  the  same  as 
9.  12.  One  placed  in  charge  of  Jerusalem, 
"  for  he  was  a  faithful  man  "  (Neh.  7.2).  13.  The 
name  of  a  family  whose  chief  sealed  the  covenant 
(Neh.  10.23).  14.  A  priest  in  the  time  of  the 
high-priest  Joiakim,  about  480  B.C.  (Neh. 
12.12,41). 

Hand. — The  hands  were  employed  both  figura- 
tively and  ceremonially,  (a)  To  kiss  one's  hand 
was  an  act  of  adoration — thus  (Job  31.27):  "If 
I  beheld  the  sun  when  it  shined,  and  my  mouth 
hath  kissed  my  hand."  See  also  1  K.  19.18. 
(6)  Oath-taking  has  been  accompanied  by  the 
lifting  up  of  the  hand  in  all  nations ;  (e)  while 
the  giving  the  hand  has  signified  peace,  friendship, 
security  (2  K.  10.15).  (d)  To  seat  one  on  the 
right  hand  was  a  token  of  high  favour  (Ps.  16.11, 
77.10),  and  the  Son  of  God  is  often  represented 
as  sitting  at  the  right  hand  of  His  Father  (Heb. 
1.13  ;  cf.  Ps.  110.1).  Satan  was  at  the  right  hand 
of  the  high-priest  Joshua,  as  accuser  (Zech.  3.1) ; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Psalmist  says,  *'  I 
have  set  the  Lord  always  before  me :  because 
He  is  at  my  right  hand,  I  shall  not  be  moved  " 
(Ps.  16.8).  (e)  The  laying  on  of  hands  is  under- 
stood in  different  ways  both  in  the  Old  and  New 


Testaments.  It  is  often  taken  for  ordination 
and  consecration  of  priests  and  ministers,  as  well 
among  the  Jews  as  Christians  (Num.  8.10 ; 
Acts  6.6,  13.3;  1  Tim.  4.14).  God  appointed 
Moses  to  lay  his  hands  upon  Joshua  as  his 
successor  (Num.  27.18).  Jacob  laid  his  hands 
in  blessing  on  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  (Gen. 
48. 14).  When  the  high-priest  recited  the  blessing 
he  held  his  hands  out  over  the  people  (Lev.  9.22). 
Again,  when  the  Israelites  presented  sin-offerings 
at  the  tabernacle,  the  priests  laid  their  hands  on 
them  while  they  confessed  their  sins  (Lev.  1.4). 
This  testified  that  the  person  acknowledged 
himself  worthy  of  death,  that  he  laid  his  sins  upon 
the  sacrifice,  and  that  he  devoted  himself  to  God. 
Witnesses  took  the  lead  in  carrying  the  sentence 
of  death  into  effect  (Deut.  13.9,  17.7).  Our 
Saviour  laid  His  hands  upon  the  children 
when  He  blessed  them  (Mk.  10.16);  and  the 
Holy  Ghost  was  conferred  on  those  who  were 
baptized,  by  the  laying  on  of  the  hands  of  the 
apostles  (Acts  8.17,  19.6).  Pilate  washed  his 
hands  in  token  of  innocence  (Matt.  27.24). 

Handbreadth. — The  handbreadth  or  palm  was 
the  breadth  of  four  fingers,  about  3£  inches, 
and  was  commonly  used  in  rough  and  approxi- 
mate estimates  of  length  (1  K.  7.26). 

Handicraft. — The  preparation  of  skins  for 
tent  coverings  or  clothing  or  the  weaving  of 
the  wool  for  garments  would  be  the  limit  of 
mechanical  skill  in  the  nomadic  period  of 
Israel's  history,  and  this  art  would  be  practised 
by  the  women.  The  hides  of  slaughtered  animals 
would  also  be  required  for  the  formation  of  the 
skin-bottles,  so  largely  employed  in  Oriental 
antiquity,  to  contain  liquids  (water,  milk,  and 
wine),  and  also  in  making  girdles,  sandals,  and 
thongs.  The  references  in  /sat.  29.16  and 
Jer.  18.2  seq.  show  that  the  art  of  shaping 
vessels  from  clay  was  learned  by  the  Hebrews 
during  the  period  of  the  kings,  and  had  become 
familiar.  It  seems  probable  that  they  derived 
their  skill  in  the  potter's  art  from  Babylonian 
civilisation  through  their  Canaanite  neighbours. 
Specimens  of  pottery  found  in  Jerusalem  are 
fairly  finished  and  graceful.  In  the  clay  vessels 
or  jugs  the  mouldings  run  in  parallel  lines  round 
the  body  or  neck  of  the  vessel.  Geometric 
figures  are  used  in  ornamentation,  parallel 
and  crossing  lines,  meandering  lines  as  well 
as  zigzags,  squares,  rhombi,  and  triangles. 
Sometimes,  in  the  larger  Phoenician  vases, 
we  have  different  fields,  separated  by  linear 
ornamentation,  each  field  being  filled  with 
animal  shapes  human  figures,  and  hunting 
scenes.  Not  until  the  time  of  David  and 
Solomon  did  the  Hebrews  engage  much  in 
workmanship  in  wood,  stone,  and  metal.  That 
before  that  date  they  knew  the  art  of  melting 
down  the  precious  metals  is  shown  by  the 
making  of  tbe  golden  ephod  at  Gideon's  shrine 
in  Ophrah  from  the  golden  ear-rings,  crescents, 
and  pendants  captured  from  the  Midianites. 
At  this  time  bronze  was  the  prevalent  metal  in 
use,  rather  than  iron.  Cooking  utensils  and 
fetters  (Judg.  16.21)  were  made  from  it,  and  also 


HANDKERCHIEF] 


192 


[HARAN 


armour,  as  helmet,  shield,  coat  of  mail,  and 
greaves  (1  Sam.  17.5,  6).  Even  spear  and  bow 
were  made  from  the  same  metal  (2  Sam.  21.16, 
22.35).  The  material  could  be  obtained  from  the 
mines  of  Sinai  or  from  those  owned  by  the  Phoe- 
nicians in  Cyprus.  The  use  of  iron  was  chiefly 
confined  to  the  head  or  point  of  arms  or  imple- 
ments (as  the  spear,  ploughshare,  or  axe).  Among 
the  Canaanites  chariots  were  plated  with  iron 
(Judg.  1.10). 

The  turning  point  in  the  history  of 
Hebrew  handicrafts  was  the  introduction  of 
Phoenician  workmen  into  Israel's  southern 
capital  in  the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon 
(2  Sam.  5.11 ;  1  K.  5.6).  This  very  fact 
shows  that  the  Hebrews  at  that  time  were 
indifferent  workmen.  But  in  the  reign  of 
Jehoash,  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  years 
later,  when  Solomon's  temple  was  repaired,  we 
have  no  hint  of  foreign  workmen  being  re- 
quired among  the  stone-masons,  carpenters,  and 
builders  hired  for  the  purpose  (2  K.  12.7-13). 
When  Jerusalem  was  captured  by  the  Baby- 
lonian invader,  as  many  as  one  thousand  lock- 
smiths and  other  skilled  mechanics  were 
deported  from  the  city  (2  K.  24.16).  See 
Whitehouse's  Primer  of  Hebrew  Antiquities.  [Also 
articles  on  METALS,  POTTER,  and  WEAVING.] 

Handkerchief  (Acts  19.12  only). — This  word 
is  elsewhere  translated  napkin.  [KERCHIEF.] 

Handmaid. — A  female  slave,  generally 
employed  as  a  domestic  servant  (Ex.  23.12  ; 
Lk.  1.38).  [SLAVERY.] 

HandstaS,  Handstave. — A  weapon  resembling 
a  short  throwing  spear  (Ezek.  39.9).  [WEAPONS.] 

Ha'nes — In  Egypt,  probably  on  an  island  in 
the  Nile,  a  little  south  of  Memphis.  It  marks  the 
southern  limit  of  Lower  Egypt,  as  Zoan  (which 
see),  mentioned  in  the  same  passage  (Isai.  30.4), 
marks  the  northern. 

Hang,  Hanging. — Hanging  in  the  early  history 
of  the  Jews  was  more  a  mark  of  infamy  (Deut. 
21.22)  than  a  punishment,  and  was  generally 
inflicted  on  dead  bodies.  Later,  however,  it 
became  a  form  of  capital  punishment,  though 
not  so  general  as  strangulation,  somewhat  after 
the  manner  of  the  Spanish  garotte.  That  it 
was  used  by  suicides  is  shown  in  the  deaths  of 
Ahithophel  (2  Sam.  17.23)  and  Judas  (Matt. 
27.5)  In  several  places  where  hanging  is 
mentioned  some  form  of  impalement  or  cruci- 
fixion is  implied  (Josh.  8.29;  2  Sam.  4.12). 
[CRUCIFIXION,  CAPITAL  PUNISHMENT.] 

Hangings.  —Curtains  used  as  a  door,  and  as 
hung  before  the  door  of  the  tabernacle  (Ex. 
26.36),  and  for  covering  the  walls  of  the  court 
of  the  tabernacle.  The  same  word  is  used  for 
the  veil  that  hung  before  the  Holy  of  Holies 
(Ex.  35.12,  39.34).  The  English  word  is  also 
used  to  describe  tents,  or  portable  sanctuaries, 
for  idolatrous  worship,  as  in  2  K.  23.7.  See 
for  the  thought  Ezek.  16.16. 

HanieL— [HANXIEL.] 

Hannah. — Graduusne ss :  one  of  Elkanah's 
two  wives.  In  answer  to  her  prayers  Samuel 
was  born  ( 1  Sam.  1 ).  Tier  song  of  praise  (1  Sam. 


2.1-10)  has  a  prophetic  character.  It  may 
be  compared  with  the  Song  of  the  Virgin  Mary 
(Lk.  1.46-55). 

Hanna'thon.  —  Gracious :  a  city  on  the 
northern  boundary  of  Zebulun.  It  has  not 
been  identified  (Josh.  19.14). 

Han'nieL — Favour  of  God :  1.  A  prince  of 
Manasseh  who  assisted  in  the  division  of  the 
land  (Num.  34.23).  In  the  Hebrew  text  his 
name  is  identical  with  the  next.  2.  Haniel  in 
A.V.  A  prince  and  hero  of  Asher  (1  Ch.  7.39). 

Ha'noch. — Dedicated  :  1.  The  son  of  Jared, 
a  descendant  of  Seth  (1  Ch.  1.3).  In  the  English 
versions  of  Gen.  5  he  is  called  Enoch,  as  is  also 
the  son  of  Cain  (Gen.  4.17,  18).  2.  The  third  of 
the  children  of  Midian  and  the  grandson  of 
Abraham  (Gen.  25.4;  1  Ch.  1.33).  3.  The 
eldest  son  of  Reuben  (Gen.  46.9  ;  Ex.  6.14  ; 
Num.  26.5). 

Ha'nochites. — The  descendants  of  Hanoch, 
the  eldest  son  of  Reuben  (Num.  26.5). 

Ha  nun. — Favoured  :  son  of  Nahash,  king  of 
the  Ammonites.  David  had  received  kindness 
from  Nahash,  and  when  the  latter  died  he 
sent  a  comforting  message  to  Hanun.  Hanun, 
pretending  to  think  the  messengers  spies,  com- 
mitted the  deadly  insult  of  shaving  off  half 
their  beards,  and  cutting  off  their  robes  half-way 
up,  thus  rendering  them  doubly  ridiculous. 
On  their  way  home  David,  hearing  their  story, 
directed  them  to  remain  at  Jericho  until  their 
beards  were  grown  again,  and  prepared  for  war. 
In  this  war  great  numbers  of  the  Ammonites 
were  slain  (2  Sam.  10.1-4  ;  1  Ch.V).2-Q).  2.  A 
repairer  of  the  valley  gate  (Neh.  3.13).  3.  A 
repairer  of  the  wall  (Neh.  3.30). 

Haphra'im,  Hapnara'im.— Place  of  two  wells  : 
a  city  of  Issachar  west  of  Shunem.  Unidentified 
(Josh.  19.19). 

Happizzez.— [APHSES.] 

Hara. — Apparently  a  district  in  Assyria,  but 
it  has  not  been  identified  (1  Ch.  5.26).  The 
parallel  passages  in  2  K.  17.6,  18.11  read  "the 
cities  of  the  Medes." 

Hara  dah. — Trembling:  a  desert  station,  the 
twentieth  encampment  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness,  and  ninth  from  Sinai.  Its  position 
is  unknown  (Num.  33.24,  25). 

Ha'ran. — 1.  A  town  of  Padan-Aram,  whither 
Abram  migrated  from  Ur,  and  wh ere  Terah  died 
(Gen.  11.31,  32).  It  was  from  Haran  also  that 
the  patriarch  set  out  for  Canaan  (Gen.  12.4,  5). 
Laban  was  living  here  when  Jacob  went  to 
him  (Gen.  27.43).  From  Isai.  37.12  we  find 
that  it  was  subject  to  the  Assyrians  ;  and 
from  Ezek.  27.23  that  it  was  a  Tyrian  mart.  It 
is  called  Nahor  in  Gen.  24.10,  and  Charran  in 
Acts  7.2,4.  It  still  bears  its  ancient  name, 
Harran,  and  is  to  be  found  on  a  tributary  of 
the  Euphrates.  In  ancient  times  its  chief 
deity  was  the  moon-god.  [ABRAHAM.]  2.  A 
son  of  Caleb  (1  Ch.  2.46).  3.  Mountaineer  : 
(a  different  word  from  the  two  preceding). 
Son  of  Terah,  and  father  of  Lot,  Milcah  (Nahor's 
wife),  and  Iscah  (Gen.  11.27,29,31).  4.  A 
L»-vite  (1  Ch.  'JM.JM 


HARARITE] 


193 


[HARROW 


Harar'ite. — (?)  The  mountaineer',  a  native  of 
the  hill-country  of  Judah  or  Ephraim.  Three 
of  the  men  of  David's  guard  are  spoken  of  as 
being  Hararites  (2  Sam.  23.11,  33  ;  1  Ch.  11.34, 
35). 

Harbo'na,  Harbo/nah. — An  ass  driver :  the 
third  of  the  seven  chamberlains  or  eunuchs 
who  waited  upon  King  Ahasuerus  (Esth.  1.10). 
He  it  was  who  suggested  that  Haman  might 
hang  on  the  gallows  built  for  Mordecai  (Esth.  7.9). 

Hare. — The  hare  is  included  among  the 
unclean  animals  in  the  Mosaic  law,  because, 
although  it  was  thought  to  chew  the  cud,  it  does 
not  divide  the  hoof  (Lev.  11.6  ;  Deut.  14.7). 
The  supposition  that  it  chewed  the  cud  was 
due,  no  doubt,  to  its  habit  of  constantly  moving 
its  jaws  about,  a  habit  acquired  to  keep  the 
incisor  teeth  down,  as  otherwise  they  would 
overlap.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  hare 
is  the  animal  intended,  since  the  word  in  the 
Hebrew  is  the  same  as  the  present  Arabic  name 
for  this  animal. 

The  hare  is  common  in  the  Holy  Land,  there 
being  several  varieties.  The  most  ordinary 
species  is  like  our  English  hare,  only  a  little 
smaller,  but  does  not  extend  beyond  Syria. 
There  are  also  the  Egyptian  and  Sinaitic 
varieties,  which  abound  in  the  southern  districts 
of  Judaea.  The  Egyptian  variety  is  lighter  in 
colour  than  the  latter,  which  is  smaller,  darker, 
and  has  longer  legs  and  ears  than  the  other 
species.  The  last  is  an  extraordinarily  active 
little  creature,  but  stupid.  This  hare  is  occasion- 
ally seen  in  the  Arabah  below  the  Dead  Sea. 
Rabbits  are  not  found  in  Palestine. 

Ha'reph. — (?)  Born  in  harvest :  a  son  of  Caleb 
the  son  of  Hur  (1  Ch.  2.51).  Perhaps  connected 
with  Hariph  1. 

Ha'reth,  Hereth.  —  Cutting  :  the  modern 
Kharas,  on  the  Wady  Arneba,  at  the  head  of  the 
valley  of  Etah  in  south  Judah.  This  is  the  place 
whither  David  fled  from  Saul  (1  Sam.  22.5). 

Harhai'ah. — Father  of  Uzziel,  a  repairer  of 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  3.8). 

Harhas  (Hasrah  in  2  Ch.  34.22.)— Grand- 
father of  Shallum,  the  husband  of  Huldah  (2  K. 
22.14). 

Hnrhur. — Head  of  a  family  of  returning 
exiles  (Ezra  2.51  ;  Neh.  7.53). 

Ha 'rim. — Flat-nosed  :  1.  A  priest  in  charge  of 
the  third  division  of  the  sanctuary  (1  Ch.  24.8). 
2.  One  of  whom  1017  descendants  came  up  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.39 ;  Neh.  7.42).  Members  of 
the  same  family  are  mentioned  in  Ezra  10.21 
and  Neh.  10.5.  3.  They  had  married  foreign 
wives  (Ezra  10.31).  Probably  identical  with 
Nos.  4,  6.  4.  A  family  that  sealed  the  covenant 
with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  10.27).  Probably  identi- 
cal with  Nos.  3,  6.  5.  (Neh.  12.15).  6.  A  place 
(as  it  seems)  in  Judah  called  after  a  family  of 
Bene-Ha'rim,  which  returned  from  captivity 
320  in  number  (Ezra  2.32  ;  Neh.  7.35),  and 
were  probably  identical  with  Nos.  3,  4. 

Ha'riph. — 1.  A  place  so  called  from  a  family 
numbering  112,  who  returned  from  captivity 
with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  7.24).  In  Ezra  2.18 

13 


called  Jorah.  [HAREPH.]  2.  The  head  of  a 
family  that  sealed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  10.19). 

Harlot. — The  deification  of  the  reproductive 
forces  of  nature,  widely  spread  in  the  East, 
made  harlotry  one  of  the  gravest  evils  of  O.T. 
and  N.T.  times.  It  cast  a  religious  sanction  over 
acts  which,  in  the  light  of  the  Hebrew  and  the 
Christian  faith,  were  acts  of  gross  sin.  Hence 
in  the  O.T.  two  classes  of  harlots  are  mentioned  : 
(1)  The  harlot  set  aside  for  religious  purposes. 
The  word  is  used  of  Tamar  (Gen.  38.21) ;  and  the 
licentiousness  associated  with  these  idolatrous 
practices  is  indicated  in  Eos.  4.12-14.  (2) 
The  ordinary  offender,  such  as  Rahab  (Josh.  2.1). 
The  frequency  of  the  sin  as  well  as  its  association 
with  idolatry  caused  its  use  in  a  figurative  sense 
(as  in  Isai.  1.21).  In  the  N.T.  the  harlot  is 
classed  with  the  publican  (Matt.  21.31,  32),  as 
believing  John  the  Baptist.  St.  Paul  deals 
with  the  sin  (1  Cor.  6.15, 16).  In  the  N.T. 
also  the  sin  of  harlotry  is  used  figuratively,  as 
of  "  Babylon  "  in  Rev.  17. 

Har-mageddon.— -[ARMAGEDDON.] 

Harne'pher. — A  chief  in  the  tribe  of  Asher 
(1  Ch.  7.36). 

Harness. — [ARMS,  AEMOTJR,  HORSE.] 

Ha'rod. — Fear,  trembling :  a  spring  where 
Gideon  and  his  army  encamped  before  attacking 
the  Midianites  (Judg.  7.1).  Its  modern  name  is 
Ain  Jalud,  west  of  the  Jordan. 

Ha'rodite.— An  inhabitant  of  Harod  (2  Sam. 
23.25).  In  1  Ch.  11.27  the  name  is  Harorite. 

Haro'eh. — The  seer,  if  a  proper  name  (1  Ch. 
2.52).  But  probably  it  is  descriptive  of  Shobal, 
**  who  provided  for  half  the  resting-places." 

Har'orite.— [HABODITB.] 

Haro'sheth. — A  city  in  the  north  of  Canaan, 
the  home  of  Sisera,  who  was  a  general  of  the 
army  of  Jabin,  king  of  Canaan.  Sisera  retreated 
to  Harosheth  after  his  defeat  by  Barak  (Judg. 
4.2, 13, 16).  Its  modern  name  is  El-Harithiyeh, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  lower  Kishon,  north- 
west of  Megiddo. 

Harp. — The  earliest  known  musical  instru- 
ment, dating  from  before  the  flood  (Gen.  4.21). 
The  Hebrew  word  kinnor,  which  is  translated 
"  harp  "  in  our  English  versions,  probably  was 
a  lyre.  It  was  employed  by  the  Hebrews,  not 
only  in  their  devotions,  but  also  at  their  enter- 
tainments. In  its  earliest  forms  it  appears  to 
have  been  made  of  bone  and  tortoiseshell,  and 
the  strings  plucked  with  a  key.  That  it  was 
light  in  construction  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
David  danced  while  he  played,  as  also  did  the 
Levites  (1  Sam.  16.23,  18.10).  It  was  not  used 
on  sorrowful  occasions  (Job  30.31 ;  Ps.  137.2). 

Harrow. — The  Jewish  harrow  was,  and  is,  a 
rough  heavy  wooden  plank,  on  the  under  side 
of  which  sharp  flints  or  iron  spikes  have  been 
inserted.  This  was  drawn  over  the  ploughed 
ground  by  oxen,  the  driver  standing  on  it,  to  give 
extra  weight  and  effectiveness  to  the  operation 
of  breaking  up  the  hard  clods  of  earth  in 
preparation  for  the  seed  (Isai.  28.24).  Some- 
times a  still  more  primitive  harrow  is  used^ 


HARSHA] 


194 


[HATITA 


namely,  a  log  of  wood  or  a  branch  of  a  tree, 
which  is  dragged  over  the  rough  ground.  The 
harrow  was  also  used  as  an  instrument  of 
punishment  or  of  torture  (2  Sam.  12.31),  if 
tortures  are  intended  in  that  passage,  and  not 
merely  forms  of  work. 

Har'sha. — Head  of  a  family  of  Nethinim 
(Ezra  2.52). 

Harsith. — Potsherds:  the  name  of  a  gate  in 
Jerusalem  (Jer.  19.2  R.V.),  so  called  because 
they  were  thrown  outside  it,  on  the  way  to  the 
valley  of  Hinnom.  The  A.V.  text  has  "the 
east  gate,"  deriving  the  word  from  heres,  sun 
(see  A.V.  marg.). 

Hart. — The  hart  is  given  among  the  animals 
permitted  for  food  (Deut.  12.15,  14.5,  15.22. 
Solomon's  provision  for  one  day  (1  K.  4.23) 
shows  that  it  was  in  use  as  a  regular  article  of  diet 
by  those  who  procured  it.  The  word  used  in  the 
Hebrew  probably  covered  the  various  kinds  of 
deer  to  be  found  in  Palestine.  The  hind  is  even 
oftener  mentioned  than  the  hart,  chiefly  as  a 
poetical  image.  The  "  loving  hind  "  is  spoken 
of  in  Proverbs  (5.19),  and  its  fleetness  and  agility 
are  referred  to  in  Gen.  49.21;  2  Sam.  22.34, 
and  Isai.  35.6.  Characteristic  of  the  deer  are 
care  for  their  young  and  extreme  timidity.  The 
latter  trait  sometimes  causes  the  hind  to  cast  her 
young  upon  receiving  a  sudden  alarm,  contrary 
to  the  usual  practice,  which  is  to  withdraw  to 
hiding-places  to  give  birth  to  her  fawn.  This 
knowledge  of  the  hind's  habits  gives  fresh  force 
to  such  passages  as  Job  39.1  and  Ps.  29.9. 

Ha'rum. — A  descendant  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  4.8). 

Earu'maph. — Father  of  a  builder  of  the  wall 
(Neh.  3.10). 

Harnphite. — One  of  the  Benjamites  who  went 
to  David's  aid  when  he  was  in  distress  (1  Ch.  12.5). 

Ha'ruz. — Diligent,  industrious :  father  of 
Meshullemeth,  King  Amon's  mother  (2  K. 
21.19). 

Harvest. — Harvest-time  in  Palestine  begins 
in  April  and  ends  early  in  June.  Three  months 
intervene  between  the  sowing  and  the  first 
reaping,  and  a  month  between  this  and  the 
full  harvest.  Barley  is  in  full  ear  all  over  the 
Holy  Land  in  the  beginning  of  April ;  and  about 
the  middle  of  the  same  month  it  begins  to  turn 
yellow,  particularly  in  the  southern  districts. 
It  is  as  forward  around  Jericho  then  as  it  is 
a  fortnight  later  in  the  plains  of  Acre.  The 
reaping  continues  until  the  middle  of  Sivan, 
about  the  end  of  May. 

The  reapers  in  Palestine  and  Syria  make  use 
of  the  sickle  in  cutting  down  the  corn  when 
the  crop  is  a  full  one  ;  but  when  it  is  short  then 
their  custom  is  to  pull  it  up  by  the  roots  with 
the  hands.  They  do  this  that  none  of  the  straw, 
used  to  feed  the  cattle,  may  be  lost.  This 
practice  is  referred  to  in  Ps.  129.7.  The  reapers 
go  to  the  field  very  early  in  the  morning,  and 
return  home  in  the  afternoon.  They  carry 
provisions  along  with  them,  and  water  in 
leathern  bottles  or  gourds.  They  are  followed 
by  their  own  children,  or  by  others,  who  glean 
the  considerable  quantity  their  careless  manner 


of  harvesting  leaves  behind.  There  was  there- 
fore nothing  unusual  in  Ruth's  going  herself  to 
the  harvest-field.  The  right  of  the  gleaners 
was  secured  by  positive  law  (Lev.  19.9). 

The  wheat  harvest  followed  the  barley  harvest. 
After  the  reaping  it  was  thrashed  and  winnowed 
in  the  open  air.  The  wheat  was  put  into 
granaries,  and  the  chaff  put  aside  for  burning 
as  fuel,  it  being  used  largely  to  heat  the  bread 
ovens. 

Hasadi'ah. — Jehovah  is  kind :  a,  son  of 
Zerubbabel  (1  Ch.  3.20). 

Hasenn'ah,  Hassenu'ah. — Hated :  a  Benjamite 
(1  Ch.  9.7). 

Hashabi  ah. — Jehovah  has  taken  account : 
a  favourite  name  with  the  Levites.  Several 
persons  bearing  it  appear  in  Holy  Scripture  (see 
1  Ch.  6.45,  9.14,  25.3,  26.30,  27.17  ;  2  Ch.  35.9  ; 
Ezra  8.19,  24 ;  Neh.  3.17,  10.11,  11.15,  22, 

12.21,  24). 

Hashab'nah. — Jehovah  has  taken  account :  a 
chief  who  sealed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  10.25). 

Hashabni'ah,  Hashabnei'ah  (probably  same 
meaning). — 1.  Father  of  a  builder  of  the  wall 
(Neh.  3.10).  2.  A  Levite  (Neh.  9.5).  The  same 
as  Hashabiah  in  Ezra  8.19,24;  Neh.  10.11, 

11.22,  12.24. 

Hashbada'na,  Hashbadda'na.  —  Probably  a 
Levite  (Neh.  8.4). 

Hash'em. —  Father  of  some  of  David's 
heroes  (1  Ch.  11.34).  Called  Jashen  in  2  Sam. 
23.32. 

Hashmo'nah. — A  site  of  Israelite  encamp- 
ment, near  Mount  Hor  (Num.  33.29,  30). 

Hashub,  Hasshnb. — Considerate  :  the  correct 
form  of  this  name  is  that  given  in  1  Ch.  9.14 — 
Hasshub.  There  were  several  persons  bearing 
this  name.  1.  In  Neh.  11.15  is  the  same  as 
mentioned  in  1  Ch.  9.14  ;  2.  (Neh.  3.11) ;  3. 
(Neh.  3.23) ;  4.  (Neh.  10.23). 

Hashu'bah. — Consideration  :  a  son  of  Zerub- 
babel (1  Ch.  3.20). 

Ha'shum.— 1.  Head  of  a  family  of  Bene- 
Chashum  who  returned  with  Zerubbabel  from 
captivity  (Ezra  2.19,  10.33  ;  Neh.  7.22).  2. 
Perhaps  a  Levite  who  supported  Ezra  (Neh.  8.4). 
3.  One  who  sealed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  10.18). 

Has'rah.— [HARHAS.] 

Hassena'ah. — This  is  the  same  name  as 
Senaah  with  the  article.  They  rebuilt  the  fish- 
gate  in  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  3.3).  See 
Ezra  2.35  and  Neh.  7.38. 

Hassenu'ah.— [HASENTJ  AH.] 

Hasshub.— [HASHUB.] 

Hat.—  [TURBAN.]     (Dan.  3.21.) 

Ha'tach  (R.V.  Ha'thach).— A  chamberlain  in 
attendance  on  Queen  Esther  (Esth..  4.5-10). 

Ha'thath.— (?)  Bruised  or  terrified  :  brother  of 
Othniel  (1  Ch.  4.13). 

Hati'pha. — Seized :  a  family  of  Nethinim 
who  returned  \vith  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.54 ; 
Neh.  7.56). 

Hati'ta. — Head  of  a  Levitical  family  of  re- 
turned exiles  (Ezra  2.42  ;  Neh.  7.45). 


HATTIL] 


195 


[HAZAR-GADDAH 


HattiL — Hesitating,  wavering :  a  group  of 
Solomon's  servants  or  slaves  who  came  back 
with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.57  ;  Neh.  7.59). 

Hat'tush. — 1.  A  descendant  of  King  David 
(1  Ch.  3.22 ;  Ezra  8.2).  2.  A  priest  who 
returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  10.4,  12.2). 
3.  A  builder  of  the  wall  (Neh.  3.10). 

Hau'ran. — The  cave  land  or  the  black  land: 
this  name  is  mentioned  only  twice  in  Scripture 
(Ezek.  47.16,  18).  It  was  a  tract  of  country  of 
small  extent  in  the  time  of  the  Jews,  but  was 
enlarged  by  the  Romans,  who  called  it  Auranitis. 
It  extends  for  about  20  miles  south  of  Damascus 
to  a  little  below  Bozra.  Within  its  limits  are 
included,  besides  Trachonitis,  Tturaea,  now 
called  Dejedour,  and  part  of  Bashan  (which  see). 
It  is  a  volcanic  region,  with  the  remains  of  a 
crater  on  the  Tel  Shoba,  on  its  eastern  side. 
It  produces  luxuriant  herbage  and  corn,  and 
is  much  frequented  by  the  Arabs  for  pasturage. 
Its  surface  is  covered  with  the  ruins  of  many 
cities,  with  Grecian  inscriptions.  The  walls 
of  the  buildings  are  of  remarkable  thickness, 
and  many  of  the  doors  are  of  stone,  dating 
back  to  remote  antiquity. 

Havi'lah. — A  sandy  desert :  1.  A  son  of  Gush 
(Gen.  10.7  ;  1  Ch.  1.9).  2.  A  son  of  Joktan  and 
descendant  of  Shem  (Gen.  10.29  ;  1  Ch.  1.23). 
3.  The  land  compassed  by  the  Pison  after  leaving 
Eden  (Gen.  2.11).  Perhaps  the  west  of  the 
Caspian  Sea,  or  on  the  west  coast  of  the  Persian 
Gulf.  [EDEN.]  4.  Borderland  of  the  Ishmael- 
ites  (Gen.  25.18),  and  the  scene  of  Saul's  war 
against  the  Amalekites  (1  Sam.  15.7). 

There  must  have  been  other,  perhaps  many, 
Havilahs  besides  the  original  one—districts 
inhabited  by  the  numerous  and  widespread 
posterity  of  Cush. 

Ha'voth-Jair,  Hav'voth- Jair.  —  Villages  of 
Jair:  the  Hebrew  Havoth  signifies  cabins  or 
huts,  such  as  belong  to  the  Arabians.  A  collection 
of  these  placed  in  a  circle  formed  a  village  or 
hamlet.  The  district  mentioned  (Num.  32.41 ; 
Deut.  3.14  ;  Josh.  13.30 ;  Judg.  10.4)  was  be- 
yond Jordan,  but  it  is  not  clear  whether  in  the 
land  of  Gilead  (1  K.  4.13)  or  in  Bashan  (Deut. 
3.14).  Perhaps  some  were  in  each.  They 
belonged  to  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh.  This 
group  of  villages  formed  part  of  one  of  Solomon's 
commissariat  districts  (1  K.  4.13).  [JAIE.] 

Hawk. — The  term  expresses  strong  and  rapid 
flight,  and  is  used  generally  for  falcons  or  the 
smaller  birds  of  prey,  among  which  the  kestrel 
is  perhaps  the  commonest.  The  hawk  is 
mentioned  among  the  unclean  fowls,  and  not 
to  be  eaten,  in  Lev.  11.16  and  Deut.  14.15. 
The  reference  in  Job  39.26,  "  Doth  the  hawk 
fly  by  thy  wisdom,  and  stretch  her  wings  toward 
the  south  ?  "  is  clearly  to  the  migratory  in- 
stincts of  most  of  the  hawks  found  in  Palestine, 
which  fly  south  to  a  warmer  climate  on  the 
approach  of  winter.  Others  reverse  the 
process,  and  travel  northwards  away  from 
the  advance  of  summer.  The  red  kite  is  of 
this  order.  The  hobby,  the  lesser  kestrel,  the 
red-legged  hobby,  and  the  Levant  sparrow- 


hawk  are  all  summer  visitants  to  Palestine, 
and  fly  southwards  at  the  close  of  summer.  In 
Egypt  one  species  of  hawk  at  least  was  con- 
sidered so  sacred  that  the  penalty  for  killing 
one,  even  by  accident,  was  death.  It  was  the 
sacred  bird  of  llorus,  the  sun-god,  and  it  is  to 
be  noticed  that  solar  deities  are  represented  in 
their  statues  as  having  the  heads  of  hawks. 
The  connexion  of  the  hawk  with  the  sun  lies 
in  their  supposed  ability  to  gaze  at  the  burning 
orb  unharmed. 

Hay. — Really  grass  or  greenness.  Hay  is 
not  made  in  Palestine  as  with  us,  but  the  grass 
is  cut  green  for  fodder  as  required  (Ps.  72.6  ; 
Prov.  27.25).  In  Isai.  15.G  for  "hay"  read 
"grass"  (R.V.),  and  for  "grass"  "tender 
grass"  (R.V.). 

Haza'el. — Whom  God  sees :  the  story  of 
Hazael,  king  of  Damascus,  is  one  of  deep 
tragedy.  An  officer  of  high  rank  under  King 
Benhadad,  he  was  sent  by  him  to  inquire  of 
Elijah  if  he,  Benhadad,  would  recover  from 
his  illness.  Elisha,  obeying  the  command  of 
God  given  to  Elijah,  anointed  Hazael  king, 
and  at  the  same  time  told  him  that  Benhadad's 
illness  was  not  fatal,  yet  that  he  would  die, 
and  Hazael  reign  in  his  stead.  Hazael  saw 
to  it  that  the  prophecy  was  fulfilled,  for  he 
killed  Benhadad  himself  and  seized  the  throne. 
He  was  a  contemporary  of  Joram,  Jehu,  and 
Jehoahaz,  kings  of  Israel.  He  is  mentioned 
on  the  Black  Obelisk  in  the  British  Museum  as 
giving  tribute  (with  Jehu)  to  Shalmaneser  n., 
king  of  Assyria,  in  842  B.C.  His  question  to 
Elisha  (2  K.  8.13),  "  Is  thy  servant  a  dog, 
that  he  should  do  this  great  thing  ?  "  should 
be  translated,  "  But  what  is  thy  servant, 
which  is  but  a  dog,  that  he  should  ?  "  etc.,  i.e. 
Hazael  is  not  at  all  horrified,  but  hypocritically 
expresses  himself  as  unworthy  of  the  high 
position  promised.  The  cruel  barbarities  he 
inflicted  on  Israel  are  narrated  in  2  K.  8.12, 
10.32  sqq.,  12, 17 ;  cf.  1  K.  19.15-17  ;  Amos  1.4. 

Hazai'ah. — The  Lord  sees  :  a  chief  in  the 
line  of  Shelah,  son  of  Judah,  see  Num.  26.20 
(Neh.  11.5).  [SHILONITE.] 

Ka'zar-addar. — Village  of  Adar  (or  of  a  noble): 
a  place  on  the  south  boundary  of  the  Promised 
Land,  between  Kadesh-Barnea  and  Azrnon 
(A'wm.  34.4).  The  name  appears  as  Adar  in 
Josh.  15.3.  Exact  site  unknown. 

The  word  Hazar  is  prefixed  to  a  number 
of  place-names.  It  is  employed  generally 
to  indicate  that  the  places  so  designated  are 
of  a  semi-permanent  character,  such  as  are 
erected  by  Arabs.  These  generally  consist 
of  stone  walls  surmounted  by  a  roof  of  tent- 
cloth. 

Ha'zar-enan,  Hazar-enon. — Village  of  foun- 
tains :  a  landmark  in  the  north-east  boundary 
of  the  Promised  Land  (Num.  34.9,10;  Ezek. 
47.17).  It  has  been  identified  with  the  modern 
Kuryatein  ("  the  two  cities  "),  a  village  more 
than  60  miles  E.N.E.  of  Damascus,  where 
are  large  fountains,  the  only  ones  in  the  district. 

Ha'zar-gaddab. — ^°^  °f  ^e  %*& :   a  town 


HAZAR-HATTICON] 


196 


[HEATH 


in  the  south  of  Judah,  between  Moladah  and 
Heshmon.  It  has  not  been  identified  (Josh. 
15.27). 

Ha'zar-hat'ticon. — Middle  Hazar  :  a  place 
specified  by  Ezekiel  as  on  the  ultimate  north 
boundary  of  the  Holy  Land  (Ezek.  47.16).  Its 
position  is  not  known. 

Hazarnia'veth. — This  can  hardly  be  a  Hebrew 
name,  and  its  meaning  is  unknown.  The  third 
in  order  of  the  sons  of  Joktan  of  the  family  of 
Shem.  The  name  is  preserved  in  the  Arabic 
Hadramaut — the  name  of  a  province  and  ancient 
people  of  southern  Arabia  a  little  east  of  Aden 
(Gen.  10.26  ;  1  Ch.  1.20). 

Hazar -shu'al. — Fox-village :  1.  A  town  in  the 
south  of  Judah  allotted  to  Simeon  ( Josh.  15.28 ; 
1  Ch.  4.28).  It  was  reoccupied  after  the  return 
from  the  Captivity  (Neh.  11.27).  Site  unknown. 
2.  A  place  in  Simeon  (Josh.  19.3). 

Hazar-su'sah,  Hazar -susim. — Village  of  horses: 
a  city  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah,  near  Beth- 
Marcaboth.  Allotted  to  Simeon  (Josh.  19.5  ; 
1  Ch.  4.31).  Not  yet  identified. 

Haza  'zon-tamar. — [H  AZKZON-TAMAB.  ] 

Hazel  (Gen.  30.37  only).— The  hazel  does 
not  grow  in  the  neighbourhood  indicated,  and 
the  word  used  probably  denotes  any  nut-bearing 
tree.  Many  scholars,  however,  render  the  word 
almond  tree  (so  the  R.V.),  which  is  such  a  well- 
known  feature  of  English  gardens.  [ALMOND 
TREE.] 

Hazelelpo'ni. — (?)  Give  shade,  thou  that  turnest 
to  me  \  the  bearer  of  the  name  was  a  sister 
of  the  sons  of  Etam,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah 
(1  Ch.  4.3). 

Haze 'rim. — Villages :  a  plural  form  of  Hazar. 
A  district  in  the  south  of  Canaan  near  Gaza, 
inhabited  in  ancient  times  by  the  Avim  or  Avvim, 
a  tribe  that  wandered  over  the  south-west  of 
Palestine  and  dwelt  in  villages  (Deut.  2.23). 

Haze 'roth. — Villages  :  the  site  of  an  Israelite 
encampment  where  Miriam  was  stricken  with 
leprosy  (Num.  11.35, 12.16,  33.17).  Its  position 
is  identified  with  *Ain  Hudherah,  a  few  miles 
distant  from  Sinai  on  the  road  to  Akabah. 

Haze'zon-ta'mar  (R.V.  Haza'zon  -  ta'mar).— 
(?  Pruning  of)  palm  trees  :  the  ancient  name 
of  Engedi,  on  the  west  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Here 
dwelt  the  Amorites  who  were  vanquished  by 
Chedorlaomer  and  his  allies  (Gen.  14.7).  It  was 
the  site  of  the  encampment  of  the  allies  who 
invaded  Judah  in  the  reign  of  Jehoshaphat 
(2  Ch.  20.2).  Possibly  this  was  the  "city  of 
palm  trees  "  from  whence  the  Kenites  migrated 
to  the  wilderness  of  Judah  (Judg.  1.16).  "When 
Balaam  refers  to  the  Kenites  (Num.  24.21)  he 
could  view  the  western  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea 
and  the  cliffs  of  Engedi  in  which  the  Kenites 
had  their  stronghold  or  "  nest."  But  probably 
Judg.  1.16  refers  to  Jericho. 

Hazi'eL— Vision  of  God  :  a  Levite  (1  Ch.  23.9). 

Ha'zo. — (?)  Vision :  a  son  of  Nahor  by 
Milcah,  his  wife,  and  a  native  of  Ur  (Gen.  22.22). 

Hazor. — Enclosure :  1.  A  fortified  city  taken 
by  Joshua  and  allotted  to  Naphtali  on  the 
division  of  the  land.  It  was  the  principal  royal 


Canaanite  city,  and  lay  between  Ramah  and 
Kadesh  on  the  high  ground  overlooking  the 
Lake  of  Merom  (Josh.  11.1, 10-13,  12.19, 19.36). 
It  was  the  largest  city  of  northern  Palestine,  and 
under  its  king,  Jabin,  oppressed  the  Israelites, 
but  was  vanquished  by  Deborah  and  Barak 
(Judg.  4.2, 17 ;  1  Sam.  12.9).  The  town  was 
rebuilt  by  Solomon  (1  K.  9.15).  Afterwards 
its  inhabitants  were  carried  captive  to  Assyria 
by  Tiglath-Pileser  (2  K.  15.29).  2.  A  city  in 
the  south  of  Judah  ( Josh.  15.23).  3.  Combined 
with  Hadattah  means  New  Hazor.  Another 
town  in  the  south  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.25).  The 
two  parts  of  the  name  are  improperly  separated 
in  A.V. — it  should  read  Hazor-hadattah,  as  in 
R.V.  4.  A  place  north  of  Jerusalem  where 
some  Benjamites  resided  after  their  return  from 
captivity.  Thought  to  be  identical  with  Baal- 
Hazor  (Neh.  11.33),  and  now  called  Hazzur. 
5.  An  Arabian  district  conquered  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar (Jer.  49.28,  30,  33). 

Hazor-hadattah,— [HAZOR  3.] 

Head. — The  word  is  often  used  figuratively 
in  Holy  Scripture.  Christ  is  the  head  of  the 
church  (Col.  1.18),  in  respect  both  of  eminence 
and  of  influence,  communicating  life,  health, 
strength  to  every  believer.  Also  the  husband  is 
the  head  of  the  wife  (Gen.  3.16),  in  regard  to 
pre-eminence  of  sex  (1  Pet.  3.7)  and  excellency 
of  knowledge  (1  Cor.  14.35).  The  stone  which 
the  builders  rejected  was  made  the  head  (or 
capital)  of  the  corner  (Ps.  118.22). 

Headbands.— Isai.  3.20  only;  R.V.  "sashes," 
worn  by  women. 

Headstone. — [ABCHTTBCTUBB,  BUILDING.] 

Heart. — The  Hebrews  used  this  word  for  the 
seat  of  all  mental  life — intellect,  will,  and 
emotion  (Ezek.  13.2  ;  Eos.  7.11 ;  Lk.  8.15  ;  Acts 
16.14). 

Hearth. — The  hearth  was  the  pan  or  brazier 
of  fire.  The  top  of  the  oven  sunk  in  the  floor 
was  also  called  the  hearth.  When  bread  was 
wanted  quickly  a  fire  was  lighted  in  the  oven, 
and  when  sufficiently  heated  the  ashes  were 
swept  away  and  the  thin  cakes  of  dough  placed 
on  it  and  covered  with  the  hot  ashes.  This  was 
Sarah's  method  of  cooking  when  Abraham  bid 
her  prepare  a  hasty  meal  for  the  angels  (Gen. 
18.6  ;  see  also  Lev.  6.9).  [BREAD,  ARIEL.] 

Heath. — The  word  translated  heath  certainly 
does  not  indicate  the  plant  that  abounds  in 
this  country,  which  does  not  grow  in  Palestine. 
The  word  is  used  twice,  in  Jer.  17.6  and  Jer. 
48.6.  In  the  former  the  prophet  contrasts  the 
godly  man  with  him  who  trusts  in  his  own 
strength  ;  the  one  is  likened  to  "  a  tree  planted 
by  the  waters,"  the  other,  to  "  the  heath  in  the 
desert,"  scrubby  and  scant  of  foliage.  In  the 
second  passage  Moab  is  denounced,  and  her 
citizens  bidden  to  "  flee  .  .  .  and  be  like  the 
heath  in  the  wilderness,"  practically  worthless. 

The  reference  in  both  instances  is  to  shrubs 
growing  in  the  barren  and  desolate  districts 
common  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Dead  Sea 
and  the  region  farther  south.  These  tracts  of 
land  support  bare  and  naked  shrubs,  just  able  to 


HEATHEN] 


197 


[HEBEEW  LANGUAGE 


exist  in  the  ungenial  soil.  There  are  weird  and 
stunted  shrubs  in  that  "  wilderness  "  which  well 
illustrate  the  prophet's  simile,  "  a  naked  bush 
in  the  desert." 

Heathen. — The  word  translated  heathen 
would  more  literally  be  "  the  nations,"  i.e. 
others  than  Hebrews  (Lev.  25.44  ;  1  Ch.  16.24, 
etc.).  Sometimes  the  word  is  used  to  describe 
unbelievers,  as  in  Jer.  10.25.  Generally,  all  who 
had  not  accepted  God  as  revealed  by  Himself 
to  the  Jews,  and  who  remained  idolaters. 

It  was  divinely  foretold  that  in  Abraham's 
seed  all  nations  should  be  blessed  ;  that  the 
heathen  should  be  gathered  to  the  Saviour,  and 
become  His  people  (Gen.  22.18,  49.10  ;  Ps. 
2.8,  72  ;  Isai.  42.6,  60).  When  Christ  came, 
His  answer  to  the  Greeks  implied  that  great 
numbers  of  the  heathen  should  be  brought  into 
the  Church  (John  12.20,  24).  Both  under  the 
old  and  the  new  dispensations  God's  people 
were  forbidden  to  intermarry  with  the  heathen. 
Even  in  its  early  days  the  nation  of  the  Jews  were 
essentially  a  separate  people  (Lev.  20.23),  and 
were  bound  to  maintain  their  separate  char- 
acter, moral,  political  and  religious,  under  severe 
judgments  (Lev.  26.14-38 ;  Deut.  28).  They  were 
even  forbidden  to  associate  or  intermarry  with 
the  remnant  of  the  conquered  nations  remaining 
in  Palestine  (Josh.  23.7),  lest  the  same  fate 
should  overtake  them  as  had  overtaken  their 
predecessors  (Lev.  18.24, 25).  An  Ammonite 
or  a  Moabite  was  shut  out  from  the  congrega- 
tion of  Jehovah  even  unto  the  tenth  generation 
(Deut.  23.3),  though  an  Edomite  or  an  Egyptian 
was  admitted  in  the  third.  The  record  of  the 
recurring  tendency  of  the  Israelites  to  relapse 
into  idolatry  shows  the  necessity  there  was 
for  this  strictness. 

Heave-offering. — This  must  not  be  confounded 
with  the  Wave  -  offering.  It  represents  an 
offering  "  lifted  up "  from  the  rest  of  the 
offerings  (Ex.  29.27 ;  Lev.  7.14)  or  of  the  pro- 
duce gained  by  one's  exertions  (Deut.  12.6). 
[SACRIFICE.] 

Heaven. — According  to  the  Jews,  there  were 
at  least  three  heavens :  the  first  was  the  cloudy 
region  of  the  air,  where  the  birds  fly,  which  are 
therefore  called  "  the  fowls  of  heaven  "  (Job 
35.11).  This  is  the  heaven  referred  to  in  pass- 
ages where  we  read  of  the  dew  of  heaven,  the 
clouds  of  heaven,  and  the  wind  of  heaven.  The 
second  was  that  part  of  space  in  which  are  fixed 
the  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  called  "  the  firmament " 
or  expanse  "  of  heaven  "  (Gen.  1.8).  The  third 
heaven  the  Jews  thought  was  typified  by  the 
Holy  of  Holies — it  was  the  seat  of  God  and  of 
the  holy  angels.  This  it  was  whence  Christ 
carne,  to  which  He  ascended  after  His  resurrec- 
tion (Acts  1.11),  whence  He  shall  descend  again 
(1  Thess.  4.16),  and  into  which  Paul  was  caught 
up  (2  Cor.  12.2).  It  is  not  like  the  other 
heavens,  perceptible  to  mortal  view  (John  3.12, 
13 ;  Heb.'S.I,  9.24).  Some  Jews  distinguished 
seven  heavens  (Testaments  of  the  Twelve  Patri- 
archs, Levi,  2  and  3 ;  Book  of  the  Secrets  of  Enoch, 
3-21). 


Of  heaven  as  the  eternal  home  of  the  redeemed, 
we  learn  that  it  is  a  place,  prepared  for  them  by 
the  Lord  Jesus  (John  14.2) ;  a  place  of  happiness 
(1  Cor.  2  9)  and  exaltation  (2  Tim.  2.11) ;  but 
also  of  Sabbath-rest  from  all  trouble  (Eel.  4.10, 
11).  It  is  called  a  "kingdom"  (Matt.  25.34; 
Jas.  2.5;  2  Pet.  1.11);  Paradise  (Lk.  23.43; 
Rev.  2.7)  ;  an  inheritance  (1  Pet.  1.4)  ;  a  city 
(Heb.  11.10);  and  a  "better  country"  (Heb. 
11.16).  In  this  blessed  home  the  redeemed 
serve  before  God,  free  from  evil  of  soul  or  body 
(Rev.  7.15, 16),  in  complete  joy  and  felicity 
(Ps.  16.11)  past  our  understanding  (1  Cor.  2.9). 

HeTjer.— (?)  From  the  other  side  (Lk.  3.35). 
[EBEE.]  1.  A  man  of  Asher  (Gen.  46.17  ;  Num. 
26.45  ;  1  Ch.  7.31).  2.  The  husband  of  Jael, 
who  killed  Sisera.  He  was  a  Kenite,  a  nom- 
adic tribe  which  had  settled  for  a  time  in  the 
debatable  ground  between  the  northern  tribes 
and  Jabin,  the  Canaanitish  king  (Judg.  4.11-24). 
3.  A  descendant  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  4.18).  4.  A 
Benjamite  (1  Ch.  8.17). 

Heterites.— Belonging  to  Heber :  a  family 
descended  from  Heber  4  (Num.  26.45). 

Hebrew. — From  the  other  side :  the  earliest 
occurrence  of  this  title  is  in  Gen.  14.13.  It  is  the 
name  by  which  the  children  of  Israel  were  called 
by  the  surrounding  nations,  though  both  the 
terms  Israel  and  Israelites  were  used  as  well. 
The  word  itself  is  derived  from  Eber  (men  from 
the  other  side — of  the  Euphrates),  which  is  also 
the  name  of  a  place  (Num.  24.24),  and  secondly, 
the  name  of  an  ancestor  of  the  Hebrews  (Gen. 
10.21).  Now  Eber  means  the  further  bank  of  a 
river,  and  is  derived  from  a  root  meaning  to  cross. 
It  is  usually  supposed  that  Abraham,  by  this, 
became  a  Hebrew  (one  who  crosses  from  the  other 
side)  when  he  migrated  from  Mesopotamia 
(Gen.  14.13),  but  it  may  have  been  given  much 
earlier  to  his  family  by  the  Babylonians  when 
they  migrated  from  the  Arabian  peninsula 
eastwards  across  the  Euphrates.  [ABRAHAM, 
ISRAEL,  ISRAELITES,  JEWS,  and  the  next  article.] 

Hebrew  Language.— The  Hebrew  language 
was  the  language  of  the  Israelites  during  their 
independence.  It  was  considered  by  them 
"  the  sacred  tongue,"  and  in  the  O.T.  it  is  called 
the  "  lip  of  Canaan,"  or  the  Jews'  language 
(2  K.  18.26-28;  Isai.  19.18,  marg.,  36.13). 
It  was  the  common  tongue  of  Canaan  and 
Phoenicia.  This  is  proved  not  only  by  inscrip- 
tions, but  by  the  silence  of  Scripture  as  to  any 
difference  between  the  language  of  the  Canaan  - 
ites  and  Hebrews.  They  both  dwelt  in  the 
land,  and  yet  no  difference  of  speech  is  noticed, 
though  the  difference  between  the  language  of 
Hebrew  and  Egyptian  (Ps.  81.5,  114.1)  is  recog- 
nised, as  is  even  the  difference  between  Hebrew 
and  cognate  languages — such  as  the  Aramaic 
used  by  the  Assyrians  (Isai.  36.11)  and  of  the 
eastern  Aramaic  used  by  the  Chaldees  (Jer. 
5.15). 

Hebrew,  then,  may  be  regarded  as  the  Israel- 
itish  dialect  of  the  Canaanitish  language.  But 
in  course  of  time  so  much  was  borrowed  from  the 
languages  (closely  akin)  surrounding  them — the 


HEBREWS,  EPISTLE  TO  THE]        198        [HEBREWS,  EPISTLE  TO  THE 


Aramaic,  the  language  of  Aram,  Mesopotamia, 
Syria,  and  a  large  portion  of  Arabia — that  about 
722  B.C.  Hebrew  began  to  suffer  a  process  of 
decay,  which  ended  in  its  extinction  as  a  spoken 
language.  It  was  still  the  language  of  Jeru- 
salem at  the  time  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  13.24), 
but  long  before  the  time  of  Christ  it  had  been 
entirely  superseded  by  Aramaic,  and  its  litera- 
ture was  intelligible  only  to  scholars.  The 
Hebrew  tongue,  therefore,  mentioned  in  the 
N.T.  means  the  popular  tongue,  Aramaic. 
On  the  other  hand,  Hebrew,  in  contrast  to 
"  Grecian  "  or  "  Hellenist,"  means  a  Jew  whose 
native  language  was  Aramaic,  not  Greek,  and 
who  was  brought  up  in  strictly  Jewish  customs. 

Hebrews,  Epistle  to  the.— This  epistle  was 
apparently  addressed  to  Hebrew  Christians, 
inhabitants  of  some  city  or  region  (see  13.23), 
who  had  formed  an  organised  society  or  church, 
having  had  pastors  who  had  been  removed  by 
death  (13.7),  and  having  now  teachers  whom 
they  are  exhorted  to  obey.  It  has  been  gener- 
ally assumed  that  they  were  resident  in  Pales- 
tine, either  at  Jerusalem  or  Caesarea,  but  some 
favour  the  view  that  the  epistle  was  addressed 
to  the  Jewish  Christians  at  Alexandria  ;  others, 
that  it  was  intended  for  Jewish  converts  at 
Rome ;  and  others,  that  at  Antioch  were  the 
readers  to  whom  it  was  originally  sent. 

Date  and  place  of  writing. — Where  and  when 
this  epistle  was  written  cannot  definitely  be 
determined.  One  doubtful  indication  of  place 
is  given  (13.24),  "  They  of  Italy  salute  you." 
This  may  mean  those  among  whom  the  writer 
was  at  Rome  ;  or.  Italians  then  with  the  writer. 
In  reference  to  the  date  of  the  epistle  it  is  gener- 
ally agreed  that  it  was  written  near  but  not  after 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  The  writer  speaks 
of  the  Levitical  ritual  as  still  in  force. 

As  to  the  authorship  of  the  epistle,  great  un- 
certainty has  existed  from  the  earliest  times. 
It  has  been  ascribed  to  St.  Paul.  (1)  Those 
to  whom  the  epistle  was  sent  must  have 
known  the  writer  (see  10.34,  13.18,  19,  23); 
and  in  preserving  and  circulating  it  could  hardly 
fail  to  communicate  their  knowledge.  Now  the 
early  Fathers  of  the  Eastern  and  Alexandrian 
Churches,  in  the  second  and  third  centuries, 
tell  us  that  the  "  ancients,"  who  must  have 
been  contemporary  with  those  who  received  the 
original,  if  not  the  same  persons,  had  handed 
it  down  to  them  as  a  writing  of  Paul.  Clement 
of  Alexandria,  Origen,  and  Eusebius,  though 
sensible  of  some  difficulties,  held  this  testimony 
to  be  conclusive.  Origen  is  of  opinion  that 
"  the  thoughts  are  the  thoughts  of  the  Apostle, 
but  the  language  and  the  composition  are  those 
of  one  who  recalled  from  memory  and,  as  it 
were,  made  notes  of  what  was  said  by  his 
master "  ;  adding,  "  Who  wrote  the  epistle 
God  only  knows  with  certainty."  (2)  The 
Pauline  authorship  is  corroborated  by  the 
author's  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  Jewish 
system  ;  and  by  his  sympathising  interest  in 
the  salvation  of  the  Jewish  people  (compare 
Bom.  9,  10,  11  and  PhU.  3).  (3)  The  few 


personal  allusions  found  in  the  epistle  are  all 
compatible  with  what  we  know  of  Paul.  (4)  Nor 
is  there  anything  in  the  peculiarities  of  style 
and  treatment  of  the  subject  that  cannot  be 
reconciled  with  Paul's  other  epistles.  If  it 
differs  in  the  rhetorical  length  of  words  and 
finish  of  sentences,  it  is  only  the  more  like  his 
speeches  recorded  by  Luke. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  hold  that  the  differ- 
ence in  style  and  language  in  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews  from  that,  for  instance,  of  the 
Epistles  to  the  Romans,  Ephesians,  and  Philip- 
pians  is  such  that  they  cannot  have  the  same 
author.  Fundamentally  the  doctrine  is  the 
same,  but  a  different  tinge  is  given  to  its  expres- 
sion :  it  is  that  of  the  Alexandrian  rather  than 
the  Palestinian  school ;  there  is  a  marked 
difference  in  the  spirit  and  the  manner 
of  the  citations  from  the  O.T.  ;  of  the 
twenty -nine  direct  quotations,  all  but  three  are 
from  the  Septuagint.  Differences  also  may  be 
noted  in  the  method  of  argument  and  style  of 
composition. 

If  the  author  were  not  St.  Paul,  who  was  he  ? 
The  range  of  possibilities  as  to  the  authorship 
must,  in  any  case,  be  limited  to  the  Pauline 
circle ;  and  the  writer  was  one  who  could 
fittingly  speak  of  Timothy  as  "  brother." 
Luther's  conjecture  that  it  might  be  Apollos, 
based  upon  the  description  of  him  in  Acts  18.24- 
28  as  a  Hellenist  Jew,  has  many  supporters. 
Others  suggest  Barnabas.  Tradition  as  early 
as  the  days  of  Tertullian  ascribed  it  to  him. 
Certain  resemblances  in  style  and  tone  of  the 
epistle  to  words  and  idioms  occurring  in  the 
Third  Gospel  and  the  Acts  have  suggested  Luke 
as  the  author,  and  to  him  it  is  attributed  by 
Calvin  and  others.  It  has  been  surmised  that 
Priscilla  may  have  written  it  (Acts  18.26). 
Paul  places  her  name  first  (Rom.  16.3  ;  2  Tim. 
4.19),  as  though  for  some  reason  the  more  dis- 
tinguished. Other  authorities  are  content  to 
attribute  the  epistle  to  some  Alexandrian 
Christian  of  name  unknown. 

As  to  the  community  to  which  the  epistle 
was  primarily  addressed,  there  are  brief  allusions 
which  may  direct,  if  they  cannot  wholly  decide, 
the  inquiry.  They  appear  to  have  formed, 
as  has  already  been  pointed  out,  an  organised 
society  or  church,  which  had  existed  for 
some  tune  (13.7) ;  they  had  recognised 
teachers  to  whom  obedience  was  due  (13.17). 
But  these  remarks  would  almost  equally 
apply  to  Jewish  Christians  in  Palestine  (as  in 
Jerusalem  or  Csesarea)  and  to  those  of  the 
Dispersion. 

The  Contents  of  the  epistle  are  in  two  prin- 
cipal parts — the  first  chiefly  doctrinal  (1-10.18), 
and  the  second  chiefly  practical  (10.19-13). 

1.  In  the  first  part,  the  supreme  authority 
and  glory  of  the  Christian  dispensation  is  proved 
by  the  superiority  of  its  Mediator,  the  Eternal 
Son  of  God,  to  the  mediators  of  the  old  cove- 
nant— whether  spiritual,  as  angels,  or  earthly, 
as  Moses ;  and  it  is  shown  that  His  sufferings 
and  death,  so  far  from  diminishing  His  media- 


HEBRON] 


199 


[HEIR 


torial  glory,  were  the  very  means  of  accom- 
plishing His  work  of  expiation  and  redemption 
(1-4.13).  The  comparison  of  Christ  with  Moses 
and  with  Joshua  is  then  followed  by  another 
with  Aaron.  Christ  is  shown  first  to  be,  like 
Aaron,  a  true  Priest,  appointed  by  God,  and 
a  real  representative  of  man — and  then,  far  to 
surpass  Aaron,  as  reproducing  the  older,  nobler 
priesthood  of  the  priest-king  Melchizedek. 
The  new  economy,  of  which  He  is  the  Head, 
is  proved  from  the  O.T.  itself  to  supersede 
and  abrogate  the  old  ;  and  the  intrinsic  and 
perpetual  efficacy  of  His  one  sacrifice,  as  a  full 
and  perfect  propitiation  for  sin,  is  contrasted 
with  the  typical  and  ceremonial  virtue  of  the 
oft-repeated  sacrifices  which  were  now  passing 
away  (4.14-10.18). 

2.  The  course  of  the  preceding  argument  has 
been  interspersed  with  practical  counsels  and 
solemn  warnings :  and  now  the  epistle  is 
closed  by  stirring  exhortations  to  a  continuance 
in  patient  endurance  and  cheerful  confidence, 
amidst  present  trials  and  sufferings.  Faith  is 
shown  to  be  essential  to  a  participation  in  God's 
promised  blessings  ;  its  operation  and  triumph- 
ant efficacy  are  exhibited  in  a  long  line  of  heroes, 
martyrs,  and  confessors,  ending  in  Jesus,  the 
great  exemplar  ;  and  the  Hebrew  Christians 
are  encouraged  to  endure  similar  trials,  as 
fatherly  chastisement  adapted  to  promote  their 
highest  good.  The  glorious  privileges  of  the  New 
Covenant  are  used  to  set  forth  the  awful  peril 
of  apostasy  (10.19-12).  There  follow  some 
exhortations  to  special  duties  and  virtues, 
precepts  and  rules  of  life,  introduced  with 
Pauline  abruptness  ;  and  the  whole  ends  after 
that  apostle's  manner  with  a  doxology  and 
benediction  (13). 

Helaron.  —  Confederation,  companionship  : 
1.  One  of  the  most  ancient  cities  in  the  world, 
originally  called  Kirjath-Arba,  near  to  which 
were  the  terebinths  of  Mamre  (Gen.  13.18; 
Num.  13.22;  Josh.  20.7),  and  situated  in  an 
open  valley  [ESCHOL],  about  18  miles  south  of 
Jerusalem  (Num.  13.23).  It  was  the  favourite 
abode  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  and 
contained  the  family  tomb  (Gen.  23,  25.9, 
49.29-31).  The  cave  that  Abraham  bought 
is  still  there,  surrounded  by  the  walls  of  a 
Mohammedan  mosque,  and  the  modern  name 
of  Hebron,  el-Khalil  ("  the  friend  "),  is  the 
name  by  which  Abraham  is  known  to  the 
followers  of  Mohammed.  Hebron  was  taken 
by  Joshua  from  the  Canaanites  and  given 
to  Caleb  (Josh.  10.36,  11.21,  12.10).  It  was 
afterwards  allotted  to  Judah  and  to  the  priests 
and  Kohathites,  and  was  made  a  city  of  refuge 
(Josh.  15.54,  21.11,  20.7,  15.13 ;  Judg.  1.10).  It 
was  here  also  that  David  set  up  his  government 
when  he  was  anointed  king  of  Judah  ;  where 
he  reigned  for  seven  and  a  half  years  (2  Sam.  5.5). 
Abner  was  buried  at  Hebron,  as  was  also  the 
head  of  Ishbosheth  (2  Sam.  3.32,  4.1,  8,  12). 
Then  it  was  the  seat  of  Absalom's  rebellion 
(2  Sam.  15.7-10),  and  was  fortified  by  Rehoboam 
(2  Ch.  11.10).  It  was  rebuilt  and  occupied  by 


Jews  after  their  return  from  captivity  (Neh. 
11.25). 

Hebron,  or  rather  el-Khalil,  is  still  a  place 
of  considerable  population  and  importance, 
occupying  both  slopes  of  the  valley  where  the 
spies  gathered  the  tempting  clusters  of  grapes 
(Num.  13.23).  Its  slopes  are  still  covered 
with  vineyards,  where  are  grown  the  finest 
grapes  and  olives  in  all  Palestine.  [KIRJATH- 
AEBA,  MACHPELAH,  MAMRE.]  2.  A  boundary 
town  of  Asher,  near  Rehob  (Josh.  19.28).  It 
is  called  also  Abdon,  which  see.  3.  Son  of 
Kohath,  son  of  Levi  (Ex.  6.18  ;  Num.  3.19  ; 
1  Ch.  6.2).  4.  In  a  list  of  persons  whose  names 
are  identical  with  places  in  the  south  of  Judah 
(1  Ch.  2.42,  43). 

Hebronites. — Patronymic  of  the  family  of 
Hebron,  the  son  of  Kohath  (Num.  3.27  ;  1  Ch. 
26  23). 

Hedge. — The  words  so  translated  sometimes 
mean  simply  enclosures,  e.g.  stone  walls,  but  in 
Palestine  the  farmer  and  the  shepherd  still 
surmount  the  stone  walls  of  their  orchards  and 
sheepfolds  with  a  hedge  of  thorns  or  prickly- 
pear.  God's  protecting  providence  is  called  a 
hedge  (Job  1.10;  Isai.  5.2).  Troubles  and 
hindrances  are  called  hedges  because  they 
obstruct  the  way  (Job  19.8  ;  Lam.  3.7  ;  Eos. 
2.6).  See  also  Prov.  15.19.  In  Isai.  5.5  it  is 
a  thorn  hedge  planted  to  protect  the  vineyard. 
[WALLS,  SHEEPFOLD.] 

Eeel. — To  have  the  heels  bare  denoted  shame, 
contempt,  captivity,  distress  (Jet.  13.22).  To 
lift  up  the  heel,  to  kick,  is  to  render  evil  for  good 
to  a  superior ;  so  Judas  acted  (Ps.  41.9  ;  John 
13.18).  Men  are  taken  by  the  heels  in  a  snare 
when  evil  overtakes  them  (Job  18.9).  The  ful- 
filment of  the  prophecy  of  the  "  bruising  of  the 
heel"  in  Gen.  3.15  is  probably  to  be  seen  in  the 
suffering  inflicted  on  our  Lord. 

He'gai,  He'ge.—  The  chief  chamberlain,  or 
eunuch,  of  Ahasuerus  (Esth.  2.3, 15).  He  had 
special  charge  of  the  harem  (Esth.  2.8).  Hege  is 
the  Persian  form  of  the  name. 

Heifer. — A  young  cow,  used  in  sacrifice 
(Num.  19.1-10).  Moses  and  Aaron  were  in- 
structed to  deliver  the  Divine  command  to  the 
children  of  Israel,  that  they  should  procure  a 
"  red  heifer,  without  spot,"  and  one  that  had 
never  been  worked,  and  so  rendered  unfit  to  be 
offered  to  God.  It  was  not  usual  to  put  the 
young  cows  that  had  never  calved  to  the  yoke, 
either  for  ploughing  or  any  other  purpose, 
though  they  were  sometimes  employed  in 
treading  out  the  corn  (Eos.  10.11).  A  red 
heifer  was  chosen  because  red  was  the  symbol  of 
life  and  energy,  a  fit  sacrifice  for  sin.  Its  ashes 
were  to  be  used  in  Purification  (which  see).  The 
sportiveness,  impetuosity,  and  wildness  of  the 
young  cow  are  referred  to  in  Jer.  46.20  ;  Eos. 
4.16.  [SACRIFICES,  BLOOD.] 

Heir. — The  principles  of  heirship  in  the  East 
differ  from  those  among  us  ;  so  that  children  do 
not  always  wait  until  their  parents  are  dead  to 
receive  their  portions.  Hence  when  Christ  is 
called  "  heir  of  all  things  "  (Eeb.  1.2)  it  does 


HELAH] 


200 


[HEMAN 


not  imply  the  death  of  any  former  possessor  of 
all  things  ;  and  when  saints  are  called  heirs  of 
the  promise  (Heb.  11.9),  of  righteousness,  of  the 
kingdom,  of  the  world,  of  God,  "  joint  heirs  " 
with  Christ  (Rom.  8.17),  it  implies  participants 
in  such  and  such  advantages,  but  no  decease  of 
any  one  in  possession  ;  though  among  our- 
selves there  is  no  actual  heirship  till  the  parent, 
or  proprietor,  is  departed  (Gen.  15.3  ;  2  Sam. 
14.7  ;  Jer.  49.1,  2  ;  Matt.  21.38  ;  Rom.  4.13). 
[ADOPTION,  SUCCEED,  BIRTHRIGHT,  CONCUBINES, 
INHERITANCE.] 

He'lah.—  A  wife  of  Ashur  (1  Ch.  4.5,  7). 
He'lam. — (?)  Fortress :  the  scene  of  the  defeat 
of  the  Syrian  forces  by  David.     It  is  situated 
between  the  Jordan  and  the  Euphrates  (2  Sam. 
10.16,  17) ;  and  is  unidentified. 

Hel'bah. — (?)  Fatness  :  a  town  of  Asher,  not 
far  from  Sidon  (Judg.  1.31).  The  Canaanites 
were  not  expelled  from  this  city.  It  is  un- 
identified. 

Herbon.— (?)  Fatness  :  this  place,  celebrated 
in  ancient  times  for  its  wine,  still  bears  its 
original  name.  It  is  now  a  village,  Halbun,  in 
a  wild  glen  within  a  few  miles  of  Damascus,  and 
is  still  famous  for  the  excellence  of  its  grapes 
(Ezek.  27.18). 

Hel'dai.— (?)  Vital,  enduring  :  1.  The  twelfth 
captain  for  the  monthly  service  in  David's  time, 
a  descendant  of  Othniel,  the  same  as  Heled 
(1  Ch.  27.15).  2.  An  Israelite  who  returned 
from  captivity  and  was  one  of  a  deputation  who 
brought  crowns  to  the  High  Priest,  Joshua 
(Zech.  6.10).  In  ver.  14  be  is  called  Helem. 

He'leb. — Fat :   one  of  David's  valiant  men. 
Perhaps  the  same  as  Heldai  1  (2  Sam.  23.29). 
He'led.— (1  Ch.  11.30).     [HELDAI  1.] 
He'lek. — Portion  :    the  second  son  of  Gilead, 
descended  from  Joseph,  through  Manasseh.    He 
founded  the  family  of  Helekites  (Num.  26.30  ; 
Josh.  17.2). 

He'lekites. — Descendants  of  Helek  (Num. 
26.30). 

He'lem. — (?)  Hammer  :  1.  A  descendant  of 
Asher  (1  Ch.  7.35).  2.  [HELDAI  2.] 

He'leph. — Exchange :  a  boundary  town  of 
Naphtali  (Josh.  19.33).  It  may  be  the  modern 
Beit  Lif,  east  of  Has  Abyad  and  west  of  Kades. 

He'lez.—  Strength  :  1.  The  Peltite  or  Pelonite 
(which  see),  and  a  member  of  David's  guard  of 
thirty  (2  Sam.  23.26  ;  1  Ch.  11.27).  2.  A  son  of 
Azariah  (1  Ch.  2.39).  He  was  a  descendant  of 
Jerahmeel  of  the  family  of  Hezron  of  Judah. 

He'li.— According  to  St.  Luke's  genealogy, 
Heli  was  the  father  of  Joseph,  the  husband 
of  Mary  the  mother  of  our  Lord.  The  name 
in  Hebrew  is  identical  with  Eli  (Lk.  3.23). 
[GENEALOGY  OF  OUR  LORD.] 

Hel'kai.— (?)  My  portion  is  the  Lord :  a  priest 
in  the  family  of  Meraioth,  in  the  time  of  Joiakim, 
son  of  Jeshua  (Neh.  12.15). 

Hel'kath. — Portion :  a  boundary  town  of 
Asher,  assigned  to  the  Gershonites  (Josh.  19.25, 
21.31).  It  is  called  Hukok  in  the  list  of 
Levitical  cities  in  1  Ch.  6.75.  Its  site  has  not 
'jeen  discovered. 


Hel  kath-haz'zurim. — Field  of  $words  :  a 
piece  of  level  ground  near  the  pool  of  Gibeon, 
the  scene  of  the  conflict  between  a  party  of 
Abner's  men  and  a  party  of  Joab's  men,  which 
ended  in  the  deaths  of  all  the  combatants 
(2  5am.  2.16).  [JoAB,  ABNER.] 

Hell.— Three  words  are  translated  "  Hell  " 
in  the  A.V.,  a  fourth,  a  verbal  form,  appearing 
in  "  cast  .  .  .  down  to  hell  "  (2  Pet.  2.4). 

In  the  O.T.  the  word  rendered  "  hell  "  is  Sheol 
(as  in  Deut.  32.22),  which  is  also  translated 
in  the  A.V.  thirty-one  times  as  "  grave  "  (as  in 
Gen.  37.35),  and  thrice  as  "  pit"  (as  in  Num. 
16.30).  Sheol  signifies  the  place  of  departed 
spirits,  without  in  itself  distinguishing  good  or 
bad,  happiness  or  misery  (compare  Ps.  16.10 
with  Num.  16.30).  The  O.T.  Sheol  in  Ps.  16.10 
is  represented  in  the  N.T.  by  Hades  (Acts  2.27, 
31). 

In  the  N.T.  "  hell  "  is  in  ten  places  a  trans- 
lation of  the  Greek  Hades,  which  is  also  rendered 
"  grave  "  in  1  Cor.  15.55.  In  its  general  mean- 
ing Hades  corresponds  to  Sheol.  The  Rich  Man 
(Lk.  16.23)  was  in  Hades;  and  (Acts  2.27) 
our  Lord.  But  a  separation  of  good  and  evil  is 
intimated  (Lk.  16.23,  26),  the  evil  finding  it  a 
place  of  torment,  though  not  the  final  place. 
"  Hell  "  is  also,  in  twelve  passages,  a  translation 
of  Gehenna,  which  is  compounded  of  two  Hebrew 
words,  Ge  Hinnom,  "  the  valley  of  Hinnom," 
a  place  near  Jerusalem  in  which  children  were 
cruelly  sacrificed  by  fire  to  Moloch,  the  idol  of  the 
Ammonites  (2  Ch.  33.6),  and  afterwards  a  place 
for  depositing  refuse.  It  was  also  called  Topheth 
(2  K.  23.10),  which  see.  Gehenna  appears  in 
passages  addressed  to  Jews,  who  would  under- 
stand the  reference.  It  is  a  place  of  lasting 
punishment  (Mk.  9.43-48). 
Hellenist.— [GREEK.  ] 

Helmet. — The  helmet  worn  by  the  Israelites 
was  in  the  form  of  a  cap,  with  hanging  pieces 
covering  the  ears  and  neck.  It  was  of  bronze 
or  brass.  The  helmets  that  Uzziah  provided 
for  his  vast  army  (2  Ch.  26.14),  and  that  Saul 
and  Goliath  wore, were  of  the  same  metal  (1  Sam. 
17.5,  38).  These  bronze  helmets  were  worn  only 
by  the  leaders,  the  ordinary  soldier  being,  as  it 
seems,  supplied  with  quilted  caps,  strengthened 
with  metal  bars,  or  else  of  caps  made  of  felt  or 
leather.  The  Hittites  wore  helmets  broader 
at  the  top  than  where  they  fitted  the  head, 
while  the  Assyrian  officers  wore  them  high  and 
pointed. 

He'lon.— Strong  :  father  of  Eliab,  who  repre- 
sented Zebulon  in  the  census  (Num.  1.9). 
Hem,  of  Garment.— [FRINGE.] 
He'mam.— (?)  Moving  noisily:  a  son  of  Lotan 
(Gen.  36.22).     The  correct  form  of  the  name  is 
Homam  (1  Ch.  1.39). 

Ee'man.— Faithful :  1.  A  son  of  Zerah,  the  son 
of  Judah  (1  Ch.  2.6),  said  also  to  be  son  of  Mahol 
(1  K.  4.31),  who  may  have  been  a  nearer  ancestor 
than  Zerah.  2.  A  grandson  of  Samuel,  a 
Kohathite.  He  was  a  singer  in  the  house  of  the 
Lord  (1  Ch.  6.33),  and  also  one  of  the  king's 
seers  or  wise  men  in  religious  matters  (1  Ch. 


HEMATH] 


201 


[HERMON 


25.5).  Psalm  88  is  ascribed  to  him.  Itisnotclear 
whether  there  were  one,  two,  or  three  persons 
of  this  name. 

He'math.— Fortress  :  1.  Another  form  of 
Hamath,  which  see  (Amos  6.14).  2.  Hammath, 
R.V. — either  a  person,  or  a  place  (it  is  im- 
possible to  determine  which),  appearing  in  the 
genealogical  lists  of  Judah  as  the  founder  of 
the  house  of  the  Kenites  and  the  Rechabites 
(1  Ch.  2.55). 

Hem'dan.— Pleasant :  a  descendant  of  Seir,  the 
Horite.  The  eldest  son  of  Dishon  (Gen.  36.26). 
In  the  parallel  list  of  1  Ch.  1.41  the  name  is 
Hamran,  which  in  the  A.V.  is  Amram.  In 
Hebrew  the  "  d  "  and  "  r  "  are  almost  exactly 
alike,  save  that  "  d  "  has  a  "  tittle  "  (which  see). 

Hemlock. — The  word  translated  hemlock  is 
a  good  example  of  a  common  name  wrongly 
converted  into  a  proper  one.  The  Hebrew  word 
is  one  of  strong  and  intense  significance,  meaning 
venom  or  poison,  and  not  the  plant  hemlock  with 
which  Socrates  was  slain.  In  Dent.  29.18,  and 
elsewhere,  it  is  rendered  "  gall "  or  "  worm- 
wood." In  all  cases  it  is  used  as  the  type  of 
poisonous  and  bitter  weeds  that  choke  and 
hinder  the  growth  of  beneficial  plants  (Eos. 
10.4;  Amos  6.12). 

Hen. — Grace :  a  son  of  Zephaniah  (Zech.  6.14), 
called  Josiah  in  ver.  10.  Perhaps  we  should 
follow  the  Septuagint  in  translating  "  for  the 
kindness  of  the  son  of  Zephaniah." 

He'na. — A  city  of  Mesopotamia,  captured  by 
the  Assyrians  (2  K.  19.13  ;  Isai.  37.13). 

Hena'dad. — The  favour  of  Hadad  :  a  Levite 
and  chief  of  a  family  who  assisted  in  rebuilding 
the  Temple  under  Jeshua  (Ezra  3.9 ;  Neh.  3.18). 

He'pher.— Pit  or  well :  1.  The  youngest  of  the 
sons  of  Gilead  (Num.  26.32).  2.  A  man  of 
Judah  (1  Ch.  4.6).  3.  One  of  the  leaders  of 
David's  guard  (1  Ch.  11.36).  4.  A  royal  city  of 
the  Canaanites  on  the  west  of  the  Jordan  that 
was  taken  by  Joshua  (Josh.  12.17).  5.  In 
Judah,  part  of  one  of  Solomon's  commissariat 
districts  (1  K.  4.10). 

He'pherites.— Men  of  Hepher  1  (Num. 
26.32). 

HephzilJah. — My  delight  is  in  her :  1.  The  wife 
of  Hezekiah,  and  the  mother  of  Manasseh  (2  K. 
21.1).  2.  The  name  by  which  the  restored 
Jerusalem  was  to  be  known  (Isai.  62.4). 

Herb. — This  word  is  used  for  grass  and  any 
tender  plant  or  vegetable  (2  K.  4.39  ;  Prov. 
15.17  ;  Lk.  11.42).  It  appears  in  the  A.V.  as  a 
rendering  of  six  Hebrew  words. 

Herd,  Herdman. — The  wealth  of  the  patriarchs 
consisted  chiefly  in  cattle  and  slaves,  or  servants, 
who  were  employed  in  tending  the  flocks  and 
herds  (Gen.  13.7).  Abraham  and  Lot  had  such 
large  herds  of  cattle  that  they  were  obliged  to 
separate  to  find  pasture  for  them.  Later,  when 
Lot  became  the  victim  of  a  raid,  Abraham  went 
to  his  rescue  with  318  of  his  herdsmen  (Gen. 
14.14).  The  treatment  of  these  slave  herds- 
men was  often  better  than  that  of  hired  servants. 
They  were  all  the  more  ready  to  defend  their 
masters'  property.  Another  class  of  herdsmen 


were  the  overseers  or  herd -masters.  These 
were  sometimes  men  of  honourable  position 
(Gen.  47.6  ;  1  Sam.  11.5,  21.7).  The  councillors 
of  David  were  herdsmen,  and  so  also  was 
Doeg,  one  of  Saul's  officers,  the  same  who  slew 
the  priests,  and  the  prophet  Amos  in  early  life 
was  a  herdsman  (Amos  1.1,  7.14).  [CATTLE.] 

He'res. — Sun  :  1.  The  equivalent  to  the  Greek 
Heliopolis,  "City  of  the  sun."  Mount  Heres 
was  near  Aijalon  on  the  borders  of  Judah  and 
Dan.  It  was  inhabited  by  the  Amorites,  who 
were  not  expelled  (Judg.  1.35).  2.  In  Judg. 
8.13,  "  before  the  sun  was  up "  should  be 
translated  "  from  the  ascent  of  Heres."  A 
place  east  of  Jordan.  [TIMNATH-HERES.] 

Heresh.— (?)  Workman  :  a  Levite  (1  Ch.  9.15). 

Heresy. — The  English  word  is  a  translitera- 
tion of  a  Greek  word  which  meant,  at  first,  a 
taking  (e.g.  of  a  town);  then  a  choice  or  elec- 
tion ;  an  inclination  or  preference  ;  and  so  the 
thing  chosen,  and  ultimately  a  philosophic 
principle  or  set  of  principles,  and  the  persons 
holding  them,  a  sect  or  school  of  thought. 
In  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  the  Greek  word 
equivalent  to  heresy  is  translated  "  sect,"  as 
applied  to  the  Sadducees  (Acts  5.17),  Pharisees 
(Acts  15.5,  26.5),  Nazarenes  (Acts  24.5),  and 
Christians  (Acts  28.22).  Its  use  as  applied  to 
the  Christian  Church  is  also  seen  in  Acts  24.14. 
St.  Paul  and  St.  Peter  write  of  "heresies," 
divisions  in,  or  opinions  dividing,  the  Church 
(1  Cor.  11.19  ;  Gal  5.20  ;  2  Pet.  2.1). 

By  ecclesiastical  writers,  heresy  is  used  to 
designate  opinions  deviating  from  the  true  faith. 
St.  Augustine  held  (De  Haret.)  that  it  was  "  alto- 
gether impossible,  or  at  any  rate  most  difficult," 
to  define  heresy.  Philastrius,  bishop  of  Brescia, 
counted  twenty-eight  heresies  which  existed 
amongst  the  Jews  before  our  Lord's  time,  and 
one  hundred  and  twenty-eight  afterwards. 

Hereth.— [HARETH.] 

Heritage.— [INHERITANCE.] 

Her 'mas. — Mercury  :  the  name  of  one  greeted 
by  Paul  in  Rom.  16.14.  Though  the  origin 
of  his  name  is  Greek,  he  was  a  Christian  and 
resident  in  Rome,  and  in  fact  the  bulk  of  the 
early  Christians  hi  Rome  appear  to  have  spoken 
Greek.  The  Shepherd  of  Hermas,  a  writing  of 
the  middle  of  the  second  century,  has  been 
wrongly  attributed  to  him.  He  is  regarded 
as  a  saint  in  the  Roman  Church,  his  festal 
day  being  May  9. 

Her'mes. — Mercury  :  a  Christian  Greek  in 
Rome  who  was  addressed  by  Paul.  Both  this 
man  and  Hermas  were  heads  of  Christian 
families,  and  of  influence  in  the  Church 
(Rom.  16.14). 

Hermes  was  claimed  by  some  as  one  of  the 
seventy  disciples,  and  afterwards  bishop  of 
Dalmatia.  He  is  in  the  Greek  calendar  of 
saints,  and  his  festival  is  celebrated  on  April  8. 
[MERCUEITTS.] 

Hermo'genes. — Descendant  of  Mercury  :  a 
renegade  Christian  Greek  mentioned  by  Paul  in 
2  Tim.  1.15. 

Hermon.— Probably  sacred,  tabooed  (as  with 


HERMONITES] 


202 


[HERODIANS 


many  mountains — for  example,  Mount  Fujiyama 
in  Japan) :  Mount  Hermon  dominates  the 
Holy  Land,  its  diadem  of  snow  and  dome-like 
crest  towering  above  the  lesser  heights  that 
surround  it.  To  the  old  Syrian  this  mountain 
was  the  holy  place  of  his  religion,  the  highest 
of  all  the  high  places  of  Baal  ;  to  Israel,  warned 
against  the  idolatry  practised  on  every  high 
hill,  it  was  little  more  than  the  natural  northern 
frontier  of  the  Land  of  Promise  ;  but  to  the 
Christian  something  of  its  more  antique  sanctity 
returns  in  a  far  nobler  and  more  divine  sense 
as  being  the  high  mountain  in  the  parts  of 
Caesarea  Philippi  to  which  our  Lord  withdrew 
for  a  short  time,  and  where  He  was  transfigured 
before  His  disciples. 

Hermon  was  the  great  landmark  of  the 
Israelites.  It  is  constantly  spoken  of  as  their 
northern  border.  They  conquered  all  the  land 
from  the  river  Arnon,  even  unto  Mount  Sion, 
"which  is  Hermon"  (DeutAAS).  Itwas  the  point 
of  the  north,  as  Tabor  was  also ;  "  Tabor  and 
Hermon  shall  rejoice  in  Thy  name  "  (Ps.  88.12). 
It  was  known  by  other  names  beside  Hermon  ; 
of  these  the  oldest  was  Sion  (Deut.  4.48).  Its 
dew  is  so  copious  that  travellers'  tents  become 
as  wet  as  though  they  had  stood  out  in  a  heavy 
rain.  The  Phoenicians  called  it  Sirion  "  the 
glittering,"  and  it  was  known  to  the  Amorites 
as  Shenir  (Deut.  3.9),  a  word  of  the  same  signifi- 
cation— names  easily  accounted  for,  because  it. 
is  rarely  seen  without  its  snowy  cap.  On  the 
highest  of  its  three  peaks  can  be  traced  the 
remains  of  the  old  temple  of  Baal,  consisting 
of  squared  stones  arranged  nearly  in  a  circle, 
within  which  are  the  ruins  of  a  temple.  Perhaps 
it  was  overthrown  by  the  Israelites,  obeying  the 
command,  *'  Ye  shall  utterly  destroy  all  the 
places  wherein  the  nations  .  .  .  served  their 
gods  upon  the  high  mountains  "  (Deut.  12.2). 
From  this  height  the  priests  of  Baal  could 
obtain  an  unobstructed  view  of  the  sun's 
course.  So  important  a  spot  was  this  mountain 
to  the  ancient  idolaters,  that  they  surrounded 
its  base  with  a  circle  of  temples  all  facing  the 
summit ;  to  them  it  was  a  great  sanctuary,  just 
as  Jerusalem  was  to  the  Jews  and  Mecca  to 
the  Moslems.  It  still  retains  its  name  Harmun 
or  Hermun.  [BAAL-HERMON.] 

Hennonites. — Probably  the  peaks  of  Mount 
Hermon  (Ps.  42.6). 

Herod  the  Great.— His  father,  Antipater, 
had  been  appointed  Procurator  of  Judaea  by 
Julius  Caesar  in  47  B.C.,  and  he  himself  was  made 
tetrarch  by  Antony  in  40  B.C.  When  Antony  was 
overthrown  by  Augustus  at  the  battle  of  Actium, 
31  B.C.,  Herod  lost  no  time  in  seeking  the  con- 
queror, who  confirmed  him  in  the  possession  of  the 
whole  Maccabaean  kingdom,  in  five  districts — 
Judaea,  Samaria,  and  Galilee,  west  of  the  Jordan  ; 
Pereea  and  Idumaea  on  the  east.  Herod,  as  an 
Idumaean,  was  a  descendant  of  the  Edomites. 
His  reign  was  marked  by  strange  contrasts. 
On  the  one  hand  he  sought  to  propitiate  the 
Jews  by  the  enlargement,  fortification,  and 
adornment  of  their  city.  On  the  other,  he 


manifested  a  desire  to  Romanise  the  people. 
He  erected  an  amphitheatre  in  Jerusalem,  in- 
stituted public  games,  rebuilt  Samaria  (Sebaste), 
erected  sumptuous  temples,  both  there  and  at 
Csesarea  Philippi  (Panias),  in  honour  of  the 
emperor.  When  a  famine  broke  out  in  Judaea 
and  Samaria  (25  B.C.)  Herod  spared  no  cost  for 
the  alleviation  of  its  horrors,  contributing  the 
gold  and  silver  ornaments  of  his  palaces  to 
equip  corn-laden  vessels  from  Egypt.  At 
length,  to  crown  his  exertions  on  behalf  of  the 
people,  he  began,  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  his 
reign  (20  B.C.),  the  reconstruction  of  the  Temple 
on  a  most  magnificent  scale.  "  Forty  and  six 
years,"  it  was  said,  long  after  his  death,  "  was 
this  Temple  in  building  "  (John  2.20),  nor  was  it 
even  then  complete  in  all  its  details.  With  all 
this,  the  relentless  ambition  and  jealous  cruelty 
of  the  king  have  given  him  a  place  among  the 
worst  tyrants  of  all  time.  To  clear  an  undis- 
puted way  to  the  throne  he  put  to  death  the 
venerable  Hyrcanus  (31  B.C.).  Mariamne,  his 
wife,  and  her  two  sons  afterwards  fell  victims  to 
his  insensate  jealousy.  The  execution  of  Anti- 
pater,  his  son  by  another  wife,  he  ordered  from 
his  death-bed.  And  from  that  death-bed  also 
he  directed  that  the  elders  of  the  chief  Jewish 
cities  should  be  shut  up  in  the  amphitheatre, 
and  slain  as  soon  as  the  breath  was  out  of  his 
body,  "  that  there  might  at  least  be  some 
tears  shed  at  his  funeral."  This  order  was 
happily  disobeyed.  It  was  a  short  time  before 
his  death  that  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  was  born 
at  Bethlehem,  and  the  massacre  of  the  innocents 
was  but  of  a  piece  with  the  character  of  this 
jealous  and  passionate  king.  He  died  4  B.C., 
the  same  year,  as  it  seems,  in  which  our  Saviour 
was  born  (Matt.  2.1-22;  Lk.  1.5).  Great  sums 
of  money  were  expended  at  his  funeral,  and 
his  sons,  Archelaus,  HEROD  ANTIPAS,  and  Philip, 
succeeded  to  his  dominions,  his  will  being  con- 
firmed by  Caesar  Augustus. 

Herod  Antipas. — On  the  death  of  Herod  the 
Great,  Antipas  became  ruler  of  Galilee  and 
Peraea.  His  chief  work  was  the  building  of 
Tiberias,  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  fashioned  largely 
after  Greek  models.  It  was  Antipas  whom 
Christ  spoke  of  as  "  fox,"  and  it  was  to  him  that 
Jesus  was  sent  for  trial  by  Pilate.  His  marriage 
to  Herodias,  his  brother  Philip's  wife,  brought 
him  nothing  but  trouble.  He  was  defeated  in 
battle  by  the  father  of  his  discarded  and  lawful 
wife,  the  daughter  of  Aretas,  an  Arabian  king  ; 
and  it  was  through  the  ambition  of  Herodias 
that  he  was  finally  deprived  of  his  dominions 
and  sent  into  exile.  His  dealings  with  John 
the  Baptist  are  too  well  known  to  need  mention 
here  (Matt.  14.1-6;  Mk.  6.14-22,  8.15;  Lk. 
3.1,19,  8.3,  9.7,9,  13.31,  23.7-15,  Acts  4.27, 
13.1).  For  other  members  of  the  Herod ian 
family  see  HERODIAS,  AORIPPA,BERNICB,  ARCHE- 
LATJS,  DRUSILLA,  SALOME. 

Hero'dians. — A  political  party  who  favoured 
the  rule  of  the  Herods  under  the  Romans.  Its 
members  showed  decided  hostility  to  our  Lord  on 
several  occasions  (Matt.  22.16 ;  Mk.  3.6 ;  12.13). 


HERODIAS] 


203 


[HEZEKIAH 


In  these  encounters  they  were  partisans 
of  the  Pharisees  and  the  Sadducees.  That 
this  was  but  a  chance  coalition  of  parties, 
drawn  together  by  what  they  deemed  a  common 
danger,  seems  to  be  shown  by  the  infrequent 
mention  of  the  Herodians.  Their  political 
aim  was  the  founding  of  an  independent  Jewish 
empire  under  Herod,  using  for  the  present  the 
power  of  Rome  as  a  protection  until  they  were 
strong  enough  to  throw  off  the  hated  yoke. 

Hero'dias. — Granddaughter  of  Herod  the 
Great.  Her  first  husband  was  her  uncle  Philip, 
by  whom  she  had  Salome  ;  but  he  falling  into 
disgrace,  and  being  obliged  to  live  in  retire- 
ment, she  left  him,  and  married  his  half -brother, 
Herod  Antipas,  tetrarch  of  Galilee,  who  offered 
her  a  palace  and  a  crown.  As  John  the  Baptist 
censured  this  incestuous  marriage  (Matt.  14.3, 
4;  Mk.  6.17),  Antipas  ordered  him  to  be  im- 
prisoned, and  afterwards,  at  the  suggestion  of 
Herodias,  beheaded  him.  Another  suggestion 
made  by  her,  that  Antipas  should  go  to  Rome 
and  procure  the  title  of  king,  had  a  disastrous 
ending.  Refused  a  royal  title,  Antipas  was 
banished  to  Lyons,  whither  be  was  accompanied 
by  his  ambitious  and  unscrupulous  wife.  [AN- 
TIPAS, JOHN  THE  BAPTIST,  SALOME.] 

Hero'dion. — A  "  kinsman "  of  Paul,  but  it 
is  not  clear  that  this  means  more  than  that  he 
was  a  Jew  (see  Rom.  16.7,  21),  and  a  Christian 
living  at  Rome  (ver.  11).  This  is  all  that  is  at 
present  known  of  him,  though  early  writers 
have  made  him  bishop  of  more  than  one  place. 

Heron. — The  word  translated  heron  is 
amongst  the  unclean  birds.  But  its  meaning 
is  uncertain  (Lev.  11.19  ;  Deut.  14.18). 

He'sed. — Kindness :  the  father  of  one  of 
Solomon's  commissariat  officers  (1  K.  4.10),  but 
"  the  son  of  Hesed  "  should  probably  be  rendered 
as  a  proper  name,  Ben-hesed,  with  the  R.V. 

Heshton.— Stronghold  :  the  capital  city  of 
Sihon,  king  of  the  Amorites  (Num.  21.26  ;  Deut. 
4.46),  the  ruins  of  which  are  still  to  be  seen  on 
a  hill  standing  on  the  western  edge  of  a  high 
plain.  It  is  21  miles  east  of  the  north  end 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  on  the  boundary  between 
Reuben  and  Gad.  It  was  taken  by  Moses 
(Num.  21.21-26)  and  allotted  to  Reuben 
(Josh.  13.17).  It  was  rebuilt  by  Reuben 
(Num.  32.37),  and  assigned  to  the  Merarite 
branch  of  the  Levites  (Josh.  21.39).  Later  the 
Moabites  (Num.  21.26)  repossessed  it  (Isai.  15.4), 
and  also  the  Ammonites  (Jer.  48.2).  Cisterns 
and  reservoirs  of  water  are  still  found  among 
the  ruins  of  Heshbon  (Cant.  7.4).  Its  present 
name  is  Husban. 

Hesh'mon. — A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of 
Judah,  between  Moladah  and  Beersheba.  Its 
exact  position  is  unknown  (Josh.  15.27). 

Heth.  —  The  founder  of  the  Hittites  (Gen. 
10.15;  1  Ch.  1.13).  He  was  the  second  son  of 
Canaan,  and  dwelt  south  of  the  Promised  Land. 
Hebron,  in  Abraham's  time,  was  peopled  by  the 
children  of  Heth.  [HITTITES.] 

Heth'lon. — A  place  on  the  northern  boundary 
of  the  Promised  Land  (Ezek.  47.15,  48.1).  It 


has  been  identified  with  Heitela,  nearly  two 
hours  from  the  seacoast. 

He'zeki,  Hizki. — Jehovah  is  Strength  :  a  son  of 
Elpaal.  His  name  occurs  in  the  genealogies 
of  Benjamin  (1  Ch.  8.17). 

Hezeki'ah. — Jehovah  is  Strength :  king  of 
Judah  (726-697  B.C.),  who  succeeded  to  the 
throne  of  his  father,  Ahaz,  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
five,  and  ruled  for  twenty -nine  years.  He  is 
generally  accounted  one  of  the  wisest  and  best  of 
the  kings  of  Judah.  He  has  been  called  "  the 
virtuous  king,"  and  certainly  the  record  of 
many  acts  of  his  reign  bears  evidence  to  his 
reverential  and  God-fearing  character  (2  K. 
18.5).  At  the  very  beginning  of  his  reign 
he  entirely  reversed  the  wicked  policy  of  his 
father,  and  with  zealous  care  destroyed  the 
idols  and  heathen  temples  that  had  been  set 
up  in  the  land,  and  restored  and  purified  the 
worship  of  Jehovah,  summoning  all  the  nation 
to  a  great  Passover  (2  Ch.  30.5).  His  reign  is 
distinguished  not  only  by  this  reformation  in 
religion,  but  also  by  many  public  improvements 
he  brought  about.  In  his  relations  with  foreign 
powers  Hezekiah  showed  equal  vigour  and 
zeal.  Strengthened  by  a  successful  war  against 
the  Philistines  (2  K.  18.8),  he  prepared  to  shake 
off  the  hated  yoke  of  Assyria.  These  prepara- 
tions consisted  partly  in  strengthening  the 
defences  of  Jerusalem,  both  in  the  matter  of 
fortifications  and  by  leading  in  by  an  under- 
ground passage  a  copious  supply  of  water 
(2  K.  20.20  ;  2  Ch.  32.5-30).  [SILOAM.]  But 
the  capture  of  the  "fenced  cities"  of  Israel 
by  Sennacherib  determined  Hezekiah  to  cease 
paying  the  tribute,  which  had  been  imposed 
by  the  Assyrian  on  his  father.  The  direct 
consequence  of  this  strong  action  was  that 
the  Assyrian  army  invaded  Judah  (Isai.  36), 
and  demanded  the  surrender  of  Jerusa- 
lem. Both  king  and  people  felt  that  the 
time  had  come  for  resistance,  and  they  pre- 
pared to  stake  all  on  the  coming  struggle. 
They  were  justified,  for  the  judgment  of  God 
fell  upon  the  Assyrian  host,  who  were  obliged, 
through  a  pestilence  that  broke  out  in  their 
camp,  to  beat  a  hasty  retreat. 

The  illness  of  Hezekiah  and  his  recovery 
(2  K.  20.1-11 ;  Isai.  38)  led  to  the  beautiful 
passage  in  Isai.  38.10-20,  which  is  the  only 
composition  of  his  remaining  to  us.  Yet  this 
king,  who  could  so  exquisitely  express  his 
gratitude  to  God  for  His  care  over  him,  we  find 
giving  way  to  the  flattery  of  Merodach  Baladan, 
king  of  Babylon  (who  wished  to  enlist  his  help 
against  the  king  of  Assyria),  and  making  a  vain 
and  pompous  display  before  his  ambassadors. 
This  caused  the  prophet  Isaiah  to  predict  the 
Babylonian  exile,  which  took  place  over  a 
century  afterwards.  We  have  placed  this 
incident  in  the  order  in  which  it  is  found  in  the 
Bible,  but  the  Bible  order  is  not  always  chrono- 
logical. Many  have  therefore  thought  that 
Merodach  Baladan's  embassy  took  place  early 
in  his  reign,  before  Sennacherib  attacked 
Palestine  at  all.  Hezekiah  bowed  submissively 


HEZION] 


204 


[HIGH  PSIEST 


to  the  will  of  God,  and  the  remainder  of  his  reign 
was  passed  in  tranquillity,  his  country  con- 
tinuing prosperous.  He  appears  to  have  been 
a  patron  of  literature  (Prov.  25.1).  He  was 
succeeded  on  the  throne,  697  or  686  B.C.,  by 
his  son  Manasseh,  a  son  in  every  way  unworthy 
of  such  a  father.  [SENNACHERIB,  ISAIAH.] 

2.  A  son  of  Neariah,  a  descendant  of  the 
royal  family  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  3.23).  3.  The 
same  name,  A.V.  Hizkiah,  is  found  in  Zeph. 
1.1.  Perhaps  Zephaniah  was  a  descendant  of 
the  famous  king.  4.  An  exile  who  returned 
from  Babylon  (Ezra  2.16).  [AxEB.] 

Hezi'on. — Vision  :  a  king  of  Aram  and  grand- 
father of  Benhadad  i.  (1  K.  15.18). 

He'zir. — Pomegranate  :  1.  A  priest,  and  leader 
in  the  time  of  David  of  the  seventeenth  monthly 
course  (1  Ch.  24.15).  2.  A  chief  who  sealed  the 
covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  10.20). 

Hez'rai. — One  of  David's  thirty  heroes,  and 
a  native  of  Carmel  (2  Sam.  23.35).  [HEZRO.] 

Hez'ro. — The  same  person  as  Hezrai  (1  Ch. 
11.37). 

Hez'ron. — Settlement :  1.  A  son  of  Pharez,  and 
ancestor  of  David  (Gen.  46.12  ;  Num.  26.21). 
2.  A  son  of  Reuben,  and  founder  of  the  family 
of  the  Hezronites  (Gen.  46.9;  Ex.  6.14;  Num. 
26.6;  1  Ch.  5.3).  3.  A  place  on  the  south 
boundary  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.3).  4.  Another 
town  in  south  Judah,  also  called  Hazor 
(Josh.  15.25). 

Hez'ronites. — 1.  Descendants  of  Hezron  1 
(Num.  26.21).  2.  Descendants  of  Hezron  2 
(Num.  26.6). 

Hid'dai. — Mighty  :  one  of  David's  valiant 
men,  dwelling  on  the  hill  of  Gaash  (2  Sam. 
23.30),  called  Hurai  in  1  Ch.  11.32. 

HiddeTceL— (?)  Rapid:  the  river  Tigris 
(Gen.  2.14;  Dan.  10.4).  One  of  the  rivers  of  the 
Garden  of  Eden.  "  The  great  river  "  of  Daniel, 
by  the  side  of  which  he  saw  some  of  his  most 
important  visions.  It  has  two  chief  sources  in 
the  mountains  of  Armenia.  Its  general  direction 
is  south-east  to  about  60  miles  from  the  Persian 
Gulf,  where  it  joins  the  Euphrates,  after  flowing 
for  some  1146  miles.  It  was  anciently  connected 
with  the  Euphrates  by  a  system  of  irrigating 
canals,  rendering  the  intervening  country  very 
fertile.  Its  modern  name  of  Digleh  is  derived 
directly  from  the  ancient  Hiddekel.  [£DEN, 
TIGRIS.] 

Bi'el—God  is  living  :  a  native  of  Bethel, 
who  rebuilt  Jericho,  notwithstanding  the  curse 
uttered  against  him  who  should  attempt  to 
rebuild  it  after  its  destruction  by  Joshua 
(Josh.  6.26).  Hiel,  in  the  time  of  Ahab,  realised 
the  effects  of  the  curse,  laying  the  foundations 
at  the  cost  of  the  life  of  his  eldest  son,  Abiram, 
and  hanging  the  gates  at  the  cost  of  the  life 
of  his  youngest  son,  Segub  (1  K.  16.34). 
Possibly  they  were  sacrificed  in  compliance  with 
a  custom  of  which  traces  are  found  in  many 
lands.  [JERICHO,  ABIRAM.] 

Hierap'olis. — Sacred  city  :  mentioned  only 
once  (Col.  4.13)  in  connexion  with  Coloss» 
and  Laodicea  in  Phrygia.  It  was  1100  feet  above 


the  soa,  the  seat  of  a  Christian  Church,  perhaps 
formed  by  Epaphras,  and  was  famous  for  its 
hot  springs,  which  are  still  remarkable  features 
of  the  place.  At  the  present  time  it  is  repre- 
sented by  a  village  called  Pambuk  Kale. 

Higgai'pn.— Sounding  music  (see  Ps.  92.3,  A.V. 
inarg. ) :  it  appears  to  be  a  musical  direction 
(Ps.  9.16).  [SELAH.] 

High  Place.  — The  tops  of  mountains  and 
hills  were  the  scenes  of  worship  amongst  many 
peoples.  Noah's  altar  was  doubtless  on  Mount 
Ararat  (Gen.  8.20).  Abraham  built  an  altar 
on  a  mountain  east  of  Bethel  (Gen.  12.8).  The 
altar  built  by  Moses  and  called  Jehovah-Nissi 
was  doubtless  on  "  the  top  of  the  hill  "  (Ex. 
17.9, 15).  On  entering  the  Promised  Land 
the  Hebrews  found  high  places  associated  with 
idolatrous  worship.  Moses  was  directed  to 
command  that  the  children  should  "  quite  pluck 
down  "  these  "  high  places  "  (Num.  33.52) ;  and 
the  Deuteronomic  Law  bade  the  people  look 
forward  to  "  a  place  which  the  Lord  your  God 
shall  choose,"  where  alone  sacrifice  and  offering 
were  to  be  made  (Deut.  12.10-14).  If  this  law 
was  given  by  Moses,  it  could  not  have  been 
accepted  as  an  immediate  command  to  use  only 
one  place  of  sacrifice ;  for  such  acts  as  those  of 
Gideon  (Judg.  6.24,  26),  David  (1  Ch.  21.26), 
and  Elijah  (1  K.  18.30,  and  comp.  1  K.  19.10) 
do  not  suggest  that  the  use  of  other  altars 
was  exceptional.  Meanwhile  the  heathen 
worship  at  high  places  continued,  and  in  some 
notable  instances  was  encouraged,  as  by  Solomon 
(1  K.  11.7)  and  Jeroboam,  the  son  of  Nebat 
(1  K.  12.28,  33).  The  worship  paid  at  these 
"  high  places  "  was  freely  denounced  by  the 
prophets  (e.g.  Eos.  4.13,  10.8).  It  was  attacked 
by  Hezekiah  (2  K.  18.4)  and  rigorously  dealt 
with  by  Josiah  (2  K.  23.4-20). 

The  title  "high  place"  in  time  lost  its 
physical  meaning,  and  implied  a  shrine  or 
worship-place,  even  in  the  valley  of  Hinnom 
(Jer.  7.31),  in  a  gate  of  Jerusalem  (2  K.  23.8), 
or  in  a  street  (Ezek.  16.24).  Idolatrous  high 
places  had  their  priests  (1  K.  12.31),  their 
sacrifices — even  human  sacrifices  at  "  the  high 
places  of  Tophet"  (Jer.  7.31),  and  licentious 
rites  (Eos.  4.13). 

High  Priest.— The  head  of  the  Jewish  priest- 
hood. Aaron  and  his  sons  were  solemnly  set 
aside  for  the  priest's  office  (Ex.  28.1,  40.12-15), 
with  pre-eminence  for  Aaron.  This  pre-eminence 
was  hereditary  (Ex.  29.29,  30).  The  office  was 
at  first  held  for  life,  but  Solomon  -deprived 
Abiathar  of  the  office  for  treason  (1  K.  2.27). 
When  the  sons  of  Eli  met  with  death,  the  result 
of  their  own  wickedness,  the  succession  passed 
to  the  descendants  of  Ithamar,  the  second  son 
of  Aaron  (1  Sam.  2.35,  36).  It  returned,  how- 
ever, to  the  family  of  Eleazar  during  the  reign 
of  Solomon  (1  K.  2.35),  and  remained  with  that 
branch  of  the  family  until  the  captivity.  After 
the  Captivity  the  first  high  priest  was  Jeshua, 
the  son  of  Jozadak  (Ezra  3.2).  The  succession 
next  passed  into  a  private  Levitical  family. 
Afterwards  the  office  was  held  by  some  of  the 


HIGHWAY] 


205 


[HINNOM,  VALLEY  OP 


Maccabaean  princes,  and  by  them  a  triple  crown 
of  gold  was  added  to  the  mitre.  Under  the 
Romans  the  dignity,  honour,  and  sanctity  of 
the  office  were  almost  done  away  with.  Even 
at  a  still  earlier  date,  after  the  Captivity,  the 
office  was  frequently  sold  to  the  highest  bidder, 
and  sometimes  to  persons  not  of  the  priestly 
families.  Often  the  high  priest  was  changed 
every  year,  which  explains  why  there  could 
be  several  at  once.  Ananus,  or  Annas  (Lk.  3.2 ; 
John  18.13,24;  Acts  4.6),  was  himself  high 
priest  for  several  years,  and  saw  the  office 
afterwards  filled  by  five  sons  and  several  sons- 
in-law.  This,  of  course,  gave  him  considerable 
influence.  [CAIAPHAS.] 

The  robes  of  the  high  priest,  in  addition  to  the 
ordinary  priests'  robe,  were :  1.  The  coat,  or  robe 
of  the  ephod.  This  was  made  of  blue  wool,  and 
the  hem  or  border  was  ornamented  with  seventy- 
two  golden  bells,  placed  alternately  with  as 
many  pomegranates  of  embroidered  work. 
[FRINGES.]  2.  The  ephod,  a  vest  which  was 
fastened  on  the  shoulders,  reaching  to  the  heels 
behind,  but  only  a  little  below  the  waist  in 
front.  This  garment  was  of  fine  twisted 
linen,  wrought  with  gold  and  purple.  On 
eath  shoulder  was  a  clasp,  in  which  was  set 
a  precious  stone,  engraved  with  the  names  of 
the  tribes.  [EPHOD.]  3.  The  breastplate  of 
judgment  was  a  piece  of  cloth  like  the  ephod, 
eleven  inches  square,  set  with  twelve  precious 
stones,  also  engraved  with  the  names  of  the 
twelve  tribes.  This  had  something  to  do  with 
what  is  called  the  urim  and  thummin,  two 
words  meaning  "lights"  and  "perfection," 
about  which  scholars  have  been  very  much 
puzzled.  When  the  high  priest  sought  counsel 
of  Jehovah  he  wore  this  breastplate,  and  the 
act  was  called  asking  counsel  after  the  judg- 
ment of  urim  (Num.  27.21).  [BREASTPLATE.] 
4.  The  high  priest  also  wore  a  crown  or  mitre,  on 
the  point  of  which  a  plate  of  pure  gold  was 
fastened  by  a  blue  ribbon,  engraved  with 
Hebrew  characters  meaning  "  Holiness  to  the 
Lord  "  (Ex.  28  and  39). 

The  special  duties  of  the  high  priest  were 
more  particularly  concerned  with  the  Day 
of  Atonement  (which  see),  as  described  in 
Lev.  16 ;  and  comp.  Hcb.  9.  [PRIEST.] 

Highway. — In  the  time  of  Christ  six  main 
arteries  of  intercourse  and  commerce  traversed 
the  country,  the  chief  points  to  which  they  led 
being  Csesarea  and  Jerusalem,  the  one  the 
military,  the  other  the  religious  capital.  First, 
there  was  the  southern  road,  which  led  from 
Jerusalem  by  Bethlehem  to  Hebron,  and  thence 
westward  to  Gaza,  and  eastward  into  Arabia, 
whence  also  a  direct  road  went  northwards  to 
Damascus.  It  was  by  this  road  St.  Paul  travelled 
into  the  solitudes  of  Arabia  after  his  conversion 
(Gal.  1.17,18).  Secondly,  there  was  the  old 
highway  along  the  seashore  from  Egypt  up  to 
Tyre,  whence  a  straight,  but  not  much  fre- 
quented, road  led  by  Csesarea  Philippi  to 
Damascus.  The  seashore  road  was  the  most 
important  military  highway  in  the  land.  It  was 


probably  by  this  road  that  the  Roman  escort 
hurried  off  St.  Paul  (Acts  23.31).  A  third  road 
ran  from  Jerusalem  past  Beth-horon  and  Lydda 
to  Joppa.  The  fourth  road  led  from  Galilee 
to  Jerusalem,  through  Samaria,  branching  at 
Sichem  eastwards  to  Damascus.  As  a  rule 
Jewish  travellers  avoided  passing  through 
Samaria,  preferring  the  dangers  of  the  fifth 
great  road  (Matt.  20.17,  29 ;  Lk.  10.30, 19.1,  28). 
This  fifth  road  went  from  Jerusalem,  by  Bethany 
to  Jericho,  where  it  crossed  the  Jordan  by  a 
ford,  and  led  on  to  Gilead.  The  sixth  great  road 
was  not  all  Jewish,  but  connected  Damascus 
with  Rome.  Starting  from  Damascus  it  crossed 
the  Jordan  to  Capernaum,  Tiberias,  and  Nain  to 
Nazareth,  and  thence  to  Ptolemais.  Thus 
Nazareth  was  on  the  world's  great  highway,  and 
what  was  spoken  there  quickly  spread  abroad. 
But  a  large  number  of  secondary  roads  also 
traversed  the  country  in  all  directions.  "  The 
king's  highway "  (Num.  20.17, 19)  was  one 
kept  up  for  national  purposes  at  the  public 
expense.  The  roads  to  the  cities  of  refuge  were 
to  be  kept  in  good  order  (Deut.  19.3).  From 
Jewish  historians  we  learn  that  these  were 
to  be  48  feet  wide,  and  provided  with  bridges 
and  signposts.  [TRAVELLING.] 

Hi'len.— -[HOLON  1.] 

Hilki'ah.— The  Lord  is  my  portion :  1.  The 
father  of  Eliakim,  Hezekiah's  officer  (2  K.  18.18). 

2.  High  priest  in  the  time  of  Josiah,  king  of 
Judah  (2  K.  22.4).     The  notable  events  that 
occurred   in   his   high   priesthood   render  him 
prominent  above  all  others  of  the  name.     He 
assisted  in  the  great  reformation  of  Josiah,  and 
the  solemn  passover  kept  by  that  king,  and  he 
discovered  the  book  of  the  law  of  Moses  in  the 
Temple  (1  Ch.  6.13;  2  Ch.  34.14;  Neh.  11.11). 

3.  A  Levite  (1  Ch.  6.45).    4.  A  Levite  (1  Ch. 
26.11).     5.  A  priest  contemporary  of  Ezra  (Neh. 
8.4,12.7,21).     6.  Father  of  Jeremiah  (Jer.  1.1). 
7.  Father  of  Gemariah  (Jer.  29.3). 

Hil'leL  —  He  hath  praised  (Judg.  12.13). 
[PHARISEE.] 

Hin. — A  liquid  measure  containing  12  logs  or 
280  cubic  inches,  equal  to  rather  more  than  one 
gallon. 

Hind.— [HART.] 

Hinge. — In  the  east  both  ancient  and  modern 
doors  turn  upon  pivots  placed  top  and  bottom 
of  one  side  of  the  door,  which  pivots  turn  in 
sockets  above  and  beneath  (1  K.  7.50  ;  Prov. 
26.14).  In  the  ruins  in  Syria  are  to  be  found 
many  such  stone  doors,  some  of  them  very 
massive.  The  Temple  doors  had  hinges  of  gold, 
i.e.  presumably  covered  with  gold  (1  K.  7.50). 

Hin'nom,  Valley  oi— A  valley  west  and 
south  of  Jerusalem,  about  1J  miles  long.  It 
begins  west  of  the  city,  runs  in  a  south-easterly 
direction  towards  the  Jaffa  Gate,  bends  to  the 
south  for  1J  miles,  then  curves  suddenly  round 
the  south-west  brow  of  the  city,  runs  east  and 
joins  the  valley  of  Kedron,  or  Jehoshaphat,  at 
Bir  Eyub.  Near  this  junction  is  an  oblong  plot, 
the  site  of  Tophet.  This  valley  is  sometimes 
called  the  valley  of  the  Son  (Sons,  2  K. 


HIRAH] 


206 


[HITTITES 


23.10)  of  Hinnora.  It  marked  the  boundary 
between  Judah  and  Benjamin  (Josh.  15.8) ;  was 
the  scene  of  idol-worship,  which  included  the 
sacrifice  of  young  children  in  the  rites  of  Moloch 
(1  K.  11.7  ;  2  K.  16.3 ;  2  Ch.  28.3,  etc.).  Finally 
it  was  used  as  a  place  for  the  deposit  and  destruc- 
tion of  all  the  refuse  of  the  city  ;  hence  it  came 
to  be  used  as  the  symbol  of  the  place  of  the 
future  punishment  of  the  wicked  (Matt.  5.22, 
29,30,18.8,9;  Mk.  9.43-48).  [HELL;  GEHENNA, 

TOPHET.] 

Hi'rah. — An  Adullamite,  the  friend  of  Judah 
(Gen.  38.1,  12). 

Hi'ram. — Shortened  for  Ahiram,  "  brother  of 
the  lofty  one  "  :  1.  A  king  of  Tyre  who  lived  in 
most  friendly  alliance  with  David  and  Solomon 
(2  Sam.  5.11,  12  ;  1  K.  9.14,  10.22).  He  assisted 
the  latter  in  building  the  Temple,  and  also  the 
fleet  at  Tarshish.  His  own  city  of  Tyre  was 
celebrated  for  its  magnificence.  The  inter- 
course between  Hiram  and  Solomon  was  close 
and  continuous,  and  tradition  relates  that  they 
were  fond  of  propounding  riddles  one  to  the 
other.  2.  The  principal  architect  sent  by  king 
Hiram  to  Solomon  to  assist  in  building  the 
Temple.  In  Chronicles  his  name  is  spelled 
Huram,  which  see  (1  K.  7.13 ;  2  Ch.  2.13). 

Hireling. — The  hireling  was  the  daily  labourer, 
as  distinguished  from  the  permanent  servant 
or  slave.  Special  consideration  was  shown  by 
the  law  to  the  feelings  and  wants  of  the  poor 
(Deut.  24.10).  They  were  to  be  paid  daily 
(Lev.  19.13  ;  Deut.  24.14, 15  ;  Job  7.1,  2,  14.6; 
Matt.  20.8). 

Hiss. — To  call  any  one  with  hissing  was  a 
mark  of  power  and  authority  (Isai.  5.26,  7.18). 
Zechariah  (10.8),  speaking  of  the  return  from 
Babylon,  says  that  the  Lord  will  hiss  for  and  so 
gather  the  house  of  Judah  and  bring  them  back 
into  their  own  country.  Perhaps  in  all  these 
cases  the  word  should  be  rendered  "  whistle." 
But  the  word,  or  sound,  usually  expressed  insult 
and  contempt  (1  K.  9.8  ;  Job  27.23  ;  Jer.  19.8, 
49.17,  51.37  ;  Lam.  2.15  ;  Ezek.  27.36  ;  Zeph. 
2.15). 

Hit'tites.— The  descendants  of  Heth,  the  son 
of  Canaan.  Until  within  recent  years  little  was 
known  about  the  Hittites.  Some  critics  de- 
nied the  possibility  of  their  having  ever  been 
more  than  a  small  and  unimportant  race, 
and  spoke  of  the  "  unhistorical  tone  "  of  2  K. 
7.6,  "  Lo,  the  king  of  Israel  hath  hired  against 
us  the  kings  of  the  Hittites,  and  the  kings  of 
the  Egyptians,  to  come  upon  us."  But  dis- 
coveries have  amply  vindicated  the  Bible 
narrative.  The  Hittites  were,  it  is  now  known, 
a  very  real  power.  Not  many  centuries  before 
the  age  of  Elisha  they  had  contested  the 
empire  of  Western  Asia  with  the  Egyptians, 
and  though  their  power  had  waned  in  the  days 
of  Jehoram  they  were  still  formidable  enemies 
and  useful  allies,  worthy  of  comparison  with 
the  divided  kingdom  of  Egypt,  and  much 
more  powerful  than  that  of  Judah.  But  we 
hear  no  more  of  them  later  in  the  O.T. 
They  were  at  their  greatest  at  an  earlier  date 


than  the  rise  of  the  monarchy  in  Israel,  earlier 
even  than  the  Israelitish  conquest  of  Canaan. 
The  Hittites,  whose  cities  and  princes  are 
referred  to  in  the  later  historical  books  of  the 
O.T.,  belonged  to  the  north,  Hamath  and 
Kadesh  on  the  Orontes  being  their  most 
southerly  points.  But  Genesis  speaks  of  other 
Hittites—"  the  children  of  Heth  "  (Gen.  15.20). 
Abraham  bought  the  cave  of  Machpelah  from 
a  Hittite  (Gen.  23.10),  and  Esau's  two  wives 
were  both  of  them  Hittite  women  (Gen.  26.34). 
It  must  be  to  these  Hittites  of  the  south  that 
the  list  in  Gen.  10.15  refers,  and  in  no  other  way 
can  we  explain  Ezek.  16.3,45,  that  "  the  father  " 
of  Jerusalem  "  was  an  Amorite,"  and  her 
"  mother  a  Hittite."  The  prophet  ascribes 
the  foundation  of  Jerusalem  to  the  Amorite  as 
well  as  the  Hittite.  The  Jebusites,  accordingly, 
from  whose  hands  the  city  was  wrested  by 
David,  must  have  belonged  to  one  or  the  other 
of  these  two  great  races,  probably  to  both, 
for  the  two  nations  were  closely  interwoven. 

The  Hittites  were  an  ugly  people,  with 
yellow  skins,  whose  Mongoloid  features  are 
faithfully  represented  both  on  their  own  monu- 
ments and  on  those  of  Egypt.  Their  eyes 
were  dark,  and  their  black  hair  they  wore  in 
pigtails.  They  were  squat  and  stout,  unlike 
the  Amorites,  who  were  tall  and  handsome, 
having  blue  eyes  and  fair  hair.  The  Hittite 
colony  in  Palestine  was  confined  to  a  small 
district  in  the  mountains  of  Judah  ;  their 
strength  lay  far  away  in  the  north.  The 
Amorites  were  the  earlier  population,  among  a 
part  of  whom  the  Hittites  settled  and  inter- 
married, at  what  epoch  is  uncertain. 

Outside  the  Bible  record  all  that  is  known 
of  this  mysterious  empire  of  the  Hittites  is 
gathered  from  the  monuments  of  Egypt  and 
Assyria,  and  also  from  inscriptions  found 
among  the  ruins  of  Asia  Minor,  the  centre  of 
their  northern  power.  From  the  Tel  el-Amarna 
tablets  we  learn  that,  as  Egypt  weakened,  the 
Hittites  gradually  absorbed  their  outposts, 
until  at  last  the  latter  found  themselves  in  the 
northern  frontier  of  the  later  Palestine,  and 
equal  in  power  to  the  Egyptians,  who  were 
eventually  forced  to  yield  northern  Syria  to 
the  Hittites,  whose  supremacy  was  acknow- 
ledged from  the  Euphrates  in  the  east  to  the 
J^gean  Sea  in  the  west,  from  Cappadocia  in 
the  north  to  the  tribes  of  Canaan  in  the  south. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century 
B.C.  the  Hittites  were  still  strong  enough  to  keep 
the  Assyrian  kings  in  check.  But  they  were 
no  longer  under  a  single  ruler.  Then  for  more 
than  200  years  the  inscriptions  are  silent. 
This  period  witnessed  the  rise  and  fall  of  the 
kingdom  of  David  and  Solomon,  as  well  as  the 
rise  into  power  of  Damascus.  They  held 
Carchemish  on  the  Euphrates  until  its  capture 
by  Sargon,  king  of  Assyria,  in  717  B.C. 

The  national  symbol  of  the  Hittites  was  the 
double-headed  eagle,  still  to  be  seen  carved 
on  the  monuments  of  Cappadocia.  This 
symbol  was  adopted  by  the  Turcoman  princes, 


HIVITES] 


207 


[HOR 


and  the  Crusaders  brought  it  with  them  to 
Europe  in  the  fourteenth  century.  Here  it 
became  the  emblem  of  the  German  emperors, 
who  have  passed  it  on  to  Russia  and  Austria. 
Scholars  are  now  making  strenuous  efforts  to 
read  the  inscriptions  written  hi  the  Hittite 
language,  but  have  made  but  little  progress. 
There  are  some  reasons  for  thinking  that  it  is 
akin  to  ancient  Armenian.  [CAECHEMISH.] 

The  chief  deity  in  the  Hittite  pantheon  was 
the  Earth-goddess,  or  "Great  Mother,"  each 
city  or  state  representing  a  special  form  of 
her. 

Hi'vites.— (?)  Villagers :  the  Hivites  (de- 
scended from  Canaan,  Gen.  10.17)  are  specially 
associated  with  the  Amorites.  They  represent 
the  mixed  population  of  Amorites  and  Canaanites 
who  lived  hi  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  great 
Amorite  stronghold.  [AMORITE.]  We  hear  of 
the  Hivites  under  Mount  Hermon  (Josh.  11.3) 
"  that  dwelt  in  Mount  Lebanon,  from  Mount 
Baal-Hermon  unto  the  entering  in  of  Hamath  " 
(Judg.  3.3).  We  also  hear  of  them  farther 
south,  at  Gibeon  (Josh.  9.7),  and  Shechem 
(Gen.  34.2),  which  are  called  Amorite  elsewhere 
(2  Sam.  21.2  ;  Gen.  48.22).  They  may  there- 
fore be  regarded  as  predominantly  Amorite  in 
race,  and  descendants  of  Canaan  (Gen.  10.17). 
They  occupied  Shechem  at  the  time  of  Jacob's 
return  to  Canaan,  under  their  prince  Hamor 
(Gen.  34.2),  and  fell  victims  to  the  cruel  and 
vindictive  sons  of  Jacob.  The  Gibeonites  were 
also  Hivites  (Josh.  11.19).  They  followed 
the  usual  practice  of  the  Canaanites  hi  holding 
their  conferences  at  the  gates  of  the  towns. 
They  were  a  peaceful  people  in  disposition 
and  behaviour. 

Hizki.— [HEZEKI.] 

Hizki'ah. — [HEZEKIAH  3.] 

Hizki'jah.— God  is  Strength  (Neh.  10.17). 
No  doubt  the  name  should  be  taken  with  Ater, 
which  precedes  it,  as  Ater-Hizkijah. 

HoTmb. — Beloved  :  either  the  father-in-law 
of  Moses  or  his  brother-in-law.  In  Num.  10.29 
he  is  called  the  son  of  Raguel,  who  is  identified 
with  Jethro  in  Ex.  2.18  compared  with  3.1. 
The  words  of  Judg.  4.11  are  in  favour  of  Hobab's 
identity  with  Jethro. 

Ho 'bah.  —  The  place  to  which  Abraham 
pursued  Chedorlaomer  and  his  allied  kings 
after  they  had  pillaged  Sodom  (Gen.  14.15). 
It  is  identified  with  Hoba,  twenty  hours  north 
of  Damascus. 

Hobaiah.— [HAB  AIAH.  ] 

Hod. — Splendour,  glory :  a  man  of  Asher 
(1  Ch.  7.37). 

Hodai'ah  (R.V.  Hodavi'ah).— Praise  Jehovah  : 
1.  A  descendant  of  the  royal  house  of  Judah 
(1  Ch.  3.24).  2.  A  Manassite  (1  Ch.  5.24). 
3.  A  Benjamite  (1  Ch.  9.7).  4.  A  Levite 
and  founder  of  the  family  of  Bene-hodaviah 
(Ezra  2.40).  Called  Judah  in  Ezra  3.9  and 
Hodevah  in  Neh.  7.43. 

Ho'desh. — The  new  moon  :  wife  of  Shaharaim 
of  Benjamin  (1  Ch.  8.9). 

Hode'vah.— [HODAIAH.] 


Hodi'ah,  Hodi'jah. — Jehovah  is  my  Glory :  1. 
Mother  of  the  founder  of  Keilah  and  Eshtemoa 
(1  Ch.  4.19).  But  according  to  the  R.V.  it  is 
the  name  of  her  husband.  2.  A  Levite  (Neh. 
8.7).  3.  A  Levite  (Neh.  10.10).  4.  A  chief 
of  the  people  (Neh.  10.18). 

Hog'lah.— Partridge  :  the  third  of  the  five 
daughters  of  Zelophehad,  which  see  (Num. 
26.33,  27.1,  36.11 ;  Josh.  17.3). 

Ho 'ham. — An  Amorite  king  of  Hebron  ;  one 
of  the  five  kings  put  to  death  in  the  cave  at 
Makkedah  (Josh.  10.3). 

Hold. — [STRONGHOLD.] 

Holm-tree.— (/sat.  44.14  R.V.).     [CYPRESS.] 

Holoa. — ?  Fortress :  1.  A  Levitical  city  of 
Judah  (Josh.  15.51,  21.15);  called  Hilem  in 
1  Ch.  6.58.  2.  A  city  of  Moab  near  Heshbon 
(Jer.  48.21). 

Holy  Ghost.— [SPIRIT,  HOLT.] 

Holy  of  Holies. — [TABERNACLE,  TEMPLE.] 

Ho'mam. — (?)  Raging,  destroying  :  son  of 
Seir,  the  Horite  (1  Ch.  1.39) ;  in  Gen.  36.22, 
Hemam. 

Ho'mer. — A  dry  measure  containing  10 
ephahs  =  about  76  gallons  (Lev.  27.16).  [CoB.] 

Honey. — The  warm  climate,  the  profusion  of 
flowers,  and  the  convenient  crevices  hi  the  lime- 
stone rocks  of  the  country  (Ps.  81.16)  make 
Palestine  a  land  hi  "which  bees  flourish — "  a 
land  flowing  with  .  .  .  honey  "  (Ex.  3.8).  Wild 
honey  is  now  abundant,  and,  doubtless,  was  in 
the  time  of  Samson  (Judg.  14.8,  9),  Jonathan 
(1  Sam.  14.25-27),  and  John  the  Baptist  (Matt. 
3.4).  In  later  Hebrew  times  the  word  for 
honey  was  also  used  of  a  thick  syrup  made  from 
grapes  or  dates.  It  is  possible  that  this  artificial 
honey  or  syrup  may  be  referred  to  in  2  Ch.  31.5, 
and  other  passages.  Honey  was  forbidden  in 
any  meat-offering  (Lev.  2.11). 

Hood.— Only  in  Isai.  3.23,  where  R.V.  has 
"  turban." 

Hook.— A  special  word  is  used  for  the  hooks 
of  the  Tabernacle  (Ex.  26,  27,  36,  38).  The 
hook  of  2  K.  19.28 ;  Isai.  37.29 ;  Ezek.  29.4, 
and  38.4  no  doubt  refers  to  the  ring  placed 
in  the  nose  of  beasts,  by  which  they  could 
be  led.  [FISH-HOOK,  FLESH- HOOK,  PRUNING- 
HOOK.] 

Hoopoe. — So  the  R.V.  in  Lev.  11.19;  Deut. 
14.18,  in  the  lists  of  unclean  birds.  It  is  about 
the  size  of  a  thrush,  and  feeds  on  insects  such 
as  abound  in  dunghills.  [LAPWING.] 

Hoph'ni. — (?)  The  hollow  of  the  hand  :  a  son  of 
Eli,  the  high-priest.  With  Phinehas  his  brother 
he  is  classed  with  the  sons  of  Belial,  that  is, 
wicked  and  dissolute  persons  (1  Sam.  2.12). 
They  disgraced  their  holy  office  by  the  most 
odious  rapacity  and  lust.  God  announced  by 
means  of  the  child  Samuel  the  destruction  of 
Eli's  house  (1  Sam.  3.11,  12),  and  the  brothers 
were  slain  in  battle  on  the  same  day  by  the 
Philistines  (1  Sam.  4.4, 11, 17). 

Hophra.— [PHARAOH.] 

Hor. — Mountain :  1.  A  mountain  on  the 
border  of  Edom,  usually  identified  with  the 
Jebel  Nebi-Harun,  south-west  of  Petra ;  though 


HOBAM] 


208 


[HORSE 


some  prefer  the  Jebel  Madura,  north-west  of 
Edom.  It  was  a  halting-place  of  the  Israelites 
in  their  wanderings,  the  scene  of  Aaron's  death, 
and  the  place  of  his  burial  (Num.  20.22-29, 
21.4,  33.37-41 ;  Deut.  32.50).  [PETRA.]  2.  The 
north-eastern  spur  of  Lebanon,  and  the  limit 
of  territory  assigned  to  the  Israelites,  though 
not  actually  occupied  (Num.  34.7,  8). 

Ho'ram. — A  king  of  Gezer  who  was  over- 
thrown and  killed  by  Joshua  (Josh.  10.33). 

Ho'reb. — A  dry  waste :  the  same  sacred 
mountain  which  is  elsewhere  called  Sinai. 
Here  the  burning  bush  was  seen  by  Moses 
(Ex.  3.1) ;  here  the  rock  was  struck  to  provide 
water  for  the  Israelites  (Ex.  17.6) ;  here  they 
encamped  for  eleven  months,  and  received  the 
Law  (Deut.  1.2  2.,  4.10-15,  and  following  chap- 
ters); and  here  they  aroused  Divine  indignation 
by  making  and  worshipping  the  golden  calf  (Ex. 
32.4,  33.6).  Horeb  is  not  used  in  the  N.T. 
references.  [SINAI.] 

Ho'rem. — Devoted,  consecrated  :  a  fortified 
town  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  19.38).  It  is  named 
with  two  other  places,  Iron  and  Migdal-el,  the 
former  being  identified  with  Yarun.  This  helps 
to  fix  the  site  of  Horem  at  Hurah,  an  ancient 
site  between  Has  en-Nakhura  and  Lake  Merom. 

Hor-hagid'gad.  —  Mount  of  Gidgad:  site  of 
a  desert  encampment  of  the  Israelites  (Num. 
33.32).  It  is  thought  to  be  the  same  place  as 
Gudgodah  (Deut.  10.7). 

Hori. — Cave-dweller  :  1.  One  of  the  children 
of  Lotan  (Gen.  36.22).  2.  A  Simeonite,  father  of 
Shaphat,  who  was  one  of  the  spies  (Num.  13.5). 

Ho 'rim,  Ho 'rites. — Cave-dwellers  :  the  original 
inhabitants  of  Mount  Seir,  and  related  to  the 
Emim  and  Rephaim  (Gen.  14.6).  They  had 
princes,  and  were  powerful  before  Esau  con- 
quered their  country.  The  Horites  and  Edom- 
ites  seem  afterwards  to  have  composed  one 
people  (Deut.  2.12,  22 ;  Judg.  5.4).  Their  cave- 
dwellings  are  still  found  in  the  sandstone  cliffs 
and  mountains  of  Edom. 

Hor'mah. — Consecrated,  or  asylum :  a  royal 
Canaanite  city  taken  by  Joshua  (Num.  21.3) 
and  allotted  to  Simeon.  It  was  originally 
called  Zephath  (Judg.  1.17),  which  see.  It 
was  the  limit  of  the  route  of  those  Israelites 
who  wanted  prematurely  to  take  the  land 
(Num.  14.45  ;  Deut.  1.44).  Unidentified. 

Horn. — The  word  has  many  senses  in  Holy 
Scripture.  1.  The  horns  of  a  beast  (as  in  Gen. 
22.13),  or  an  imitation  of  them  (1  K.  22.11). 
2.  The  horn  used  as  a  vessel,  and  so,  probably, 
other  vessels  used  for  liquids  or  perfumes  (1  Sam. 
16.1).  3.  The  horn  used  as  a  trumpet  (Josh. 
6.5).  4.  The  horns,  or  four  projections  at  the 
corners  of  the  altar  ;  deemed  especially  sacred, 
in  certain  rituals  sprinkled  with  blood  (Ex. 
29.12 ;  Lev.  4.7) ;  laid  hold  of  by  refugees 
seeking  sanctuary  (1  K.  1.51,  2.28).  5.  The 
horn  as  a  symbol  of  power  and  glory  (I  Sam. 
2.1),  which'  can  be  cut  off  (Jer.  48.25)  and 
humbled  in  the  dust  (Job  16.15).  For  the 
"horn"  in  the  Book  of  Daniel,  see  DANIEL, 
BOOK  OF. 


A  horn  or  projection  of  silver  is  sometimes 
worn  in  the  East,  especially  by  women  ;  and 
amongst  some  savages  horns  are  worn  upon 
the  head  in  certain  ceremonies. 

Hornet.— In  the  three  passages  where  the 
hornet  is  mentioned,  it  is  spoken  of  as  a 
weapon  in  the  hands  of  the  Lord  with  which 
to  punish  the  Canaanites  and  drive  them  from 
their  habitations,  "  I  will  send  hornets  before 
thee,  which  shall  drive  out  the  Hivite,  the 
Canaanite,  and  the  Hittite  from  before  thee  " 
(Ex.  23.28).  See  also  Deut.  7.20  ;  Josh.  24.12. 
The  commonest  species  of  hornet  met  with 
in  Palestine  is  the  Vespa  Orientalis,  a  species 
distinct  from  the  British  wasp,  having  a  long 
body  and  being  less  irritable  until  their  nests 
are  disturbed.  Nearly  fifty  species  of  wasp  and 
hornet  have  been  obtained  from  Sinai  and  the 
surrounding  parts  of  Egypt  and  Arabia. 

Horona'im.— Two  caverns  :  a  Moabite  town, 
the  subject  of  prophetic  denunciation  (Isai. 
15.5  ;  Jer.  48.3,  5,  34). 

Ho'rpnite.  —  Sanballat,  who  obstructed 
Nehemiah  in  his  work  of  restoration,  is  so  called 
(Neh.  2.10).  The  term  probably  means  that 
he  was  a  native  of  Beth-Horon,  which  see. 

Horse. — The  references  to  the  horse  in  Scrip- 
ture are  to  the  war-horse,  with  the  exception, 
possibly,  of  Isai.  28.28,  when  horsemen  (R.V. 
horses)  are  said  to  thresh  grain.  The  fine  poetic 
description  in  Job  39.19-25  applies  solely  to  the 
war-horse.  The  early  Hebrews  had  no  horses. 
The  prohibition  to  multiply  them  (Deut.  17.16) 
is  aimed  at  seeking  safety  in  foreign  alliances 
(Isai.  31.1).  The  Canaanites  bad  chariots,  and 
therefore  horses  (Josh.  17.16),  and  chariots 
were  conspicuous  in  the  forces  of  Sisera  (Judg. 
4.3).  David,  when  successful  against  Hada- 
ezer,  retained  some  of  the  captured  chariots 
and  their  horses  (2  Sam.  8.4) ;  but  Solomon  was 
the  first  who  regularly  bred  horses  and  trained 
a  cavalry  force.  Solomon,  having  married  a 
daughter  of  Pharaoh,  procured  horses  from 
Egypt.  So  successful  was  he  in  his  breed- 
ing that  presently  he  had  400  stables, 
40,000  horses,  and  12,000  horsemen  (1  K. 
4.26 ;  2  Ch.  9.25).  When  the  Israelites  were 
disposed  to  place  too  much  reliance  upon 
the  assistance  of  cavalry,  the  prophet  remon- 
strated, "  The  Egyptians  are  men,  and  not 
God  ;  and  their  horses  flesh,  and  not  spirit" 
(Isai.  31.3). 

Josiah  took  away  the  horses  which  his  pre- 
decessors had  consecrated  to  the  sun  (2  K. 
23.11).  The  sun  was  worshipped  all  over  the 
East,  and  was  represented  as  riding  in  a  chariot, 
drawn  by  horses.  Thus  it  came  about  that 
horses  were  sacrificed  to  the  sun  by  the  Persians. 
It  is  thought  that  those  that  Josiah  removed 
from  the  court  of  the  Temple  were  appointed 
for  a  similar  purpose. 

The  bit  and  bridle  of  the  horse  are  frequently 
mentioned  (Ps.  32.9),  and  did  not  differ  greatly 
from  those  in  use  at  the  present  day,  while  the 
Assyrians  decorated  their  horses  with  bells 
and  hangings  (Ezek.  27-20 ;  Zech.  14.20).  The 


HORSE-LEECH] 


209 


[HOSHAIAB 


Romans  sometimes  shod  their  horses  with 
leather  or  iron  shoes,  which  were  tied  on.  While 
at  the  present  time  horses  are  to  be  found  every- 
where in  Palestine,  and  used  for  ordinary  pur- 
poses of  traction  or  carrying,  yet  in  olden  times 
the  camel,  the  mule,  and  the  ass  were  the 
animals  made  use  of  by  those  who  wished  to 
travel.  Zech.  14.20  means  that  even  horses, 
the  symbol  of  worldliness,  shall  be  consecrated 
to  the  Lord.  [CHARIOT,  TRAVELLING.] 

Horse-leech. — Sucker :  in  Prov.  30.15  the 
horse-leech  is  adduced  as  a  type  of  insatiable 
appetite.  In  Palestine  the  horse-leech,  the 
medicinal  leech,  and  several  other  varieties  of 
the  leech  family  are  common. 

Ho'sah. — A  rejuge  :  1.  A  town  of  Asher  on  the 
boundary  leading  to  Tyre  (Josh.  19.29).  2.  A 
Levite  of  the  family  of  Merari.  One  of  the  first 
doorkeepers  of  the  ark  after  its  arrival  at  Jeru- 
salem (1  Ch.  16.38,  26.10, 11, 16). 

Hosai.— [HOZAI.] 

Hosan'na. — "  Save,  we  pray  "  :  the  salutation 
of  the  multitude  as  they  crowded  towards  our 
Saviour  on  His  triumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem. 
It  was  a  well-known  Jewish  form  of  blessing 
(Matt.  21.9,  15  ;  Mk.  11.9,  10  ;  John  12.13). 
The  psalm  (118)  from  which  the  cry  Hosanna  ! 
was  taken  was  familiar  to  the  people,  even  to  the 
children,  for  verses  25  and  26  were  recited  at  the 
Feast  of  Tabernacles.  On  that  occasion,  the 
Great  Hallel  (Ps.  113-118)  was  chanted  by  one 
of  the  priests,  and  at  certain  intervals  the  multi- 
tudes waved  their  branches  of  willow  and  palm, 
and  shouted  Hosanna  or  Hallelujah.  In  course 
of  time  the  bundles  of  willows  came  to  be  called 
Hosannas,  and  the  seventh  day  of  the  Feast  as 
the  great  Hosanna. 

Hosea.— Salvation :  a  prophet  of  Israel,  and 
first  in  order  of  those  called  the  Minor  Prophets. 
The  name,  more  properly  written  Hoshea,  is 
identical  with  that  first  borne  by  Joshua 
(Num.  13.16 ;  Deut.  32.44) ;  that  of  a  prince  of  the 
Ephraimites  (1  Ch.  27.20) ;  of  the  last  king  of 
Israel  (2  K.  15.30) ;  and  of  one  of  those  who 
sealed  with  Nehemiah  the  Covenant  (Neh.  10.23). 
It  is  written  "  Osee  "  (but  R.V.  has  "  Hosea  ") 
in  Rom.  9.25.  Of  the  prophet's  history  we  know 
only  what  he  has  told  us.  He  was  the  son  of 
Beeri  (1.1),  and  Christian  tradition  assigned  him 
to  the  tribe  of  Issachar.  His  Book  suggests 
by  many  details  that  he  was  a  native  of  the 
Northern  Kingdom.  The  personal  narrative  in 
chaps.  1-3  is  doubtless  to  be  interpreted  as  fact, 
and  not  only  symbolically.  Under  Divine  com- 
mand (1.2)  he  married,  taking  as  wife  Gomer, 
the  daughter  of  Diblaim,  by  whom  he  had  three 
children,  to  whom  the  names  of  Jezreel,  Lo- 
ruhamah,  and  Lo-ammi  were  respectively  given. 
Gomer  proved  an  adulteress,  and  left  him  (2.5) ; 
but  Hosea  brought  her  back  from  slavery  (3.1,  2), 
and  took  her  again  to  his  house,  though  not  to 
the  relations  of  a  wife  (3.3).  For  the  symbolical 
interpretation  of  the  narrative,  see  HOSEA, 
BOOK  OF.  The  date  of  the  prophet's  ministerial 
life  is  given  as  the  days  of  Uzziah,  Jotham, 
Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah,  kings  of  Judah,  and  Jero- 

»4 


boam,  the  son  of  Joash,  king  of  Israel  (1.1).  He 
was  therefore  contemporary  with  Isaiah,  and 
lived  through  a  period  of  great  national  anxiety. 
His  own  position  seems  to  have  been  one  of 
religious  isolation,  but  of  close  communion  with 
God. 

Hosea,  Book  of.— The  prophet's  message  has 
two  main  characteristics — passionate  anger  at 
the  sin  of  Israel  in  falling  from  the  worship  of 
Jehovah  into  idolatry,  and  tender  yearning 
for  the  return  of  the  sinners  to  receive  pardon 
from  God.  The  contents  may  be  summarised 
thus  :— 

1.  Chaps.    1-3  contain   a   representation    of 
Israel's    relations    with    Jehovah,    under    the 
figure  of  a  wife  who  has  been  faithless  to  her 
husband ;  but  whom  that  husband,  with  unweary- 
ing love,  has  repurchased  from  her  paramour, 
and  admitted  again  to  his  home,  there  to  await, 
in  seclusion  and   repentant  grief,   the  time  of 
full  restoration  to  favour.     To  make  the  delinea- 
tion more  vividly  real,  it  is  associated  with  the 
prophet's  own  experiences — either  in  his  actual 
domestic  history,  or   in   successive  visions,  in 
which    he   himself   sustains    the   part   of    the 
betrayed  and  injured  husband. 

2.  Chaps.  4-14  consist  of  a  series  of  prophetic 
discourses,  delivered  at  different  times,  from  the 
latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  n.  to  a 
time  preceding  by  a  short  interval  the  fall  of 
Samaria.     The  main  topics  are  repeated  again 
and  again — the  calf-worship  of  Bethel  and  the 
polluting   idolatries   of   the   high    places,    the 
consequent  moral  corruption  of  the  priests  and 
people,  the  disloyal  and   faithless  endeavours 
after  heathen  alliances,  now  with  Assyria,  now 
with    Egypt.     The   stern    reproof   continually 
passes  into  tender  upbraiding  ;  and  this  again 
is  followed   by  repeated   and   loving  appeals, 
with  promises  of  restoration,  couched  in  most 
pathetic  language.     The  whole  concludes  with  a 
passage  of  great  beauty,  in  which  the  gloom 
and  apparent  harshness  of  preceding  portions 
are  replaced  by  pictures  of  exquisite  loveliness, 
which  recall  the  Song  of  Solomon. 

The  style  of  the  prophet  is  vehement  and 
abrupt,  with  little  of  the  formal  parallelism 
characteristic  of  Hebrew  poetry. 

There  are  many  references  to  events  recorded 
in  the  Pentateuch,  Joshua,  Judges,  and  Samuel ; 
and  there  are  marked  correspondences  with 
passages  in  the  Book  of  Amos.  The  N.T. 
quotations  of  Hosea  are — 

The  Son  of  Jehovah  called  out  of  Egypt 
(11.1)  in  Matt.  2.15  ;  rejection  and  restoration 
(1.10,  2.23)  in  Rom.  9.25,  26  ;  1  Pet.  2.10  ;  the 
great  declaration  "  mercy  rather  than  sacrifice  " 
(6.6)  in  Matt.  9.13,  12*7  ;  and  the  promised 
destruction  of  death  (13.14)  in  1  Cor.  15.55,  56. 

Hosen. — The  word  so  translated  in  Dan.  3.21 
probably  means  tunics  or  under-garments. 
The  word  itself  is  the  Old  English  plural  of 
hose. 

Hosha'iah. — Jehovah  has  saved:  1.  A  prince  of 
Judah  who  took  part  in  the  ceremony  of  the 
dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  12.32). 


HOSHAMA] 


210 


[HOUSE 


2.  The  father  of  Jezaniah  or  Azariah,  who  was 
one  of  the  leaders  who  carried  Jeremiah  to 
Egypt  (Jer.  42.1,  43.2). 

Hosha  ma. — Jehovah  hath  heard  :  one  of  the 
sons  of  Jeconiah  or  Jehoiachin,  king  of  Judah 
(1  Ch.  3.18).  Nothing  is  said  about  the  sons 
in  the  account  of  the  capture  of  his  father 
by  Nebuchadnezzar,  though  the  mother  and 
wives  are  mentioned.  It  should  be  noted 
that  Jer.  22.30  is  not  a  prediction  that  Jeconiah 
shall  have  no  sons,  but  that  none  shall  be  king. 

Hoshea. — Salvation  :  1.  Another  form  of  the 
name  Hosea.  The  original  name  of  Joshua 
(Num.  13.8;  Deut.  32.44).  2.  An  Ephraimite, 
the  son  of  Azaziah,  and  a  ruler  of  his  people 
in  the  time  of  David  (1  Ch.  27.20).  3.  One  of 
the  heads  of  the  people  who,  with  Nehemiah, 
sealed  the  Covenant  (Neh.  10.23).  4.  The  last 
king  of  Israel  (734  to  722  B.C.).  He  had 
reached  the  throne  by  means  of  a  conspiracy 
in  which  his  predecessor  was  slain.  He  was  a 
patriotic  king,  and  sought  the  well-being  of 
his  people,  by  trying  to  free  them  from  paying 
tribute  to  Assyria,  but  he  made  the  fatal  mistake 
of  forming  an  alliance  with  a  heathen  power. 

Pekah  had  sought  the  aid  of  Rezin,  king  of 
Syria,  against  Ahaz,  and  had  at  first  prevailed. 
Ahaz,  imitating  his  rival's  policy,  applied  for 
help  to  the  king  of  Assyria.  He  came  anil 
chastised  the  Israelites,  carrying  into  Media 
the  two  and  a  half  trans- Jordanic  tribes,  and 
making  the  rest  tributary.  This  was  the  first 
captivity  of  Israel.  Ten  years  later,  Hoshea 
appealed  to  SD,  king  of  Egypt,  to  assist  him 
in  throwing  off  the  tribute.  Hezekiah  unhappily 
joined  in  the  confederacy.  The  revolt  brought 
a  large  army  of  Assyrians  upon  the  Israelites, 
and  in  the  end  resulted  in  the  second  captivity, 
completing  the  depopulation  of  the  land. 
As  for  Hoshea  himself,  he  was  seized  and 
treated  as  a  rebellious  vassal,  shut  up  in  prison, 
and  deprived  of  his  sight.  Though  a  good  and 
brave  king,  he  came  too  late  to  save  his  people, 
among  whom  murder,  idolatry,  drunkenness, 
and  lust  had  eaten  like  "  an  incurable  wound  " 
(Mic.  1.9)  into  the  inmost  heart  of  the  national 
morality  (2  K.  15.20,  17.1,  3,  4,  6,  18.1,  9,  10). 

Hospitality. — To  provide  hospitality  is  a  duty 
recognised  both  in  the  O.T.  and  the  N.T.  It 
was  a  patriarchal  virtue  (Gen.  18.3) ;  was 
enjoined  in  the  Law  (Lev.  19.33,  34) ;  implied 
responsibility  for  the  guest's  safety  (Gen.  19.6-8) ; 
and  its  violation  was  more  than  a  personal 
matter  (Judg.  19.  and  20).  Its  use  is  urged  as  a 
Christian  duty  (Rom.  12.13;  Eel.  13.2;  1  Pet. 
4.9),  more  especially  in  the  case  of  a  bishop, 
or  overseer  (1  Tim.  3.2).  The  circumstances 
of  the  Early  Church  made  Christians  peculiarly 
dependent  upon  such  aid. 

Hostage.— -Conquered  kings  or  nations  often 
gave  into  the  hands  of  the  conqueror  certain 
persons,  generally  people  of  consequence,  as 
security  against  the  fulfilment  of  a  pledge  or 
engagement.  The  Hebrew  phrase  thus  trans- 
lated reads  "  children  of  pledges  "  (2  K.  14.14; 
2  Ch.  25.24). 


Hosts,  Lord  of.— [SABAOTH.] 

Ho'tham,  Ho'than. — A    seal  or   sir/net    ring  : 

1.  A  son  of  Heber,  an  Asherite    (1   Ch.  7.32). 

2.  The    father   of    two    of    David's   worthies 
(1  Ch.  11.44). 

Ho'thir. — Abundance :  one  of  the  sons  of 
Heman  (1  Ch.  25.4). 

Hough. — To  hough  a  horse  is  to  cut  the 
important  tendons  and  sinews  worked  by  the 
muscles  of  the  ham,  to  hamstring  it,  thus 
rendering  it  incapable  of  progression.  The 
practice  was  common  in  war  time  (Josh.  11.6,  9  ; 
2  Sam.  8.4  ;  1  Ch.  18.4).  Hough  is  the  same 
word  as  hock. 

Hour. — The  ancients  reckoned  time  from 
sunrise  to  sunset.  The  day  was  divided  into 
twelve  hours,  which  differed  in  length  according 
to  the  season :  thus  the  twelve  midsummer 
hours  were  each  longer  than  the  twelve  mid- 
winter hours,  the  sixth  hour  being  always 
at  noon.  A  still  earlier  division  of  the  day 
was  into  morning,  heat  of  the  day  (i.e.  midday), 
and  evening  (Ps.  55.17).  Among  the  Hebrews 
the  night  was  divided  into  the  first,  second, 
and  third  watches  (Judg.  7.19),  but  among 
the  Romans  into  four,  and  this  is  found  in  the 
N.T.  (Mk.  13.35).  In  the  N.T.  we  have  also 
the  division  of  the  day  into  twelve  hours  or 
periods  (Matt.  20.1-10  ;  John  11.9  ;  Acts  23.23), 
beginning  at  sunrise.  [TIME,  DAY,  DIALS.] 

In  many  passages  hour  is  used  to  express 
a  short  duration  of  time,  or  even  a  point  of 
time  (Dan.  3.6,  15,  4.33  ;  Matt.  8.13,  10.19). 
The  frequent  phrase  "  in  the  same  hour  "  means 
"  immediately  "  (Dan.  5.5  ;  Acts  16.18). 

House. — The  word  layith  (beth-)  is  used  very 
widely  of  any  dwelling,  fixed  or  movable.  It 
may  have  been  formed  from  a  root  meaning  to 
spend  the  night.  The  tabernacle  of  God  also, 
though  only  a  tent,  is  sometimes  called  the 
house,  the  residence  of  God. 

There  has  been  very  little  change  in  the 
style  or  method  of  house-building  in  the  East. 
In  the  towns  we  find  the  streets  usually  narrow, 
with  perhaps  rows  of  shops  on  either  side. 
Behind  these  are  the  dwellings.  If  we  enter 
into  one  of  the  principal  houses  we  shall  first 
pass  through  a  gateway,  with  benches  on  each 
side,  where  the  master  of  the  house  receives 
visitors  and  conducts  his  business,  few  persons 
being  allowed  to  penetrate  further.  Beyond 
this  entrance  the  privileged  visitor  is  received 
into  the  court,  or  quadrangle,  which  is  generally 
paved  with  marble  or  other  hard  substance, 
and  lies  open  to  the  weather.  This  courtyard 
gives  light  and  air  to  the  various  chambers 
which  open  upon  it.  For  the  accommodation 
of  guests  the  pavement  is  covered  with  mats  or 
carpets  ;  and,  as  it  is  secure  from  interruption 
from  without,  iswell  adapted  for  entertainments. 
Some  have  supposed  that,  because  it  is  the 
middle  of  the  house,  it  is  "the  midst"  (Lk. 
5.19),  into  which  the  man  was  let  down  through 
the  ceiling,  but  the  term  doubtless  means  "  the 
midst"  of  those  present.  It  has  also  been 
thought  Mint  tlip  roof  thore  mf>nfiorp<}  was  the 


HOUSE,  DRAUGHT] 


211 


[HUNT 


awning  stretched  across  to  protect  from  sun  or 
rain,  but  the  term  used  for  digging  through  it 
implies  that  it  was  a  part  where  the  roof  was 
more  solid.  The  court  is  generally  surrounded 
with  a  cloister,  over  which,  when  the  house 
has  more  than  one  storey,  a  gallery  is  erected 
for  each  storey  of  the  same  dimensions  with 
the  cloister,  having  a  balustrade,  to  prevent 
people  from  falling  off.  The  windows  which 
look  upon  the  street  are  small  and  placed 
high  up,  being  covered  with  pierced  and  carved 
woodwork  instead  of  glass.  This  plan  effectu- 
ally conceals  the  inmate  while  permitting  him 
to  obtain  a  view  of  what  is  going  on  outside. 
The  windows  to  the  upper  stories,  however, 
are  frequently  of  considerable  size,  and  built 
projecting  beyond  the  house  wall.  This  was 
the  sort  of  window  through  which  Jezebel 
was  thrown  by  command  of  Jehu. 

In  the  houses  of  the  rich  the  lower  part  of 
the  walls  is  adorned  with  hangings  of  velvet 
or  damask  suspended  on  hooks,  and  capable 
of  being  taken  down  or  put  up  at  pleasure 
(Esth.  1.6).  The  upper  part  of  the  walls  is 
adorned  in  a  more  permanent  fashion,  while 
the  ceilings  are  sometimes  made  of  fragrant 
and  costly  wood  (Jer.  22.14).  The  floors  of 
these  splendid  apartments  are  covered  with 
painted  tiles,  or  slabs  of  marble.  Sometimes 
they  were  of  plaster,  covered  with  rich  carpets. 
Round  the  rooms,  which  all  open  out  on  the 
central  courtyard,  is  built  a  raised  platform, 
a  seat  by  day,  and  a  bed  by  night,  when  thick 
rugs  or  mattresses  are  produced  from  recesses 
and  spread  for  sleeping.  [BEDS.]  In  all  cases 
the  apartments  of  the  women  are  secluded, 
though  the  seclusion  was  not  so  strict  among 
the  Hebrews  as  to-day.  In  each  house  of  any 
pretention  a  guest-chamber  was  provided. 

The  roof  of  the  Eastern  house  is  almost 
always  flat.  It  is  composed  of  beams  of  wood 
covered  with  stone  or  plaster,  to  protect  from  the 
weather,  and  also  to  provide  an  airy  promenade 
in  fine  weather.  This  roof  is  surrounded 
with  a  low  parapet  as  a  protection  from  falling 
off  (Dent.  22.8).  In  Palestine  the  people 
sleep  upon  the  tops  of  their  houses  during  the 
summer  heat  in  arbours  made  of  branches 
or  rushes  (Neh.  8.16).  The  guest-chamber 
is  sometimes  built  on  the  roof,  and  as  the 
latter  is  reached  by  an  outside  staircase  the 
guests  can  enter  or  leave  without  communicating 
with  the  family.  Various  household  occupations 
are  also  carried  on  on  the  flat  roof-tops,  such 
as  drying  the  linen,  curing  figs,  raisins,  etc. 
They  were  also  sometimes  used  for  idolatrous 
worship  (2  K.  23.12  ;  Jer.  32.29).  The  booths 
or  tabernacles  used  during  the  Feast  of  Taber- 
nacles were,  in  the  towns,  erected  on  these  flat 
roofs,  which  were  also  chosen  as  wailing-places 
for  the  expression  of  great  grief. 

Fireplaces  did  not  exist  in  Eastern  houses, 
braziers  serving  instead  [OVENS],  or  else  the 
fire  was  lighted  in  the  open  courtyard.  The 
kitchen,  however,  had  a  raised  platform  of 
brick  with  hollow  places,  in  which  a  fire  might 


be  placed.  These  were  the  boiling-places  of 
Ezek.  46.23.  Besides  the  arbours  for  summer 
use  on  the  roofs,  there  were  specially  pro- 
tected apartments  which  were  used  in  the  cold 
weather. 

The  houses  of  the  indigent  in  the  East  are  very 
poor  constructions,  consisting  of  mud  walls, 
reeds,  and  rushes  (cf.  Job  4.19).  The  thief  can 
therefore  easily  dig  through  them  (Job  24.16; 
Matt.  24.43).  Sometimes  these  mud,  and  even 
the  brick,  dwellings  consisted  of  one  room  only, 
a  portion  of  which  would  be  divided  off  for 
the  cattle.  The  exterior  view  of  all  houses, 
whether  of  the  poor  or  of  the  wealthy, 
presented  rather  a  mean  appearance.  Usually 
nothing  is  seen  but  a  bare  blank  wall,  pierced 
high  up  with  small  windows,  sometimes  with 
projecting  lattices  and  with  a  single  door. 
[TENT,  TABERNACLE,  DWELLING.] 

House,  Draught.— A  public  latrine  (2  K. 
10.27). 

House,  His.— His  family  as  distinguished 
from  his  household,  which  included  all  under 
his  roof  (Gen.  7.1). 

House,  Treasure.— [TREASURE.] 

Hozai. — Seers :  a  proper  name  in  the  R.V. 
2  Ch.  33.19  (Hosai,  A.V.  marg.),  but  translated 
"the  seers"  in  A.V.  and  R.V.  marg. 

Huktok. — A  ditch  :  a  spot  on  the  border 
of  Naphtali,  thought  to  have  been  discovered 
in  Yakuk,  a  village  7  miles  south-west  of 
Safed,  and  4  north-west  of  the  sea  of  Galilee. 
Jewish  tradition  places  the  tomb  of  Habakkuk 
here  (Josh.  19.34). 

Hu'kok.— A  city  of  Asher  (1  Ch.  6.75). 
[HELKATH.] 

HuL — Circle  :  grandson  of  Sliem,  the  son  of 
Noah  (Gen.  10.23).  In  1  Ch.l.ll  he  is  called 
the  son  of  Shem. 

Hul'dah. — Weasel :  a  prophetess  consulted 
by  King  Josiah  (2  K.  22.14;  2  Ch.  34.22). 

[HlLKIAH.] 

Humility.— A  lowly  disposition  of  mind. 
Heathenism  had  no  word  to  express  the  full 
grace  and  beauty  of  humility;  the  corre- 
sponding terms  rather  meant  meanness  and 
baseness  of  mind.  Humility  is  well-pleasing 
to  God  (1  Pet.  3.4) ;  indicates  that  more  grace 
shall  be  given  (Ps.  25.9  ;  Jas.  4.6) ;  preserves 
the  soul  in  tranquillity  and  contentment 
(Ps.  69.32,  33),  and  ensures  patience  and 
resignation  under  affliction  (Job  1.21). 

Our  Lord  set  the  example  of  humility  (Phil. 
2.6-8).  The  greatest  promises  of  good  are 
made  to  the  humble  (Ps.  147.6 ;  Isai.  57.15  ; 
Matt.  5.5 ;  1  Pet.  5.5).  [Lowi/r.] 

Hum'tah. — Lizard :  a  city  of  Judah  in  the 
mountain  district  near  Hebron  (Josh.  15.54). 

Hungry.— [FAMINE.  ] 

Hunt,  Hunter,  Hunting. —  The  Assyrian 
monuments  freely  depict  their  monarchs  in 
pursuit  of  game.  The  patriarchal  life  was 
rather  that  of  the  flock-owner  than  that  of  the 
hunter ;  but  Nimrod  (Gen.  10.9)  and  Esau 
(Gen.  25.27)  have  their  skill  as  hunters  recorded. 
Wild  beasts  appear  to  have  abounded  in  Pales- 


HUPHAM] 


212 


[HYMEN^EUS 


tine  when  the  Hebrews  reached  it  (Ex.  23.29) ; 
and  continued  sources  of  danger  to  the  people 
and  to  their  flocks  (Judg.  14.5  ;  1  Sam.  17.34). 
Beasts  and  birds  were  caught  in  pitfalls,  traps, 
snares,  or  nets  ;  and  the  operations  were  suffi- 
ciently familiar  to  be  used  figuratively  (Josh. 
23.13  ;  Job  18.10  ;  Jer.  5.26). 

Hu  pham. — A  Benjamite  and  founder  of 
the  family  of  the  Huphamites  (Num.  26.39). 
In  Gen.  46.21  and  I  Ch.  7.12  the  name  is 
spelled  Huppim. 

Hup 'pah. — Covering,  protection  :  priest  of 
the  thirteenth  course  (1  Ch.  24.13). 

Hup 'pirn. — Coverings  :  head  of  a  Benjamite 
family  and  grandson  of  Bela  ;  the  same  name 
as  Hupham  (Gen.  46.21  ;  Num.  26.39 ;  1  Ch. 
7.12,  15). 

Hur.  —  Meaning  unknown,  possibly  white: 
I.  A  man  who,  with  Aaron,  held  up  the  hands  of 
Moses  at  Rephidim  (Ex.  17.10).  With  Aaron 
also  he  was  left  in  charge  of  the  people  while 
Moses  was  on  Mount  Sinai  (Ex.  24.14).  Ac- 
cording to  Jewish  tradition,  he  was  the  husband 
of  Miriam.  2.  A  son  of  Caleb  and  Ephrath 
(1  Ch.  2.19,20).  He  belonged  to  the  great 
family  of  Pharez,  and  had  three  sons,  who 
founded  the  three  cities  Kirjath-jearim,  Beth- 
lehem, and  Beth-gad  er.  Hur  was  followed  in  the 
direct  line  by  Salma  or  Salmon  (Ruth  4.20), 
called  the  "  Father  of  Bethlehem,"  whose  son 
was  Boaz,  the  direct  progenitor  of  David  (1  Ch. 
2.51,54;  Ruth  4.21).  But  Hur  himself  is 
sometimes  called  the  father  of  Bethlehem, 
"  Abi-Bethlehein "  (Ex.  31.2,  35.30;  1  Ch. 
2.19,  50,  4.1,  4).  3.  A  king  of  Midian,  who 
was  killed  with  Balaam  (Num.  31.8).  4.  One 
of  Solomon's  officers  of  the  commissariat  in 
Mount  Ephraim  (1  K.  4.8).  [BEN-HUR.] 
5.  The  father  of  Rephaiah,  who  helped  to  repair 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem  under  Nehemiah  (Neh. 
3.9). 

Hu'rai. — (?)  White:  one  of  David's  guard 
(1  Ch.  11.32).  Called  Hiddai  in  2  Sam.  23.30. 

Hu'ram. — 1.  The  son  of  Bela  in  the  gene- 
alogy of  Benjamin  (1  Ch.  8.5).  2.  King  of  Tyre 
(2  Ch.  2.3,  12).  [HIRAM.]  3.  The  artificer 
sent  from  Tyre  to  Solomon  to  aid  him  in 
his  building  schemes  (2  Ch.  2.13,  4.11, 16). 

[HlRAM.] 

Hu'ri.— (?)  White  :  a  Gileadite  of  Gad  (1  Ch. 
5.14). 

Husband. — Adam  was  the  first  husband 
(Gen.  2.22,  3.6),  and  the  fundamental  law  as  to 
the  relations  of  man  and  wife  is  first  stated  in 
regard  to  Adam  and  Eve  (Gen.  2.24, 25).  Accord- 
ing to  Jewish  law,  there  were  ten  obligations 
which  the  husband  was  bound  to  observe 
towards  his  wife.  Of  these,  three  are  referred 
to  in  Ex.  21.9,  10.  The  other  seven  included 
her  settlement,  medical  treatment  in  case  of 
sickness,  redemption  from  captivity,  funeral, 
provision  in  his  house  so  long  as  she  remained 
a  widow  and  had  not  been  paid  her  dowry, 
the  support  of  her  daughters  till  they  were 
married,  and  a  provision  that  her  sons  should, 
besides  receiving  their  portion  of  their  father's 


inheritance,  also  share  in  what  was  settled 
upon  her.  To  the  husband  belonged  all  his 
wife's  gains,  and  also  all  that  came  to  her  after 
marriage  by  inheritance.  But  while  the 
husband  could  profit  by  gains  from  the  ad- 
ministration of  his  wife's  dowry,  he  was 
also  responsible  for  any  loss.  He  was  his 
wife's  heir-at-law.  The  duties  of  the  husband 
are  frequently  stated  in  the  Epistles,  e.g. 
1  Cor.  7.3;  Eph.  5.25;  Col.  3.19;  1  Pet.  3.7. 
[BETROTHAL,  MARRIAGE.] 

Husbandman.  —  The  Hebrews  were  an 
agricultural  people.  Husbandry  appears  from 
the  first  in  Holy  Scripture,  Adam  being  placed 
in  the  garden  of  Eden  to  till  and  dress  it.  Noah 
became  an  husbandman  (Gen.  9.20).  God  is 
compared  to  a  husbandman  (John  15.1 ;  1  Cor. 
3.9),  and  the  simile  of  land  carefully  cultivated 
or  of  a  vineyard  carefully  dressed  is  often  used 
in  the  Scriptures.  [AGRICULTURE,  LAND.] 

Husband's  Brother.— (Deut.  25.5).  [FAMILY, 
RELATIONS.] 

Hu'shah. — Haste  :  the  son  of  Ezer,  of  Judah 
(1  Ch.  4.4).  It  may  also  be  the  name  of  a  place. 

[HUSHATHITE.] 

Hu  shai. — Speeding  :  I.  An  inhabitant  of 
Archi  (2  Sam.  15.32  ff.),  and  one  of  David's 
friends.  He  assisted  David  against  the  counsels 
of  Ahithophel  (2  Sam.  16.16;  1  Ch.  27.33). 
2.  Father  of  one  of  Solomon's  twelve  officers 
(1  K.  4.16). 

Hush 'am. — (?)  Hasting  :  a  king  of  Edom 
(Gen.  36.34,  35).  [TEMANITE.] 

Hu'shathite. — An  inhabitant  of  Hushah, 
founded  by  Hushah  (2  Sam.  21.18). 

Hu'shim. — Hasting  :  1.  The  children  or  sons 
of  Dan  (Gen.  46.23).  In  Num.  26.42  the  name 
appears  as  Shuham.  2.  A  man  placed  at  the 
end  of  the  list  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  called 
the  son  of  Aher  (  =  another)  (1  Ch.  7.12). 
Probably  there  is  some  corruption  in  the  text, 
and  he  is  identical  with  Hushim  1.  3.  One 
of  the  two  wives  of  Shaharaim,  a  Benjamite 
(1  Ch.  8.8). 

Husks. — By  this  term  is  designated  the 
pod  of  the  carob  or  locust  tree.  It  has  dark 
and  shining  leaves,  and  bears  long  brown  pods, 
the  beans  being  ground  up  for  cattle  and  swine. 
The  poor  make  use  of  them  also,  and  find  them 
most  nourishing.  They  represent  the  "  husks  " 
of  the  parable  (Lk.  15.16).  The  term  "  locust,  " 
is  due  to  an  erroneous  idea  that  St.  John  ate 
these  pods  and  wild  honey  (Mk.  1.6).  It  has 
been  suggested  that  in  2  K.  6.25  carob-pods 
should  be  read  instead  of  "  doves'  dung,"  but 
this  is  improbable. 

Hua  or  Uz.  —  The  eldest  son  of  Nahoi 
(Gen.  22.21). 

Huz'zab.  —  According  to  the  Rabbis  the 
queen  of  Nineveh,  but  sometimes  thought  to 
be  the  country  adjacent  to, 'and  including, 
Nineveh  (Nah.  2.7).  Its  meaning  is,  however, 
quite  uncertain ;  it  may  be  a  verb,  "  it  is 
decreed." 

Hysena.— [ZEBOIM,  VALLEY  OP.] 

Hymenae'u*  — Nuptial :   an  early  convert  to 


HYMN] 


213 


[IDDO 


Christianity,  through  the  ministrations  of 
Paul.  He  afterwards  fell  into  the  heresy  that 
denied  the  resurrection,  holding  it  to  be  already 
accomplished  (2  Tim.  2.17).  He  was  "de- 
livered to  Satan,"  i.e.,  as  it  seems,  excom- 
municated by  Paul  (1  Tim.  1.20). 

Hymn.— The  Christian  Church  inherited  the 
Psalms,  and  was  familiar  with  their  use  in 
public  worship  and  in  private  devotions.  The 
hymn  sung  by  our  Lord  and  His  disciples 
(Matt.  26.30)  was  the  great  Hallel  [ALLE- 
LUIA] (Ps.  113-118).  Paul  encourages  the 
use  of  hymns  (Eph.  5.19;  Col  3.16).  Luke 
gives  us  three  Christian  hymns  in  the  Magnificat 
(Lk.  1.46-55),  the  Benedictus  (Lk.  1.68-79),  and 
the  Nunc  Dimittis  (Lk.  2.29-32),  and  possibly 
also  a  fourth  in  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis  (Lk.  2.14). 
Eph.  5.14  and  1  Tim.  3.16  may  be  fragments 
of  Christian  hymns. 

Hypocrisy,  Hypocrite.  —  The  words  are 
derived  from  the  Greek,  and  a  hypocrite  means 
one  who  plays  a  part  as  an  actor.  In  the  O.T. 
references,  however,  the  Hebrew  words  imply 
profanation  and  a  profane  person  ;  and  the 
K.V.  renders  accordingly.  In  the  N.T.  the 
word  is  used  sometimes  of  conscious  (Matt. 


6.16)  and  sometimes  of  unconscious  (Matt.  7.5) 
hypocrisy.  In  our  Lord's  denunciations  of  the 
Pharisees  it  generally  has  the  latter  sense. 
[PHARISEE.] 

Hyssop. — The  word  "  hyssop  "  was  adopted 
by  the  Greeks  directly  from  the  Hebrew,  and 
it  has  been  naturalised  in  our  own  language 
with  but  slight  alteration.  The  hyssop  is  prob- 
ably marjoram,  a  bushy  plant  about  18  in.  high, 
with  straight,  slender,  leafy  stalks,  and  large 
spikes  of  small  blossoms.  It  has  a  pungent 
and  aromatic  scent,  and  grows  in  many  places, 
even  on  the  walls  (1  K.  4.33).  The  aromatic 
scent  of  the  herb,  which  would  tend  to  refresh 
the  dying  Saviour,  may  have  been  the  reason 
for  its  employment  by  the  Roman  soldiers 
(Ex.  12.22;  Lev.UA-  Jo/m  19.29;  Heb.  9.19). 
It  should  be  added  that  Tristram  thinks  it  is 
not  the  marjoram,  but  the  caper  plant.  Others 
hold  that  the  word  is  used  rather  vnguely, 
and. includes  more  than  one  species,  or  even 
family,  of  plants.  As  the  stalks  of  the  mar- 
joram (and  much  more  of  the  caper)  are  pliant, 
it  has  been  suggested  that  in  John  19.29  the 
Greek  word  "  hy>sop  "  is  an  error  for  "  hyssos," 
the  Roman  javelin  or  short  spear. 


I  Am,  I  Am  That  I  Am. — The  Divine  name 
announced  to  Moses  (Ex.  3.14),  implying  that 
the  name  Jehovah  (Yahweh)  means  "  He  will 
be,"  expressing  God's  self-existence,  faithful- 
ness, and  unchangcableness.  See  R.V.  rnarg. 
[JEHOVAH.] 

Ib'har. — (God)  chooses  :  one  of  David's  sons, 
born  in  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  5.15  ;  1  Ch.  3.6, 
14.5). 

Ible'am.— A  town  of  Issachar  (Josh.  17.11) 
allotted  to  Manasseh,  from  which  the  in- 
habitants were  not  expelled  (Judg.  1.27) ; 
probably  identical  with  Bileam  (1  Ch.  6.70). 
It  was  near  Ibleam  that  Ahaziah  was  wounded 
when  fleeing  from  Jehu  (2'  K.  9.27). 

Ibnei'ah. — Jehovah  is  builder :  the  chief 
of  a  Benjamite  family  at  Jerusalem  at  the 
time  of  the  first  settlement  (1  Ch.  9.8). 

Ibni'jah. — Jehovah  is  builder :  a  Benjamite 
(1  Ch.  9.8). 

Ib'ri.— Hebrew :  a  Merarite  Levite  (1  Ch. 
24  27) 

Ibs  am. — [  JIB  s  A  AT.  ] 

Ib'zan. — A  judge  of  Israel  for  seven  years. 
He  was  a  native  of  Bethlehem  in  Zebulun,  and 
had  thirty  sons  and  thirty  daughters  (Judg. 
12.8,  10). 

Ice. — Though  the  sight  of  snow  is  familiar 
enough  in  Palestine,  especially  upon  the  moun- 
tains, ice  is  a  rare  thing  (Job  6.16,  38.29  ;  Ps. 
147.17). 

Ich'abod.— No  glory  :  the  son  of  Phinehas, 
and  grandson  of  Eli,  the  high  priest.  He  was 


so  named  by  his  mother  because  at  the  time 
of  his  birth  she  heard  the  dreadful  tidings  of 
the  loss  of  the  ark,  and  the  death  of  her  husband 
and  her  father-in-law.  The  shock  caused  her 
own  death  (1  Sam.  4.19-22,  14.3). 

Iconium. — The  capital  of  Lycaonia ;  visited 
by  St.  Paul  (Acts  13,  14,  16.2  ;  2  Tim.  3.11). 
Lycaonia  was  the  name  given  to  the  high  table- 
land in  central  Asia  Minor,  and  the  importance 
of  Iconium  lay  in  the  fact  that  it  was  in  the 
direct  line  of  communication  between  Ephesus, 
Antioch,  and  the  Euphrates.  It  was  this  fine 
position,  intersected  as  it  was  by  Roman 
military  roads,  that  rendered  Iconium  a  good 
place  for  missionary  operations.  It  is  the 
modern  Konia.  [PAUL,  BARNABAS,  ANTIOCH.] 

Ida'toh.— A  town  of  Zebulun  (Josh.  19.15). 
Its  modern  name  is  El-Huwarah,  south  of 
Beit  Lahm. 

Wbash.— One  of  the  three  sons  of  Abi-Etam 
(1  Ch.  4.3). 

Id'do. — Beloved  :  1.  A  commissariat  officer 
of  Solomon  (1  K.  4.14).  2.  A  descendant  of 
Gershom,  the  Levite  (1  Ch.  6.21).  In  ver.  41 
Adaiah.  3.  A  son  of  Zechariah,  of  the  tribe 
of  Manasseh  (1  Ch.  27.21).  4.  A  prophet  and 
seer  who  denounced  Jeroboam,  the  son  of 
Nebat  (2  Ch.  9.29).  Josephus  considers  him  to 
have  been  the  person  who  was  slain  by  a  lion 
(1  K.  13).  The  works  of  Iddo,  of  which  now 
no  trace  remains,  were  but  a  part  of  the  mass 
of  historical  and  prophetical  literature  in  the 
hands  of  the  chronicler.  See  1  Ch.  27.21, 


IDOL] 


214 


[IMAGE 


29.29  ;  2  Ch.  12.15,  13.22,  etc.  5,  6,  7.  (See 
Ezra  5.1,  8.17  ;  Neh.  12.4, 16). 

Idol  (from  the  Greek  eidolon,  image). — An 
image  or  representation  of  a  deity,  made  an 
object  of  worship,  and  so  any  object  which 
usurps  the  place  of  God  and  receives  the  worship 
or  service  due  to  Him. 

In  the  O.T.  the  words  most  frequently 
rendered  in  the  A.V.  by  "  idol  "  or  "  image," 
or  by  these  words  with  others  are — (1 )  Tselem, 
image ;  compare  Gen.  1.26  with  Ezek.  16.17, 
and  Dan.  3.1.  (2)  Pesel,  graven  image  (Ex. 
20.4).  (3)  Massekah,  an  image  cast  in  a  mould, 
as  the  golden  calf  of  Aaron  (Ex.  32.4).  (4) 
Matstsebah,  the  sacred  stone;  compare  Ex.  23.24 
and  2  K.  3.2  with  Gen.  28.18.  (5)  GiUulim, 
meaning  uncertain,  but  probably  a  term  of 
contempt,  the  word  so  freely  used  of  "  idols  " 
by  Ezekiel  (see  Ezek.  6.4  and  onward). 
(6)  Elil,  a  term  of  contempt,  probably  imply- 
ing powerlessness  (as  in  Ps.  96.5).  (7)  Atsab, 
either  a  figure  (cf.  Ps.  115.4)  or  a  cause  of 
grief.  (8)  Teraphim,  household  or  personal 
gods  (Gen.  31.19  ;  Judg.  17.5).  Idols  were  in 
some  cases  made,  wholly  or  in  part,  of  silver 
or  gold  (Ex.  32.3,  4  ;  Isai.  2.20).  There  were 
regular  idol-makers  (Hob.  2.18, 19).  Idols  were 
installed  in  temples  or  "  houses  "  (Judg.  17.5  ; 
1  Sam.  5.2).  Sacrifices  (Eos.  4.13)  and  offer- 
ings (Hos.  2.8)  were  made  to  them. 

In  the  N. T.  idols  were  a  familiar  feature  in 
the  religious  life  of  the  Gentile  world.  Converts 
forsook  them  (1  Thess.  1.9) ;  and  had  to  observe 
care  against  contamination  through  idolatrous 
customs  (Acts  15.29).  By  some  early  Christian 
teachers  to  make  idols  for  gain  was  deemed 
equal  to  worshipping  them  (Tertullian,  De  Idol. 
e.  6).  [IDOLATER,  IDOLATRY,  IMAGB.] 

Idolater,  Idolatry.— A  worshipper,  the  wor- 
ship, of  idols.  In  the  O.T.  the  sin  was  explicitly 
condemned  in  the  first  and  second  of  the  Com- 
mandments (Ex.  20.3-5),  and  its  punishment 
in  the  case  of  national  transgression  clearly 
stated  (Deut.  4.15-28).  It  appeared  in  the 
patriarchal  age  (Gen.  31.19,  35.2);  it  sur- 
rounded Israel  in  Egypt  (Ex.  12.12  ;  and  see 
Josh.  24.14) ;  it  was  taken  up  in  the  desert 
journey  (Ex.  32.1-4) ;  it  confronted  the  people 
on  entering  the  Promised  Land  (Judg.  2.3)  ; 
it  grew  in  evil  under  the  kings,  especially  Ahab 
(1  K.  16.33)  ;  it  was  the  cause  of  the  judgment 
of  God  upon  His  chosen  people  (Amos  5.26, 
27) ;  and  was  the  frequent  object  of  denuncia- 
tion by  the  prophets.  The  sin  of  the  idolater 
was,  under  the  Law,  punished  by  death,  in  the 
individual  (Ex.  22.20),  and  in  the  case  of  a 
community  (Deut.  13.12-16) ;  and  the  tempter 
to  idolatry  was  dealt  with  in  equal  severity 
(Deut.  13.6-11).  In  the  N.T  covetousness  is 
spoken  of  as  "idolatry"  (Col.  3.5,  and  cf. 
Matt.  6.24) ;  but  the  literal  form  of  idolatry 
everywhere  confronted  Christian  converts 
(Acts  15.20,  17.16).  They  had  to  be  guided  as 
to  intercourse  with  idolaters  (1  Cor.  5.10)  and 
as  to  eating  foods,  exposed  for  sale,  which  had 
been  offered  to  idols  (Acts  15.29  ;  1  Cor.  8.1). 


When  Christianity  became  dominant  in  Europe, 
idolatry  was  forbidden  by  law,  as  by  Con- 
stantino in  324  A.D.  and  Theodosius  392  A.D. 

Idumea. — Greek  form  of  Edom  (which  see) 
(Mk.  3.8). 

lezer. — [JEEZER.] 

I'gal. — God  delivers :  1.  One  of  the  spies  sent 
into  the  Promised  Land  (Num.  13.7).  2.  One 
of  David's  heroes  (2  Sam.  23.36).  He  is  also 
called  Joel,  the  brother  of  Nathan  (1  Ch.  11.38). 

Igdali'ah. — God  is  great :  a  prophet  men- 
tioned only  once  (Jer.  35.4).  It  was  in  the 
house  of  this  man  that  Jeremiah  conferred 
with  the  Rechabites. 

Ige'al. — Deliverer:  a  son  of  Shemaiah 
(1  Ch.  3.22).  The  name  is  the  same  as  IGAL. 

rim  (R.V.  lyim).—  Heaps:  1.  The  thirty- 
seventh  encampment  of  the  Israelites.  The  site 
is  unknown  (Num.  33.45).  2.  A  town  in  the 
south  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.29). 

Ije-Aba'rim  (R.V.  lye). — Ruins  of  Abarim : 
site  of  an  encampment  of  the  Israelites  as 
they  were  approaching  the  Promised  Land. 
It  was  on  the  south-east  boundary  of  Moab 
(Num.  21.11,  33.44,  45).  See  IIM,  which  is  a 
shortened  form  of  the  same  name. 

I'jon. — A  ruin :  a  town  in  the  north  of 
Palestine,  belonging  to  Naphtali  (1  K.  15.20  ; 
2  Ch.  16.4).  The  remains  of  this  ancient 
fortification,  which  was  taken  and  plundered 
by  Benhadad,  have  been  located  in  the  little 
place  at  the  upper  end  of  the  Merj  'Ayan,  in 
the  valley  of  the  Hasbany. 

Ik'kesh. — Subtle :  one  of  David's  valiant 
men  (2  Sam.  23.26). 

I'lai. — One  of  David's  guard,  an  Ahohite 
(1  Ch.  11.29).  The  same  man  is  called  Zalmon 
in  2  Sam.  23.28. 

Illyricum. — A  Roman  province  on  the  east 
shore  of  the  Adriatic,  separating  Greece  from 
Italy.  It  lies  north-west  of  Macedonia,  and 
was  the  scene  of  the  labours  of  Paul  and  Titus 
(Rom.  15.19).  It  was  divided  by  the  river 
Drilo,  the  part  lying  to  the  north  being  called 
Illyris  Barbara,  the  southern  portion  being 
Illyris  Graeca.  This  country  included  Dal- 
matia  (2  Tim.  4.10),  which  eventually  gave  its 
name  to  the  whole  country  stretching  from 
Epirus  to  the  boundary  of  Italy. 

Image. — An  artificial  representation  of  some 
person  or  thing  used  as  an  object  of  adoration. 
In  this  connection  it  is  synonymous  with  idol. 
Micah,  an  Ephraimite,  made  images  of  conse- 
crated silver  (Judg.  17.3,  4).  Moreover,  he 
persuaded  a  Levite  to  become  its  priest.  This 
image  was  consulted  as  an  oracle,  and  publicly 
set  up  by  the  Danites.  The  grandson  of 
Moses  became  its  priest,  and  the  office  de- 
scended in  his  family  (Judg.  18.4-6,  14-31). 
Gideon  also  made  an  image  of  the  Deity  of 
gold  plundered  from  the  enemy,  and  set  it 
up  in  Ophrah  (Judg.  8.24-27). 

Images  are  not  forbidden  in  the  Bible,  unless 
they  are  made  to  represent  gods  and  wor- 
shipped as  such.  God  Himself  commanded 
Moses  to  make  a  brazen  serpent,  and  there 


IMLA,  IMLAH] 


215     [IMMORTALITY  OF  THE  SOUL 


were  also  various  images  (e.g.  the  cherubim) 
used  in  connection  with  the  Tabernacle  and 
Temple  worship.  [!DOL,  IDOLATRY.] 

Im'la,  Im'lah.  —  Fulfilling :  ancestor  of 
Michaiali  (1  A'.  22.8,  9  ;  2  Ch.  18.7,  8). 

Im'manu'el. — God  with  us :  the  symbolic 
name  to  be  given  to  the  child  whose  birth 
Isaiah  predicts  as  part  of  the  sign  to  Ahaz, 
king  of  Juclah  (Isai.  7.14).  The  name  occurs 
again  only  in  Isai.  8.8  (cf.  ver.  10)  and  in  St. 
Matthew's  application  of  the  prophecy  to  the 
birth  of  Jesus  (Matt.  1.23  ;  A.V.  Emmanuel). 

Detailed  interpretation  of  the  prophecy  of 
Isai.  1  is  beset  with  many  difficulties,  and 
expositors  differ  widely  in  their  conclusions. 
The  main  features,  however,  seem  clear.  Ahaz 
was  faced  by  a  hostile  coalition  of  the  kings 
of  Syria  and  of  Israel,  "  and  his  heart  was 
moved,  and  the  heart  of  his  people,  as  the 
trees  of  the  forest  are  moved  with  the  wind." 
Isaiah  exhorted  him  to  "  be  quiet  and  fear 
not,"  declaring  that  the  threatened  disaster 
should  not  come  to  pass,  and  bidding  him 
for  confirmation  ask  of  God  what  sign  he 
would.  But  the  king,  already  set  on  his 
worldly-wise  policy  of  an  alliance  with  Assyria, 
refused.  Then  the  prophet,  moved  to  indigna- 
tion, forces  a  sign  upon  him  whether  he  will 
or  no,  but  a  sign  of  very  different  omen.  Within 
a  short  year  a  son  should  be  born,  and  called 
by  his  mother  Immanuel.  Before  that  child 
reached  the  age  of  intelligence  the  power  of 
Assyria  would  have  devastated  not  only  the 
two  northern-  kingdoms,  but  Judah  herself, 
so  transient  was  the  gathering  cloud,  so  futile 
the  looked-for  protection.  The  richly  cultivated 
land  would  be  laid  waste  by  war  :  only  pasture 
would  remain,  affording  to  the  remnant  of  its 
inhabitants  and  to  the  child  Immanuel  the 
primitive  fare  of  curdled  milk  and  wild  honey 
(I ani.  7.15-8.8). 

This  expected  child,  then,  with  his  name 
symbolic  of  courageous  and  triumphant  trust, 
does  not  at  first  sight  appear  to  present  himself 
to  the  prophet's  thought  as  a  personal  deliverer. 
We  see  him  sharing  the  disasters  that  befall 
his  countrymen,  and  then  we  see  him  no  more. 
What,  then,  does  his  name  signify  ?  It  cer- 
tainly represents  in  the  first  place  the  prophet's 
own  unwavering  faith  in  God  and  in  the 
strength  for  the  nation  that  lay  in  patient 
reliance  upon  Him.  Isaiah  came  to  the  inter- 
view with  Ahaz  accompanied  by  his  son,  Shear- 
jashub,  "  a  remnant  will  return."  The  conviction 
of  that  symbolic  name  runs  through  all  his 
prophecies  of  doom.  Trust  in  God,  deep 
planted  in  the  heart  of  the  faithful  few  and 
of  that  young  mother  who  in  face  of  national 
peril  would  bravely  name  her  son  "  God  with 
us,"  will  triumph  in  the  end.  The  king  of 
Assyria  will  sweep  down  upon  Judah,  and  "  the 
stretching  out  of  his  wings  shall  fill  the  breadth 
of  the  land."  But  it  is  "  thy  land,  O  Im- 
manuel "  (8.8).  The  mother  is  right :  the 
child's  name  is  true,  and  at  the  renewed  mention 
Of  it  the  prophet's  vision  changes  from  over- 


throw to  victory  and  the  ruin  of  Judah's 
enemies,  for  "  God  is  with  us  "  (8.9-11). 

But  this  interpretation,  valid  so  far  as  it 
goes,  seems  to  run  short.  For  the  present 
disaster  no  deliverer  was  raised  up,  but  the 
reference  to  Immanuel  is  too  concrete  to  be 
regarded  simply  as  a  parabolic  expression  of 
a  faith  in  God  which  no  disaster  would  be 
able  to  crush.  There  must  surely  be  on  the 
horizon  of  the  prophet's  outlook  an  actual 
deliverer,  a  Divine  Person  in  whom  the  un- 
quenchable faith  of  "  God  with  us "  would 
find  its  realisation.  In  this  prophecy  of  Im- 
manuel the  Figure  is  shadowy,  hidden  as  soon 
as  seen  by  the  sweeping  clouds  of  war  and 
desolation  :  it  is  human,  for  it  is  doubtful 
whether  Isaiah  regards  the  birth  of  the  child 
as  in  any  way  supernatural  (R.V.  text,  "  A 
virgin  shall  conceive,  and  bear  a  son,"  but 
marg.,  "  The  maiden  is  with  child,  and  beareth 
a  son  ").  But  we  can  hardly  dissociate  the 
prophecy  from  the  glowing  Messianic  utterance 
of  9.6,  7,  "  Unto  us  a  child  is  born,  unto  us  a 
son  is  given  :  and  the  government  shall  be 
upon  his  shoulder :  and  his  name  shall  be 
called  Wonderful,  Counsellor,  Mighty  God, 
Everlasting  Father,  Prince  of  Peace."  And  a 
reasonable  interpretation  of  the  nature  of  the 
prophetic  gift  (1  Pet.  1.10-12)  will  not  hesitate 
so  to  fill  in  the  vague  outlines  of  this  fleeting 
vision  of  Immanuel  as  to  discern  in  it  a  real 
promise  and  anticipation  of  the  Christ.  [JESUS 
CHRIST.] 

Irmner. — 1.  Founder  of  a  family  of  priests 
who  composed  the  sixteenth  course  of  the 
Temple  service  (1  Ch.  9.12  ;  Ezra  2.37,  10.20 ; 
Neh.  7.40,  11.13).  2.  A  priest  named  by  Jere- 
miah (Jer.  20.1).  3.  Either  a  place  or  a  person 
named  in  Ezra  2.59  and  Neh.  7.61. 

Immortality  of  the  Soul.— 1.  In  non-Chris- 
tian Writings. — Herodotus,  the  Greek  historian, 
who  lived  some  centuries  before  Christ,  tells  us 
that  the  Egyptians  were  the  first  to  teach  that 
the  soul  of  man  is  immortal.  Soon  afterwards 
Plato  taught  the  Greek  world  the  same  truth, 
and  he  is  said  to  have  learnt  it  from  another 
philosopher,  Pythagoras.  Plato  based  a  good 
deal  of  his  moral  teaching  upon  this  belief. 
Good  and  evil  determine  the  future  of  the  soul, 
the  torments  of  the  evil  are  graphically  depicted, 
and  the  happiness  of  the  good.  Plato's  teaching 
influenced  the  learned  world,  and  perhaps, 
centuries  afterwards,  tended  to  influence  the 
Christian  Church,  especially  through  the  great 
Christian  philosopher  and  theologian,  Augustine, 
B:shop  of  Hippo.  Pagan  teaching  is  important, 
because  it  has  been  sometimes  contended  that 
the  Christian  Church  has  taken  her  doctrine 
as  to  the  immortality  of  the  soul  from  Plato 
rather  than  from  the  N.T.  There  is,  however, 
one  important  difference  between  Plato  and 
N.T.  doctrine,  viz.  that  while  Plato  speaks 
of  eternal  life  for  both  good  and  bad,  the  Bible 
never  speaks  of  an  eternity  of  life  for  the  evil  ; 
it  is  always  punishment  or  death. 

2.  In  Holy  Scripture  little,   if  anything,  is 


IMNA] 


216 


[INDIA 


said  of  the  origin  or  permanence  of  the  human 
soul.  "  God  breathed  into  his  nostrils  the  breath 
of  life;  and  man  became  a  living  soul "  (Gen.  2.7). 
The  soul  comes  from  God,  whether  created 
or  given.  To  discuss  the  question  of  its  origin 
or  its  pre-existence  is  futile.  Scripture  says 
nothing,  and  we  have  no  other  guide.  If  it 
could  be  proved  that  the  soul  is  eternally 
pre-existent,  it  would  be  strong  argument  for 
its  immortality  in  the  future.  It  cannot  be 
proved,  and  we  must  turn  elsewhere  for  our 
arguments.  As  to  that  future,  Scripture  clearly 
indicates  that  the  soul  of  man  lives  after  the 
death  of  the  body,  or,  to  use  language  less  capable 
of  being  misunderstood,  that  human  conscious- 
ness survives  the  parting  of  body  and  soul. 
Man  is  a  person  ;  perhaps  personality  is  that 
which  makes  it  possible  to  say  of  man  that  he 
is  created  in  the  image  of  God.  In  Scripture 
it  seems  to  be  taken  for  granted  that  "  moral 
personality  is  mysteriously  permanent " 
(Bishop  Moule).  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob 
are  dead,  but  their  personality  endures,  so  our 
Lord  seems  to  argue  (Matt.  22.31,  32)  in  proof 
of  the  resurrection.  Eternal  life  and  eternal 
death  seem  always  to  imply  conscious  states. 
Never  a  word  is  said  that  suggests  unconscious- 
ness. Death,  that  is,  death  of  the  body,  is 
spoken  of  as  a  sleep,  but  death  means  "  being 
with  Christ,"  and  communion  demands  con- 
scious personality.  We  do  not  read  that  man 
was  created  immortal,  that  apart  from  sin  he 
would  have  lived  for  ever  ;  but  with  frequent 
reiteration  we  have  depicted  a  future  state 
in  which  both  good  and  bad  have  conscious 
part,  and  which  lasts  for  ever.  The  most 
casual  acquaintance  with  the  N.T.  makes  this 
clear,  and  it  is  impossible  to  quote  more  than 
typical  passages,  e.g.  the  parable  of  Dives 
and  Lazarus,  the  King  and  the  wedding  feast 
(Matt.  22.1),  the  Talents  (Matt.  25.14),  and 
such  passages  as  Matt.  10.22,32,  26.64;  LJc. 
9.26,  etc.  [See  also  article  on  ETERNAL  LIFE.] 
Two  modern  theories,  professing  to  base 
themselves  on  Scripture,  have  tried  to  solve  the 
final  problem  of  the  soul,  one,  of  which  the  most 
famous  advocate  was  the  late  Dean  Farrar, 
called  "  the  larger  hope,"  teaches,  in  a  way 
very  far  removed  from  the  Roman  vagaries 
concerning  Purgatory,  that  the  punishment  of 
hell  will  serve  its  purpose,  that  the  mercy  of 
God  will  find  its  all-victorious  way,  and  all  the 
lost  shall  at  last  be  perfected  in  a  glorious 
Kingdom  where  universal  happiness  shall  prevail. 
This  view  is  sometimes,  for  this  reason,  called 
Universalism.  The  second  theory  is  called 
the  theory  of  Annihilation.  The  soul  is  not 
naturally  immortal;  the  soul  in  the  converted 
man  is  given  life  in  Christ  and  becomes  im- 
mortal. The  unconverted  dies  without  the 
gift  of  immortality,  and  his  soul  is  annihilated. 
But  in  this  we  dare  not  go  beyond  the  witness 
of  Holy  Scripture,  or  accept  views  which  find 
no  su}  ;  :yrt  in  lie  «ords  of  Christ  or  of  His 
jisciplb*  as  rt,ordo!i  sa  Jne  New  Testament. 
The  recorded  fact*  are  <*»•-  roughly  summed  up 


in  the  idea  of  a  conscious  life  beyond  the  grave 
for  all,  an  existence  to  which  Scripture  admits 
no  limits,  and  which  is  called  for  some  "  life," 
for  others  "  death  "  or  "  punishment."  The 
words,  "  The  soul  that  sinneth,  it  shall  die  " 
(Ezek.  18.4),  cannot  legitimately  be  used  in 
favour  of  ultimate  annihilation,  because  it  has 
first  to  be  decided  what  is  meant  by  "  die." 
Moreover,  the  emphasis  of  the  sentence  is  on 
"  sinneth,"  not  "  die."  [PUNISHMENT,  FUTURE.] 

Im'na.— God  keeps  lack  (1  Ch.  7.35). 

Im'nah. — 1.  The  first-born  of  Asher  (Gen. 
46.17,  A.V.  Jimnah  ;  Num.  26.44,  A.V.  Jimna ; 
1  Ch.  7.30).  2.  A  Levite  who  served  Hezekiah 
(2  Ch.  31.14). 

Imnites,  Jilnnites. — Descendants  of  Imnah  1 
(Num.  26.44). 

Imrah, — Stubborn  :  an  Asherite  chief  (1  Ch. 
7.36). 

Irnri.— 1.  A  Judahite  (1  Ch.  9.4).  2.  The 
father  of  Zaccur,  who  assisted  Nehemiah  in 
rebuilding  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  3.2). 

Incarnation. — [ JESUS  CHRIST.] 

Incense. — A  compound  of  aromatic  sub- 
stances, or  the  smoke  given  off  by  their 
combustion.  Of  the  two  words  rendered  "  in- 
cense" in  the  0.7\,  one,  lebonah,  is  also  rendered 
as  "  frankincense  "  (as  in  Ex.  30.34),  and  is  the 
name  of  a  species  of  gum.  The  other,  ketoreth, 
refers  to  the  smoke  of  the  offering  as  well  as 
to  the  incense-compound.  Incense  was  offered 
either  in  conjunction  with  other  oblations  (as 
in  Lev.  2.1),  or  alone  upon  the  altar  of  incense 
(Ex.  30.1-9),  or  in  a  censer  (Lev.- 16.12  ;  Num. 
16.17).  The  preparation  of  the  incense  is 
described  in  Ex.  30.34-38,  and  the  ceremonial 
times  for  burning  incense  in  Ex.  30.7,  8  ;  and 
on  the  Day  of  Atonement  in  Lev.  16.12,  13. 

In  the  N.T.  incense  is  only  mentioned  in 
connexion  with  the  Temple  worship  (Z&.l. 10,11), 
and  in  Revelation  (8.3,  4,  and  R.V.  of  5.8, 
18.13).  The  sweet  fumes  of  the  incense  were 
regarded  as  symbolical  of  ascending  prayer 
(Ps.  141.2  ;  Rev.  5.8,  8.3,  4) ;  as  suggesting,  by 
its  various  ingredients,  the  perfection  of  God  ; 
and  as  typical  of  the  intercession  of  Christ. 
During  the  first  four  centuries  of  the  Christian 
Church  there  is  no  trace  of  the  use  of  incense 
in  Christian  worship,  though  it  was  familiar 
in  the  services  of  Paganism.  A  fumigatory 
use  of  incense  arose  later,  and  subsequently  a 
ritual  use. 

India. — Though  India  is  mentioned  but 
twice  in  the  Bible,  and  that  in  the  late  Book 
of  Esther  (1.1,  8.9),  yet  there  is  other  evidence 
that  even  in  very  early  times  the  Jews  had 
some  knowledge  of  the  country,  or  at  least  of 
certain  commodities  brought  from  thence.  The 
Tynan  merchants  had  established  a  trade  in 
ivory,  silks,  embroidery,  spices  and  perfumes, 
and  also  in  monkeys  and  peacocks  (Ezek. 
27.15,  24).  These  goods  were  brought  in  camel 
trains  across  Arabia,  and  by  sea  along  the 
coasts  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  Solomon's  foreign 
trade  was  largely  in  Indian  productions,  and 
it  is  said  that  even  tin  \vas  brought  to  Palestine 


INGATHERING,  FEAST  OF] 


217 


[INSPIRATION 


from  India.  The  statement  in  Esih.  1.1  that 
Ahasuerus  reigned  from  India  to  Ethiopia 
fixes  the  extent  of  the  Persian  dominions  east- 
ward to  the  river  Indus.  The  Hebrew  name 
Hoddu  is  an  abbreviation  of  Honadu,  itself 
identical  with  the  original  and  local  name  of 
the  Indus-Hindu,  or  Sindhu,  the  great  river, 
and  "  Hapta  Hendu."  The  India  of  the  Bible 
was  the  modern  Punjab,  not  the  whole  of  the 
peninsula,  and  formed  part  of  the  territory 
conquered  by  Alexander  the  Great.  [SHIPS  OF 
TARSHISH.] 

Ingathering,  Feast  o!.— [TABERNACLES,  FEAST 
OF.] 

Inheritance. — The  Mosaic  law  of  succession 
to  the  land  was  by  no  means  intricate.  With 
the  exception  of  the  elder  son,  who  had  a 
double  portion,  the  father's  property  was 
divided  equally  between  his  sons  (Deut.  21.17). 
Only  hi  the  case  of  there  being  no  sons  did  the 
daughters  share  in  it,  and  then  only  on  con- 
dition that  they  married  in  their  own  tribe 
(Num.  36.6  ft.).  Failing  sons  or  daughters, 
the  property  of  the  deceased  went  to  his  brother, 
then  paternal  uncle,  and  finally  next-of-kin 
(Num.  27.9-11).  An  interesting  feature  of  the 
Mosaic  law  of  inheritance  provided  that  if  a 
woman  was  left  a  widow  without  children,  the 
next-of-kin  on  her  late  husband's  side  had  the 
right  of  marrying  her ;  if  he  failed  her,  then 
the  next  nearest  had  the  same  right  (Ruth 
3.12, 13,  4).  In  such  a  case  the  new  husband 
was  obliged  by  the  "  right  of  inheritance " 
to  redeem  her  property  if  it  had  gone  out  of 
her  keeping  (Jer.  32.7).  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  all  laws  relating  to  property  in  land 
were  established  to  prevent  the  land  .from 
passing  out  of  the  possession  of  the  family 
(Deut.  21.15-17).  The  laws  relating  to  the  year 
of  Jubilee  were  ordained  to  have  the  same 
effect,  i.e.  of  strictly  entailing  landed  property. 
Thus  succession  was  a  matter  of  right,  not  of 
choice.  Indeed,  the  sons  had  the  right  of 
demanding  their  inheritance  before  the  death 
of  their  father,  provided  they  were  all  agreed. 
This  was  with  respect  to  personal  property, 
which  the  owner  could  dispose  of  as  he  willed. 
The  custom  is  referred  to  in  the  parable  of  the 
prodigal  son  (Lk.  15). 

Ink. — Mentioned  once  only  in  the  O.T. 
(Jer.  36.18).  This  may  imply  that  the  pro- 
phecies were  written  indelibly.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  has  been  inferred  from  Ex.  32.33, 
Num.  5.23  that  the  ink  used  by  the  Hebrews 
would  wash  off.  The  papyri  show  that  the  ink 
used  in  Egypt,  of  various  colours,  contained 
acid  and  was  of  permanent  character.  In  the 
N.T.  there  are  three  references  to  ink  (2  Cor. 
3.3  ;  2  John  12  ;  3  John  13) ;  the  word  means 
lit.  "  black." 

Inkhorn.—  This  was  a  receptacle  worn  at 
the  girdle  by  merchants  and  letter-writers 
(Ezek.  9.2-11).  It  was  constructed  not  only  to 
contain  the  ink  but  also  to  carry  the  pens. 
[PEN,  WRITING.] 

Inn. — The  proverbial  hospitality  of  the  East 


made  the  inn  in  ancient  days  unnecessary  and 
unthought  of.  It  was  only  in  later  times  that 
on  the  unfrequented  roads  in  Palestine,  where 
the  distance  between  village  and  village  was 
considerable,  or  even  outside  towns  (Lk.  2.7), 
regular  inns,  or  khans,  were  built  in  which  to 
lodge  strangers.  The  forerunners  of  these  inns 
were  simply  the  springs  of  water,  which  formed 
convenient  camping-places  for  travellers  (Gen. 
42.27,  43.21  ;  Ex.  4.24  ;  R.V.  lodging-place). 
In  course  of  time  these  springs  were  either 
enclosed  with  walls,  or  a  wallod  space  was 
built  near  by,  in  which  the  caravan  animals 
were  secured  for  the  night.  Then  they  were 
further  developed  by  a  wall  being  built  all 
round,  inside  compartments  being  provided,  to 
which  families  could  retire  with  some  degree  of 
privacy  (Jer.  9.2,  41.17). 

Like  the  modern  khans,  these  places  were 
open  squares,  the  space  in  the  middle  being 
intended  for  the  beasts  of  burden  or  vehicles. 
Some  were  in  two  storeys,  the  rooms  above 
opening  upon  galleries  running  all  round. 
Neither  the  upper  nor  lower  apartments  had 
any  sort  of  furniture,  unless  a  raised  platform 
for  sleeping  on  could  be  so  called,  nor  was 
food  prepared  for  travellers.  But  a  sort  of 
caretaker  was  sometimes  attached  to  the  inn, 
who  would  for  payment  provide  necessaries. 
An  instance  of  this  occurs  in  the  story  of  the 
Good  Samaritan  (Lk.  10.35).  It  was  at  such 
an  inn  that  Moses  stopped  when  on  his  way 
back  to  Egypt  from  Midian  (Ex.  4.24) ;  Joseph's 
brethren  also  had  halted  at  such  a  place,  making 
final  preparations  for  their  long  caravan  journey 
home,  when  they  discovered  that  the  purchase- 
money  had  been  placed  in  their  sacks  (Gen. 
42.27). 

In  the  larger  inns  the  arched  openings  gave 
access  to  suites  of  two  rooms,  the  inner  one 
serving  the  double  purpose  of  greater  privacy 
and  the  safer  storage  of  goods.  Many  inns  also 
had  stabling  apart  from  the  central  enclosure, 
and  it  was  in  some  such  place  that  Mary  gave 
birth  to  our  Lord  (Lk.  2.7). 

Inspiration. — From  in  spiro,  to  "  breathe 
in,"  applied  in  Scripture  (1)  to  God  as  the  Author 
of  man's  intelligence  (Job  32.8)  and  (2)  to 
Scripture  itself,  as  "  inspired  of  God  "  (2  Tim. 
3.16,  R.V.).  In  the  latter  passage,  it  clearly 
denotes  some  action  of  God  in  the  provision  and 
conveyance  of  His  revelation  to  man.  While 
primarily  spoken  of  the  O.T.  the  term  may 
rightly  be  extended  to  the  N.T.  also  as  part  of 
the  literature  which  is  regarded  as  Scripture. 
The  word  means  "  God-breathed,"  and  in- 
dicates that  primary  and  fundamental  quality 
which  gives  Scripture  its  character  of  authorita- 
tiveness  over  spiritual  life,  and  makes  it  profit- 
able for  the  various  aspects  of  human  need. 

What  inspiration  is  can  best  be  gathered  from 
the  claim  of  Scripture  itself.  O.T.  prophets 
claim  to  speak  as  God  gave  them  their  messages. 
The  N.T.  claims  this  quality  of  Divine  authority 
for  the  O.T.  In  harmony  with  this,  Scripture  is 
everywhere  spoken  of  as  "  the  Word  of  God." 


INSPIRATION] 


218 


[INSPIRATION 


Such  titles  as  "the  Scriptures"  and  "the 
oracles  of  God  "  (Rom.  3.2),  with  such  phrases 
as  "  it  is  written,"  clearly  involve  this.  Then 
again  the  words  of  Scripture  are  attributed  to 
God  as  their  Author  (Matt.  1.22  ;  Acts  13.34), 
or  to  the  Holy  Spirit  (Acts  1.16;  Heb.  3.7), 
and  the  writers  are  said  to  have  spoken  in  or 
through  the  Holy  Spirit  (Matt.  2.15) ;  and  so 
the  very  words  of  Scripture  are  regarded  as 
Divinely  authoritative  (John  10.34,  35  ;  Gal. 
3.16),  and  its  contents  designed  for  the  spiritual 
use  and  guidance  of  mankind  in  all  ages  (Rom. 
15.4 ;  2  Tim.  3.16).  The  Apostle  Paul  claims 
for  his  words  an  authority  equal  to  that  of 
the  O.T.,  and  as  given  from  God,  while  the 
author  of  the  Apocalypse  quite  evidently 
places  his  message  on  a  level  with  the  older 
scriptures  (Sanday,  Inspiration,  pp.  332,  375). 
The  warrant  for  this  doctrine  of  a  Divine 
authority  enshrined  in  the  Scripture  lies  in  the 
teaching  about  the  Holy  Spirit,  who  is  promised 
as  Teacher  and  Guide  of  the  disciples  of  Christ 
(John  14.26,  16.13). 

It  is  best  to  use  the  term  "  revelation  "  of 
the  subject-matter  of  the  message,  and  the 
word  "  inspiration  "  of  the  method  by  which 
the  message  was  conveyed.  By  the  inspira- 
tion of  Scripture  we  understand  the  com- 
munication of  Divine  truth  in  some  way  unique 
in  degree  and  kind.  As  the  apostles  were 
inspired  to  teach  orally,  we  cannot  think  their 
inspiration  left  them  when  they  had  to  write. 
We  may  therefore  regard  inspiration  as  a  special 
gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit  by  which  the  prophets 
of  the  O.T.  and  the  apostles  and  their  com- 
panions in  the  N.T.  transmitted  the  revela- 
tion of  God  as  they  received  it.  All  the 
available  facts  go  to  show  that  there  was  a 
unique  manifestation  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in 
the  Apostolic  age.  A  comparison  of  the  works 
of  the  second  century  with  the  Books  of  the 
N.T.  reveals  the  fundamental  difference  between 
the  work  of  the  Spirit  of  God  in  each  age, 
between  the  Spirit  of  Inspiration  and  the 
Spirit  of  Illumination. 

The  fact  of  a  unique  inspiration  in  Scripture 
is  clear.  But  how  far  did  this  inspiration 
extend  ?  Revelation  is  the  record  of  God's 
thoughts  for  man's  life.  If  the  Divine  will  is 
to  be  known  and  handed  down  to  generations, 
it  must  be  embodied  in  words,  and,  to  be  sure 
of  the  thoughts,  we  ought  to  be  sure  of  the  words. 
Inspiration  must  therefore  extend  to  language. 
In  2  Pet.  1.21,  the  men,  and  in  2  Tim.  3.16,  the 
writings,  are  said  to  be  inspired,  and  we  cannot 
be  content  to  say  the  men,  and  not  the  writings, 
are  inspired,  for  the  personal  inspiration  must 
necessarily  express  itself  in  writing,  if  it  is  to 
be  perpetuated.  Life  extends  to  every  part 
of  the  body,  and  we  cannot  really  distinguish 
between  spirit  and  form,  between  substance 
and  mould. 

And  yet  the  term  "  Verbal  Inspiration  " 
needs  to  be  carefully  stated  and  guarded  from 
misconception.  The  possibility  of  misunder- 
standing makes  many  Christians  prefer  the 


term  "  Plenary  Inspiration."  Verbal  Inspira- 
tion does  not  mean  mechanical  dictation, 
as  if  the  writers  were  only  passive  ;  dictation 
is  not  inspiration.  Verbal  Inspiration  states 
how  far  inspiration  has  gone,  that  it  extends  to 
form  as  well  as  to  substance.  It  tells  the 
"  what,"  not  the  "  how,"  and  gives  no  theory 
as  to  the  method  of  the  Spirit's  working,  but 
only  defines  the  result.  Inspiration  is  a  com- 
bination of  Divine  power  and  human  instru- 
mentality. God  made  use  of  the  natural 
characteristics  of  individual  writers,  and  by  a 
special  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit  enabled  them  to 
communicate  in  writing  His  will  for  man. 
We  observe  this  association  of  the  Divine  and 
human  in  such  passages  as  Matt.  1.22,  2.15  ; 
Acts  1.16,  3.18,  4.25,  where  the  Divine  source 
and  the  human  channel  are  clearly  distinguished. 
The  true  view  of  human  inspiration  imph'es  a 
concurrence  of  the  Divine  and  human  elements. 
The  operation  of  the  Holy  Spirit  was  joined 
with  the  mental  activity  of  the  writer,  work- 
ing through  it  and  guiding  it.  Though  we 
cannot  explain  the  mode,  we  know  its  results. 
This  view  of  inspiration,  of  course,  refers  only 
to  the  books  as  they  came  from  the  hands  of  the 
original  writers.  The  original  manuscripts 
have  not  been  preserved,  and  hence  we  need  the 
help  of  minute  textual  criticism,  so  as  to  reach 
back  as  near  as  possible  to  the  time  and  cir- 
cumstances of  the  originals. 

This  view  of  inspiration  may  be  justified 
by  the  following  considerations : — (a)  The 
use  of  the  Bible  to-day  in  the  life  and  work 
of  the  Christian  Church,  with  its  authoritative 
emphasis  on  verbal  teaching.  (b)  Scholarly 
minute  exegesis  in  all  ages,  and  more  especially 
to-day,  (c)  The  appeal  to  the  Bible  in  all 
matters  of  controversy,  (d)  The  belief  on 
this  point  in  the  apostolic  and  sub-apostolic 
ages  (Westcott,  Introduction  to  Gospels,  Appen- 
dix B.).  (e)  The  use  of  the  O.T.  by  N.T.  writers  ; 
e.g.  284  quotations  and  phrases  like  "  it  is 
written."  (/)  Our  Lord's  endorsement  of  the  O.T., 
e.g.  John  10.30-36.  (g)  The  claim  of  prophets 
and  apostles  to  inspiration,  2  Sam.  23.2 ;  Jer. 
36.4-8;  1  Cor.  2.13,  14.37.  It  is  impossible 
to  limit  inspiration  to  doctrine,  and  to 
regard  the  history  as  subject  to  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances, for  doctrine  and  history  are  so 
joined  as  to  be  inseparable.  Christ's  own 
revelation  is  that  of  a  historical  Person,  and  the 
facts  and  doctrines  concerning  Him  are  in- 
separable, the  latter  arising  out  of  the  former. 
And  the  N.T.  says  that  the  O.T.  history 
is  inspired,  and  written  for  our  learning 
(Rom.  4.23,  24,  15.4  ;  1  Cor.  10.6,  11). 

But  we  must  be  very  careful  in  our  use  of 
the  word  "  inspiration/'  for  it  is  capable  of 
several  distinct  meanings  : — (a)  There  is  the 
inspiration  involved  in  a  direct  communication 
of  truth  from  God  (1  Cor.  11.23).  (b)  There 
is  the  inspiration  involved  in  a  selection  out  of 
wider  and  fuller  materials  (Lk.  1.1-4 ;  John 
20.30,  31).  (c)  There  is  the  inspiration  which 
guarantees  merely  an  accurate  record,  without 


10B] 


219 


[ISAAC 


any  endorsement  of  what  is  recorded,  e.g.  the 
arguments  of  Job's  friends  and  the  sins  of  God's 
people  are  recorded,  but  not  justified  ;  inspira- 
tion here  only  applies  to  accuracy  of  record. 
(d)  There  is  the  inspiration  of  progressive  re- 
relation.  From  our  Christian  standpoint  not 
every  part  of  the  O.T.  is  of  equal  im- 
portance, though  everything  is  necessary 
in  its  place  and  for  its  purpose.  Revelation 
was  progressive,  and  while  perfect  at  each 
stage  for  that  period,  the  perfection  did  not 
necessarily  extend  beyond  the  particular  stage. 
So  that  O.T.  morality  must  be  judged  from 
the  standpoint  of  each  stage,  and  not  from 
ours  to-day  ;  we  only  accept  if  it  can  be  justified 
from  the  N.T.  level. 

All  this  shows  the  need  of  careful  discrimina- 
tion in  our  use  of  Scripture  and  of  the  idea  of 
inspiration.  If  we  say  that  all  Scripture  is 
inspired,  we  do  not  mean  that  every  word  is 
true  in  itself,  for  the  sentiment  may  be  human, 
while  the  record  is  Divine.  The  Bible  is  in- 
spired, but  it  contains  a  revelation.  All  is  not 
revealed,  but  all  is  inspired.  The  supreme  ques- 
tion in  regard  to  the  Bible  is  not  a  particular 
theory  of  its  inspiration,  but  the  fact  of  its  Divine 
.-iiithority.  If  the  Bible  is  authoritative  for  us, 
it  is  so,  whatever  may  have  been  the  method 
of  inspiration  ;  for  the  fact  of  authority  is 
really  independent  of  all  particular  theories  of 
the  way  in  which  it  came  to  be.  It  is  a  real 
assistance  in  the  study  of  inspiration  to  note 
the  analogy  between  the  Incarnate  Word  and 
the  Written  Word  :  both  are  Divine  and  also 
human,  though  in  each  case  it  is  impossible 
to  say  where  the  Divine  ends  and  the  human 
begins.  Both  are  there,  real  and  inseparable, 
so  that,  whether  of  Christ  or  of  the  Bible,  it  may 
be  said  that  all  is  perfectly  human  and  all  is 
absolutely  Divine. 

lob.— [JOB  2.] 

Iphedei'ah. — Jehovah  redeems  :  a  chief  of  the 
tribe  of  Benjamin,  who  lived  in  Jerusalem  (1  Ch. 
8.25). 

Iphtah.— [JIPHTAH.] 

Iphtah-el.— [  JIPHTH  AH-EL.] 

Ir. —  Watchman  :  a  Benjamite  named  in  1  Ch. 

7.12.       [IRL] 

I'ra. — Watcher  :  1.  A  priest  who  was  also  one 
of  David's  officers  (2  Sam.  20.26).  2.  One  of 
David's  guard  (2  Sam.  23.38).  3.  Another  of 
David's  guard  (2  Sam.  23.26  ;  1  Ch.  11.28,  27.9). 

I'rad.— The  son  of  Enoch  and  grandson  of 
Cain  (Gen.  4.18). 

I'ram.— A  chief  man  or  duke  of  Edom  (Gen. 
36.40-43).  [EDOM.] 

I'ri. — My  watcher  :  a  Benjamite,  son  of  Bela 
(1  Ch.  7.7).  In  ver.  12,  Ir. 

Iri'jah. — Whom  Jehovah  sees  :  a  captain  of  the 
guard  who  accused  Jeremiah  of  the  intention 
to  desert  to  the  Chaldeans  (Jer.  37.13,  14). 

Ir-naTiash. — The  name  either  of  a  descendant 
of  Chelub,  or  of  a  city  (1  Ch.  4.12;  see  marg.). 

I'ron. — A  town  of  Naphtali,  mentioned  in 
Josh.  19.38,  between  Enhazorand  Migdalel :  the 
modern  Yariin. 


Iron. — The  first  mention  of  iron  in  the  Bible 
is  in  Gen.  4.22,  where  Tubal-cain  is  cited  as  the 
forger  of  cutting  instruments  of  brass  and  iron. 
That  the  Assyrians  used  the  metal  to  a  large 
extent  has  been  shown  by  the  explorer  Layard, 
who  found  saws  and  knive?  in  the  ruins  of 
Nineveh.  Also  the  smelting  of  iron  has  been 
found  pictured  on  Egyptian  sculptures,  and  the 
use  of  the  bellows  shown  to  have  been  known  at 
least  1500  B.C.  In  addition,  iron  bands  have  been 
found  binding  the  inner  courses  of  the  Pyramids. 
Thus  the  knowledge  of  working  in  iron  is  very 
ancient,  though  we  do  not  find  that  Moses  made 
use  of  it  in  erecting  the  Tabernacle,  or  Solomon 
in  any  part  of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem.  Yet  in 
the  Pentateuch  we  find  references  to  its  great 
hardness  (Lev.  26.19  ;  Deut.  28.23,  48) ;  to  the 
iron  bedstead  of  Og,  king  of  Bashan  (Deut.  3.11 ) ; 
to  mines  of  iron  (Deut.  8.9) ;  while  the  severity  of 
the  servitude  of  the  Israelites  in  Egypt  is  com- 
pared to  the  heat  of  a  furnace  for  melting  iron 
(Deut.  4.20).  We  find  also  that  swords  (Num. 
35.16),  axes  (Deut.  19.5),  and  stone-dressing 
tools  (Deut.  27.5)  were  made  of  iron.  The 
"  northern  iron  "  (Jer.  15.12)  was  perhaps  the 
hardened  iron  produced  in  the  borders  of  the 
Euxine  Sea  by  the  people  there,  who  are  said  to 
have  discovered  the  art  of  tempering  steel. 

Iron  is  used  figuratively,  as  a  symbol  of 
strength  ( Job  40.18),  of  affliction  (Ps.  107.10),  etc. 

Irpe'el. — God  heals  :  a  city  of  Benjamin,  of 
which  no  trace  remains  (Josh.  18.27). 

Ir-she'mesh. — City  of  the  sun  :  a  town  of  Dan 
(Josh.  19.41 ),  the  same  as  Bethshemesh,  which  see. 

I'ru. — The  eldest  son  of  Caleb,  son  of 
Jephunneh  (1  Ch.  4.15). 

Isaac. — Laughter  :  the  son  of  Abraham  and 
Sarah.  His  name  was  given  to  him  by  his 
mother,  because  when  it  was  told  her  by  an 
angel  sent  from  God  that  she  should  have  a  son, 
although  she  had  long  passed  the  usual  age  of 
child-bearing,  she  laughed  to  herself  (Gen. 
18.10-12).  When  the  child  was  born,  she  said, 
"  God  hath  made  me  to  laugh  "  (Gen.  21.6).  The 
birth  of  Isaac  was  the  subject  of  various  pro- 
phecies and  promises.  It  was  delayed  by  God 
until  Abraham  and  Sarah  were  both  old,  to  try 
their  faith  and  to  make  it  more  evident  that  the 
child  was  the  gift  of  God,  the  child  of  promise 
(Gen.  17.19).  Isaac  was  born  at  Gerar  (which  see) 
when  his  father  was  100  years  of  age.  At  the 
age  of  twelve  he  was  subjected  to  ridicule  by  his 
half-brother,  Ishmael  (Gen.  21.9),  and  later  was 
about  to  be  sacrificed  by  his  father  when  God 
interposed  (Gen.  22.6-19).  He  married  when  he 
was  forty,  and  had  two  sons,  Jacob  and  Esau,  by 
his  wife  Rebekah,  who  was  also  his  cousin.  He 
was  half-way  through  his  long  life  when  famine 
drove  him  to  Gerar,  where  God  appeared  to  him 
and  forbade  him  to  go  into  Egypt.  It  was  at 
this  place  also  that  he  repeated  the  mistake  of 
Abraham,  and  subjected  himself  to  the  censure 
of  Abimelech  for  falsely  declaring  his  wife  to  be 
his  sister  (Gen.  26.7).  Having  become  rich  in 
spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  Philistines,  he  built 
an  altar  to  Jehovah  at  Beershcba.  When  his. 


ISAIAH] 


220 


[ISAIAH,  BOOK  OF 


son  Jacob  had  deceitfully  obtained  his  blessing 
he  sent  him  away  to  Padan-aram  (Gen.]  28.5), 
from  whence  in  after  years  he  saw  him  return 
prosperous  and  with  a  numerous  family.  He 
lived  to  be  180,  and  was  buried  at  Machpelah  by 
his  sons,  in  the  same  cave  where  he  and  Ishmael 
had  many  years  previously  buried  Abraham. 
[ABRAHAM,  JACOB,  AND  ESAU.] 

Isai'ah. — Salvation  of  Jehovah :  Isaiah  is 
justly  called  the  "  greatest  of  the  prophets. " 
But  he  was  statesman  as  well  as  prophet,  and 
took  an  active  part  in  public  affairs  during  the 
reigns  of  Uzziah,  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah. 
Of  the  prophet's  father,  Amoz  (1.1,  2.1),  nothing 
is  known.  Uncertain  also  is  the  tradition 
that  Isaiah  was  executed  by  Manasseh  by  being 
sawn  asunder  for  tampering  with  the  Mosaic  law. 
He  was  married,  and  he  calls  his  wife  "  Pro- 
phetess "  (Isai.  8.3).  Of  his  two  sons  we  know 
nothing  except  their  symbolic  names,  Shear- 
jashub  and  Maher-shalal-hash-baz  (which  see) 
(Isai.  7.3,  8.3,  4).  He  must  have  exercised  the 
office  of  prophet  during  a  long  period  of  time  ; 
for  the  lowest  computation,  beginning  from  the 
year  in  which  Uzziah  died  (c.  740  B.C.  ;  Isai.  6.1) 
to  the  year  of  the  deliverance  of  Jerusalem  from 
Sennacherib  (701  B.C.),  when  he  disappears  from 
the  history,  gives  a  ministry  of  forty  years. 
Contemporary  with  Isaiah  were  the  prophets 
Hosea  and  Micah. 

Besides  the  Book  of  Isaiah  we  learn  from 
2  Ch.  26.22  that  the  prophet  wrote  an  account 
of "  the  acts  of  Uzziah."  This  has  perished,  with 
other  writings  of  the  prophet. 

The  life  of  Isaiah  is  closely  bound  up  with  the 
histories  of  Samaria  and  Judah,  but  chiefly  the 
latter,  and  must  be  studied  in  this  connexion. 

Isaiah,  Book  of. — The  authorship  of  this  Book 
has  given  rise  to  a  controversy  which  has  accumu- 
lated a  large  literature  of  its  own.  The  Book 
falls  into  two  parts— (1)  Chaps.  1-39,  and  (2) 
chaps.  40-end.  While  the  first  part  is  generally 
ascribed  to  Isaiah,  the  second  is  by  most  scholars 
attributed  to  an  unknown  prophet  or  prophets. 
It  will  suffice  to  indicate  the  general  grounds 
upon  which  a  second  Isaiah  is  presumed,  and 
to  state  some  of  the  reasons  given  for  holding 
that  Isaiah  was  the  author  of  both  parts. 

Those  who  demand  a  Second  Isaiah  point  out 
that,  whereas  the  earlier  part  of  the  Book  con- 
tains a  series  of  detached  prophecies,  the  later 
is  mostly  a  continuous  and  lofty  poem,  the 
style  of  which  differs  in  many  respects  from 
that  of  the  former  ;  that  this  latter  portion  is 
distinguished  by  Aramaisms,  by  characteristic 
phrases  never  found  in  the  earlier  part,  and  by 
other  peculiarities  of  style,  from  the  genuine 
writings  of  Isaiah  ;  that  the  standpoint  of  the 
prophet  is  altogether  changed,  more  than  a 
hundred  and  fifty  years  being  overleaped,  and 
that  the  circumstances  of  the  writer  and  of 
those  whom  he  addresses,  as  well  as  his 
message,  appear  to  belong  to  the  latter  days 
of  the  Captivity. 

In  reply,  those  who  defend  the  unity  of  the 
Book  urge  that — 


1.  Traces  of  Aramaic  in  the  style  would  not 
be  surprising,  as  it  is  evident  that  the  public 
functionaries   of   Hezekiah's    court    were    well 
acquainted  with  that  language  (see  2  K.  18.26). 
But,  in  fact,  the  number  of  proved  Aramaisms  in 
the  Book  is  insignificant,  and   of  these,  some 
occur  in  the  portions  allowed  to  be  Isaiah's. 

2.  The  alleged  diversity  of  style  is  not  greater 
than  is  often  found  to  exist  between  the  earlier 
and  the  later  writings  of  the  same  author.     On 
the  other  hand,  there  is  throughout  an  essential 
similarity  in  that  energy  and  sublimity  which 
have  always  been  regarded  as  characteristic  of 
Isaiah.     In   these   respects   the  later  chapters 
certainly  are  not  inferior  to  the  former.     There 
are  also  in  both  parts  of  the  Book  some  char- 
acteristic expressions,  such  as  would  naturally 
be  repeated  by  the  same  writer,  e.g.  "  the  Holy 
One  of  Israel,"  as  a  name  of  God.     This  occurs 
fourteen  times  in  the  earlier  and  fifteen  times  in 
the  later  prophecies,  though  scarcely  met  with 
elsewhere  (only  in  the  parallel  text  in  Kings, 
thrice  in  the  Psalms,  and  twice  in  Jeremiah). 

3.  Ancient  Jewish  tradition  regards  the  Book 
without  question  as  one.     See  Ecclus.  48.22-25. 
This  was  about  200  years  B.C.     The  Septuagint 
also  contains  the  Book  as  an  undivided  whole. 
Josephus    (Ant.     11.1)    speaks    of    the    latter 
portion  of  the  Book  as  by  Isaiah. 

4.  The  unity  of  the  Book  is  implied  by  our 
Lord  and  His  Apostles,  who  quote  Isaiah  more 
frequently  than  any  other  prophet,  and  expressly 
attribute  to  him  passages  from  chaps.  1,  6,  9, 10, 
11,  29,  40,  42,  53,  61,  65.  It  was  "  the  Book  of  the 
Prophet  Isaiah  "  which  was  delivered  to  our  Lord 
in  the  synagogue  at  Nazareth,  when  He  opened 
it  and  read  the  passage  which  we  find  in  61.1-3  : 
see  Lk.  4.17.     From  "  Isaiah  the  prophet,"  also, 
the  Ethiopian  traveller  was  reading  in  the  wilder- 
ness, again  from  the  second  part  (Acts  8.28). 

5.  The  argument  against  the  early  date  of  the 
later  prophecies  against  Babylon,  would   also 
invalidate  some  earlier  portions  of  the  Book. 
In  fact,  the  chief  advocates  of  the  double  author- 
ship are  compelled  by  their  theory  to  deny  the 
genuineness  of  at  least  13.2-14,  and  even   of 
24-27. 

6.  There  are  passages  in  this  latter  portion, 
descriptive  of  national  sins  and  calamities,  which 
are  most  naturally  applicable  to  the  time  when 
the  Jews  were  still  a  people,  it  being  impossible 
to    refer    them,    without  greatly   forcing   their 
meaning,    to    the    nation    in    its   captive    and 
scattered  state  :  see  especially  57,  59.1-15. 

7.  The  scenery  and  natural  objects  described 
in  this  portion   are   those   of   Palestine  rather 
than  of  Babylonia.     The  writer  is  familiar  with 
rocks,  mountains,  and  forests  ;  the  horizon  of  his 
view  extends  to  the  sea  and  its  islands  ;  the 
flocks  are  those  of  Kedar,  the  rams  those  of 
Nebaioth,  the  trees  are  the  cedar  and  the  acacia, 
the  pine  and  the  box.     Everything  speaks  of  the 
highland  home  of  the  Jews,  not  of  their  place 
of  exile  in  the  great  Euphrates  valley  ;  and  the 
local  colouring,  so  far  as  it  goes,  seems  to  indi- 
cate a  Jud-jean  authorship. 


ISCAH] 


221 


[ISHMAEL 


But  it  is  usual  among  modern  scholars  to  at- 
tribute the  chapters (56-66)from  which  the  argu- 
ments numbered  6  and  7  are  derived  to  an  author, 
or  authors,  different  from  "  the  Second  Isaiah." 

The  Contents  of  the  Book  may  be  divided  into 
seven  sections  as  follows  : — 

(1)  Chaps.    1-6.     Discourses    of    a    general 
character,  chiefly  in  the  prosperous  but  luxurious 
times  of  Uzziah  and  Jotham  ;  denouncing  the 
sins  of  the  people,   with  some  intimations  of 
Divine  mercy.     Chap.  6  relates  the  prophet's 
call  by  Jehovah,  as  the  warrant  for  his  threats 
and  promises. 

(2)  Chaps.   7-12.     The  Book  of  Immanuel— 
Prophecies    connected    with    the    invasion    of 
Judah  by  the  combined   forces  of  Israel  and 
Syria,    and    the   subsequent    invasions   of   the 
Assyrians  ;  comprising  warnings  to  Ahaz  against 
courting  their  alliance,  and  predictions  of  their 
inroads,  and  of  the  overthrow  of  their  hosts  ; 
with  promises  of  a  greater  salvation. 

(3)  Chaps.  13-23.    The  Book  of  the  Burdens.— 
Woes  denounced  against  various  nations  hostile 
to  God  and  His  people.     In  these  even  Jerusalem 
and  a  high  officer  of  the  royal  palace  are  included 
(22) ;  for  they  were  infected  with  the  sins  of  the 
heathen. 

(4)  Chaps.  24-27.   The  Apocalypse  of  Isaiah.— 
A  general  view  of  all  these  Divine  dealings  of 
judgment  and  mercy,  showing  their  purposes 
and  results. 

(5)  Chaps.  28-35.    Prophecies,  chiefly  of  the 
time  of  Hezekiah,  denouncing  the  sins  of  Israel 
and  Judah,  but  promising  mercy,  and  turning 
the  burden  of  woe  upon  their  oppressors. 

(6)  Chaps.    36-39.     A   narrative    of   Senna- 
cherib's invasion  and  his  overthrow,  illustrating 
the  foregoing  prophecies  ;  and  another  narrative 
of  Hezekiah's  vanity,  and  a  consequent  threaten- 
ing of  punishment,  preparatory  to  the  consolatory 
portion  which  follows. 

(7)  Chaps.    40-66.    The    Great    Prophecy   of 
Israel's   Restoration. — A   lengthened    disclosure 
of  God's  purposes  of  mercy  to  His  true  Israel, 
especially  in  deliverance  from  the  Babylonian 
captivity.     This  is,  for  the  most  part,  one  con- 
tinuous prophecy  ;  but  it  may  be  divided  into 
three    sections,     (a)    Chaps.    40-50    contain  a 
vindication  of  the  Deity  of  Jehovah,  who  is  about 
to  manifest  Himself  as  the  righteous  Saviour  of 
His  people,     (b)  Chaps.  51-56.8  announce  and 
describe  this  manifestation  in  the  Messiah,  and 
the   glorious  result  of   His  work.      (c)  Chaps. 
56.9-66  exhibit    more    largely  these  results,  in 
the  superiority  of  the  Church  of  Christ  over  the 
ancient  national  Israel  in  its  character,  privileges, 
and  destinies. 

Quotations  in  the  N.T.  are  numerous,  more 
especially  from  Isai.  53,  which  deals  with  the 
suffering  Servant  of  Jehovah  :  the  Saviour  from 
sin  and  sorrow.  This  chapter  is  almost  repro- 
duced in  the  N.T.,  applied  at  every  point  to 
Christ.  Compare  ver.  4  with  Matt.  8.17  ;  vers. 
5,  6  with  1  Pet.  2.24,  25 ;  vers.  7,  8  with  Acts 
8.32,  33 ;  ver.  9  with  1  Pet.  2.22  ;  ver.  12  with 
Mk.  15.28  ;  Lk.  22.37  ;  Heb.  9.28. 


Is'cah. — The  daughter  of  Haran  and  the  sister 
of  Milcah  and  Lot.  Jewish  tradition  identifies 
her  with  Sarai  (Gen.  11.29). 

Isca'riot.—  Man  of  Kerioth.  [ JUDAS  ISCARIOT.] 

Ish'bah.— The  father  of  Eshtemoa  (1  Ch.  4.17). 

Ish'bak. — A  son  of  Abraham  by  Keturah. 
He  founded  a  tribe  in  northern  Arabia,  whose 
settlements  cannot  now  he  traced  (Gen.  25.2). 

Ish'bi-Ben'ob.— A  Philistine  giant  who  at- 
tacked David  and  was  slain  by  Abishai  (2  Sam 
21.16,  17). 

Ishbo'sheth.  —  The  man  of  shame :  his 
original  name  was  Esh-baal,  as  given  in  1  Ch. 
8.33,  9.39;  but  the  word  baal  (=  master,  lord), 
harmless  in  itself,  became  so  associated  with 
idolatry  that  names  containing  it  were  changed  by 
later  writers,  and  bosheth  (shame,  thing  of  shame) 
substituted.  So  Meribbaal  =  Mephibosheth, 
Jerubbaal  =  Jerubbesheth.  [BAAL,  Ism.]  He 
was  Saul's  youngest  son  and  successor  on  the 
throne  of  Israel.  At  the  death  of  Saul,  Abner,  his 
kinsman  and  ablest  general,  so  managed  that  Ish- 
bosheth  was  acknowledged  king  at  Mahanaim 
by  the  greater  part  of  Israel  (2  Sam.  2.8),  while 
David  reigned  at  Hebron  over  Judah.  Ish- 
bosheth  was  forty  years  old  when  he  ascended 
the  throne.  For  two  years  he  reigned  peacefully, 
but  then  troublous  times  set  in.  There  was 
continuous  skirmishing  between  his  forces  and 
David's,  which  ended  only  with  his  death.  It 
was  the  defection  of  Abner,  who  was  offended 
because  of  a  false  charge  (2  Sam.  3.7),  that  led 
to  Ishbosheth's  murder,  while  asleep,  and  so  to 
the  extinction  of  Saul's  house  and  the  firm 
establishment  of  David  as  king  over  all  Israel 
and  Judah  (2  Sam.  4).  The  murder  was  carried 
out,  with  revolting  circumstances,  by  two 
desperate  marauders,  who  hoped  to  curry  favour 
with  David  when  they  presented  him  with  the 
head  of  his  enemy.  But  in  this  they  were 
mistaken,  for  they  were  themselves,  for  their 
only  reward,  cruelly  put  to  death  (2  Sam.  4.2-12). 
[ABNER,  BAANAH,  RECHAB.] 

Ishhod.— [ISHOD.] 

I'shi. — My  husband:  a  symbolical  name  by 
which  Hosea  said  God's  people  would  designate 
Him  when  they  returned  to  Him.  The  signi- 
ficance of  the  name  is  in  the  fact  that  it  is  the 
Israelitish  term  for  "  my  man,"  "  my  husband," 
and  was  to  supersede  "  Baali,"  a  Canaanitish 
word  with  the  same  meaning  (Hos.  2.16). 

Ish'i.— 1.  A  descendant  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  2.31). 

2.  Another  descendant  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  4.20). 

3.  A    Simeonite,    one    of    four   wb&_Jefr~  their 
brethren  against  the    Amalekites  (1  Ch.  4.4^>. 

4.  A  leader  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh  (1  Ch.  5.24). 
Ishi'ah.— [ISSHIAH.  ] 

Ishi'jah. — [IssHUAH.] 

Ish'nia. — A  name  (person  or  place)  in  the 
genealogy  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  4.3). 

Ishma'el. — God  hears:  1.  The  son  of  Abraham 
and  Hagar,  the  handmaid  of  Sarah  (Gen. 
16.11-16).  Hagar  had  fled  from  the  anger  of 
Sarah,  when  the  angel  of  the  Lord  appeared  to 
her  and  bade  her  return,  revealing  to  her  that  she 
should  bear  a  son  to  Abraham  who  should  be 


ISHMAELITE,  ISHMEELITE] 


222 


[ISRAEL,  KINGDOM  OF 


called  Ishmael.  It  was  also  declared  that  he 
would  be  a  wild,  fierce  man  "  whose  hand  shall 
be  against  all  men,  and  the  hands  of  all  men 
against  him."  Obeying  the  command,  Hagar 
returned  and  bore  Ishmael,  just  thirteen  years 
before  the  birth  of  Isaac. 

Two  years  later,  Sarah,  angered  at  the  mockery 
of  Ishmael,  induced  Abraham  to  expel  both  him 
and  his  mother  (Gen.  21.14).  Hagar  and  Ish- 
mael wandered  in  the  wilderness  of  Beersheba, 
being  miraculously  delivered  when  reduced  to 
the  uttermost  extremity  ;  receiving  the  promise 
of  God  that  He  would  make  Ishmael  the  father 
of  a  great  nation.  The  mother  and  child  abode 
in  the  wilderness  of  Paran,  where  Ishmael  became 
an  expert  archer,  inured  to  fatigue  and  priva- 
tion. Here  his  mother  married  him  to  an 
Egyptian  woman,  by  whom  he  had  twelve  sons 
(Gen.  25.13)  and  a  daughter,  Mahalath  or 
Bashemath,  who  married  Esau  (Gen.  28.9, 
36.3).  The  descendants  of  the  twelve  sons  of 
Ishmael  formed  twelve  tribes  of  Arabians,  some 
of  their  names  subsisting  to  the  present  day.  It 
is  interesting  to  note  in  this  connexion  that 
Mohammed  claimed  direct  descent  from 
Ishmael.  As  Ishmael  had  been  present,  with 
all  the  other  sons  of  the  Patriarch,  at  the  burial 
of  Abraham,  so  he  himself  was  buried  in  the 
presence  of  all  his  brethren  (Gen.  25.18). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Saul  through  Merib-baal 
(Mephibosheth)  (1  Ch.  8.38,  9.44).  3.  The  father 
of  Zebadiah  (2  Ch.  19.11).  4.  The  son  of 
Jehohanan.  He  assisted  Jehoiada  in  restor- 
ing Joash  to  the  throne  (2  Ch.  23.1).  5.  A 
priest  of  the  time  ^f  Ezra.  He  was  one  of 
those  forced  to  give  up  their  foreign  wives 
(Ezra  10.22).  6.  Son  of  Nethaniah,  and 
murderer  of  Gedaliah.  This  Ishmael  seems  to 
have  had  royal  blood  in  his  veins  (Jer.  41.1),  but 
whether  he  was  an  actual  son  of  a  king  of  Judah, 
or  was  merely  the  son  of  a  secondary  wife,  it  is 
impossible  to  tell.  His  vile  plot  and  the  fiendish 
manner  in  which  it  was  carried  out  is  recorded 
in  2  K.  25.23-25  ;  Jer.  40.8-16,  41.1-18.  Ishmael 
and  his  party,  with  their  immense  booty,  were 
pursued  and  overcome  by  Johanan.  But  with 
a  remnant  of  his  company  Ishmael  escaped  to 
the  Ammonites,  and  thus  passed  out  of  Bible 
history.  [GEDALIAH.] 

Ishmaelite,  Ishmeelite.  —  Descendant  of 
Ishmael  (Gen.  37.25  ;  Ps.  83.6). 

Ishma'iah.  —  Jehovah  hears :  1.  One  of 
David's  thirty  mighty  men  (1  Ch.  12.4 ;  A.V. 
Ismaiah).  2.  A  chief  of  Zebulun  in  David's 
reign  (1  Ch.  27.19). 

Ish'merai. — Jehovah  keeps :  a  Benjamite  of 
the  family  of  Elpaal  (1  Ch.  8.18). 

Ish'od  (R.V.  Ishhod). — Man  of  glory  :  an  im- 
portant man  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh,  described 
as  the  son  of  Hammoleketh  or  "  the  queen  " 
(1  Ch.  7.18). 

Ishpah. — [ISPAH.] 

Ishpan.— A  chief  in  Benjamin  (1  Ch.  8.22). 

Ish-sechel. — -4  man  of  discretion  (Ezra  8.18, 
R.V.  nrirg.). 

Ishtob.—  (2  Sam.  10.6,8;  K.V.themon  of  Tot). 


Ishuah,  Isuah.— [ 

Ishui,  Ishuai.— [IsHvi.] 

Ishvah.— Son  of  Asher  (Gen.  46.17,  A.V. 
Ishuah ;  1  Ch.  7.30,  A.V.  Isuah). 

Ishvi.— 1.  Son  of  Asher  (Gen.  46.17,  A.V.  Isui ; 
1  Ch.  7.30,  A.V.  Ishuai).  Hence  Ishvites  (Num. 
26.44,  R.V.)  2.  Second  son  of  Saul  and  Ahi- 
noam  (1  Sam.  14.49,  A.V.  Ishui). 

Island,  Isle. — The  Heb.  word  so  rendered  in 
A.V.  means  rather  habitable  land,  settlement, 
generally  implying  distant  lands.  Thus  in 
Gen.  10.5  "  the  isles  of  the  nations  "  includes  the 
coastlands  as  well  as  the  islands  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea :  in  Ezek.  26,  27  the  isles  are  the 
distant  countries  traded  with  by  Tyre,  east  and 
west,  perhaps  including  even  East  Africa  and 
India  (27.15).  The  R.V.  frequently  gives  marg. 
coastland,  and  where  the  reference  is  clearly  to  the 
seaboard  of  Canaan  substitutes  coastland  in  the 
text  (Isai.  20.6).  The  "  isles  of  the  sea  "  are 
generally  the  islands  and  coasts  of  the  west 
Mediterranean.  In  Job  22.30  "  the  island  of 
the  innocent  "  appears  to  be  a  mistranslation  for 
"  him  that  is  not  innocent "  (so  R.V. ;  cf.  marg.). 

Ismachi'ah. — Jehovah  supports  :  an  overseer 
at  the  Temple  (2  Ch.  31.13). 

Ismai'ah. — Jehovah  hears.     [!SHMAIAH  1.] 

Ispah  (R.V.  Ishpah). — A  Benjamite  and  a 
chief  man  of  his  tribe  (1  Ch.  8.16). 

Is'rael. — God  strives  (?) :  this  was  the  new  name 
given  to  Jacob  on  his  demanding  a  blessing  when 
he  had  wrestled  with  the  Angel  of  the  Lord 
(Gen.  32.28 ;  Eos.  12.4)  at  Mahanaim  ;  after- 
wards used  interchangeably  with  Jacob,  though 
less  frequently.  The  name  was  also  used  to 
designate  his  family  and  their  descendants,  until, 
at  the  time  of  the  exodus  from  the  bondage  of 
Egypt  it  became  the  uniting  name  of  the  whole 
of  the  twelve  tribes  (Ex.  3.16).  Later  on,  how- 
ever, we  find  the  tribe  of  Judah  excluded  from 
the  nation  of  Israel  (1  Sam.  11.8  ;  1  K.  12.16), 
which  from  the  time  when  ten  tribes  revolted 
from  Rehoboam  became  the  northern  kingdom 
(the  southern  kingdom  of  Judah  including  Judah 
and  Benjamin,  with  parts  of  Dan  and  Simeon), 
until  the  return  of  the  captives  from  Babylon. 
These  again  appropriated  the  name  Israel, 
though  as  a  matter  of  fact  they  were  mostly 
Judaeans.  In  N.T.  times  the  people  of  all  the 
tribes  were  generally  known  as  Jews. 

Israelites. — The  descendants  of  Jacob  or 
Israel.  In  the  N.T.  the  ordinary  national  name 
is  Jew.  Israelite  is  a  term  of  special  dignity, 
"  a  member  of  the  theocracy  and  heir  of  the 
promises  "  (John  1.47  ;  Rom.  9.4,  11.1  ;  2  Cor. 
11.22).  [HEBREW,  JEW.] 

Israel,  Kingdom  oL — With  the  reign  of 
Solomon  ended  the  glory  of  united  Israel.  The 
kingdom  was  thenceforth  dismembered,  the 
immediate  cause  being  the  folly  of  Rehoboam 
(1  K.  12),  although  there  had  been  much  dis- 
affection, owing  in  great  measure  to  the 
enormous  pressure  of  the  taxation  needful  to 
maintain  the  royal  state.  Ten  tribes,  of  which 
Ephraim  was  chief,  separated  from  the  rest,  and 
formed  the  kingdom  of  Israel ;  Judah,  with  which 


ISRAEL,  KINGDOM  OF] 


223 


[ISSACHAR 


Benjamin  was  now  united,  alone  remained 
faithful  to  the  house  of  David  (1  K.  12.20).  To 
the  kingdom  of  Judah,  however,  most  of  the 
Levites,  and  many  who  feared  God  out  of  all  the 
tribes,  ultimately  adhered  (2  Ch.  11.13-16). 

Jeroboam,  the  first  king  of  Israel,  an  Eph- 
raimite,  was  raised  to  the  throne  with  Divine 
sanction  conveyed  through  the  prophet  Ahijah, 
and  a  conditional  promise  was  given  that  his 
kingdom  should  be  as  David's  (1  K.  11.38). 
But  Jeroboam  (1  K.  12-15)  had  neither  the 
faith  nor  the  obedience  of  David.  To  preserve 
the  independence  of  his  kingdom,  he  appointed 
a  separate  priesthood,  and  established  the 
calf-worship  at  Dan  and  Bethel.  This  system 
of  idolatry  became,  in  one  form  or  another,  part 
of  the  national  religion.  He  himself,  therefore, 
is  branded  in  history  as  "  Jeroboam,  the  son  of 
Nebat,  who  made  Israel  to  sin  "  (1  K.  14.10). 
From  this  time  to  that  of  Hoshea  (2  K.  15.17, 
18),  the  nineteenth  and  last  Israelite  king,  we 
find  no  king  free  from  the  charge  of  general  de- 
pravity. Omri  (1  K.  16),  famous  and  powerful 
among  the  neighbouring  nations,  as  the  monu- 
ments show,  was  in  character  among  the  worst. 
Ahab  (1  K.  16-22),  his  son,  under  the  influence 
of  Jezebel,  his  Sidonian  queen,  introduced  the 
worship  of  the  Phoenician  Baal,  idolatry  of 
deeper  dye  than  that  of  Jeroboam.  Jehu 
(2  K.  9.10),  indeed,  destroyed  the  prophets  of 
Baal,  and  for  his  partial  obedience  was  rewarded 
with  enlarged  temporal  blessing  ;  but  he  "  took 
no  heed  to  walk  in  the  law  of  the  Lord,  for  he 
departed  not  from  the  sin  of  Jeroboam, who  made 
Israel  to  sin."  The  nation  copied  their  kings. 
There  were  a  few  exceptions,  but  it  needed,  in 
Elijah's  days,  a  direct  revelation  to  discover 
them  ;  and  out  of  the  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  whom  Israel  was  composed,  but  7000  are 
mentioned  as  not  having  bowed  the  knee  unto 
Baal  (1  K.  19.18). 

Meantime  Israel  was  not  without  warning. 
Within  fifty  years  appeared  the  prophets  Jehu 
and  Micaiah,  Elijah  and  Elisha  ;  the  two  latter 
working  more  miracles  than  any  prophet  had 
wrought  since  the  days  of  Moses  and  Joshua. 
A  few  years  after  their  ministry  came  Jonah, 
Hosea,  and  Amos.  The  messages  of  these 
prophets  were  confirmed  by  Divine  chastise- 
ments. 

The  ruin  of  the  last  two  kings  was  directly 
traceable  to  the  fatal  policy  of  alliance  with 
heathen  powers.  Pekah  had  sought  the  aid  of 
Rezin,  king  of  Syria,  against  Ahaz,  and  had  at 
first  prevailed.  Ahaz,  imitating  his  rival's 
policy,  applied  for  help  to  Tiglath-pileser  (or 
Pul).  king  of  Assyria.  He  came  and  chastised 
the  Israelites,  carrying  into  Media  the  two  and 
a  half  trans- Jordanic  tribes,  and  making  the  rest 
tributary.  Such  was  the  first  captivity  of 
Israel.  Ten  years  later,  Hoshea  appealed  to 
So,  king  of  Egypt  (probably  Sabaco  the  Ethio- 
pian, founder  of  the  25th  dynasty),  to  assist  him 
in  throwing  off  the  tribute,  Hezekiah  unhappily 
joining  in  the  confederacy.  This  revolt  brought 
up  SIiulmHneser,  son  of  Tiglath-pileser,  with  a 


large  host ;  Samaria  fell  before  the  power  of 
Sargon,  Shalrnaneser's  successor,  and  was 
annexed  to  the  Assyrian  crown.  Then  followed 
the  second  captivity  of  Israel,  completing  the 
depopulation  of  the  land.  Judah  escaped,  the 
army  of  Sennacherib,  son  of  Sargon,  being 
miraculously  destroyed. 

The  conquered  Israelite  territory  was  after- 
wards peopled  by  settlers  from  the  region  of  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates.  They  intermarried  with 
those  of  the  Israelites  who  had  remained,  and 
ultimately  took  the  name  of  Samaritans.  The 
ravages  of  lions  in  the  depopulated  country 
were  attributed  by  them  to  the  anger  of  "  the 
god  of  the  land  "  ;  and  on  their  appeal  to  the 
Assyrian  king,  a  priest  of  Jehovah  was  sent  to 
instruct  them.  At  first  their  religion  was  of  a 
motley  kind,  "  they  feared  Jehovah  and  served 
their  own  gods."  After  the  reforms  by  Josiah, 
however,  which  extended  to  Bethel  and  the 
northern  districts  (2  K.  23.15 ;  2  Ch.  34.6,  7),  the 
people  seem  to  have  submitted  to  the  destruction 
of  their  idols,  and  nominally  to  have  adopted  the 
Israelite  religion.  This  fact,  too,  led  to  further 
complications,  as  the  succeeding  history  shows. 

What  became  of  the  Ten  Tribes  is  not  known. 
Many  of  them  seem  to  have  returned  at  different 
periods  to  their  own  land.  Cyrus  addressed  his 
proclamation  to  all  the  people  of  Jehovah 
(Ezra  1.1-3),  and  some  of  the  rites  connected 
with  the  consecration  of  the  Temple  imply  that 
Ihere  were  present  remnants  of  all  the  tribes  ; 
while  many  Israelites  seem  to  have  been  settled 
in  Galilee  and  Persea  long  before  the  days  of  our 
Lord  (1  Mac.  5.9-23).  The  name  Israelite, 
indeed,  was  no  longer  restricted  to  the  northern 
tribes ;  and  in  N.T.  times  the  old  nationality 
seems  in  a  measure  restored. 

Is'sachar. — The  wage-bringer :  1.  The  fifth  son 
of  Jacob  and  Leah.  We  know  nothing  more  of  his 
life,  except  that  he  had  four  sons,  Tola,  Phuvah, 
Job,  and  Shimron  (Gen.  46.13).  These  sons 
founded  families  of  importance  in  their  tribe, 
the  position  of  which  was  to  the  east  of  the 
Tabernacle  during  the  desert  march  (Num.  2.5). 
With  Judah  and  Zebulun,  Issachar  marched  at 
the  head  of  the  tribes  (Num.  10.15).  The  three 
tribes  had  a  standard  in  common  on  which 
were  inscribed  their  names  and  the  figure 
of  a  lion's  whelp.  Issachar  was  also  one  of  the 
six  tribes  appointed  to  attend  the  ceremony  of 
cursing  and  blessing  on  Mount  Gerizim  (Dent. 
27.12).  Despite  the  disastrous  mortality  at 
Peor  the  tribe  of  Issachar  increased  rapidly 
during  the  march  to  the  Promised  Land,  for  we 
find  that  the  number  of  their  fighting  men, 
which  was  54,400  at  Sinai,  amounted  to  145,600 
at  the  census  of  Joab  (1  Ch.  7.2-5). 

Arriving  at  the  Promised  Land,  the  tribe 
received  as  its  portion  some  of  the  best  and  most 
fertile  parts  along  the  great  plain  or  valley  of 
Jezreel,  with  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh  to  the 
south  of  them,  Zebulun  to  the  north,  while  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  Jordan  formed  respect- 
ively their  western  and  eastern  boundaries 
(Josh.  19 .17-2H).  [CAXAAX.]  After  the  spfllo- 


ISSHIAH] 


224 


[IZZIAH 


ment  the  connexion  between  Judah  and 
char  almost  entirely  ceased,  but  the  brotherly 
bond  with  Zebulun  was  maintained  right  up  to 
the  dispersion.  The  blessing  of  Jacob  evidently 
had  reference  to  the  extreme  fruit.fulness  of 
Issachar's  portion  of  the  Promised  Land, 
"  Issachar  is  a  strong  ass,  couching  down 
between  the  sheepfolds :  and  he  saw  a  resting- 
place  that  it  was  good,  and  the  land  that  it 
was  pleasant,  and  bowed  his  shoulder  to  bear, 
and  became  a  servant  under  task  work " 
(Gen.  49.14,15,  R.V.),  a  graphic  description 
of  a  peaceful  and  well-to-do  agricultural 
people,  happy  in  the  fruitfulness  of  their  land, 
and  willing  to  pay  tribute  to  their  fierce  and 
marauding  neighbours  of  the  north.  In  the 
time  of  David  numbers  of  the  tribe  had  taken 
to  a  life  of  wandering,  and  became  mercenaries 
in  the  pay  of  any  who  desired  their  help  (1  Ch. 
7.1-5).  For  twenty-six  years  Jssacharite  kings 
ruled  Israel.  [BAASHA,  ELAH,  ZIMEI,  CANAAN.] 

2.  A  porter  in  the  Tabernacle  service  during 
David's  reign  (1  Ch.  26.5). 

Isshi'ali. — Man  of  Jehovah  :  1.  The  youngest 
son  of  Izrahiah,  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar 
(1  Ch.  7.3 ;  A.V.  Ishiah).  2.  (1  Ch.  24.21 ;  in 
26.25  Jeshaiah).  3.  (1  Ch.  24.25). 

Issbi'jah.— (Ezra  10.31 ;  A.V.  Ishijah.) 

Italian  Band. — A  band  or  cohort  of  Roman 
soldiers  (properly  =  ^  of  a  legion,  i.e.  about 
600  men)  stationed  at  Caesarea,  Cornelius  being 
one  of  its  (six)  centurions  (Acts  10.1).  The 
"  Italian  Band  "  was  composed  of  natives  of 
Italy,  and  thus  distinguished  from  the  rest  of 
the  Roman  troops,  which  would  be  recruited 
from  provincials. 

Italy.— The  central  state  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  mentioned  four  times  in  the  N.T.  (Acts 
18.2,  27.1,  6  ;  Heb.  13.24). 

Ith'ai. — One  of  David's  mighty  men  (1  Ch. 
11.31).  In  2  Sam.  23.29  he  is  called  Ittai,  which 
see. 

Itha'mar.— The  youngest  son  of  Aaron  (Ex. 
6.23).  With  Eleazar  he  succeeded  Nadab  and 
Abihu  in  the  priesthood  (Ex.  28.1,  38.21).  In 
the  service  of  the  Temple  Ithamar  supervised 
the  transport  and  care  of  the  curtains  and  other 
hangings,  together  with  the  pillars  and  cords 
(Ex.  38.21).  His  descendant  Eli  became  high 
priest,  but  no  other  member  of  the  family  ever 
bore  the  office.  [ELEAZAR,  ELI.] 

Ith'iel.— God  is  with  me  (Neh.  11.7).  2.  One 
of  the  two  men  to  whom  Agur  prophesied 
(Prov.  30.1 ;  but  see  11.  V.  marg.). 

Ithlah.— [  JETHLAH.  ] 

Ithmah. — A  Moabite  and  one  of  David's 
guard  (1  Ch.  11.46). 

Ith'nan. — A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of 
Judah  (Josh.  15.23).  It  was  upon  the  border  of 
the  desert,  but  the  site  is  not  yet  known. 

Ith'ra. — Excellence :  the  father  of  Amasa  and 
brother-in-law  to  David  (2  Sam.  17.25  ;  1  Ch. 
2.17).  In  the  latter  passage  he  is  called  Jether 
the  Ishmaelite. 

Ith'ran.— Excellence :  1.  AHorite  (Gen.  36.26). 
2.  An  Asherite  (1  Ch.  7.37). 


Ithre'am. — David's  sixth  son.  He  was  born 
in  Hebron,  his  mother  being  "  Eglah,  David's 
wife  "  (2  Sam.  3.5  ;  1  Ch.  3.3).  [EGLAH.] 

Ith'rites.— The  name  of  a  family  of  Kirjath- 
jearim  (1  Ch.  2.53)  applied  to  two  of  David's 
mighty  men  (2  Sam.  23.38  ;  1  Ch.  11.40).  In 
these  latter  passages  perhaps  we  should  read 
Jattirite,  i.e.  natives  of  Jattir  (Josh.  15.48, 
21.14  ;  1  Sam.  30.27). 

It'tah-ka'zin  (R.V.  Ethkazin).—  A  place  on 
the  boundary  of  Zebulun  (Josh.  19.13). 

It'tai.— 1.  The  Gittite,  a  native  of  Gath,  who 
had  apparently  been  banished,  and  with  a  band 
of  followers  had  attached  himself  to  David 
(2  Sam.  15.18,  19  :  the  "  after  him  "  of  ver.  18 
seems  to  refer  to  Ittai).  The  beautiful  story  of 
his  refusal  to  leave  David  when  he  fled  before 
Absalom,  comparable  with  that  of  Ruth  and 
Naomi,  is  told  in  2  Sam.  15.19-22.  He  appears 
later  as  the  captain  of  one-third  of  the  force 
detailed  for  the  pursuit  of  Absalom  (2  Sam. 
18.2,  5, 12). 

2.  See  ITHAI. 

Iturse'a. — A  small  province  on  the  north-east 
border  of  Palestine.  It  formed  part  of  the 
tetrarchy  of  Philip  (Lk.  3.1).  It  derived  its 
name  from  Jetur,  the  son  of  Ishmael,  who 
colonised  it  (Gen.  25.15,  16). 

Ivah  (R.V.  Iwah).— A  city,  perhaps  in  Syria, 
mentioned  in  2  K.  18.34  with  Sepharvaim 
and  Hena,  and  in  2  K.  19.13,  Isai.  37.13, 
with  Hamath  and  Hena.  Perhaps  identical 
with  Ava  (2  K.  17.24;  R.V.  Avva),  whence 
Sargon,  king  of  Assyria,  brought  colonists  to 
Samaria.  It  has  been  supposed  that  Ivvah  or 
Avva  is  the  name  of  a  Syrian  god,  and  at  present 
the  word  presents  an  unsolved  problem. 

Ivory. — A  trade  in  ivory,  from  Africa  and 
India,  was  carried  on  in  very  ancient  times  by 
Assyria,  Tyre,  and  Egypt.  Solomon  made  a 
great  throne  of  ivory  inlaid  with  gold,  brought 
by  the  "  navy  of  Tarshish  "  (1  K.  10.18,  22  : 
in  ver.  18  the  word  used  means  simply  "  tooth," 
i.e.  "  tusk,"  and  so  generally ;  in  ver.  22 
"  elephants'  tooth  ").  The  "  ivory  house  "  of 
Ahab  was  probably  decorated  with  ivory  panels. 
See  also  Ps.  45.8  ;  Cant.  5.14,  7.4 ;  Ezek.  27.6, 
15  ;  Amos  3.15,  6.4  ;  Rev.  18.12. 

lye-abarim.— [IJE-ABABIM.] 

lyim.— [!IM.] 

Izhar.— -Glistening :  1.  Son  of  Kohath  and 
grandson  of  Levi  (Ex.  6.18,  21  ;  Num.  3.19 
[A.V.Izehar]',  1  Ch.  6.2,  etc.).  2.  Son  of  Ashur 
(1  Ch.  4.7. ;  R.V.  marg.  "  and  Zohar  "  ;  A.V. 
Zereth).  The  family  name  Izharites  occurs  Num. 
3.27  [A.V.  Izehariles] ;  1  Ch.  24.22,  26.23,  29. 

Izliah.— [JEZLIAH.] 

Izrahi'ah. — Jehovah  rises  :  a  man  of  Issachar 
(1  Ch.  7.3). 

Izrahite. — The  family  name  of  Shamhuth,  a 
captain  in  David's  guard  (1  Ch.  27.8).  Prob- 
ably =  Zerahite. 

Izri. — A  Levite  who  was  a  leader  of  the  fourth 
course  in  the  Temple  service  (1  Ch.  25.11).  In 
ver.  3  of  the  same  chapter  he  is  called  Zeri. 

Izziah.— [.TEZIAH.] 


JAAKAN,  JAKAN] 


225 


[JACHIN 


JaaTcan,  Jakan. — A  tribe  near  whose  posses- 
sions the  Israelites  stayed  on  their  way  to  the 
Holy  Land  (Num.  33.31 ;  Deut.  10.6).  The  place 
has  not  been  identified.  The  name  also  occurs 
in  1  Ch.  1.42  by  a  copyist's  mistake,  as  it  seems, 
for  Akan. 

Jaako'bah. — Supplanter  :  a  Simeonite  prince 
(1  Ch.  4.36). 

Jaa'la,  Jaa'lah. — Mountain  goat :  one  of 
Solomon's  slaves  (perhaps  Canaan ites)  whose 
descendants  returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
2.56  ;  Nek.  7.58). 

Jaa'lam,  Jalam. — (?)  Whom  God  hides  :  a  son 
of  Esau  and  head  of  an  Edomite  tribe  (Gen. 
36.5). 

Jaa'nai,  Janai. — (?)  Jehovah  answers :  a  de- 
scendant of  Gad  (1  Ch.  5.12). 

Jaa're-ore'gim. — Forest-weavers  :  the  father 
of  Elhanan  the  Bethlehemite  who  slew  Goliath 
or  the  brother  of  Goliath  (2  Sam.  21.19; 
1  Ch.  20.5).  Oregim,  however,  is  an  addition 
which  has  wrongly  come  in  from  the  Hebrew 
word  for  "weavers"  at  the  end  of  the  verse. 
The  name  is  simply  Jaare,  or,  as  it  appears  in 
1  Ch.  20.5,  Jair. 

Jaareshiah.— [JAEESIAH.] 

Jaa'sai,  Jaa'sau,  Jaasu. — (?)  Jehovah  works  : 
one  who  had  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra 
10.37). 

Jaasi'el. — God  works:  1.  One  of  David's  heroes 
(1  Ch.  11.47).  2.  A  son  of  Abner  and  a  captain 
over  Benjamin  in  David's  time  (1  Ch.  27.21). 

Jaazani'ah. — Jehovah  hears :  1.  A  Jewish 
captain,  son  of  the  Maacathite  (2  K.  25.23). 
He  assisted  in  recovering  IshmaePs  booty 
after  the  murder  of  Gedaliah,  and  subsequently 
went  into  Egypt  (Jer.  40.8,  42.1).  In  these  two 
passages  his  name  occurs  as  Jezaniah,  and  he  is 
called  the  son  of  Hoshaiah.  He  seems  to  be 
identical  with  Azariah  (Jer.  43.2).  2.  A 
Rechabite  (Jer.  35.3).  3.  Son  of  Shaphan,  one 
of  the  seventy  elders  of  Israel  who  worshipped 
idols,  an  act  of  idolatry  witnessed  by  Ezekiel 
(Ezek.  8.11).  4.  Son  of  Azur,  a  wicked  "  prince  " 
of  Judah,  whom  Ezekiel  saw  in  a  vision  and 
prophesied  against  (Ezek.  11.1). 

Jaa'zer,  Ja'zer. — He  helps  :  an  Amorite  town 
near  Gilead,  north  of  Heshbon,  taken  by  the 
Israelites  (Num.  21.32,  32.1,  3).  It  was  rebuilt 
by  Gad  and  assigned  to  the  Merarites  (Num. 
32.35  ;  Josh.  13.25,  21.39  ;  2  Sam.  24.5).  The 
town  was  the  subject  of  prophetic  lamentation 
(Isai.  16.8,  9  ;  Jer.  48.32).  The  "  sea  "  in  the 
last  passage  may  have  been  a  lake.  Its  position 
has  been  placed  at  Sa'aur,  four  miles  north  of 
Heshbon  ;  a  mile  farther  north  is  "  a  perennial 
stream  forming  a  large  pool." 

Jaazi'ah. — A  descendant  of  Merari  the 
Levite  (1  Ch.  24.26,  27). 

Jaazi'el. — God  strengthens :  a  Levite  and 
musician  in  the  Tabernacle  service  (1  Ch.  15.18). 

15 


In  ver.  20  a  contracted  form  of  the  name  occurs 
as  Aziel. 

Ja'bal. — A  son  of  Lamech  the  Cainite.  He 
was  a  tent-dweller,  possessing  herds  and  flocks, 
like  the  present  Bedouin  (Gen.  4.20). 

JabT)ok. — Pouring  out,  gurgling  :  a  river  rising 
in  the  plateau  east  of  the  mountains  of  Gilead. 
It  formed  one  of  the  boundaries  of  the  land  of 
the  Ammonites  (Judg.  11.12-22).  On  its  south 
bank  the  interview  took  place  between  Jacob  and 
Esau  (Gen.  32.22).  Near  the  ford  of  this  brook 
the  Angel  wrestled  with  Jacob  (Gen.  32.24). 

JaT)esh.— Dry :  1.  The  father  of  Shallum 
(2  K.  15.10,14).  2.  Ja'besh-Gil'ead  (1  Sam. 
11.1). 

Janbesh-gil'ead. — The  chief  town  in  Gilead  of 
Manasseh  whose  inhabitants  were  killed  for  their 
absence  from  the  war  of  Israel  against  Benjamin 
(Judg.  21.8-14).  Saul  defended  it  against  the 
Ammonites,  and  here  the  remains  of  himself 
and  his  three  sons  were  buried  (1  Sam.  11.1-13, 
31.11-13  ;  2  Sam.  2.4,  5,  21.12 ;  1  Ch.  10.11).  In 
other  places  it  is  called  Jabesh  only.  Its  name 
is  preserved  in  the  modern  Wady  Yabes,  which 
joins  the  Jordan  below  Bethshan. 

JaT>ez.— 1.  A  town  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  2.55). 
It  has  not  been  identified.  2.  A  leader  in  the 
tribe  of  Judah.  The  letters  of  his  name  when 
transposed  (Jazeb)  mean  "  He  brings  sorrow," 
but  his  beautiful  prayer  staves  off  the  mis- 
fortune suggested  by  his  name  (1  Ch.  4.9,  10). 

Ja'bin. — He  considers  :  1.  A  king  of  Hazor 
(which  see).  Fearing  Joshua,  who  had  subdued 
the  south  of  Canaan,  he  formed  an  alliance  both 
offensire  and  defensive  with  other  kings  of  the 
north,  between  the  Jordan  and  the  Medi- 
terranean (Josh.  11.1).  Joshua  defeated  the 
allies  at  Merom,  and  pursued  them  to  great 
Zidon  and  the  valley  of  Mizpeh.  Hazor  was 
taken  and  Jabin  slain.  2.  Another  king  of 
Hazor.  He  oppressed  the  Israelites  for  twenty 
years,  until  Sisera,  his  general,  was  defeated  by 
Barak  and  Deborah  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Tabor 
(Judg.  4.2-24). 

Jabne'el.— God  buildeth :  1.  A  city  on  the 
northern  boundary  of  Judah,  which  was  held  by 
the  Philistines  until  Uzziah  dispossessed  them 
(Josh.  15.11 :  2  Ch.  26.6).  Called  Jamnia  in  the 
time  of  the  Maccabees,  and  in  the  Talmud.  Its 
modern  name  is  Yebnah,  thirteen  miles  south 
of  Jaffa.  2.  A  boundary  town  of  Naphtali 
( Josh.  19.33).  Its  position  is  marked  by  Yemma 
in  upper  Galilee,  seven  miles  south  of  Tiberias. 

Jab'neh. — He  (God)  buildeth :  the  same  as 
Jab'neel  1  (2  Ch.  26.6). 

Ja'can,  Ja'chan.— A  chief  of  Gad  (1  Ch.  5.13). 

Ja'chin. — He  will  establish :  1.  A  son  of 
Simeon,  who  in  1  Ch.  4.24  is  called  Jarib 
(Gen.  46.10).  2.  A  priest  (1  Ch.  9.10;  Neh. 
11.10).  He  seems  to  give  his  name  to  the 
twenty-first  course  of  priests  (1  Ch.  24.17).  3. 


JACHINITES] 


226 


[JAEL 


A  pillar   in   the   porch   of   Solomon's   Temple 
(1  K.  7.21). 

Jachinites. — The  family  name  of  the  descend- 
ants of  Jachin  1  (Num.  26.12). 

Ja'cinth.— Mentioned  in  Rev.  9.17  and  21.20. 
The  precious  stones  known  by  this  name  in 
modern  times  are  of  several  reddish  tints.  The 
true  jacinth  is  a  dull  red  square  crystal,  very 
rare,  and  takes  a  very  brilliant  polish.  The 
stone  is  of  a  higher  specific  gravity  than  the 
garnet.  It  is  also  called  the  Hyacinth  ;  but  the 
hyacinthus  of  Pliny  in  the  first  century  A.D.  was 
a  blue  stone,  perhaps  the  sapphire,  and  this  is 
what  St.  John  probably  means.  In  the  high- 
priest's  breastplate  (Ex.  28.19,  "ligure,"  A.V.), 
on  the  contrary,  it  is  more  probable  that  a  red 
stone,  or  the  yellow  cairngorm,  was  intended. 
Jackal. —[D  R  AGON.] 

Jacob. — Supplanter  :  the  younger  son  of  Isaac 
and  Rebekah.  At  his  birth  he  seized  his  twin 
brother's  (Esau's)  heel,  and  because  of  this  he 
received  his  name  (Gen.  25.26).  We  must  not, 
however,  suppose  that  the  name  itself  was 
unknown  before  then,  for  it  has  been  traced 
much  earlier  in  the  inscriptions.  Jacob  was 
of  a  meek  and  peaceable  temper,  and  loved 
a  quiet,  pastoral  life.  In  this  he  was  the  very 
opposite  of  his  brother,  who  loved  hunting, 
and  whose  nature  was  fierce  and  turbulent. 
Rebekah's  preference  for  Jacob,  and  its  con- 
sequences, have  been  already  noticed  under  Esau 
(which  see).  By  this  trickery  Jacob  received 
that  blessing  from  his  blind  father  Isaac  which 
was  the  birthright  of  Esau.  This  "  birthright  " 
had  already  been  a  subject  of  barter  between 
the  brothers,  Jacob  taking  advantage  of  Esau's 
necessities  to  secure  the  elder  son's  privileges 
and  rights.  [BIRTHRIGHT.]  Though  it  was 
God's  purpose  that  His  promise  to  Abraham 
should  be  continued  through  Jacob,  yet  the  evil 
means  employed  by  Rebekah  and  Jacob  en- 
tailed punishment.  Both  suffered  for  their 
fraud,  which  destroyed  the  peace  of  the  family, 
and  planted  a  mortal  enmity  in  the  breast  of 
Esau  against  his  brother  (Gen.  27.36-41).  The 
year  of  absence  (Gen.  27.42-44),  which  Rebekah 
imagined  would  be  sufficient  to  turn  away 
Esau's  wrath,  was  lengthened  into  a  lifelong 
separation  of  mother  and  son.  Before  Jacob's 
return  Rebekah  had  gone  to  the  grave  "  pierced 
through  with  many  sorrows."  Esau's  hatred 
of  Jacob  also  lived,  and  undoubtedly  had  not 
God  softened  his  heart  at  the  intercession  of 
Jacob  he  would  have  fulfilled  his  intention 
(Gen.  27.41)  of  killing  his  brother. 

But  before  flying  for  his  life  Jacob  was  called 
before  Isaac  and  received  again  the  blessing 
of  Abraham  (Gen.  28.1-4).  He  was  sent  to 
Padan-aram  or  Charran  in  quest  of  a  wife  of 
his  own  kindred  (Gen.  28.6).  He  was  supported 
on  his  journey  by  a  vision  and  the  assurance 
of  Divine  support.  [BETHEL.]  Yet  he  was 
forced  to  engage  in  a  tedious  service  of  seven 
years  for  Rachel,  only  to  be  cheated  in  the  end 
by  Laban,  who  substituted  Leah  for  Rachel, 
thus  compelling  Jacob  to  serve  another  seven 


years  for  Rachel,  whom  he  loved.  Laban 
further  cheated  hi  the  matter  of  wages,  and  it 
was  only  after  twenty  years  of  distressful 
service  that  Jacob  was  able  to  steal  away  with 
his  family  and  possessions  (Gen.  31).  He  was 
only  protected  from  Laban's  vengeance  by 
Divine  interposition.  The  turning  -  point  of 
Jacob's  life  was  at  Penuel,  when  he  was  humbled 
by  the  angel,  and  gave  up  his  crafty  ways, 
learning  at  last  to  prevail  with  God  by  prayer 
alone.  [ISRAEL.]  He  had  much  domestic 
trouble — the  impatience  of  his  favourite  wife 
Rachel,  with  her  pathetic  plaint,  "  Give  me 
children,  or  I  die  " — her  death  at  the  birth  of 
Benjamin — the  sin  of  his  daughter  Dinah 
(Gen.  34.5-26),  and  the  consequent  tragedy  at 
Shechem — the  misbehaviour  of  Reuben,  and 
the  selling  of  Joseph  into  captivity — all  these 
evils  together  would  have  brought  Jacob  to  the 
grave  had  he  not  been  divinely  supported.  But 
God  was  with  him,  and  the  close  of  his  life  was 
calm,  happy,  and  prosperous.  Almost  his  last 
utterance  was  the  prediction  of  the  coming 
Redeemer  (Gen.  49.10).  Of  his  twelve  sons,  two 
only,  Joseph  and  Benjamin,  were  the  children  of 
Rachel.  [See  ISRAEL,  ESAU,  RACHEL,  JOSEPH, 
GILEAD,  ETC.,  for  further  incidents  in  the  life 
of  Jacob.]  His  history  is  referred  to  by  Hosea 
(12.2-12).  See  also  Deut.  26.5. 

2.  The  father  of  Joseph,  the  husband  of  Mary 
(Matt.  1.15,  16).  3.  A  figure  of  speech  used  to 
describe  the  descendants  of  Jacob  (Num. 
23.7,  and  often). 

Jacob's  Well. — A  well  half  a  mile  south- 
west from  the  village  of  Sychar,  Askar  (John 
4.6-12),  and  a  mile  east  of  Shechem ;  the  place 
where  our  Saviour  had  the  memorable  interview 
with  the  woman  of  Samaria.  The  well  is  very 
deep,  and  is  excavated  out  of  the  rock  hi  the 
parcel  of  ground  that  Jacob  bought  (Gen.  33.19). 
Its  width  is  about  9  feet.  A  church  has  recently 
been  built  over  it.  The  fact  that  there  is 
abundance  of  water  in  the  immediate  neighbour- 
hood so  far  corroborates  the  name,  that  it 
suggests  that  the  well  was  made  by  an  alien, 
who  was  not  permitted  to  use  other  sources  of 
supply.  Christ's  offer  of  the  "  living  water  " 
that  should  never  fail  was  intensified  by  the  fact 
that  this  well,  though  75  feet  deep,  yet  some- 
times was  dried  up. 

Ja'da. — Knowing,  wise :  a  man  of  Judah 
(1  Ch.  2.28). 

Ja'dau. — (?)  Beloved:  one  who  took  a  foreign 
wife  (Ezra  10.43).  This  name  is  more  properly 
Jaddai. 

Jaddu'a.— WeU  known  (to  God):  1.  A  high- 
priest  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  the  last  Persian 
King  Darius,  and  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the 
Great.  332  B.C.  His  name  occurs  last  in  the 
list  of  high -priests  mentioned  in  O.T.  (Neli 
12.11, 22).  2.  One  who  signed  the  covenant 
with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  10.21). 

Ja'don. — He  judgeih  :  a  native  of  Meronoth. 
He  helped  to  repair  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  3.7). 

Ja'el.— Mountain  goat :  1.  The  wife  of  Heber 


JAGUK] 


227 


[JAMES 


the  Kenite  (Judg.  4.17-22,  5.24).  Sisera,  the 
general  of  Jabin,  king  of  Hazor,  had  been 
defeated  by  Barak,  and  took  refuge  among  the 
tents  of  the  Kenites,  a  neutral  tribe.  Here  he 
was  invited  to  hide  in  the  tent  of  Jael,  a  secure 
hiding-place,  as  no  Arab  would  have  dreamed  of 
looking  for  him  in  the  women's  apartments.  In 
spite  of  her  promise  of  secrecy,  Jael  slew  him  in 
his  sleep  of  exhaustion  by  driving  a  wooden  pin, 
used  for  fastening  the  tent,  through  his  brain. 
She  then  waited  for  the  pursuing  Barak,  and 
exultingly  showed  him  her  deed.  Her  act 
showed  faith  in  the  ultimate  success  of  Israel, 
and  therefore  faith  in  Israel's  God.  But  it  was 
the  act  of  a  half-savage  woman  who  had  but 
little  spiritual  knowledge. 

2.  Apparently  the  name  of  a  judge  in  Judg. 
5.6.  It  may  be  a  corruption  of  Jair  (10.3), 
possibly  even  identical  with  Jael  1. 

Ja'gur. — (?)  He  sojourneth :  a  town  in  the 
extreme  south  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.21).  It  was 
on  the  frontier  of  Edom,  but  its  site  is  not  known. 

Jah. — One  of  the  names  for  God.  The  word 
is  very  frequently  combined  with  personal  or 
place  names,  etc.,  as  Adonijah,  Hallelujah 
(Ps.  68.4).  [JEHOVAH.] 

JaTiath.— He  (God)  will  snatch  up:  a 
descendant  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  4.2).  2.  A  Levite 
ancestor  of  Asaph  (1  Ch.  6.20,  43).  3.  Another 
Levite  (1  Ch.  23.10,  11).  4.  Another  Levite 
(1  Ch.  24.22).  5.  A  Levite  or  descendant  of 
Merari.  An  overseer  of  the  repairs  of  the  Temple 
under  Josiah  (2  Ch.  34.12). 

Jaliaz,  Jahaza,  Jahazah,  Jahzah.— A  place 
trodden  down  :  the  scene  of  a  decisive  battle  in 
which  the  Israelites  routed  the  Amorites  under 
Sihon,  and  gained  possession  of  the  first  portion 
of  the  Promised  Land  (Num.  21.23  ;  Deut.  2.32  ; 
Judg.  11.20).  It  was  allotted  to  Reuben  and 
given  to  the  Merarites  (Josh.  13.18).  It  fell 
under  the  ban  of  the  prophets  as  part  of  the 
land  of  Moab  (Isai.  15.4 ;  Jer.  48.21,  34).  The 
site  is  unknown. 

Jaliaz 'iah,  Jahzeiah. — Jehovah  sees  :  one  of 
four  officers  appointed  to  count  those  who  had 
married  strange  wives  during  the  Captivity 
(Ezra  10.15). 

Jahazi'el.—  God  sees  :  1.  An  adherent  of  David 
at  Ziklag  (1  Ch.  12.4).  2.  A  priest  who  helped 
to  bring  the  Ark  from  Obed-edom  (1  Ch.  16.6). 
3.  A  Kohathite  (1  Ch.  23.19).  4.  A  Levite  who 
encouraged  Jehoshaphat  and  his  army  at  a  time 
of  peril  (2  Ch.  20.14).  5.  The  chief  of  a  family 
which  returned  from  Babylon  with  Ezra 
(Ezra  8.5). 

Jah'dai.—  A  descendant  of  Caleb  (1  Ch. 
2.47). 

Jahdi'el. — God  giveth  joy  :  a  chief  in  Manasseh 
(1  Ch.  5.24). 

Jah'do.— A  Gileadite  (1  Ch.  5.14). 

Jahle'el.— Wait  for  God:  a  son  of  Zebulun 
(Gen.  46.14). 

Jahle'elites.— The  family  of  Jahleel  (Num. 
26.26). 

Jah'mai. — May  Jehovah  protect :  fourth  son 
of  Tola,  son  of  Issachar  (1  Ch.  7.2). 


Jah'zah.—  Trodden  down.  [JAHAZ.]  (1  Ch. 
6.78.) 

Jahze'el,  Jahzi'eL— God  apportioned:  a  son 
of  Naphtali  (Gen.  46.S4  ;  1  Ch.  7.13). 

Jahzeiah. — [JAHAZIAH.] 

Jahze'rah. — Whom  God  protects :  a  priest  of 
the  family  of  Immer  who  settled  in  Jerusalem 
(1  Ch.  9.12).  Apparently  the  same  as  Ahasai 
in  Neh.  11.13. 

JahzieL— [JAHZEEL.] 

Jailer.— [PRISON.]    (Acts  16.23.) 

Ja'ir.— Whom  God  enlightens :  1.  A  descendant 
of  Judah  and  Manasseh  (Num.  32.41 ;  1  K. 
4.13).  [HAYOTH-JAIB.]  2.  A  judge  of  Israel 
for  twenty-three  years  ( Judg.  10.3,  5).  3.  Father 
of  Mordecai  (Esth.  2.5).  4.  Father  of  Elhanan, 
who  slew  the  giant  (1  Ch.  20.5).  The  etymology 
of  this  word  differs  from  the  preceding. 

[JAARE-OREGIM.] 

Jai'rus.— The  chief  of  the  synagogue  at 
Capernaum  whose  daughter,  aged  twelve,  was 
raised  from  the  dead  by  Jesus  (Matt.  9.18; 
Mk.  5.22;  Lk.  8.41).  He  is  notable  for  his 
faith  in  the  Saviour.  The  name  is  the  Greek 
form  of  Jair  1-3. 

JaTseh.— Pious :  the  father  of  Agur  (Prov. 
30.1). 

JaTdm.— He  lifteth  up:  1.  Chief  of  the  twelfth 
course  of  priests  in  David's  time  (1  Ch.  24.12). 
2.  A  Benjamite  (1  Ch.  8.19). 

Ja'lam.  — [  JA  A'LAM.] 

Ja'lon.— A  son  of  Ezra  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  4.17). 

JamTtfes.— Referred  to  by  St.  Paul  as  the 
name  of  one  of  the  magicians  who  resisted  Moses 
at  the  court  of  Pharaoh  by  attempting  to 
imitate  his  miracles  (2  Tim.  3.8).  [JANNES, 
MAGICIAN.]  It  is  possible  that  his  name  was 
properly  Mambres. 

James.— The  same  name  as  Jacob.  1. 
James,  surnamed  the  Greater,  to  distinguish  him 
from  James  the  Little,  was  brother  to  John  the 
Evangelist,  and  son  of  Zebedee  and  Salome 
(Matt.  4.21).  He  was  of  Bethsaida,  in  Galilee, 
with  his  brother  John,  a  fisherman,  and  with  him 
left  all  to  follow  Christ  (Mk.  1.18, 19).  The 
brothers  were  witnesses  of  our  Lord's  trans- 
figuration (Matt.  17.1).  During  the  ministry  of 
Jesus,  James  and  John  were  seldom  apart ;  they 
seemed  to  speak  and  act  together.  When 
certain  Samaritans  refused  to  admit  Jesus, 
James  and  John  asked  leave  to  pray  for  fire 
to  be  sent  down  from  heaven  to  consume 
them  (Lk.  9.54).  [BOANERGES.]  Shortly  after, 
through  their  mother  Salome,  they  made  their 
famous  request  to  take  precedence  of  the  other 
disciples  in  the  Kingdom.  Some  days  after  the 
resurrection  of  our  Saviour,  James  and  John 
went  to  fish  in  the  Sea  of  Tiberias,  when  they 
saw  Jesus,  and  they  were  both  present  at  the' 
ascension.  About  the  year  42-44,  Herod 
Agrippa,  grandson  of  Herod  the  Great,  caused 
James  to  be  seized  and  killed  at  Jerusalem 
(Acts  12.1,  2).  A  legend  tells  us  that  the  one 
who  prosecuted  James  before  the  judges  was  so 
impressed  with  his  constancy  in  confessing  Jesus 
Christ  that  he  also  declared  himself  a  Christian, 


JAMES,  GENERAL  EPISTLE  OF]    228    [JAMES,  GENERAL  EPISTLE  OF 


and  was  condemned,  as   well   as   the   apostle, 
to  be  beheaded. 

2.  James,  the  son  of  Alphaeus,  or  the  Little 
(wrongly  the  Less).     Also  one  of  the  Twelve, 
but  otherwise  nothing  is  known  of  him. 

3.  James,    the  brother  of  the  Lord,  and  of 
the  Apostle  Jude;  probably  the  writer  of  the 
Epistle.     He   was    surnarned    the    "  Just "   on 
account  of  the  holiness  and  purity  of  his  life. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  a  priest,  arid  to  have 
observed    the  laws  of   the   Nazirites   from  his 
birth.     Eight  days   after    the  resurrection  the 
Saviour   appeared    to  him  (1    Cor.  15.7).     He 
was  at   Jerusalem,   and    was   considered    as  a 
pillar  of  the  Church,  when  Paul  first  went  there 
after  his  conversion,  37  A.D.  (Gal.  1.19).     In  the 
Council  of  Jerusalem  (49-51  A.D.)  he  urged  that 
Gentile  Christians  should  not  be  bound  by  the 
ceremonial   of   the   Law   (Acts  15.13-29).     His 
death,   according    to    Christian   tradition,    was 
that  of  a  martyr.     About  the  year  63  A.D.  he 
was  commanded  by  the  Jews  to  proclaim,  from 
one  of  the  galleries  of  the  Temple,  that  Jesus  of 
Nazareth  was  not  the  Messiah.     But,  instead,  he 
cried  out  to  the  multitude  that  Christ  was  the 
Son  of  God,  and  Judge  of  the  world.     His  en- 
raged enemies  hurled  him  to  the  ground  beneath. 
He  was  not  quite  dead,  and,  while  praying  for 
his  captors,  he  was  stoned  to  death.     This  was 
immediately  before  the  siege  of  the  city.     So 
highly  was  James  held  in  honour  that  the  Jews 
deemed  the  destruction  of  their  city  and  temple 
a  judgment  on  them  because  of  his  murder. 
On   the  meaning  of   "  brother   of   the   Lord " 
see  the  next  article. 

James,  the  General  Epistle  of. —The  author- 
ship of  this  Epistle  has  been  disputed  ;  but  it  is 
generally  agreed  that  the  writer  of  this  Epistle 
was  not  James  the  brother  of  John  (to  whom  it 
has  been  ascribed  by  some  ancient  and  modern 
expositors) ;  but  the  James  (or  Jacob)  who, 
after  the  death  of  the  former  (Acts  12.2),  is 
mentioned  as  presiding  over  the  Church  at 
Jerusalem  (Acts  12.17,  15.13-29,  21.18-25) ; 
and  is  called  by  Paul  "  the  Lord's  brother  " 
(Gal.  1.19).  Some  identify  him  with  James 
the  son  of  Alphaeus,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles 
(Matt.  10.3).  But  that  supposition  seems  to 
be  excluded  by  the  fact  that,  at  a  period  subse- 
quent to  the  appointment  of  the  Twelve,  our 
Lord's  "  brethren "  (of  whom  James  was 
probably  the  eldest)  did  not  believe  in  Him 
(John  7.5).  It  is  therefore  supposed  that  they 
first  became  disciples  after  our  Lord's  ascension 
(Actt  1.13),  having  been  convinced  by  the  great 
events  of  His  death  and  resurrection  (1  Cor. 
15.7). 

In  support  of  this,  it  is  urged  that  it  is  more 
probable  that  the  permanent  president  of  the 
Church  at  Jerusalem  would  not  be  one  of  the 
twelve  apostles ;  it  being  hardly  consistent 
with  their  special  mission  (Matt.  28.19)  that 
any  of  them  should  settle  at  any  particular  spot 
as  the  president  of  a  single  Church  ;  and  that 
in  the  particular  circumstances  of  the  Church  at 
Jerusalem  at  that  period  no  person  would  be 


so  likely  to  enjoy  its  confidence  as  the  eldest  of 
our  Lord's  nearest  relatives,  especially  one  who 
possessed  the  characteristics  of  James.  Whether 
these  "  brethren "  were  sons  of  Joseph  and 
Mary,  being  therefore  younger  brothers  of  our 
Lord,  or  sons  of  Joseph  by  a  former  marriage, 
has  been  much  disputed.  The  objections  to 
the  former  view  have  chiefly  rested  on  the 
ecclesiastical  doctrine,  entirely  unsupported  by 
Scripture,  of  Mary's  perpetual  virginity.  It  has 
also  been  argued  that  our  Lord  would  hardly 
have  committed  His  mother  to  the  care  of 
John  (John  19.26)  had  sons  of  her  own  been 
living.  To  this  it  may  be  replied  (1)  that  the 
unbelief  of  the  "  brethren  "  may  well  account 
for  their  being  passed  over,  and  (2)  that  John 
himself  was  a  near  relative  of  Mary,  his  mother 
Salome  having  been  her  sister  (John  19.25). 
On  the  whole,  the  probability  seems  to  be  that 
James,  the  writer  of  this  Epistle,  was  the  son 
of  Joseph  and  Mary,  and  therefore  the  younger 
brother  of  our  Lord. 

There  is  no  certain  evidence  as  to  the  date 
at  which  the  Epistle  was  written.  Most  suppose 
it  to  have  been  before  the  controversies  respect- 
ing the  obligation  of  the  Jewish  ceremonial  law 
upon  Gentiles,  and  respecting  justification 
without  legal  righteousness,  had  begun  to 
disturb  the  Church  (Acts  15);  perhaps  about 
the  year  45  A.D.  But  some  think  that  the  un- 
satisfactory state  of  the  Churches  here  disclosed 
requires  a  later  date  to  be  assigned  to  this 
Epistle,  not  earlier  than  the  year  58  A.D.,  or 
perhaps  not  long  before  the  writer's  martyrdom, 
which  is  said  to  have  occurred  about  the  year 
63.  In  the  former  case,  this  Epistle  would  be 
among  the  earliest  of  the  New  Testament 
writings. 

The  Epistle  is  addressed  to  Jews,  particularly 
Jewish  Christians ;  perhaps  to  those  who, 
having  been  converted  on  the  great  day  of 
Pentecost  (Acts  2.5-11),  had  returned  to  their 
homes  in  the  various  parts  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
and  to  others  whom  they  had  taught ;  with 
all  with  whom  James  would  probably  become 
acquainted  by  their  visits  to  Jerusalem  at  the 
festivals.  Their  condition,  so  far  as  it  can  be 
gathered  from  this  Epistle,  appears  to  have 
been  one  of  outward  affliction,  and  at  the  same 
time  not  of  spiritual  health  and  prosperity. 
They  seem  especially  to  have  been  wanting  in 
patience  and  submission  towards  God,  in 
prayerful  watchfulness  over  themselves,  and 
in  Christian  love  to  their  fellow-men. 

The  main  subject  of  this  Epistle  is  the  character 
and  course  of  life  of  the  true  and  consistent 
Christian,  "  the  doer  of  the  word,"  who  stead- 
fastly "  continues  in  the  perfect  law  of  liberty," 
as  contrasted  with  the  spirit  and  conduct  of 
the  mere  professor.  Numerous  illustrations  are 
given  of  this  in  various  relations  and  conditions 
of  actual  life,  adapted  to  the  circumstances 
and  necessities  of  different  classes  of  persons. 
Consolation  and  encouragement  under  manifold 
trials  are  mixed  with  earnest  exhortations  to 
Christian  virtues ;  and  to  these  are  added 


JAMIN] 


229 


[JASHER,  JASHAR 


warnings  and  reproofs  to  those  who  dishonoured 
religion  by  professions  of  faith  without  corre- 
sponding works. 

The  style  of  the  Epistle  is  sententious  and 
forcible,  graphic  and  rich  in  figures.  It  strik- 
ingly resembles,  both  in  matter  and  in  manner, 
the  teaching  of  our  Lord,  especially  in  the 
Sermon  on  the  Mount  (Matt.  5-7) ;  to  some 
parts  of  which  there  are  evident  allusions. 
"  Wisdom "  is  one  of  the  key-words  of  this 
Epistle,  and  its  style  may  be  compared  with 
that  of  the  wisdom  literature  (Chokhmah)  of 
the  O.T.  See  1.5-8  and  3.13-18  for  the 
enumeration  of  the  qualities  of  false  wisdom  and 
the  true.  Note  likewise  the  prominence  given  to 
faith  and  works  ;  to  prayer,  1.5-7,  4.8,  5.13-18; 
to  temptation,  1.2,  12,  13,  14  ;  and,  notwith- 
standing the  severity  of  the  style  of  address  in 
the  Epistle,  the  constant  recurrence  of  the 
word  "  brethren." 

The  canonicity  of  the  Epistle  was  not  always 
accepted.  Eusebius  speaks  of  it  as  at  first 
questioned  in  the  Church.  In  the  East,  how- 
ever, it  was  received  from  the  beginning  ;  and 
its  canonicity  was  at  length  universally  acknow- 
ledged. Luther  objected  to  it  on  the  ground 
of  the  contradiction  he  assumed  between 
Rom.  4.9  and  Jas.  2.21.  But  there  is  no  real 
contradiction  ;  rather  a  deep  harmony. 

Ja'min. — Right  hand :  1.  The  second  son 
of  Simeon,  and  the  founder  of  the  family  of 
the  Jaminites  (Gen.  46.10  ;  Num.  26.12).  2.  A 
man  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  2.27).  3.  A  priest  who 
expounded  the  law  in  the  time  of  Ezra  (Neh.  8.7). 

Jam'lech. — He  causeth  to  rule:  a  prince  or 
chief  of  the  house  of  Simeon  (1  Ch.  4.34). 

Janai.— [JAANAI.] 

Janim.— [.TANUM.] 

Jan'na,  Jannai. — An  ancestor  of  Joseph,  the 
husband  of  Mary,  the  mother  of  our  Lord  (Lk. 
3.24). 

Jan'nes. — Referred  to  by  St.  Paul  as  one  of 
the  Egyptian  magicians  who  opposed  Moses 
before  Pharaoh  (2  Tim.  3.8).  [JAMBUES.] 

Jano'ah. — Resting-place  :  a  town  of  Naphtali 
taken  by  Tiglath-pileser  (2  K.  15.29)  during  his 
first  expedition  into  Palestine.  It  has  been 
identified  with  Yanuh,  a  village  east  of  Tyre. 
[JANOHAH.] 

JanoTiah  (R.V.  Janoah).— Resting-place :  a 
frontier  town  of  Ephraim  (Josh.  16.6,  7),  12  miles 
south-east  of  Nablous  on  the  east  slope  of  the 
hills  as  they  descend  to  the  Jordan  valley.  Its 
modern  representative  is  the  tiny  village  of 
Yanun,  set  amidst  extensive  ruins. 

Ja'num,  Janim. — A  town  in  the  mountains 
of  Judah  (Josh.  15.53).  Its  position  has  not 
been  identified,  though  it  cannot  have  been  far 
from  Hebron. 

Ja'pheth. — Extending  :  the  youngest  son  of 
Noah,  and  the  ancestor  of  the  peoples  north  of 
the  Mediterranean,  and  of  the  Indian  and  Mon- 
golian races  (Gen.  5.32).  The  prophecy,  "  He 
shall  dwell  in  the  tents  of  Shem  "  (Gen.  9.27), 
was  perhaps  fulfilled  when  the  Greeks,  followed 
by  the  Romans,  invaded  Palestine,  the  home  of 


Shem.  Another  explanation  of  the  text  is  that 
it  should  read,  "  Ho  (God)  shall  dwell,"  etc., 
thus  coupling  the  material  blessing  of  Japheth 
with  a  spiritual  one  for  Shem,  while  in  the  same 
verse  Ham  is  punished  for  his  unfilial  conduct. 
If  we  take  this  view,  the  prophecy  was  fulfilled 
when  God's  presence  was  with  His  people 
during  the  long  march  in  the  wilderness,  and 
also  in  the  Tabernacle  and  the  Temple,  and 
fully  in  the  Incarnation. 

Japhi'a. — He  shall  cause  to  shine  :  1.  Border 
town  of  Zebulun,  2  miles  south  of  Nazareth 
(Josh.  19.12).  Its  modern  name  is  Yafa.  2. 
The  Amorite  king  of  Lachish  defeated  by 
Joshua  (Josh.  10.3).  3.  One  of  David's  sons 
born  at  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  5.15  ;  1  Ch.  3.7). 

Japh'let. — Whom  God  delivers:  an  Asherite 
(1  Ch.  7.32). 

Japh'leti.—  The  Japhletites,  the  descendants 
of  the  preceding  (Josh.  16.3). 

Ja'pho.— The  same  as  Joppa,  which  see 
(Josh.  19.46). 

Ja'rah.— A  descendant  of  Saul,  great-grand- 
son of  Mephibosheth  (1  Ch.  9.42).  In  the 
parallel  passage  of  1  Ch.  8.36  he  is  Jehoadah. 

Ja'reb. — Let  him  contend  :  a  king  of  Assyria, 
otherwise  unknown.  It  may  be  a  title,  but 
more  probably  it  is  only  a  false  reading  of  the 
copyists.  Perhaps  the  original  of  "  King 
Jareb"  was  "  the  great  king"  (Hos.  5.13, 10.6). 

Ja'red.— The  father  of  Enoch  (Gen.  5.15-20 ; 
Lk.  3.37).  In  1  Ch.  1.2  he  is  called  Jered. 

Jarcsi'ah,  Jaareshiah. — A  Benjamite  (1  Ch. 
8.27). 

JarTia. — An  Egyptian  slave  and  the  son-in- 
law  of  Sheshan  (1  Ch.  2.34). 

Ja'rib.— lie  contendeth  :  1.  Son  of  Simeon 
(1  Ch.  4.24).  Elsewhere  called  Jachin.  2.  A 
chief  man  who  accompanied  Ezra  from  Babylon 
to  Jerusalem  (Ezra  8.16).  Perhaps  the  same 
as  the  next.  3.  A  priest  of  the  house  of  Jeshua 
who  had  married  a  strange  wife  (Ezra  10.18). 

Jar'muth. — 1.  A  city  of  Judah.  It  lies  on 
the  crest  of  a  hill  about  8  miles  north-east  of 
Gath.  When  taken  by  Joshua  it  was  a  royal 
Canaanite  city  (Josh.  10.3, 5, 23).  It  was 
reinhabited  after  the  Captivity  (Neh.  11.29). 
Its  present  name  is  El-Yarmuk.  2.  A  town 
of  Issachar  assigned  to  the  Gershonites  (Josh. 
21.29).  It  is  reasonably  thought  to  be  identical 
with  Remeth  (Josh.  19.21)  and  Ramoth  (1  Ch. 
6.73). 

Jaro'ah.— A  Gadite  chief  (1  Ch.  5.14). 

Ja'shen. — The  father  of  one  of  David's 
guard  (2  Sam.  23.32).  Called  Hashem  in  1  Ch. 
11.34. 

Ja'sher,  Jashar.—  Upright :  thus  the  Book  of 
Jasher  is  the  "  Book  of  the  Upright "  (Josh. 
10.13;  2  Sam.  1.18).  It  was  a  national  col- 
lection of  ballads,  reciting  the  brave  deeds  of  the 
Jewish  heroes.  In  addition  to  the  two  passages 
above,  a  third  fragment  from  the  Book  is 
thought  to  be  contained  in  Num.  21.14.  There 
has  been  much  conjecture  as  to  the  form  and 
history  of  the  Book,  but  nothing  more  is  really 
known.  There  have  been  several  forgeries  of 


JASHOBEAM] 


230 


[JEBUSITES 


the  Book  of  Jasher,  which  have  been  detected  as 
such. 

Jashobe'am. — The  chief  of  David's  mighty 
men  (1  Ch.  11.11,  12.6).  The  action  which 
made  him  famous  was  the  killing  of  300  men 
at  one  time.  He  joined  David  at  Ziklag.  Called 
the  son  of  Zabdiel  in  27.2. 

Jas'hub. — Returning :  1.  The  third  son  of 
Issachar  (Num.  26.24).  2.  A  man  with  a 
foreign  wife  (Ezra  10.29). 

Jashubi-leTiem. — Returning  to  Bethlehem :  the 
name  of  a  place  in  Judah.  But  probably  the 
text  should  be  emended  slightly,  and  rendered 
"  who  returned  to  Bethlehem  "  (1  Ch.  4.22). 

JashuTntes,  The. — Belonging  to  the  family 
of  Jashub,  son  of  Issachar  (Num.  26.24). 

Ja'son. — Healing :  1.  A  believer  of  Thessa- 
lonica  who  was  friendly  to  Paul  and  Silas,  and, 
in  consequence,  was  mobbed  by  the  Jews 
(Acts  17.1-9).  There  is  a  tradition  that  he 
became  a  bishop  of  Tarsus.  2.  A  companion 
of  Paul  (Rom.  16.21)  and  his  kinsman,  i.e. 
fellow  Jew.  Perhaps  identical  with  1. 

Jasper. — The  jasper  of  Scripture  has  been 
conjectured  to  be  the  diamond,  the  emerald, 
the  opal,  etc.  But  there  is  very  little  doubt 
that  the  Hebrew  word,  as  well  as  the  Greek, 
represented  a  variety  of  quartz,  translucent  and 
showing  prismatic  colours.  It  was  the  twelfth 
of  the  jewels  in  the  high-priest's  breastplate 
(Ex.  28.20,  39.13),  and  the  first  of  the  twelve 
used  in  the  foundations  of  the  New  Jerusalem 
(Rev.  21.19).  It  was  also  used  in  another 
portion  of  the  walls  of  the  New  Jerusalem 
(Rev.  21.18).  In  Rev.  4.3  it  is  used  as  a  figure 
of  the  glory  of  God. 

Jathni'eL — God  hires :  a  Korahite.  He  was  a 
Levite  and  a  "  porter,"  i.e.  a  doorkeeper  of 
the  Tabernacle  (1  Ch.  26.2). 

Jat'tir.— Probably  the  present  'Attir,  10  miles 
south  of  Hebron.  It  is  surrounded  by  brown 
rocky  hills,  full  of  caves.  It  was  one  of  the 
towns  assigned  to  the  priests  (Josh.  15.48). 
It  was  also  one  of  David's  hiding-places  when 
fleeing  from  Sanl  (1  Sam.  30.27). 

Ja'van.— 1.  The  fourth  son  of  Japheth  (Gen. 
10.2,4).  Probably  identical  with  2.  2.  The 
same  word  as  Ionian.  Greece  and  the  sur- 
rounding islands,  the  settlements  of  Javan  1 
(Isai.  66.19).  The  descendants  of  Javan  also 
occupied  Syria  and  Macedonia.  3.  Apparently 
a  district  in  southern  Arabia,  a  trading-port 
of  the  Phoenicians  (Ezek.  27.19),  but  both  the 
word  and  its  identification  are  exceedingly 
doubtful. 

Javelin. — A  short  spear  used  for  throwing. 
It  was  generally  attached  to  the  MTist  by  a 
thong,  to  prevent  its  being  lost.  Its  sharp- 
edged  head  was  heavy  and  made  of  bronze 
(1  Sam.  18.10, 11,  19.9, 10,  20.33).  [ARMS.] 

Jawbone  of  an  Ass. — The  word  "  new  "  is  the 
significant  feature  of  this  passage  (Judg. 
15.15-19).  An  old  bone  would  have  been  too 
brittle  for  use  as  a  weapon,  while  the  new 
was  tough  and  heavy.  [SAMSON,  LEHI.] 
Jazer. — [JAAZER.] 


Ja'ziz. — A  Hagarite  in  charge  of  David's 
flocks  (1  Ch.  27.31).  By  flocks  is  meant  the 
sheep  and  goats  at  pasture  in  the  wild  and 
unsettled  country  east  of  the  Jordan.  A 
Hagarite  was  at  home  here. 

Jealousy. — God's  tender  love  towards  His 
Church  is  sometimes  called  jealousy.  Paul  says 
to  the  Corinthians  that  he  is  jealous  over  them 
with  a  godly  jealousy  (2  Cor.  11.2).  Such  lan- 
guage is  symbolical,  and  is  used  to  represent 
the  lively  care  and  constant  love  of  the  heavenly 
Husband  for  His  bride  the  Church  (Pt.  78.58, 
79.5). 

Jealousy,  Offering  of.— The  passage  in 
Num.  5.11-31  shows  that  the  process  pre- 
scribed for  the  detection  and  punishment 
of  a  woman  who  had  excited  her  husband's 
jealousy  was  very  similar  to  some  of  the  ancient 
forms  of  trial  by  ordeal.  This  is  the  only 
trial  by  ordeal  in  the  Jewish  Law,  though 
appeals  to  the  casting  of  lots  were  frequent. 
[URIM  AND  THUMMIM.]  It  is  also  singular  that 
there  is  no  record  of  any  trial  under  this  law, 
the  underlying  principle  of  which  was  that  God 
would  not  suffer  the  innocent  to  be  harmed 
by  the  potion. 

Jea'rim,  Mount. — Forests :  a  place  on  the 
northern  boundary  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.10) ; 
also  called  Chesalon.  [KIRJATH-JEARIM.] 

Jeate'rai,  Jeathe'rai.— A  descendant  of  Levi 
(1  Ch.  6.21).  Apparently  identical  with  Ethni 
(ver.  41).  Ancestor  of  Asaph. 

Jeberechi'ah. — Jehovah  blesses  :  the  father 
of  one  Zechariah  (Isai.  8.2).  This  name  occurs 
only  once,  and  almost  certainly  it  is  the  longer 
form  of  BERECHIAH. 

JeTms,  Jebu'si. — The  son  of  Canaan  (Gen. 
10.16)  and  father  of  the  Jebusites.  The  central 
stronghold  of  this  fierce  and  warlike  people 
was  called  Jebus  ( Judg.  19.10,  11 ;  1  Ch.  11.4,  5) 
until  it  was  captured  by  David  (Josh.  15.8,  63 ; 
2  Sam.  5.6-8),  and  for  the  first  time  called 
Jerusalem.  [JEBUSITES,  JERUSALEM.]  It  has 
been  suggested  that  the  word  means,  in 
Accadian, "  house  of  safety,"  and  that  Jerusalem 
had  the  same  meaning. 

Jebusites. — Belonging  to  Jebus  :  the  descend- 
ants of  Jebus,  a  son  of  Canaan,  who  colonised 
the  district  around  Jerusalem,  then  called 
Jebus  or  Jebusi  (Gen.  10.16,  15.21).  Whether 
they  were  the  original  inhabitants,  or  whether 
they  replaced  a  still  more  ancient  race,  is  not 
known.  The  first  mention  of  the  Jebusites 
is  that  made  by  the  spies  forty  years  before 
the  entrance  of  the  Israelites  into  the  Holy 
Land  (Num.  13.29).  That  they  were  a  strong 
and  vigorous  tribe  is  testified  by  the  fact  that 
they  were  able  to  maintain  their  hold  on  the 
strong  citadel  of  Jebus  until  the  time  of  David 
(2  Sam.  5.6).  Their  king,  Adoni-zedek,  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Bethhoron  (Josh.  10.1, 
5,  26).  Jebus  itself  was  sacked  and  burnt  by 
the  men  of  Judah  (Judg.  1.21).  But  even 
these  continuous  disasters  could  not  drive 
them  out  of  their  territory,  for  we  find  them 
still  dwellers  in  the  country  of  Judah  and 


JECAMIAH] 


231 


[JEHOAHAZ 


Benjamin  at  a  later  date  (Josh.  15.8,  G3  ;  Ezra 
9.1).  The  submission  of  Araunah,  the  Jebusite 
king,  to  David  gives  us  a  characteristic  picture  of 
the  life  of  the  Canaanites  and  also  of  the  Israel- 
ites (2  Sam.  24.23  ;  1  Ch.  21.15).  Nothing  is 
known  of  the  religion  of  the  Jehusites.  Only  two 
members  of  this  tribe  are  mentioned  by  name, 
Adoni-zedek  (Lord  of  Justice)  and  Araunah. 
[JERUSALEM.] 

Jecami'ah. — A  name  of  a  man  of  Judah 
(1  Ch.  3.18). 

Jecholi'ah. — Jehovah  hath  been  able  :  the  wife 
of  Amaziah,  king  of  Judah  (2  K.  15.2).  In 
2  Ch.  26.3  the  name  is  given  as  Jecoli'ah  or 
Jechi'liah,  R.V. 

Jechoni'as. — Jehovah  is  stable :  the  Greek  form 
of  Jeconiah  (Matt.  1.11, 12,  A.V.). 

Jecoliah.  — [  JECHOLIAH.] 

Jeconi'ah. — Jehovah  is  stable :  an  altered  form 
of  JEHOIACHIN,  king  of  Judah  ;  also  abbrevi- 
ated to  Coniah  (1  Ch.  3.16, 17 ;  Esth.  2.6 ;  Jer. 
24.1). 

Jedai'ah. — Jehovah  is  praise :  1.  A  Simeonite 
chief  (1  Ch.  4.37).  2.  A  builder  at  the  wall 
(Neh.  3.10).  Jehovah  Jcnoweth:  this  is  a 
different  naro-  from  the  preceding,  though  the 
spelling  is  alikb  n  English.  Head  of  the  second 
course  of  priests  in  the  time  of  David  (1  Ch. 
9.10,  24.7).  The  name  is  also  found  given  to 
priests,  e.g.  Zech.  6.10,  14. 

Jedia'el. — Known  of  God :  1.  A  chief  of  the 
Benjamites  (1  Ch.  7.6).  From  this  Jediael 
sprang  many  famous  Benjamite  houses,  who 
in  the  time  of  David  mustered  17,200  fighting 
men.  2.  The  son  of  Shimri,  one  of  David's 
valiant  thirty  (1  Ch.  11.45).  Perhaps  the  same 
as  the  next.  3.  A  headman  of  Manasseh,  who 
joined  David  at  Ziklag.  He  was  foremost  in 
the  attack  on  the  Amalekites  (1  Ch.  12.20). 
4.  A  Levite.  A  doorkeeper  of  the  Temple  (1  Ch. 
26.2). 

Jedi'dah. — Beloved :  Queen  of  Amon,  and 
mother  of  King  Josiah  (2  K.  22.1).  She  was  a 
native  of  Bozkath. 

Jedidi'ah. — Beloved  of  Jehovah :  the  name 
given  to  Solomon  by  the  prophet  Nathan,  who 
had  been  sent  by  David  to  obtain  a  token  of 
the  Divine  favour  on  behalf  of  the  newborn 
infant.  The  name  is  of  great  interest.  Jedid 
and  David  are  from  the  same  root.  To  David, 
the  "  darling  "  of  his  people,  it  was  a  happy 
omen,  and  a  token  of  his  restoration  to  Divine 
favour,  when  the  prophet  came  and  said  that 
the  name  of  his  child  was  to  combine  his  own 
with  that  of  Jehovah — Jedid-Jah,  "  Darling 
of  Jehovah."  This  practice  of  giving  children 
a  second  or  pet  name  still  exists  in  the  East 
(2  Sam.  12.25). 

Jedu'thun. — Praise :  a  Levite  of  Merari's 
family.  One  of  the  three  great  masters  of 
music  belonging  to  the  Temple  service  (1  Ch. 
16.38,41;  2  Ch.  29.14).  He  is  the  same  as 
Ethan ;  and  certain  psalms  are  said  to  have 
been  composed  by  him,  i.e.  Psalms  39,  62,  77. 
[Mustc.] 

Jee'zer.— The    eldest    son    of   Giload    (Num. 


26.30).  The  name  is  a  contracted  form  of 
Abiezer  (which  see). 

Jee'zerites. — The  family  of  Jeezer  (Num. 
26.30). 

Je'gar-sahadu'tha.— The  heap  of  testimony: 
the  Aramaic  name  given  by  Lab  an  to  the 
heap  of  stones  erected  as  a  testimony  of  the 
compact  between  Jacob  and  himself.  It 
corresponds  to  the  Hebrew  name  Galeed,  given 
by  Jacob  (Gen.  31.47).  Laban's  heap  of 
stones  was  not  only  a  witness  to  the  bargain 
between  himself  and  his  son-in-law,  but  also 
marked  the  severance  of  all  further  communica- 
tions between  the  two.  Henceforth  Jacob 
travelled  in  the  land  which  his  descendants  were 
to  possess.  [LABAN,  GALEED,  MIZPAH.] 

Jehalel'eel,  Jehalelel,  Jehallelel.— He  shall 
praise  God :  1.  A  man  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  4.16). 
2.  A  Levite  in  the  time  of  Hezekiah  (2  Ch. 
29.12). 

Jehdei'ah. — May  Jehovah  give  joy :  1.  A 
descendant  of  Gershom,  son  of  Moses  (1  Ch. 
24.20).  2.  An  officer  of  David  (1  Ch.  27.30). 

Jeheze'kel,  Jehez'kel.  —  God  strengthened  • 
the  same  name  as  Ezekiel.  A  priest  who  had 
charge  of  the  20th  course  of  the  Temple  service 
in  the  time  of  David  (1  Ch.  24.16). 

Jehi'ah.— May  Jehovah  live  :  one  of  the  door- 
keepers of  the  Ark  when  it  was  brought  from 
Obed-edom  (1  Ch.  15.24). 

Jehi'el,  Jehuel. — May  God  live:  several  un- 
important persons  in  the  O.T.  bear  this  name 
(1  Ch.  9.35,  11.44,  15.18,  20,  16.5,  23.8,  27.32  ; 
2  Ch.  21.2,  29.14,  31.13,  35.8 ;  Ezra  8.9.  10.2, 
21,  26). 

Jehie'li. — The  keeper  of  the  sanctuary 
treasures  in  the  time  of  David  (1  Ch.  26.21). 
Identical  with  the  Jehiel  of  23.8. 

Jehizki'ah. — Jehovah  strengthens  :  the  same 
word  as  Hezekiah.  A  son  of  Shallum  and  a 
chief  man  of  Ephraim.  He  is  noted  for  his  fine 
courage  in  preventing,  with  others,  the  bringing 
into  Samaria  of  a  large  number  of  captives 
and  much  booty,  which  Pekah  had  taken  in 
the  campaign  against  Ahaz,  king  of  Judah. 
He  and  bis  friends  were  instrumental  in  getting 
the  prisoners  clothed  and  fed  and  sent  back  to 
then*  homes  (2  Ch.  28.12). 

Jehoa'dah,  Jehoad'dah. — A  descendant  of  Saul 
(1  Ch.  8.36).  In  the  list  in  9.42  the  name  occurs 
as  Jarah. 

Jehoad'dan. — The  wife  of  Joash  and  the 
mother  of  Amaziah  ;  both  kings  of  Judah  (2  K. 
14.2  ;  2  Ch.  25.1). 

Jehoa'haz. — Jehovah  hath  grasped :  1.  The 
son  of  Jehu,  and  king  of  Israel  for  seventeen  years 
(2  K.  13.1-9).  Throughout  the  whole  of  his 
reign  he  was  kept  in  partial  subjection  by 
Hazael,  king  of  Syria,  who  compelled  him 
to  reduce  his  military  establishment  and  to 
pay  tribute.  Though  Jehoahaz  had  followed 
and  supported  the  wicked  idolatry  of  Jeroboam 
I.,  yet  his  distress  at  the  position  of  himself 
and  his  country  was  so  great  that  he  finally 
besought  Jehovah  to  assist  him.  The  de- 
liverer sent  was  either  Jeroboam  n.  (2  K. 


JEHOASH] 


232 


[JEHOIAKIM 


14.25),  or  more  probably  Adad-nirari  ni.  of 
Assyria,  who  blockaded  Damascus  about  the 
year  803  B.C. 

2.  Son  of  Josiah  and  king  of  Judah.     Elected 
by  the  people  over  his  elder  brother  (2  K.  23.31- 
36).    His  reign  was  a  very  short  one,  lasting  only 
three  months.     Short  as  his  reign  was,  he  proved 
himself  to  be  an  oppressor  of  the  people  (Ezek. 
19.3).     He  was  carried  away  to  Egypt  a  prisoner 
in  chains,  and  died  there  (2  Oh.  36.4).     He  was 
also  called  Shallum, 

3.  Another  name  of  Ahaziah,  king  of  Judah, 
son  of  Jehoram  and  father  of  Joash,  both  kings 
of  Judah.     In  Ahaziah  the  ending  iah  is  the 
same   word    as    the   prefix   Jeho   in    Jehoahaz 
(2  Ch.  21.17,  22.1,  R.V.  marg.,  25.23). 

Jeho'ash. — Jehovah  is  strong  :  1.  The  original 
form  of  Joash.  The  son  of  Ahaziah  (2  K.  11.21) 
and  himself  a  king  of  Judah.  2.  The  son  of 
Jehoahaz,  and  the  twelfth  king  of  Israel.  He 
was  the  father  of  Jeroboam  11.  (2  K.  13.10). 
[  JOASH.] 

Jehoha'nan. — Jehovah  is  gracious  :  there  were 
six  different  men  of  this  name  mentioned  in  the 
O.T.  (1  Ch.  26.3;  2  Ch.  17.15,  23.1;  Ezra 
10.28;  Neh.  12.13,  42).  The  name  was  of 
frequent  use,  and  has  come  down  to  us  as  John. 

Jehoia'chin. — Jehovah  establishes,  or  appoints : 
son  of  Jehoiakim  and  Nehushta,  and  king  of 
Judah,  called  also  Coniah  (Jer.  22.24),  and 
Jeconiah  (1  Ch.  3.17).  He  was  born  about  the 
time  of  the  first  Babylonish  captivity,  when  his 
father  was  carried  to  Babylon.  Jehoiakim  re- 
turned from  Babylon  and  reigned  until  he  was 
killed  by  the  Chaldeans  in  the  eleventh  year 
of  his  reign,  when  he  was  succeeded  by 
Jehoiachin.  In  2  K.  24.8  Jehoiachin  is  said  to 
have  been  eighteen  when  he  began  to  reign, 
and  in  Chronicles  only  eight.  The  latter  is 
probably  due  to  a  mistake  by  the  copyist. 
The  words  of  Jeremiah,  "  Write  ye  this  man 
childless  "  (Jer.  22.30),  are  not  to  be  taken  in 
the  strictest  sense,  since  he  was  the  father  of 
more  than  one  child  (1  Ch.  3.17  ;  Matt.  1.12). 
The  prophecy  meant  that  he  should  have  no 
heir  to  his  throne,  which  proved  to  be  the  case. 
He  was  hardly  on  the  throne  when  Nebuchad- 
nezzar besieged  Jerusalem  with  a  regular  army. 
But  Jehoiachin  made  practically  no  resistance, 
and  surrendered  almost  as  soon  as  the  enemy 
had  settled  down  to  the  siege.  He,  the  queen- 
mother,  and  his  household  were  carried  to 
Babylon  ( Jer.  29.2),  together  with  all  the  treasure 
of  the  city,  and  all  its  capable  inhabitants 
(2  K.  24.13;  2  Ch.  36.9,  10).  At  Babylon 
Jehoiachin  was  kept  closely  in  prison  for  thirty- 
six  years,  when  Evil-Merodach,  succeeding 
Nebuchadnezzar  (561  B.C.),  released  him  and 
set  him  in  a  place  of  honour  over  the  other 
state  captives.  Nothing  further  is  known  of 
him,  though  Daniel  and  Ezekiel  were  his  fellow- 
captives.  Jewish  tradition,  however,  makes 
Jehoiachin  a  person  of  great  wealth  and  im- 
portance, and  the  husband  of  Susanna.  That 
the  Jews  expected  the  return  of  Jehoiachin 
not  long  after  his  overthrow  is  shown  in  Jer. 


24.4.  The  conspiracy  of  which  this  expecta- 
tion was  the  outcome  probably  led  to  his  close 
confinement  during  Nebuchadnezzar's  reign. 

Jehoia'da. — Jehovah  knows :  1.  The  father  of 
Benaiah  (2  Sam.  8.18)  and  a  chief  of  the  3700 
priests  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Ch. 

12.27).       [JOIADA.] 

2.  The   successor   of   Azariah   in    the   high- 
priesthood,    and    husband     of    Jehosheba,    or 
Jehoshabeath,  daughter  of  Jehoram,  and  sister 
of    King    Ahaziah    (2    Ch.    22.11).     With    the 
help  of  his  wife  he  rescued  Joash,  son  of  King 
Joram,    when    but    one    year    old,    from    the 
murderous  violence  of  Athaliah,  and  concealed 
him  in  the  Temple.     After  seven  years  he  pro- 
claimed him  king,  and  slew  Athaliah  (2  K.  11, 12 ; 
2  Ch.  23,  24).     While  Jehoiada  lived,  and  Joash 
followed   his  advice,   all  went  well.     Jehoiada 
formed  a  design  of  repairing  the  Temple,  and 
to    this    end    collected    considerable    sums    in 
the  cities  of  Judah.     The  Levites  made  diffi- 
culties, however,  and  it  was  not  until  the  young 
king   came  of  age   and   co-operated   with   the 
high-priest  that  he  was  able  to  proceed  with 
his  plans  (2  K.  12.7,  9  ;  2  Ch.  24.5  £f.).     Jehoiada 
held  his  office  of  high-priest  in  high  veneration. 
When  he  brought  out  Joash  and  showed  him 
to   the   people,  and   proclaimed   him   king,  he 
had    permitted    none    but    officiating    Levites 
to  enter  the  Temple.     Nor  would  he  allow  the 
idolatrous  Athaliah  to  be  put  to  death  within 
its    precincts.     He    destroyed    the    altar    and 
temple  of   Baal  and   put  its  priest  to  death. 
Jehoiada  died  at  the  age  of  130  years,  and  for 
his   services   was   buried   among   the   kings   of 
Judah  in  the  city  of  David.     He  was  succeeded 
in   the   high-priesthood    by  his   son   Zechariah 
(2  Ch.  24.20  ff.).     In  Jer.  29.26  he  is  regarded 
as  the  type  of  a  faithful  priest. 

3.  Apparently  son   of    Benaiah   and   one  of 
David's    chief   advisers,    but  many  think    the 
words   should    be    Benaiah    son    of    Jehoiada, 
as  elsewhere  (1  Ch.  27-34). 

4.  One  who  helped  to  repair  a  gate  of  Jeru- 
salem (Neh.  3.6). 

Jehoia  kim. — Jehovah  raises  tip  :  the  brother 
and  successor  of  Jehoahaz,  king  of  Judah. 
He  owed  his  crown  to  Pharaoh- Necho,  who 
changed  his  name  from  Eliakim  (2  K.  23.34-36). 
He  remained  four  years  tributary  to  that 
monarch,  until  the  battle  of  Carchemish,  when 
Necho  was  overcome  by  Nebuchadnezzar, 
and  Jehoiakim,  with  other  subject  kings,  found 
himself  compelled  to  own  the  overlordship 
of  the  Babylonian  conqueror.  Four  years 
after  the  subjugation  of  Judaea,  Jehoiakim 
revolted  from  the  Babylonian  king  (2  K.  24.1), 
who,  after  a  while,  attacked  and  captured  him, 
intending  at  first  to  carry  him  to  Babylon 
(2  Ch.  36.6),  but  afterwards  putting  him  to 
death.  Thus,  after  a  wicked  and  disturbed 
reign  of  eleven  years,  Jehoiakim  was  slain,  and 
his  body  flung  out  of  the  city  with  indignity, 
as  Jeremiah  had  predicted  (Jer.  22.18,19, 
26.23),  when  he  warned  Jehoiakim  of  the 
danger  and  foolishness  of  rebelling  against 


JEHOIAEIB] 


233 


[JEHOSHAPHAT 


Nebuchadnezzar.  The  king's  character  is 
succinctly  described  in  2  K.  23.37—"  He  did 
that  which  was  evil  in  the  sight  of  Jehovah," 
many  of  these  evil  things  being  the  encourage- 
ment of  idolatry  and  the  persecution  of  prophets 
and  priests  (2  Ch.  36.8;  Jer.  26  ;  Ezek.  8). 

Jehoia'rib. — Jehovah  pleadeth :  1.  A  priest 
(1  Ch.  9.10).  2.  The  head  of  a  priestly  family 
of  the  twenty-four  courses  in  charge  of  the 
sanctuary  (1  Ch.  24.7).  The  name  occurs 
elsewhere  as  JOIARIB. 

Jehona'dab. — Jehovah  is  liberal :  a  son  of 
Rechab  (2  K.  10.15).  [JONADAB  2.] 

Jehona'than. — Jehovah  gives  :  the  shorter 
form  of  it  is  Jonathan,  which  see.  1.  The 
superintendent  of  some  of  David's  storehouses 
(1  Ch.  27.25).  2.  A  Levite  sent  by  Jehosha- 
phat  to  teach  the  law  to  the  people  (2  Ch.  17.8). 
3.  A  priest  (Neh.  12.18). 

Jeho'ram. — Jehovah  is  exalted  :  its  shortened 
form  is  Joram.  1.  The  eldest  son  and  successor 
of  Jehoshaphat,  king  of  Judah  (2  K.  8.16). 
His  queen,  Athaliah,  daughter  of  Ahab,  incited 
him  to  idolatry  and  other  sins,  which  brought 
calamities  in  their  train.  He  began  his  career 
by  the  murder  of  all  his  brothers,  whom  Jehosha- 
phat had  removed  from  affairs  of  state,  and 
placed  in  the  fortified  cities  of  Judah.  As  a 
punishment  for  his  sins,  the  Edomites,  who  had 
been  long  subject  to  the  kings  of  Judah,  revolted 
(2  K.  8.20,  21  ;  2  Ch.  21.8,  9),  and  established 
their  independence.  This  was  followed  by 
the  incursion  of  the  Philistines,  who  finally 
stormed  his  own  palace  and  put  to  death  all 
his  family  and  dependents,  save  his  youngest 
son,  Ahaziah,  who  was  carried  away  into  cap- 
tivity (2  Ch.  22.1).  Two  years  afterwards  he 
died  of  an  "  incurable  disease,"  "  without  being 
desired,"  and  was  denied  even  burial  with  his 
fathers  (2  Ch.  21.19,  20). 

2.  The  son  of  Ahab.  When  his  brother 
Ahaziah,  who  had  succeeded  to  the  throne,  died 
and  left  no  children,  Jehoram  became  king  of 
Israel.  He  continued  the  alliance  with  Judah 
which  his  father  had  brought  about.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  he  was  called  upon  for  help 
by  Jehoshaphat,  king  of  Judah,  and  by  the 
king  of  Edom,  in  a  war  against  the  Moabites. 
The  allies  were  reduced  to  great  straits  for 
want  of  water,  and  Jehoram  was  censured 
by  Elisha  for  his  idolatry  (1  K.  19.19-21  ; 
2  K.  3.11).  He  and  his  army  retired  from  the 
conflict  when  the  Moabite  king  offered  his 
own  son  in  sacrifice  to  his  gods  (2  K.  3.27). 
He  himself  "  put  away  the  image  of  Baal 
that  his  father  had  made"  (2  K.  3.2).  The 
incidents  connected  with  Naaman's  cure 
deepened  his  reverence  for  Jehorah,  and 
secured  for  him  the  friendship  of  Elisha,  a 
friendship  that  stood  him  in  good  stead  in  the 
ensuing  war  with  Syria  (2  K.  6).  But  during 
the  peaceful  period  that  followed  Jehoram 
relapsed  into  idolatry,  and  was  severely  rebuked 
by  the  prophet.  He  was  punished  by  God, 
who  permitted  the  Syrians  to  besiege  Samaria. 
Instead  of  repenting  and  seeking  Jehovah's 


assistance,  Jehoram  tried  to  kill  Elisha,  who 
had  frequently  warned  him  (2  K.  6.30-33). 
Samaria  was  saved  after  the  inhabitants  had 
been  reduced  to  acts  of  cannibalism  (2  K.  7). 
But  Jehoram's  days  were  numbered.  In 
endeavouring  to  recover  Ramoth-gilead  from 
the  Syrians  he  was  wounded,  and  retired  to 
Jezreel  (2  K.  8.29,  9.14).  Jehu,  whom  he 
had  left  to  hold  Ramoth,  revolted  and  hastened 
to  Jezreel,  where  he  slew  Jehoram  on  the  piece 
of  ground  which  Ahab  had  taken  from  Naboth 
(1  K.  21.21  ff.).  With  his  death  the  Omri 
dynasty  ended. 

3.  A  priest  who  was  sent  by  Jehoshaphat  to 
teach  Judah  (2  Ch.  17.8). 

Jehoshabe'ath. — Jehovah  is  an  oath :  the 
wife  of  Jehoiada,  the  high-priest,  which  see. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  Jehoram  (2  Ch.  22.11). 
In  2  K.  11.2  her  name  is  spelt  Jehosheba. 

Jehosha'phat. — Jehovah  judges  :  1.  The  son  of 
Asa,  who  ascended  the  throne  of  Judah  at  the 
age  of  thirty-five.  He  reigned  for  twenty-five 
years  (2  Ch.  17.1).  He  prevailed  against 
Baasha,  king  of  Israel,  and  placed  garrisons  in 
the  cities  of  Judah  and  Ephraim,  which  had 
been  conquered  by  his  father.  He  also  de- 
molished the  high  places  and  groves  of  the 
heathen  gods,  so  far  as  he  was  able,  and  followed 
this  up  by  sending  out  parties  of  princes, 
priests,  and  Levites,  to  traverse  the  land,  teach- 
ing the  people  the  law.  He  maintained  a 
large  standing  army,  and  was '  respected  and 
feared  by  the  surrounding  peoples,  the  Philistines 
and  Arabians  paying  tribute.  He  was  re- 
proached, however,  because  of  his  alliance  with 
the  idolatrous  Ahab,  king  of  Israel  (1  K.  22.44  ; 
2  Ch.  18.1,  19.2).  Jehoshaphat  atoned  by  the 
regulations  and  good  order  which  he  estab- 
lished in  his  dominions,  both  as  to  civil  and 
religious  affairs  ;  by  personal  supervision  and 
example ;  by  appointing  honest  and  able 
judges ;  by  regulating  the  discipline  of  the 
priests  and  Levites,  and  by  commanding  them 
to  perform  their  duties  punctually  (2  Ch. 
19).  After  this  God  gave  bun  in  answer  to 
prayer  a  complete  triumph  over  the  Moabites, 
Ammonites,  and  Meonians,  people  of  Arabia 
Petraea. 

Jehoshaphat  engaged  with  Ahaziah  in  an 
attempt  to  establish  a  navy  ;  but  the  vessels 
being  wrecked  at  Ezion-geber  he  abandoned 
the  attempt  (2  Ch.  20.35-37).  The  disaster  had 
been  predicted  by  the  prophet  Eliezer  as  a 
punishment  for  his  unholy  alliance  with  the 
idolatrous  Ahaziah,  king  of  Israel.  The  close 
of  his  reign  was  calm  and  peaceful,  the  manage- 
ment of  affairs  being  in  the  hands  of  his  son 
Jehoram.  Jehoshaphat,  though  a  pious  and 
just  man,  lacked  firmness  of  character,  and  to 
this  latter  trait  were  due  the  calamities  of  his 
reign  ;  while  to  his  personal  bravery  and  activity 
was  due  the  respect,  and  also  fear,  in  which  he 
was  held.  He  was  buried  in  the  royal  sepulchre 
(1  K.  22.50  ;  2  Ch.  21.1). 

2.  Recorder  in  the  courts  of  David  (2  Sam. 
8.16)  and  Solomon  (1  K.  4.3).  Perhaps  court 


JEHOSHAPHAT,  VALLEY  OF]        234 


[JEHOVAH-SHALOM 


historians  were  employed  by  Eastern  potentates 
generally  for  recounting  victories  and  other 
notable  "events  of  their  reigns  (Esth,  6.1).  But 
the  office  may  have  been  that  of  a  Remem- 
brancer, in  continual  attendance  on  the  king, 
to  recall  persons  and  events  to  his  memory. 
[RECORDER.]  3.  An  officer  of  the  commissariat 
under  Solomon  (1  K.  4.17).  4.  A  priest  ap- 
pointed to  blow  the  trumpet  before  the  Ark  in 
its  progress  from  Obed-edom  to  Jerusalem 
(1  Ch.  15.24).  5.  The  father  of  Jehu  (2  K. 
9.2, 14). 

Jehosha'phat,  Valley  oL — A  symbolical  name 
assigned  by  the  prophet  Joel  as  the  scene  of 
the  Judgment  (Joel  3.2,  12).  From  an  early 
date  the  valley  of  Kidron,  a  deep  ravine  on 
the  east  of  Jerusalem,  has  been  selected  as 
the  site  of  the  seer's  vision,  but  the  probability 
is  that  Joel  had  no  particular  place  in  his  mind. 
Certain  it  is  that  the  Bible  does  not  mention 
any  particular  place  by  this  name.  It  is 
noteworthy,  however,  that  the  Jews  believe  the 
last  judgment  will  take  place  in  the  valley  of 
Kidron,  which,  in  consequence,  is  literally  lined 
with  the  graves  of  Moslems  and  Jews,  who 
there  await  the  final  summons.  The  valley 
was  used  for  this  purpose  at  least  as  early  as 
the  time  of  Josiah  (2  K.  23.6),  and  it  is  thought 
to  be  not  unlikely  that  it  was  called  Jehoshaphat 
before  it  received  the  name  of  Kidron.  The 
present  name  of  this  valley  is  Wady  Sitti 
Miriam. 

Jehoshe'ba. — The  same  as  Jehoshabeath, 
which  see  (2  K.  11.2). 

Jehoshu'a.— [JOSHUA.] 

Jehovah  (for  the  meaning,  see  below). — 
The  earliest  known  example  of  the  word 
Jehovah  is  of  1518  A.D.,  and  is  due  to  a  mis- 
understanding of  a  Hebrew  word,  of  which 
the  consonants  are  YHWH.  The  Jews  after 
the  Captivity  had  so  much  reverence  for  this 
name  that  it  was  rarely  used,  indeed,  according 
to  some  authorities,  only  by  the  High  Priest 
on  the  Day  of  Atonement  once  a  year.  Yet 
YHWH  occurs  very  often  in  Scripture,  and 
therefore  another  word,  Adonai  (LORD),  was 
substituted  for  it  in  reading  aloud,  and  was 
adopted  by  translators  into  foreign  tongues 
(Greek  Kyrios ;  Latin  Dominus).  Thus  the 
true  pronunciation  of  YHWH  became  lost. 
When,  however  (in  the  eighth  and  ninth 
centuries  A.D.),  the  vowel-points  were  added 
to  the  Hebrew  consonants,  those  of  Adonai 
were  given  to  YHWH  instead  of  its  own.  Hence 
if  the  first  "  a  "  were  slightly  slurred  it  was 
possible  to  read  Y^nowaH,  which  actually 
happened.  This  was  the  more  possible  in 
that  these  vowels  were  understood  to  mark 
various  parts  of  the  Hebrew  verb,  and  thus 
to  suggest  in  the  one  word  Jehovah,  "  He- 
who-will-be,"  "  He-who-is,"  and  "  He-who-was." 
Although  this  is  pure  imagination,  it  falls  in 
with  the  phrase  found  in  Rev.  1.4.  Originally, 
no  doubt,  YHWH  represented  that  state  of  a 
Hebrew  verb  which  implies  continuance  (the 
so-called  "imperfect"),  and  with  its  vowels 


was  read  as  YaHaweH  or  Yaiiwm.  Its  meaning 
was  probably  "  He-who-is "  or  "  He-who- 
will-be "  ;  suggesting  full  life  with  endless 
possibilities.  It  is  in  explanation  of  this  that 
on  Moses'  inquiry  as  to  God's  name  the  reply 
is,  "  I-am-that-I-am,"  or,  "  I-will-be-that-I- 
will-be,"  and  he  is  bid  say :  "  I-am  (or 
I-will-be)  bath  sent  me  unto  you."  The 
name  thus  stands  for  the  Self-existent  One, 
who  will  provide  for  every  need  of  His 
people. 

Into  the  question  of  how  far  the  name  was 
known  to  Israel  before  the  call  of  Moses,  it  is 
not  possible  to  enter  at  any  length.  On  the 
one  hand,  God  expressly  says,  "  I  am  Jehovah  : 
and  I  appeared  unto  Abraham,  unto  Isaac, 
and  unto  Jacob,  as  God  Almighty  (El- 
Shaddai),  but  by  My  name  Jehovah  I  was  not 
known  to  them  "  (Ex.  6.2,  3).  On  the  other 
hand,  it  occurs  frequently  in  the  Book  of 
Genesis,  and  traces  of  the  name  as  applied 
to  a  god  are  found  in  early  Babylonian  docu- 
ments. On  the  whole,  it  is  probable  that  the 
use  of  the  word  in  Genesis  is  due  to  writers, 
or  copyists,  later  than  the  call  of  Moses,  and 
that,  although  the  word  was  known  before 
that  time,  it  was  not  formally  identified  with 
the  true  God. 

In  any  case,  its  meaning  was  so  significant, 
so  full  of  promise  to  a  man  beginning  his  life's 
task,  and  to  a  nation  about  to  shake  off  its 
swaddling-bands  and  enter  on  a  career  affecting 
the  whole  world,  that  the  choice  of  it  not 
only  revealed  the  nature  of  God,  but  also 
assured  the  success  of  His  people.  It  was 
God's  covenant-name,  endued  with  power. 
Or,  in  Bishop  Westcott's  words,  "  Elohim 
includes  the  ideas  of  the  creation,  preservation, 
and  general  fixed  government  of  finite  things : 
Jehovah,  the  idea  of  living,  progressive  inter- 
course with  men,  of  whom  Israel  were  for  the 
time  the  representatives"  (The  Epistles  of 
St.  John,  1886,  p.  244).  [See  GOD,  and  the 
following  words  compounded  with  JEHOVAH.] 

Jehovah-jireh. — The  Lord  sees,  or  provides: 
the  name  given  by  Abraham  in  Gen.  22.14 
to  the  place  where  the  Lord  provided,  looked 
out,  for  Himself  the  lamb  for  a  burnt  offer- 
ing (ver.  8).  Hence  the  proverb,  "  In  the 
mount  of  the  Lord  it  shall  be  provided."  The 
proverb  can  also  be  translated,  "  In  the  mount 
of  the  Lord  one  shall  appear,"  i.e.  before  Him, 
and  Jehovah-jireh  can  also  mean,  "The  Lord 
sees "  those  who  come  before  Him.  Perhaps 
all  these  meanings  were  present  to  the  mind  of 
the  historian. 

Jehovah-nissi.  —  The  Lord  is  my  banner : 
Moses  gave  this  name  to  the  altar  he  built 
after  the  defeat  of  Amalek  (Ex.  17.15).  It 
expresses  the  thought  of  the  Lord  as  a  rallying- 
point  for  His  people,  and  the  pledge  of  their 
success  against  all  their  foes. 

Jehovah -Shalom. — The  Lord  is  peace :  Gideon, 
in  fear  of  the  angel  of  the  Lord,  is  reassured 
by  his  words,  "  Peace  be  unto  thee."  He  there- 
fore gives  this  name  to  the  altar  he  built,  in 


JEHOVAH-SHAMMAH] 


235 


[JEPHTHAH 


remembrance  of  the  fact  that  all  was  well 
between  him  and  the  Lord  (Judg.  6.24). 

Jehovah-shammah. — The  Lord  is  there :  the 
closing  words  of  Ezekiel  (48.35).  The  Lord 
had  left  Jerusalem  (11.22  sg.),  had  re-entered 
it  (43.2, 4, 7),  and  now  would  abide  there  for 
ever. 

Jehovah-tsidkenu.— The  Lord  is  our  right- 
eousness: the  title  of  the  Messianic  king  in 
Jer.  23.6,  and,  as  it  seems,  of  Jerusalem  in 
Messianic  times  in  Jer.  33.16.  In  the  former 
the  Messiah  is  regarded  as  the  means  by  which 
the  Lord  imparts  righteousness  to  His  people; 
in  the  latter  the  city  as  the  scene  of  its  display, 
and  its  inhabitants  the  recipients  of  it.  It 
can  hardly  mean  that  either  the  Messiah,  or  the 
city,  is  the  Lord. 

Jehozalmd. — Jehovah  gives :  1.  One  of  those 
that  slew  Jehoash,  king  of  Judah  (2  K.  12.21). 
2.  A  Levitical  "  doorkeeper  "  in  the  time  of 
David  (1  Ch.  26.4).  3.  One  of  Jehoshaphat's 
chief  captains  from  Benjamin,  who  had  under 
him  180,000  soldiers  (2  Ch.  17.18).  [JOZABAD.] 

Jehoza'dak. — Jehovah  is  righteous  :  the  son  of 
Seraiah,  the  high-priest  (1  Ch.  6.14,15).  He 
probably  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  captivity, 
as  nothing  more  is  heard  of  him  until  we  read 
of  his  son  Jeshua  returning  from  the  Captivity 
with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  3.2 ;  Nek.  12.26).  Here 
the  name  is  abbreviated  to  Jozadak ;  and  else- 
where it  is  Josedech,  which  see. 

Je'hu. — Jehovah  is  He:  1.  The  son  of  Jehosha- 
phat  and  grandson  of  Nimshi.  With  him  began 
the  fifth  dynasty  of  the  kings  of  Israel,  which 
lasted  longer  than  any  other  royal  house  of  that 
country  (2  K.  10).  Jehu's  chief  characteristics 
were  secrecy,  rapidity  of  action,  and  cruelty, 
lie  was  still  a  youth  when  God  commanded 
Elijah  to  anoint  him  king  of  Israel  (1  K.  19.16). 
For  some  reason  Elijah  did  not  carry  out  this 
command,  which  then  devolved  upon  Elisha, 
who  performed  the  ceremony  by  proxy  and  in 
secret  (2  K.  9.1,6).  Jehu  at  the  time  was 
captain  of  the  host  besieging  Ramoth-gilead, 
having  been  left  there  by  Jehoram,  who  had 
retired  to  Jezreel  to  be  healed  of  a  wound.  On 
the  fact  being  made  known  to  his  brother  officers 
they  acclaimed  him  king,  and  did  him  such 
royal  honours  as  the  time  and  place  permitted 
(2  K.  9.2-15).  Jehu  took  measures  to  prevent 
the  news  of  the  insurrection  reaching  Jehoram, 
and  at  once  set  off  for  Jezreel,  where  he  slew 
Jehoram  with  his  own  hand,  caused  the  flight 
of  the  king  of  Judah  and  the  death  of  Jezebel 
(2  K.  9.24-37).  Then  Jehu  proceeded  from 
massacre  to  massacre,  until  he  had  extermin- 
ated the  house  of  Ahab  (2  K.  10.1-14).  It 
was  during  Jehu's  march  to  Samaria  that  he 
encountered  Jehonadab,  the  Rechabite,  and 
engaged  his  assistance  in  the  slaughter  of 
the  followers  of  Baal  in  the  temple  built  by 
Ahab  (1  K.  16.32;  2  K.  10.23).  The  pillars 
of  Baal  were  demolished,  the  temple  levelled 
with  the  ground,  and  the  site  put  to  vile  uses. 
Yet  though  Jehu  had  been  the  instrument  in 
the  hands  of  God  for  taking  vengeance  on  the 


house  of  Ahab,  we  find  him  in  Scripture  accused 
of  not  entirely  forsaking  the  sins  of  Jeroboam, 
who  made  Israel  to  sin  in  worshipping  the 
golden  calves  (2  K.  10.29-31).  He  appears 
to  have  been  actuated  more  by  the  spirit  of 
ambition  than  by  the  fear  of  God,  or  a  desire  to 
restore  the  purity  of  Jehovah's  worship.  During 
the  further  twenty-seven  years  of  his  reign  we 
hear  of  no  other  public  act  of  Jehu  than  that  he 
maintained  the  calf-worship  of  Jeroboam.  He 
was  buried  at  Samaria,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Jehoahaz.  [HAZAEL,  RAMOTH- 
GILEAD,  JEZREEL.]  Jehu  is  mentioned  on 
"the  Black  Obelisk"  (now  in  the  British 
Museum)  as  giving  tribute  to  the  Assyrian 
king,  Shalmanezer  n.  (c.  840  B.C.),  and  is  called 
there  "  Jehu  son  of  Omri,"  the  change  of 
dynasty  not  being  understood  by  the  Assyrian 
scribes,  if  indeed  Omri  is  not  a  clerical  error  for 
Nimshi,  as  has  been  suggested. 

2.  A  prophet  of  Judah,  whom  God  sent  to 
Baasha  king  of  Israel  to  predict  punishment  for 
his  misdeeds  (1  K.  16.1-7)  in  destroying  the  house 
of  Jeroboam.  He  also  denounced  Jehoshaphal 
(2  Ch.  19.2,3).  [BAASHA.]  3.  Of  Simeon  (1  Ch. 
2.38).  4.  Of  Judah  (1  Ch.  4.35).  5.  One  of 
David's  heroes  (1  Ch.  12.3). 

Jehub'bah. — The  name  is  probably  Hubbah 
(1  Ch.  7.34). 

Jehu'cal. — Jehovah  is  able :  a  messenger 
sent  by  King  Zedekiah  to  Jeremiah  to  ask  his 
intercession  for  the  people  (Jer.  37.3).  In 
Jer.  38.1  his  name  is  Jucal. 

Je'hud. — A  town  of  Dan,  7  miles  from  the 
Mediterranean,  near  Jaffa  (Josh.  19.45).  Its 
present  name  is  El-Yehudiyeh. 

Jehu'di. — A  Jew  :  a  messenger  of  Jehoiakim 
(Jer.  36.14,  21,  23). 

Jehudi'jah. — The  Jewess :  this  word  is 
thought  to  De  not  a  name,  but  an  appellation 
(1  Ch.  4.18). 

Jehuel.— [JEHIEL.] 

Jehu'sh.—  A  Benjamite  (1  Ch.  8.39).    [JEUSH.] 

Jei'el. — There  are  several  persons  of  this 
name  mentioned  in  Chronicles  and  Ezra  (1  Ch. 
5.7,  9.35,  11.44,  15.18,  16.5;  2  Ch.  20.14, 
26.11,  29.13,  35.9  ;  Ezra  8.13,  10.43). 

Jekabze'el. — God  assembleth  :  a  fuller  form  of 
Kabzeel,  which  see  (Neh.  11.25). 

Jekame'am.— A  Levite  (1  Ch.  23.19). 

Jekami'ah.— (1  Ch.  2.41).    [JECAMIAH.] 

Jekuthi'el. — The  son  of  Ezrah  by  his  Jewish 
wife,  the  Jewess,  and  father  of  Zanoah  (1  Ch. 
4.18). 

Jemi'ma,  Jemimah. — Job's  eldest  daughter, 
born  to  him  in  his  second  period  of  prosperity 
(Job  42.14). 

Jemu'el. — Light  of  God  (Gen.  46.10).  Else- 
where the  name  occurs  as  Nemuel. 

Jephthse.— The  Greek  form  of  Jephthah 
(Heb.  11.32). 

Jeph'thah. — He  opens  :  one  of  the  judges  of 
Israel.  He  was  a  son  of  Gilead  by  a  concubine, 
and  was  driven  from  home  by  his  brethren 
because  of  his  birth  (Judg.  11.1,  2).  Afterwards 
they  implored  him  to  return  and  help  them 


JEPHUNNEH] 


236 


[JEREMIAH 


against  the  Ammonites,  who  had  invaded  Israel. 
He  consented  to  do  so  on  condition  that  he 
should  be  made  commander-in-chief  of  the 
forces,  and  have  an  entirely  free  hand  in  the 
operations  against  the  invaders.  His  demands 
were  complied  with,  and  he  immediately  pro- 
ceeded against  the  foe,  after  endeavouring  by 
reason  and  parley  to  induce  them  to  retire  to 
their  own  country  and  give  up  their  claim 
against  Israel.  As  he  started,  Jephthah  vowed 
to  God  that  if  he  were  successful  he  would 
offer  as  a  burnt-offering  the  first  creature 
that  should  come  forth  from  the  doors  of 
his  house  to  meet  him  (Judg.  11.30, 31). 
Jephthah  was  successful  against  the  Ammonites. 
On  returning  to  his  house,  his  only  child,  a 
daughter,  came  out  to  meet  him.  On  seeing  her, 
Jephthah  recalled  his  vow :  "  I  have  opened 
my  mouth  unto  the  Lord,  and  I  cannot  go 
back"  (Judg.  11.34-39).  Jephthah's  daughter 
did  not  flinch.  The  conditions  of  the  vow 
were  fulfilled  at  the  expiration  of  two  months. 
The  expression  used  by  Jephthah's  daughter, 
as  well  as  the  concluding  clause  of  ver.  39, 
is  adduced  by  a  few  commentators  as  favour- 
ing the  supposition  that  her  father's  vow 
was  fulfilled  by  devoting  her  to  a  life  of 
celibacy.  The  history  of  Abraham  and  Isaac 
would  be  well  known  by  Jephthah,  and  its 
lesson  would  be  remembered.  Some  commen- 
tators accordingly  suppose  that  Jephthah, 
having  at  first  contemplated  a  human  sacrifice, 
afterwards  became  better  acquainted  with  the 
law,  and  availed  himself  of  the  provision  made 
in  Lev.  27.2-4,  by  paying  the  redemption  price 
there  prescribed  ;  and  that  further  to  fulfil  the 
spirit  of  his  vow,  by  his  daughter's  civil  excision 
from  among  the  living,  he  devoted  her  to 
perpetual  celibacy  and  seclusion.  But  this  is 
extremely  improbable. 

Jephthah's  next  public  act  was  to  punish  the 
proud  men  of  Ephraim  for  questioning  his  right 
to  fight  the  Ammonites  without  their  consent, 
and  for  taking  up  arms  against  him  and  invading 
Gilead.  They  were  defeated,  and  the  fugitives 
from  the  battle  put  to  death  at  the  fords 
of  the  Jordan  (Judg.  12).  [SHIBBOLETH.] 
Jephthah's  skill  and  wisdom  served  Israel  for 
six  years  only,  when  he  died  and  was  buried 
in  one  of  the  cities  of  Gilead  (Judg.  12.7). 
Jephthah  was  manifestly,  like  Samson,  an 
instrument  of  God's  power  rather  than  an 
example  of  His  grace,  though  in  Heb.  11.32 
he  is  mentioned  in  a  list  of  faithful  worthies. 

Jephun'neh. — (?)  God  will  be  turned,  ».«.  made 
gracious:  1.  Father  of  Caleb  (Num.  13.6).  2.  A 
man  of  Asher  (1  Ch.  7.38). 

Je'rah. — The  moon  :  the  fourth  of  the  sons  of 
Joktan  and  the  founder  of  an  Arabian  tribe 
(Gen.  10.26  ;  1  Ch.  1.20). 

Jerahme'eL — May  God  have  compassion : 
1.  The  first-born  son  of  Hezron,  descendant 
of  Judah  (1  Ch.  2.9).  His  descendants,  who 
lived  on  the  southern  border  of  Judah,  main- 
tained friendly  relations  with  David  when  he 
was  at  Ziklag  (1  Sam.  27.10).  The  name  has 


become  famous  of  recent  years,  owing  to  a 
strange  theory  that  the  tribe  was  the  source  of 
much  of  the  Jewish  religion,  and  that  very  many 
of  the  names  in  the  O.T.  are  a  corruption  of 
Jerahmeel.  2.  A  Merarite  Levite  who  repre- 
sented the  family  of  Kish  when  David  organised 
Divine  service  (1  Ch.  24.29).  3.  The  son  of 
Hammelech,  who  was  ordered  by  King  Jehoiakim 
to  take  Jeremiah  and  Baruch  prisoners  (Jer. 
36.26). 

Jeranme'elites. — The  descendants  of  Jerahmeel, 
whose  country  was  in  the  south  of  Judah 
(1  Sam.  27.10).  David  sent  then-  cities  part 
of  the  spoil  of  the  Amalekites,  and  represented 
to  Achish  that  he  had  invaded  their  country 
(1  Sam.  30.29). 

Je'red. — 1.  A  patriarch  who  lived  before  the 
flood.  He  was  the  father  of  Enoch  (1  Ch.  1.2) 
and  the  son  of  Mehalaleel.  His  name  occurs  also 
as  Jared.  2.  A  Judahite.  Son  of  Ezrah  and  his 
wife,  "  the  Jewess  "  (1  Ch.  4.18).  He  was  the 
founder  of  the  family  of  Gedor. 

Jer'emai. — Apparently  a  shortened  form  of 
Jeremiah.  A  member  of  the  family  of  Hashum, 
whom  Ezra  compelled  to  put  away  his  foreign 
wife  (Ezra  10.33). 

Jeremiah. — Jehovah  looseneth ;  possibly, 
Jehovah  is  high :  1.  The  prophet,  the  son  of 
Hilkiah,  a  priest  of  Anathoth.  This  Hilkiah 
was  probably  not  the  high-priest  of  that  period 
(2  K.  22.4),  for  he  would  not  have  been  spoken 
of  so  indefinitely  as  "of  the  priests"  (Jer.  1.1); 
and  the  priests  of  Anathoth  seem  to  have  been 
of  the  house  of  Ithamar  (1  K.  2.26),  while  the 
high-priesthood  had  long  been  in  the  line  of 
Phinehas  (1  Ch.  6.13).  Jeremiah  was  called  to 
the  prophetic  office  about  seventy  years  after  the 
death  of  Isaiah,  in  the  thirteenth  year  of  Josiah, 
whilst  very  young  (Jer.  1.6),  and  still  living  at 
Anathoth.  Shortly  afterwards  he  received  a 
charge  to  deliver  a  message  in  Jerusalem  (2.1) : 
and  some  suppose  him  to  have  made  a  tour 
through  the  cities  and  towns  of  Judah  for  the 
purpose  of  announcing  to  the  inhabitants  the 
contents  of  the  book  of  the  law  which  had  been 
found  in  the  Temple  (11.2,  6  ;  2  K.  22).  On 
his  return  to  Anathoth,  his  fellow-townsmen, 
including  even  some  of  his  own  family,  offended 
at  his  reproofs  of  their  wickedness,  conspired 
against  him  (11.21,  12.6);  upon  which  he  ap- 
pears to  have  taken  up  his  abode  at  Jerusalem. 

During  the  reign  of  Josiah,  the  prophet  no 
doubt  aided  him  in  the  religious  reformation  of 
the  people.  But  at  the  end  of  eighteen  years 
the  invasion  by  Pharaoh-necho  ended  in  the 
good  king's  death,  and  in  the  Egyptian  captivity 
of  his  son  and  successor,  Shallum  or  Jehoahaz 
(22.10-12).  Jehoiakim  succeeded,  and  hence- 
forth the  ministry  of  the  prophet  was  carried  on 
amid  continual  interruption  and  persecution. 
The  "  priests  and  prophets "  became  his 
accusers,  and  demanded,  with  the  populace,  that 
he  should  be  put  to  death  for  denouncing  woe 
against  the  city  (26).  The  "  princes  "  did  not 
dare  to  defy  God  thus  openly ;  but  Jeremiah 
was  either  placed  under  restraint,  or  deterred  by 


JEREMIAH] 


237 


[JEREMIAH,  BOOK  OF 


his  adversaries  from  appearing  in  public.  In 
these  circumstances  he  was  commanded  by  God 
to  write  his  predictions,  which  Baruch  then 
read  in  the  Temple  on  a  fast  day,  in  "  the  fourth 
year  of  Jehoiakim,"  which  was  also  the  first  of 
Nebuchadnezzar.  They  contained  a  clear 
intimation  that  the  kingdom  of  Judah  would 
be  orerwhelmed  by  the  growing  power  of 
Babylon  (25).  The  princes  were  alarmed,  and 
endeavoured  to  arouse  the  king  by  reading  to 
him  the  words  of  Jeremiah.  But  in  vain:  the 
monarch,  after  hearing  three  or  four  pages,  cut 
the  roll  in  pieces,  and  cast  it  into  the  fire,  giving 
orders  for  the  apprehension  of  Jeremiah  and 
Baruch.  God  preserved  them,  and  soon  after- 
wards directed  Jeremiah  to  write  again  the 
same  messages,  with  some  additions  (36). 

In  the  short  reign  of  the  next  king,  Jehoiachin, 
otherwise  called  Jeconiah,  or  Coniah,  he  still 
uttered  the  voice  of  warning  (cf.  2  K.  24.12  and 
Jer.  22.24-30),  though  without  effect.  In  the 
reign  of  Zedekiah,  Jeremiah  was  repeatedly  com- 
missioned to  declare  that  the  Chaldeans  should 
take  Jerusalem,  and  burn  it  with  fire.  En- 
deavouring to  leave  the  city,  he  was  accused 
of  deserting  to  the  enemy,  and  cast  into  prison, 
where  he  remained  until  the  city  was  taken. 
Nebuchadnezzar,  who  had  been  led  to  respect 
the  prophet's  character,  ordered  his  general, 
Nebuzar-adan,  to  protect  him.  It  was  put  to 
his  choice  whether  he  would  go  to  Babylon, 
where  doubtless  he  would  have  been  honoured 
at  the  court,  or  would  remain  with  his  own 
people ;  but  he  preferred  the  latter.  He 
subsequently  warned  the  leaders  of  the  people 
against  fleeing  to  Egypt.  The  people  refused  to 
obey,  and  went  to  Egypt,  compelling  Jeremiah 
and  Baruch  to  accompany  them  (43.6).  In 
Egypt  he  still  sought  to  turn  them  to  the  Lord 
(44) ;  but  his  writings  give  no  information  as  to 
his  later  life.  Ancient  authors  assert  that  the 
Jews,  offended  by  his  faithful  remonstrances, 
stoned  him  to  death  in  Egypt. 

Jeremiah  was  contemporary  with  Zephaniah, 
Habakkuk,  Ezekiel,  and  Daniel.  Between 
Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel  there  are  points  both 
of  comparison  and  of  contrast.  They  were 
both  long  labouring  for  the  same  object,  at 
nearly  the  same  time ;  the  one  in  Palestine, 
the  other  in  Chaldea  ;  and  both  endeavouring 
to  persuade  the  Jews  to  become  quiet  citizens 
there,  though  both  looked  forward  to  the 
restoration.  But  Ezekiel  laid  much  more  stress 
on  the  ritual  side  of  religion  than  did  Jeremiah. 
They  were  dissimilar  in  character  and  disposition, 
and  differed  widely  in  their  modes  of  expres- 
sion. We  see  in  Jeremiah  a  man  reluctantly 
brought  out  from  private  life  into  the  publicity 
and  peril  which  attended  the  prophet's  office. 
Naturally  mild,  susceptible,  and  inclined  rather 
to  mourn  in  secret  for  the  iniquity  which 
surrounded  him  than  to  brave  and  denounce 
the  wrongdoer,  he  stood  forth  at  the  call  of  God, 
and  proved  himself  a  faithful  champion  of  the 
truth,  amidst  reproaches  and  persecutions. 
In  Ezekiel,  on  the  other  hand,  we  see  the  power 


of  Divine  inspiration  acting  on  a  mind  naturally 
firm  and  independent,  yet  more  ecclesiastical. 

2.  A  man  of  Libnah,  the  father  of  Hamutal, 
who  was  the  wife  of  King  Josiah  and  the  mother 
of  King  Jehoahaz  (2  K.  23.31).  3.  A  Manassite 
(1  Ch.  5.24).  4.  A  Benjamite  (1  Ch.  12.4). 
5.  A  Gadite  (1  Ch.  12.10).  6.  A  Gadite  (1  Ch. 
12.13).  7.  A  priest  who  came  back  with  Zerub- 
babel  (Neh.  12.1).  8.  A  priest  who  sealed 
the  covenant  with  Nehemiah  at  the  dedication 
of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  10.2  ;  perhaps 
the  same  as  12.12,  34).  Perhaps  Nos.  7  and 
8  represent  the  name  of  a  course  rather  than 
a  person,  and  so  are  identical.  9.  A  Rechabite 
(Jer.  35.3). 

Jeremiah,  Book  of. — The  authorship  of  this 
Book  in  its  primary  form  is  indicated  in  Jer.  36. 
To  the  contents  of  the  two  rolls  there  named 
other  material  was  no  doubt  added,  in  such  a 
way  as  to  make  this  work  a  biography  of  the 
prophet  as  well  as  a  collection  of  his  prophecies. 

The  arrangement  of  the  contents  of  the  Book 
has  been  much  discussed.  The  following 
classification  is  suggested  by  certain  notes  of 
time  in  some  of  the  passages  and  by  their 
contents  : — 

1.  In  the  reign  of  Josiah,  1-12.     The  begin- 
ning of  chap.  11  seems  to  mark  the  time  when 
the  book  of  the  Law  was  newly  discovered  in 
the  Temple  (2  K.  22.3-13). 

2.  Under  Jehoiakim,  13—20,  in  connexion  with 
which    series    of    discourses    is    recorded    the 
conspiracy  of  "  the  princes  of  Judah  "  against 
the    prophet,    with    his   deliverance    (25,    26). 
Chap.  22.1-19  denounces  Jehoiakim  for  his  un- 
righteousness,   and    declares    the    fate    of    his 
brother  and  predecessor  (Jehoahaz  or  Shallum). 
Chap. 35  draws  lessons  of  constancy  and  obedience 
from  the  conduct  of  the  Rechabites.     Chaps.  45 
(to  Baruch,  the  prophet's  scribe)  and  36  refer 
to  the  roll  of  the  above  prophecies  as  read  to 
Jehoiakim  in  the  fifth  year  of  that  king's  reign, 
and  by  him  cut  to  pieces  and  burned. 

3.  Under  Jehoiachin,  22.20-30.     The  fate  of 
the   king   (called   here   Coniah)   is  pathetically 
depicted.     He  is  to  be  a  lifelong  prisoner  in 
Babylon,  and  to  leave  no  heir  to  the  throne  of 
David  ;  being  thus  virtually  childless. 

4.  Under  Zedekiah.     The  following  passages 
belong  to  this  period  :  21,  27  (counselling  sub- 
mission to  the  Babylonian  yoke) ;  28  (recording 
the  prediction  of  the  false  prophet  Hananiah 
of  deliverance  within  two  years) ;  34  (the  king's 
fate,  and  the  punishment  of  the  slave-owners' 
perfidy) ;  37,  38  (an  account  of  the  prophet's 
arrest    and    impri»onmeat) ;    39,    52.1-30   (the 
capture  of  Jerusalem).     Chaps.  30-33  give  the 
assurance    of    restoration,    and    of    the    New 
Covenant,  with  the  remarkable  episode  (32)  of 
the  purchase  by  the  prophet  of  his  ancestral 
property  at  Anathoth,  in  the  assurance  that  the 
land  would  be  regained. 

5.  Prophecies  against  hostile  nations,  46—52. 
These  were  pr»bably  uttered  at  different  times, 
and  are  gathered  into  these  four  chapters  from 
their    similarity    of    subject.     They    relate    to 


JEKEMIAH,  BOOK  OF] 


238 


[JERICHO 


Egypt,  Piiilistia,  Moab,  Aramon,  Edom, 
Damascus,  Kedar,  and  the  kingdoms  of  Hazor, 
Elam,  and  Babylon.  The  brief  discourse 
against  Elam  (49.34-39)  was  delivered  at  the 
beginning  of  Zedekiah's  reign ;  the  wonderful 
prophecy  respecting  Babylon  (50,  51)  in  that 
king's  fourth  year,  when  he  went  with  the  chief 
officer  of  his  court  into  Chaldaea  on  some  errand 
to  us  unknown.  This  discourse  was  to  be 
cast  into  the  Euphrates  bound  to  a  stone,  an 
emblem  of  the  sinking  of  the  proud  city 
(51.63,64;  cf.  Rev.  18.21). 

6.  After  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.     One  of  the 
most  striking  parts  of  the  book  is  in  chap.  29, 
a    letter   sent  by   Jeremiah   to   the   exiles  in 
Babylon  with  Jehoiachin,  counselling  them  as 
to    their    conduct    in    captivity.     Instead    of 
rebelling  and  repining  they  were  to  settle  down 
as  peaceful  and  industrious  inhabitants  of  the 
land,  seeking  the  prosperity  of  the  country,  and 
repudiating   those   false  prophets   who   sought 
to  stir  up  discontent.     After  seventy  years,  the 
prophet  declares,    the   captivity   would    cease. 
This  wise  and  noble  letter  had  a  lasting  influence 
for  good,  and  was  remembered  when  the  day 
of  deliverance  came  (Ezra  1.1). 

7.  To    the    end    of    Jeremiah's    life,    39-44. 
This  section  is  mainly  historical,  and  its  details 
have  been  already  noted.     The  chief  prophetic 
discourse  which  it  contains  is  a  protest  against 
the  idolatry  of  the  Jews  in  Egypt  (44). 

Among  the  special  predictions  of  Jeremiah  were 
his  prophecies  of  the  fate  of  Zedekiah  (34.2,  3  : 
cf.  2  K.  25.5-7 ;  Jer.  52.11),  the  duration  of  the 
Babylonian  captivity  (25.11,  12;  see  Dan.  9.2), 
and  the  return  of  the  Jews  (29.10-14 ;  Ezek.  1.1). 
The  downfall  of  Babylon  (25.12,  50-51)  and  of 
many  nations  (46-49)  is  also  foretold  in  pre- 
dictions, the  successive  completion  of  which 
kept  up  the  faith  of  the  Jews  in  those  that  refer 
to  the  Messiah  (23.3-8,  30.9,  31.15,  32.37,  33.26). 
He  foretells  very  clearly  the  abrogation  of  the 
Mosaic  law ;  speaks  of  the  ark  as  no  more  re- 
membered (3.16) ;  and  reaches  the  very  height 
of  O.T.  prediction  in  his  great  prophecy  of  the 
New  Covenant  (31.31-34). 

The  references  in  the  N.T.  to  Jeremiah  are 
frequent.  Compare  7.11  with  Matt.  21.13, 
"  a  den  of  robbers  "  ;  9.24  with  1  Cor.  1.31, 
"  glorying  in  the  Lord  "  ;  10.7  with  Rev.  15.4 ; 
11.20  with  1  Thess.  2.4 ;  17.10  with  Rev.  2.23  ; 
22.5  with  Matt.  23.38  ;  25.10  with  Rev.  18.22,  23  ; 
51.7-9  with  Rev.  14.8,  17.2,  4, 18.3,  5 ;  51.45  with 
Rev.  18.4;  and  51.63,  64  with  Rev.  18.21. 
The  appellation  "  Dayspring,"  as  applied  to  the 
Messiah,  Lk.  1.78,  is  from  the  LXX  of  Jer.  23.5, 
where  the  Heb.  is  "  Branch  "  (so  Zech.  3.8,  6.12). 
The  most  noteworthy  of  such  N.T.  applications 
is  that  of  31.31-34  in  Eel.  8.8-13  and  10.15-17. 
The  prophet  describes  the  New  Covenant  in 
terms  which  make  this  passage  a  true  anticipa- 
tion of  the  gospel,  and  possibly  suggest  the 
phrase  "  New  Covenant "  in  the  institution 
of  the  Lord's  Supper;  so  placing  Jeremiah 
by  the  side  of  Isaiah  as  an  "  Evangelical 
Prophet." 


Jeremi'as. — Greek  form  of  Jeremiah  (Matt. 
16.14). 

Jere'moth,  Jeri'moth.— A  son  of  David  by 
a  concubine.  His  daughter  became  wife  to 
Rehoboam  (2  Ch.  11.18).  There  were  several 
other  persons  of  this  name  (see  1  Ch.  7.7,  8, 
8.14, 12.5,  23.23,  25.4,  27.19 ;  2  Ch.  11.18, 31.13 ; 
Ezra  10.26,  27). 

Jer'emy. — An  abbreviation  of  Jeremiah 
(Matt.  2.17). 

Jeri'ah. — Founded  by  Jehovah  :  a  descendant 
of  Hebron,  the  Kohathite  (1  Ch.  23.19).  In 
1  Ch.  26.31  bis  name  is  given  as  Jerijah. 

Jeri'bai. — Jehovah  contends :  one  of  David's 
heroes  (1  Ch.llAQ). 

Jer'icho.— (?)  The  Fragrant  Place  or  City  of 
Balsam  :  a  city  on  the  west  border  of  the  Ghor, 
6  miles  from  the  Jordan,  under  the  brow  oL  a 
range  of  barren,  precipitous  mountains.  Tne 
Jericho  of  Joshua's  time  was  about  ]  J  miles 
north-west  of  the  modern  village  of  Eriha,  and 
20  miles  north-east  of  Jerusalem,  near  the  pure, 
sweet  fountain  (all  the  others  in  the  neighbour- 
hood are  still  brackish)  called  'Ain  es-Sultan  and 
Elisha's  Fountain,  perhaps  the  one  healed  by 
him  at  the  request  of  the  inhabitants  (2  K. 
2.19-22).  This  Jericho  was  a  royal  city  of 
high  antiquity,  the  principal  one  in  the  valley 
of  the  Jordan,  and  referred  to  as  well  known 
in  the  Books  of  Numbers  and  Deuteronomy 
(Num.  22.1,  26.3,63,  31.12,  33.48,  36.13; 
Dent.  32.49,  34.1 ;  Josh.  13.32  ;  Jer.  52.8).  It 
was  defended  by  walls  and  gates  of  consider- 
able strength  ( Josh.  2.5, 15,  6.2,  5,  20,  12.9). 
Its  citizens  were  wealthy  (Josh.  6.24,  7.21), 
and  the  surrounding  country  fruitful  (Deut. 
34.3;  Judg.  1.16,  3.13).  The  important,  and 
indeed  chief,  fords  of  the  Jordan  crossed  by 
Joshua  were  opposite  Jericho,  which  was 
the  first  city  of  Palestine  taken  by  him  (Josh. 
2.1,22.)  after  the  two  spies  had  returned. 
[RAHAB.]  It  being  doomed  by  God,  Joshua, 
on  the  fall  of  the  walls,  set  fire  to  the  city  and 
razed  it  to  the  ground.  Joshua  pronounced 
a  curse  upon  the  man  who  should  rebuild  "  this 
city  Jericho  "  ( Josh.  6.26).  The  penalty  fell 
five  hundred  years  afterwards  on  Hiel,  of 
Bethel  (1  K.  16.34).  [ABIRAM,  SEOUB.]  A 
school  of  the  prophets  was  established  at  Jericho, 
and  was  visited  by  Elijah  and  Elisha  (2  K.  2.4-18). 
The  city  was  taken  by  the  Chaldeans  (2  K. 
25.5),  but  was  repeopled  after  the  return  from 
the  Captivity  (Ezra  2.34 ;  Neh.  3.2). 

In  the  time  of  Christ,  Jericho  was  the  second 
city  in  Judaea.  It  was  the  scene  of  our  Lord's 
cure  of  Bartimseus  and  of  His  visit  to  Zacchaeus 
(Matt.  20.29 ;  Mk.  10.46-52  ;  Lk.  18.35, 19.1-10). 
At  one  time  Jericho  formed  part  of  the  property 
of  Cleopatra,  given  to  her  by  Antony,  and  by 
her  leased  to  Herod  the  Great,  who  built  many 
palaces  and  public  buildings.  It  was  finally 
destroyed  by  the  Romans  about  the  year  230  A.D. 

Jericho  has  changed  but  little  for  many 
centuries,  and  is  now  a  mean  settlement  of 
about  fifty  dwellings,  encircled  with  a  hodge  of 
thorns  as  a  protection  against  the  Arabs*  A 


JERIEL] 


239 


[JERUSALEM 


fine  brook  flows  by  it,  emptying  into  the  Jordan, 
which  is  about  3  miles  away.  The  grounds 
near  by  bear  good  crops  of  dourra,  Indian  corn, 
rice,  and  onions.  The  people  are  Moham- 
medans, governed  by  a  sheikh,  and  it  is  said 
that  robbery  and  plunder  form  their  chief 
occupation.  The  road  leading  from  Jerusalem 
is  still  one  of  the  most  dangerous  in  all  Palestine, 
both  because  of  its  physical  character  and  from 
being  the  haunt  of  bandits.  The  foundations 
of  the  ancient  city  were  excavated  at  the  end 
of  1908. 

Jeri'eL— Founded  by  God :  a  chief  of  Issachar 
(1  Ch.  7.2). 

Jerijah. — [JEHIAH.] 

Jeri'moth. — [J  EREMOTH.] 

Jerioth. — Curtains  :  a  wife  of  Caleb,  the  son 
of  Hezron,  if  we  should  not  amend  the  text, 
making  Jerioth  the  name  of  the  former  husband 
of  Caleb's  wife  (1  Ch.  2.18). 

Jerobo'am  L  —  (?)  The  people  are  many  : 
the  son  of  Nebat  and  of  Zeruah,  "  a  widow 
woman,"  was  born  (perhaps  out  of  wedlock) 
at  Zereda  (1  K.  11.26),  and  is  stamped 
with  the  infamy  of  having  "  made  Israel  to 
sin"  (1  K.  12.26-33,  15.34,  etc.).  He  came 
under  the  notice  of  Solomon  when  the  king 
was  building  Millo  (apparently  a  part  of  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem),  and  was  by  him  placed 
over  the  "  charge  "  or  levy  of  forced  labour 
(corvee)  imposed  on  the  Ephraimites  (1  K. 
11.26,27).  Ilia  ambition  was  fostered  by 
the  prophet  Ahijah,  who  promised  that  he 
should  reign  over  ten  of  the  tribes,  and,  if  he 
obeyed  God's  laws,  should  be  prospered  as 
David  was  (1  K.  11.29-40).  Solomon  took 
the  alarm,  and  attempted  to  apprehend  Jero- 
boam, who  thereupon  fled  to  Egypt,  where  he 
remained  until  the  death  of  Solomon.  He 
then  returned  to  his  native  town,  and  found 
that  Rehoboam,  who  had  succeeded  to  the 
throne  of  David,  had  already  alienated  ten 
of  the  tribes.  These  ten  tribes,  hearing  of 
Jeroboam's  return,  "  made  him  king  over  all 
Israel."  Jeroboam  fixed  his  residence  at 
Shechem,  whidi  he  fortified.  He  also  rebuilt 
Penuel,  a  city  beyond  Jordan,  putting  it  into 
a  state  of  defence,  in  order  to  keep  the  tribes  on 
that  side  of  the  Jordan  quiet  (1  K.  12.1-15). 

But  Jeroboam  soon  forgot  the  condition 
(1  K.  11.38)  under  which  prosperity  was  pro- 
mised. Fearing,  no  doubt,  that,  if  the  ten 
tribes  went  to  the  annual  festivals  at  Jerusalem, 
they  might  be  drawn  away  from  him,  he  estab- 
lished idolatrous  worship,  with  two  chief  shrines, 
at  Dan  and  at  Bethel  (1  K.  12.28-30).  His 
symbolic  representation  of  Jehovah  under  the 
form  of  a  calf  probably  was  not  due  to  Egyptian 
influence,  but  was  a  return  to  early  Israelite 
and  Canaanite  ideas.  He  also  built  temples, 
and  ordained  priests  of  the  lowest  of  the  people, 
who  were  to  be  neither  of  the  family  of  Aaron 
nor  of  the  tribe  of  Levi  (1  K.  12.31).  God 
warned  Jeroboam,  through  the  unknown  pro- 
phet, and  by  the  withering  and  restoration  of  his 
arm  (1  K.  13.1-10) ;  and  again  by  the  mouth 


of  the  blind  prophet  Ahijah  (1  K.  14.13-18). 
But  Divine  cautions  were  disregarded,  Jeroboam 
and  his  house  continuing  in  sin  to  their  own 
loss  (1  K.  13.34).  After  reigning  twenty-two 
years,  Jeroboam  died,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Nadab  (1  K.  13,  14.1-20). 

Jeroboam  n. — The  son  of  Joash,  king  of 
Israel,  and  the  fourth  in  the  dynasty  of  Jehu. 
He  reigned  for  forty-one  years,  and  though  he 
indulged  in  the  idolatrous  practices  of  the  son 
of  Nebat,  yet  God  so  far  prospered  him  that  his 
reign  witnessed  the  restoration  of  the  kingdom 
of  the  ten  tribes  from  a  state  of  decay  to  a 
pitch  of  extraordinary  splendour.  During 
this  reign  the  prophets  Amos,  Hosea,  and 
Jonah  lived  and  taught.  The  events  in  the 
life  of  Jeroboam  n.  are  to  be  found  in 
2  K.  14.23-29,  and  in  writings  of  Hosea  and 
Amos.  He  was  perhaps  the  "  saviour,"  pro- 
mised in  the  reign  of  Jehoahaz,  who  should 
drive  out  the  Syrians  (2  K.  13.4,  14.26,27). 
He  did  more,  for  he  followed  the  retreating 
Syrians,  and  took  their  capital,  Damascus 
(2  K.  14.28;  Amos  1.3,5),  and  recovered 
the  whole  of  Solomon's  dominion,  according 
to  the  prophecy  in  Amos  6.14.  But  the  old 
morality  and  the  pure  worship  of  God  were  not 
restored ;  vice  and  oppression  were  rife,  while 
the  worship  of  Jehovah  was  defiled  by  idolatry 
(Hos.  1.2,  4.12,  13,  14,  13.6;  Amos  2.6-8,  4.1, 
6.6).  [AMOS,  HOSEA,  BETHEL.] 

Jero'ham. — May  he  receive  mercy  :  1.  Grand- 
father of  the  prophet  Samuel  (1  Sam.  1.1). 
2.  A  Benjamite  (1  Ch.  8.27).  3.  Another 
Benjamite  (1  Ch.  9.8).  4.  A  priest  (1  Ch.  9.12). 

5.  Father  of  some  of  David's  heroes  (1  Ch.  12.7). 

6.  A  Danite.    Father  of  Azareel  (1  Ch.  27.22). 

7.  A  captain  who  helped  Jehoiada  to  put  Joash 
on  the  throne.     Father  of  Azariah  (2  Ch.  23.1). 

Jerubba'aL — Let  Baal  contend :  this  name 
was  bestowed  upon  Gideon  by  his  father  Joash 
when  he  destroyed  the  altar  of  Baal  (Judg. 
6.32).  [GIDEON,  and  the  next  article.] 

Jerubbe'sheth. — Let  shame  contend :  another 
name  given  to  Gideon  by  those  who  wished 
not  to  utter  the  word  Baal  in  Jerubbaal  (2  8am. 
11.21).  [See  also  ISHBOSHETH,  MEPHIBOSHETH, 
words  of  a  similar  construction.] 

Jeru'eL — Founded  by  God:  part  of  the 
wilderness  of  Judah,  and  the  scene  of  a  battle 
between  the  Ammonites,  Moabites,  Edomites, 
and  Jehoshaphat  (2  Ch.  20.16).  The  locality 
is  unknown. 

Jerusalem. — Under  the  name  Urusalim,  i.e. 
City  of  Salim  or  City  of  Peace,  a  town  existed 
on  the  site  of  Jerusalem  before  the  Israelites 
crossed  the  Jordan  into  Palestine.  Letters  in 
the  Tel  el-Amarna  collection  show  that  it  was 
then  (about  1400  B.C.)  a  place  of  some  import- 
ance under  a  ruler  subordinate  to  Egypt.  The 
name  appears  in  the  form  Jerusalem  in  Josh  10.1. 
The  Jews  identified  it  with  the  Salem  of  which 
Melchizedek  wa3,  king  (Gen.  14.18,  and  see 
Ps.  76.2).  The  modern  Jewish  and  Christian 
inhabitants  preserve  the  name  Yerusalim ; 
though  under  the  Romans  it  was  known  as 


JERUSALEM] 


240 


[JERUSALEM 


Mlia.  Capitolina ;  and  by  the  Moslems  as 
El-Kuds,  the  Sanctuary,  or  by  titles  similarly 
indicating  its  associations. 

In  situation,  Jerusalem  lay  on  the  boundary 
between  the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin, 
32  miles  from  the  Mediterranean,  18  miles  from 
the  Jordan,  20  miles  from  Hebron,  and  36  miles 
from  Samaria.  It  is  built  on  the  summit  of 
the  broad  mountain  ridge  which  traverses  the 
country  from  north  to  south,  on  a  double  pro- 
montory projecting  southward  from  the  plateau, 
and  is  approachable  only  by  wild  mountain 
roads.  This  promontory,  is  formed  by  two 
ravines,  which  render  access  difficult  except 
from  the  north,  and  so  constitute  a  natural 
defence.  On  the  east  side  is  the  valley  of 
Kidron,  called  also  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat. 
On  the  south-west  and  the  south  is  another 
ravine,  the  valley  of  Hinnom.  These  two 
ravines  unite  at  Jacob's  Well  (Bir  Eyab),  at  a 
depth  of  670  feet  lower  than  their  starting-point 
on  the  upper  plateau.  The  city  with  these 
tremendous  natural  defences  of  deep  ravines 
and  surrounding  mountains  is  thus  a  compact 
mountain  fastness  (Ps.  87.1,  122.3,  125.1,  2). 

The  history  of  Jerusalem  in  the  O.T.  begins 
with  the  appearance  of  Melchizedek,  king  of 
Salem,  who  blessed  Abraham  (Gen.  14.18-20; 
cf.  Heb.  7.1).  In  Josh.  10  appears  Adoni-zedek, 
king  of  Jerusalem.  He  formed  a  coalition 
against  the  people  of  Gibeon,  who  had  made 
terms  with  Joshua  and  the  invading  Israelites. 
Joshua  took  and  executed  the  five  confederate 
kings,  including  the  king  of  Jerusalem ;  but 
though  he  attacked  the  cities  of  the  other 
four,  Jerusalem  for  the  time  escaped.  It  is 
named  amongst  the  "  uttermost  cities  of  the 
tribe  of  the  children  of  Judah  "  (Josh.  15.21,  63), 
with  the  note  that  the  children  of  Judah  could 
not  drive  out  the  Jebusites,  its  inhabitants,'  but 
that  the  invaders  and  invaded  dwelt  together. 
Its  capture  is  recorded  in  Judg.  1.8.  The 
Jebusites  appear  to  have  revived  their  con- 
fidence in  the  strength  of  their  city.  When 
David — whose  capital  was  then  at  Hebron — 
attacked  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  5)  they  derided 
him  (2  Sam.  5.6).  David's  retort  was  an  appeal 
to  his  men,  who  successfully  assaulted  the 
citadel,  or  "  stronghold  of  Zion."  David's 
capital  was  then  transferred  to  Jerusalem, 
about  the  year  1000  B.C.,  and  Jerusalem  bl- 
came  "  the  city  of  David."  To  it  he  brought 
the  ark  from  the  house  of  Obed-edom  (2  Sam. 
6.12).  Jerusalem  was  spared  from  the  census 
plague  (2  Sam.  24.16) ;  and  in  gratitude  David 
bought  the  threshing-floor  of  Araunah  the 
Jebusite,  built  there  an  altar  (2  Sam.  24.25), 
and  prepared  to  raise  there  the  Temple  (1  Ch. 
22.1-4),  which  Solomon  built  (1  K.  6.1-38). 
On  the  division  of  the  kingdom,  Jerusalem 
remained  the  capital  of  the  two  tribes  left  to 
Rehoboam  (1  K.  14.21).  In  his  reign  it  was 
taken  by  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt  (1  K.  14.25) ; 
under  Jehoram  by  the  Philistines  and  Arabians 
(2  Ch.  21.16,  17) ;  and  tinder  Amaziah  by 
Joash,  king  of  Israel  (2  Ch.  25.23,24).  In 


the  reign  of  Ahaz  an  attack  by  Rezin,  king 
of  Syria,  and  Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  was  un- 
successful (2  K.  16.5).  So  also  was  the  attempt 
of  Sennacherib,  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  (2  K. 
18.19;  2  Ch.  32;  /sat.  36^37).  The  sins  of 
king  and  people  under  Manasseh  led  to  the 
capture  of  the  king  and  his  deportation  to 
Babylon  (2  Ch.  33.9-11).  Josiah  effected  at 
Jerusalem  a  religious  and  moral  reformation 
(2  Ch.  34.3-5).  Under  Jehoiachin  the  city  was 
besieged  and  taken  by  the  forces  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, king  of  Babylon,  who  deported  the 
king  and  all  save  the  poorest  of  his  subjects 
to  Babylon  (2  K.  24.12-16).  Zedekiah  was 
placed  on  the  throne,  but  rebelled.  Jerusalem 
endured  a  prolonged  siege  by  the  forces  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  but  was  taken,  the  Temple 
and  the  greater  buildings  were  destroyed,  and 
the  walls  broken  down  (2  K.  25).  Under  Cyrus, 
as  recorded  in  Ezra,  the  people  returned,  the 
Temple  was  rebuilt,  and  the  Law  restored. 
Nehemiah  restored  the  ruined  walls  (Neh.  3). 
Alexander  the  Great  visited  the  city  during 
the  high -priesthood  of  Jaddua,  who  is  men» 
tioned  in  Neh.  12.11,  22. 

On  the  death  of  Alexander,  and  the  division 
of  his  conquests,  Judaea  lay  on  the  borders  of 
rival  states — Egypt  and  Syria.  As  a  result, 
it  seldom  enjoyed  prolonged  peace.  Ptolemy 
Soter  took  the  city  about  the  year  320  B.C. 
It  was  strengthened  and  beautified  under 
Simon  the  Just  about  300  B.C.  (Ecclus.  50). 
Antiochus  the  Great  captured  it  in  203  B.C., 
but  in  199  it  was  retaken  by  Scopas,  the 
Alexandrian  general.  On  the  defeat  of  the 
Egyptians  by  Antiochus,  Jerusalem  again  fell 
under  his  sway  in  198.  It  was  captured  in 
169  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  who  desecrated 
the  Temple,  and  erected  a  pagan  altar  on  the 
altar  of  Jehovah  (Dan.  11.31);  but  in  165 
Judas  Maccaboeus  retook  the  city.  Pompey 
captured  it  in  65  B.C.,  and  the  Parthians  sacked 
it  in  40  B.C.  Herod  the  Great  retook  it  in  37, 
and  rebuilt  the  Temple,  raising  the  building 
visited  by  our  Lord.  For  the  place  of  Jeru- 
salem in  the  minds  of  the  Hebrews  see  Ps.  122.6, 
137.5,6;  /sat.  62.1,7;  and  cf.  1  K.  8.38; 
Dan.  6.10  ;  Matt.  5.35. 

In  the  N.T.  Jerusalem,  though  so  pro- 
minent in  the  Gospels,  loses  its  supremacy. 
The  interest  widens  far  beyond  the  bounds  of 
Palestine.  Rome,  Corinth,  Ephesus,  and  othej> 
great  cities  claim  attention.  Jerusalem  the 
city  is  only  referred  to  in  three  Epistles  (Rom., 
1  Cor.,  and  Gal).  Outside  the  Gospels  and 
the  Acts,  and  the  reference  to  "  Jerusalem  .  .  . 
above "  and  "  the  new  Jerusalem,"  its  natne 
appears  only  nine  times  in  the  N.T.  To*  it 
came  the  Wise  Men  from  the  East  (Matt.  2.1). 
Joseph  and  Mary  brought  thither  the  infant 
Jesus  (Lk.  2.22) ;  and  again  went  up  with  Him 
when  He  was  twelve  (Lk.  2.41-51).  The  people 
of  Jerusalem  were  attracted  by  the  ministry 
of  John  the  Baptist  (Matt.  3.5) ;  but  resisted 
the  ministry  of  our  Lord  (Lk.  13.33,  34). 
[For  reference  to  His  ministry,  trial,  and  death 


JERUSALEM] 


241 


[JERUSALEM 


at  Jerusalem,  see  JESUS  CHRIST.]  At  Jerusalem 
the  infant  Church  remained  by  command  (Acts 
1.4)  until  Pentecost  (Acts  2.1-36).  There  the 
Church  grew,  miracles  attending  the  ministry 
of  the  Apostles  (Acts  2-5).  At  Jerusalem 
Stephen  was  martyred  (Acts  7.59),  but  when 
persecution  grew,  the  Apostles  remained  at 
Jerusalem  (Acts  8.1,14,  32.1-19),  where  they 
were  referred  to  on  the  question  of  circumcision 
(Acts  15).  St.  Paul  first  appears  (as  Saul)  at 
Jerusalem  (Acts  8.1),  but  had  been  a  student 
there  under  Gamaliel  (Acts  22.3).  His  visits 
to  Jerusalem  are  recorded  in  Acts  9.26-28, 11.29, 
30,  15.2-6,  21.17;  and  see  Gal.  2.1-7.  The 
poorer  members  of  the  Church  at  Jerusalem 
suffering  under  famine,  the  brethren  of  Mace- 
donia and  Achaia  sent  them  help  (Acts  11.29,  30 ; 
Rom.  15.25,  26  ;  1  Cor.  16.1-3).  For  the  sym- 
bolical use  of  the  name  Jerusalem,  see  Gal. 
4.25,  26  ;  Heb.  12.22  ;  Rev.  3.12,  21.2, 10. 

The  later  history  of  Jerusalem  was  as  chequered 
as  the  earlier.  The  destruction  under  Titus 
(70  A.D.)  was  the  consummation  of  a  siege  which 
occupied  about  300,000  men  for  nearly  five 
months.  It  is  described  by  Josephus  and 
referred  to  by  Tacitus.  The  city  was  defended 
with  desperate  valour,  and  the  total  loss  of  life 
entailed  in  the  siege  has  been  estimated  at  a 
million.  The  Emperor  Hadrian  visited  Jeru- 
salem in  130  A.D.,  rebuilt  the  city,  suppressing 
a  serious  revolt  of  the  Jews  (132-135  A.D.), 
and  called  it  ^Elia  Capitolina.  The  Emperor 
Constantino  and  his  mother,  Helena,  inaugurated 
a  new  era.  The  sacred  sites  were  investigated, 
and  the  Church  of  the  Resurrection  was  dedi- 
cated in  the  year  336.  The  pagan  reaction 
under  Julian  was  marked  by  an  attempt  to 
rebuild  the  Temple.  The  Jews  received  the 
proposal  with  enthusiasm ;  but  the  early 
stages  of  the  work  were  attended  with  portents 
deemed  supernatural,  and  the  project  was 
abandoned.  In  614  the  Persians  sacked  the  city, 
when  90,000  Christians  were  slain.  Heraclius 
retook  it  in  628;  but  in  637  it  fell  to  the 
Saracens.  The  crusader,  Godfrey  of  Bouillon, 
wrested  it  from  the  Moslems  in  1099 ;  and 
Saladin  recaptured  it  in  1187. 

The  watts  of  Jerusalem  have  occasioned  much 
controversy.  Towards  the  north,  three  walls 
at  one  time  existed,  but  their  precise  lines  are 
uncertain.  Jerusalem  was,  no  doubt,  a  walled' 
city  early  in  its  history,  and  its  fort  or  citadel 
filled  the  Jebusites  with  confidence  (2  Sam.  5.6). 
David,  on  capturing  the  stronghold,  appears  to 
have  increased  the  fortified  area  (2  Sam.  5.9). 
Solomon  added  to  the  walls  (1  K.  3.1,  9.15). 
Jehoash,  king  of  Israel,  on  capturing  Amaziah, 
king  of  Judah,  broke  down  a  long  stretch  of 
wall  (2  K.  14.13).  Nebuzaradan,  Nebuchad- 
nezzar's "  captain  of  the  guard,"  destroyed  the 
walls  more  thoroughly  (2  K.  25  ;  Nek.  1.3,  2.13  ; 
Jer.  52.14).  Nehemiah's  operations  were  by 
way  of  restoring  that  which  had  existed.  When 
the  Romans  besieged  the  city  in  70  A.D.,  they, 
to  deal  on  the  n*rth  side  not  only  with  two 
ient  walls,  but  also  with  the  third,  which 
16 


had  not  existed  in  the  time  of  our  Lord,  built 
by  Agrippa  i.,  in  the  time  of  Claudius  Caesar, 
still  further  to  enlarge  the  city.  The  modern 
wall  of  Jerusalem  may  follow  the  line  of  this 
third  wall  along  its  northern  course. 

Many  Gates  of  Jerusalem  are  mentioned  in  the 
O.T. ;  but  more  than  one  name  may  have  been 
applied  to  the  same  gate.  The  references  are 
as  follows : — 

The  Corner  Gate  (2  K.  14.13  ;  2  Ch.  25.23, 
26.9;  Jer.  31.38). 

The  Gate  of  Ephraim  (2  K.  14.13;  2  Ch. 
25.23  ;  Neh.  8.16,  12.39). 

The  Gate  of  Joshua  (2  K.  23.8). 

The  Gate  "  between  two  walls,  which  is  by 
the  king's  garden  "  (2  K.  25.4  ;  Jer.  39.4). 

The  Horse  Gate  (2  Ch.  23.15;  Neh.  3.28; 
Jer.  31.40). 

The  Valley  Gate  (2  Ch.  26.9  ;  Neh.  2.13, 15). 

The  Fish  Gate  (2  Ch.  33.14 ;  Neh.  3.3, 12.39). 

The  Dung  Gate  (Nth.  2.13,  3.13, 12.31). 

The  Gate  of  the  Fountain  (Neh.  2.14,  3.15). 

The  Sheep  Gate  (Neh.  3.1, 32, 12.39). 

The  Old  Gate— gate  of  the  old  city,  or  of  the 
old  wall,  R.V.  marg.— (Neh.  3.6,  12.39). 

The  Water  Gate  (Neh.  3.26,  8.1,3, 16, 12.37). 

The  East  Gate  (Neh.  3.29 ;  in  Jer.  19.2  the 
R.V.  has  "  gate  of  Harsith,"  or,  "  the  gate  of 
potsherds,"  marg.). 

The  Gate  Miphkad— the  gate  of  Hammiphkad, 
R.V.— (Neh.  3.31). 

The  Prison  Gate— gate  of  the  ward,  R.V.— 
(Neh.  12.39). 

The  Gate  of  Benjamin  (Jer.  37.13,  38.7). 

The  Middle  Gate  (Jer.  39.3). 

The  following  streets  of  Jerusalem  find  men- 
tion in  the  O.T. :  The  East  Street  (2  Ch.  29.4) ; 
the  street  of  tht  house  of  God  (Ezra  10.9) ; 
the  street  that  was  before  the  water  gate 
(Neh.  8.1,3,16);  the  street  of  the  gate  of 
Ephraim  (Neh.  8.16) ;  the  bakers'  street  ( Jer. 
37.21). 

The  roads  leading  out  of  Jerusalem  are  said 
to  have  had  special  care  from  Solomon,  who 
paved  them  with  black  basalt  brought  from 
beyond  the  Jordan.  There  were  but  two 
maui  lines  of  travel  leading  into  the  city.  The 
first  was  from  the  Jordan  valley,  by  way  of 
Jericho  and  the  Mount  of  Olives,  and  was  used 
by  travellers  north  and  east  (2  Sam.  15.16 ; 
Lk.  17.11,  with  18.35),  from  Damascus,  and 
from  the  country  about  Samaria  (2  Ch.  28.15). 
This  route  is  used  by  travellers  to  the  present 
time.  The  second  road  ran  from  the  great 
maritime  plain  of  Philistia  and  Sharon,  and 
led  by  the  two  Bethhorons  up  to  the  high 
ground  at  Gibeon.  From  there  it  turned 
south,  and  approached  Jerusalem  by  Ramah 
and  Gibeah.  This  was  the  road  used  by  armies 
in  approaching  the  city.  A  third  road,  little 
traversed,  communicated  with  the  hilly  districts 
to  the  south. 

The  modern  Jerusalem  is  a  walled  city,  about 
2J  miles  in  circumference,  connected  by  railway 
with  the  seaport  of  Jafta.  The  population — 
which  includes  Jews,  Moslems,  and  Christians 


JERUSHA,  JERUSHAH] 


242 


[JESHURUN,  JESURUN 


of  the  Greek,  Roman,  and  Protestant  Churches — 
has  grown  rapidly  in  recent  years.  In  1873 
it  was  estimated  at  20,000  ;  in  1911  at  80,000. 
The  Jewish  element  owes  something  of  its 
growth  to  encouragement  from  external  sources. 
The  compactness  of  the  city  to  the  view  is 
somewhat  impaired  by  the  great  pile  of  Russian 
buildings  to  the  north-west,  as  well  as  by  the 
smaller  group  surrounding  the  "  Tomb  of  David  " 
to  the  south.  Within  the  walls  the  houses 
are  for  the  most  part  crowded  closely  together, 
and  there  are  few  open  spaces.  The  traveller 
sees  no  streets  of  palaces.  Instead,  he  finds 
himself  encompassed  on  every  side  by  walls 
of  rude  masonry,  the  dull  uniformity  of  which 
is  broken  by  the  occasional  protrusion  of  a 
small  grated  window.  In  the  irregular  and 
almost  forsaken  streets,  meanness,  misery,  and 
filth  appear  on  every  side.  To  the  native 
population  very  few  of  the  streets  have  names. 
Some  are  a  succession  of  arched  avenues ;  in 
others,  the  opposite  houses  nearly  meet  over- 
head,  or  a  canopy  of  old  mats  and  planks  is 
placed  across,  so  low  as  scarcely  to  allow  a 
pedestrian  to  pass  beneath.  The  footpaths  are 
only  partially  paved,  and,  in  many  instances, 
are  as  rugged  and  steep  as  a  mountain  road, 
and  so  narrow  that  two  laden  camels  can  with 
difficulty  pass  each  other.  The  shops  are  few, 
mean,  and  dirty,  the  chief  business  being  done 
at  the  bazaars. 

The  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  is  one 
of  the  chief  buildings  of  the  city.  It  is  built 
over  the  old  traditional  site  of  Calvary,  and 
is  visited  by  every  pilgrim.  It  is  found 
necessary  to  keep  a  guard  at  the  church,  to 
preserve  order  among  the  members  of  the 
Greek  and  Roman  Churches.  This  is  particu- 
larly necessary  at  Easter,  when  the  number 
of  pilgrims  is  greatest. 

The  Mosque  of  Omar,  more  properly  the 
"  Dome  of  the  Rock,"  with  its  extensive  area, 
its  verdant  lawn,  and  groups  of  olive  and  cypress 
trees,  occupies  nearly  one-eighth  of  the  whole 
city.  It  is  a  splendid  building,  beautiful  inside 
and  out,  and  is  held  by  many  to  stand  upon 
the  site  of  the  Temple  of  Solomon. 

After  much  controversy,  Jerusalem  was 
made,  in  1840,  the  seat  of  a  Protestant  bishopric. 
The  controversy  was  revived  in  an  acute  form 
when,  after  a  vacancy  of  some  years,  the  see 
was  filled  by  the  appointment  of  an  English 
bishop  in  1887.  The  Church  Missionary  Society 
and  the  London  Jews'  Society  have  stations 
at  Jerusalem. 

Jeru'sha,  Jeru'shah. — Taken  possession  of: 
the  daughter  of  Zadok,  wife  of  king  Uzziah, 
and  mother  of  king  Jotham  (2  K.  15.33  ;  2  Ch. 
27.1). 

Jesai'ah. — Salvation  of  Jehovah  :  1.  Grandson 
of  Zerubbabel  (I  Ch.  3.21).  2.  A  Benjamite 
(Neh.  11.7). 

Jeshai'ah. — Identical  with  Jesaiah  and  Isaiah. 
1.  A  musician  in  the  Temple  service,  and 
chief  of  the  eighth  course  of  singers  (1  Ch. 
25.3).  2.  A  descendant  of  Eliezer,  son  of 


Moses,  and  one  of  David's  treasurers  (1  Ch. 
26.25).  3.  Chief  of  the  Merarites,  who  went 
up  with  Ezra  (Ezra  8.19).  4.  A  son  of  Elam, 
who  went  up  with  Ezra  (Ezra  8.7). 

Jesha'nah. — (?)  Ancient  city:  a  town  taken 
by  Abijah  from  Jeroboam  (2  Ch.  13.19).  It 
is  thought  to  have  been  identified  with  Ain 
Sinai,  a  village  near  Bethel,  which  place  is 
mentioned  in  our  text  as  coupled  with 
Jeshanah. 

Jeshare'lah. — The  same  as  Asarelah.  A  son 
of  Asaph  in  the  time  of  David  (1  Ch.  25.14). 

Jeshebe'ab.— (?)  Seat  of  the  father :  the  leader 
of  the  fourteenth  course  of  priests  (1  Ch.  24.13). 

Je'sher. — Rightness  or  uprightness :  a  son 
of  Caleb  (1  Ch.  2.18). 

Jeshi'mon.— A  waste  place,  desert :  the  deso- 
late desert  tract  of  country  in  the  south  of 
Palestine.  It  extends  on  both  sides  of  the 
Dead  Sea  (Num.  21.20  ;  1  Sam.  23.19). 

Jeshi'shai. — (?)  Of  ancient  descent :  an  ancestor 
of  the  Gadites  (1  Ch.  5.14). 

Jeshoha'iah. — (?)  Jehovah  crouches  :  the 
chief  of  a  Simeonite  family.  He  took  part  in 
the  raid  upon  the  Hamites  (1  Ch.  4.36)  in  the 
time  of  Hezekiah. 

Jeshu'a. — Jehovah  is  salvation :  1.  A  con- 
tracted form  of  Jehoshua.  In  Neh.  8.17  Joshua, 
the  son  of  Nun,  is  called  Jeshua.  [JOSHUA.] 
2.  A  priest  of  David's  time  (1  Ch.  24.11).  He 
is  also  called  Jeshuah.  3.  A  Levite  who  dis- 
tributed the  tithes  to  the  priests  in  the  time  of 
Hezekiah  (2  Ch.  31.15). 

4.  The  son  of  Jehozadak  the  high-priest,  an 
office  which  he  himself  held  (Ezra  2.2  ;  Neh.  7.7). 
He  returned  from  the  Babylonish  Captivity  with 
Zerubbabel,  and  took  part  in  the  rebuilding  of 
the    Temple.     He   showed    great    energy    and 
courage  hi  the  re-establishment  of  the  country, 
and  it  was  mainly  through  his  efforts  that  the 
Temple  services  were  resumed  so  soon  after  the 
return  (Ezra  3).     His  efforts  were  delayed  by 
the    Samaritans     [SANBALLAT]     for     fourteen 
years.     But  at  the  end  of  that  time  the  Temple 
was  finished,  and  dedicated  at  the  celebration 
of  the  Passover  (Ezra  6.15-22).     His  piety,  his 
high  character,  and  the  importance  of  his  work 
in  the   settlement  of  his  countrymen  in  their 
own  land,  have  gained  for  him  the  honour  of 
being  a  type   of   Christ   (Zech.   3.8).    In    the 
beginning  of  the  same  chapter  of  Zechariah  he 
represents  Israel,  and  is  assured  of  pardon  and 
restoration  (Zech.  3.1-7). 

5.  A   branch   of    the    tribe   of    Judah   that 
returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.6  ;  Neh.  7.11). 
6.  Another   priest    and    leader    who    returned 
with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.36).     7.  Father  of  a 
Levite   who  returned   with   Ezra   (Ezra   8.33). 
8.    Father    of    Ezer,    who    repaired    the    wall 
(Neh.  3.19).    9.  A  Levite  who  sealed  the  covenant 
(Neh.  10.9).     10.  A    town   near  Beersheba,  re- 
occupied  by  Judah  after  the  return  from  the 
Captivity.      Its     modern     name     is     S'Aweh 
(Neh.  11.26). 

Jeshu'run,  Jesu'run. — The  upright  one:  a 
poetical  expression  used  to  denote  the  people 


JESIAH] 


243 


[JESUS  CHRIST 


of  Israel  in  its  ideal  character  (Deut.  32.15). 
In  Isai.  44.2  the  word  is  wrongly  written 
Jesurun. 

Jesi'ah.— 1.  One  of  David's  mighty  men 
(1  Ch.  12.6).  2.  (1  Ch.  23.20).  [JESHIAH  and 
IsraAH.] 

Jesiini'eL — God  establishes :  a  Simeonite 
prince  in  the  time  of  Hezekiah  (1  Ch.  4.36). 

jes'se._The  father  of  David.  A  son  of  Obed 
and  grandson  of  Boaz  and  Kuth  (Ruth  4.17).  He 
is  the  only  one  of  his  name,  and  was  generally 
called  "  Jesse  the  Bethlehemite "  (1  Sam. 
16.1-18).  From  the  time  of  the  Exodus  the 
family  was  a  famous  one,  belonging  to  the 
house  of  Pharez.  [NAHSHON,  NAASON.]  In 
1  Sam.  17.12  he  is  given  his  full  title  of  "  that 
Ephrathite  of  Bethlehem-Judah."  Jesse  had 
eight  sons  living  with  him  at  Bethlehem,  where 
he  was  in  honour,  though  he  was  not  one  of  the 
elders  of  the  town  (1  Sam.  16.4,  5,  10,  17.12). 
His  property  consisted  of  flocks  of  sheep,  under 
the  care  of  David  (1  Sam.  16.11).  Even  after 
David  had  become  famous  and  powerful  he  is 
still  called  the  "  son  of  Jesse  "  (1  Ch.  29.26). 
The  prophet  Isaiah  puts  the  name  of  Jesse  on  a 
pinnacle  of  honour — "And  there  shall  come  forth 
a  rod  out  of  the  stem  of  Jesse,  and  a  Branch 
shall  grow  out  of  his  roots  "  (Isai.  11.],  and  see 
also  11.10). 

Je'sui.— An  Asherite  (Num.  26.44).  Else- 
where his  name  appears  as  Isui  (Gen.  46.17)  and 
Ishuai  (1  Ch.  7.30). 

Jes'uites. — The  descendants  of  the  above 
(Num.  26.44). 

Jesus. — Saviour :  1.  The  Greek  form  of  the 
name  of  Joshua,  the  son  of  Nun.  So  in  Acts 
7.45  ;  Eel.  4.8.  2.  In  Col.  4.11  St.  Paul  writes 
lovingly  of  "  Jesus,  which  is  called  Justus." 
This  Jesus  was  a  Jewish  Christian,  who  was 
one  of  the  Apostle's  fellow-workers  at  Rome, 
and  was  a  great  comfort  to  him.  [JOSE.] 

Jesus  Christ. — No  attempt  can  be  made  in 
this  article  to  deal  with  all  the  subjects  associ- 
ated with  the  life  and  work  of  our  Lord. 
Reference  must  also  be  made  to  other  articles 
as  here  noted. 

I.  The  names  of  our  Lord  are  used  in  the  N.T. 
in  a  manner  which  has  significance.  "  Jesus," 
the  Greek  equivalent  of  the  Hebrew  "  Joshua  " 
("  Jehovah  is  deliverance  "),  the  name  given 
before  the  birth  of  our  Lord  (Matt.  1.21  ; 
Lk.  1.31),  is  that  most  frequently  used  in  the 
Gospels.  Alone  as  "  Jesus  "  it  appears  more 
than  600  times;  as  "Jesus  Christ"  five  or 
six  times ;  and  never  as  "  Christ  Jesus." 
"  Christ,"  from  the  Greek  for  "  Anointed," 
the  equivalent  of  "  Messiah,"  is  used  alone 
only  some  50  times  in  the  Gospels.  In  the 
Epistles  and  the  Revelation,  however,  the  per- 
sonal name  Jesus  is  used  sparingly,  unless 
associated  with  the  title  "  Lord  "  or  "  Christ." 
The  transition  is  natural,  and  suggests  the 
theme  of  apostolic  preaching.  "  This  Jesus  .  ,  . 
is  the  Christ "  (Acts  17.3). 


II.  There  may  be  discerned  a  preparation  for 
Christ  in  the  world  at  large.     The  coming  was 
not  an  isolated  act,  but  an  act  strictly  related 
to  the  history  of  mankind.     He  came  "  in  the 
fulness  of  the  time  "  (Gal.  4.4),  in  respect  of  the 
world  as  well  as  of  the  Jewish  people.     Politic- 
ally, the  world  was  ready  for  the  rapid  growth  of 
a  new  religion  by  the  consolidation  of  the  Roman 
Empire.     There  were  ease  of  communication, 
orderly  conditions,  and  a  language  (Greek)  as 
useful  to  the  traveller  as  is  the  English  of  to-day. 
Religiously,  the  world,  by  the  development  of 
the  Roman  Empire,  had  suffered  the  loss  of 
vitality  in  the  separate  religions  of  its  various 
peoples.     Their  diminished  power  suggested  the 
need  of  some  central  faith — a  need  not  met  by 
the  deification  of  the  Emperor  himself.     Philo- 
sophy sought  to  point  the  way  to  such  a  faith. 
It  had  failed.    Despite  the  work  of  many  men  of 
lofty  ideals,  Society  went  from  bad  to  worse. 
The  moral  condition  of  the  Pagan  world  had 
reached  a  depth  of  vileness  for  which  no  remedy 
was   apparent.     The    conditions   indicated   by 
St.   Paul  in  Rom.  1  are  even  more  definitely 
presented  by  the  historians,  poets,  and  play- 
wrights of  paganism. 

What  wonder  that  at  this  time  an  intoler- 
able weariness  had  descended  on  the  world, 
and  that  self-murder  was  practised  by  the 
nobler  as  well  as  the  baser  members  of  the 
community,  and  was  not  condemned  even  by  a 
Marcus  Aurelius  ?  It  was  at  such  a  period  that 
there  spread  a  belief  that  some  new  crisis  was 
at  hand — a  belief  which  found  a  more  definite 
expression  in  the  Messianic  hope  of  the  Jews. 

The  preparation  for  Christ  in  Hebrew  history 
may  be  studied  in  the  development  of  that 
Messianic  hope.  When  the  "  fulness  of  the  time  " 
was  come,  men  were  looking  for  an  Elijah  or  one 
of  the  prophets  to  prepare  the  way  of  the  new 
King  (Mk.  6.15,  8.28  ;  John  1.21,  6.14),  or,  like 
Simeon  and  Joseph  of  Arimathsea,  waited  for 
the  promised  consolation  (Mk.  15.43;  Lk.  2.25). 
When  John  the  Baptist  came,  men  questioned 
whether  he  were  the  promised  Christ  (Lk.  3.15). 
The  Jewish  world  was  in  expectation,  even 
though,  when  the  Promised  One  "  came  unto 
His  own,"  they  that  were  His  own  "  received 
Him  not"  (John  1.11).  [CHRONOLOGY  OP  N.T., 
MESSIAH.] 

III.  Our    main    authorities   for  the    life  of 
our  Lord  are  the  four  Gospels.     Instead,  there- 
fore, of  summarising  the  Life  in  a  narrative 
form,  it  may  be  more  convenient  to  supply 
a  synopsis  in  the  form  of  a  harmony  of  the 
Gospels. 

This  method  of  presenting  the  story  of  our 
Lord's  life  on  earth  has  also  the  advantage  of 
suggesting  some  distinctive,  characteristics  of 
each  Gospel.  The  contrast  between  the  Synoptic 
Gospels  (Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke)  and  the 
Gospel  according  to  St.  John  in  their  treatment 
of  the  life  of  our  Lord  is  at  once  apparent.  [See 
each  GOSPEL  under  its  title.] 


JESUS  CHRIST] 


244 


[JESUS  CHRIST 


EVENTS 

MATT. 

MARK 

LUKE 

JOHN 

PART  I.  —  BIRTH  AND  CHILDHOOD  OF 

OUR  LORD. 

SECT. 

ch.  ver. 

ch.  ver. 

ch.  ver. 

ch.  ver. 

1.  The  Genealogies      

1.  1-17 

3.  23-38 

2.   The    birth     of     John     announced     to 

Zacharias.  —  Jerusalem 

1.  5-25 

3.  The  birth  of  Jesus  announced  to  Mary.  — 

Nazareth     

1.  26-38 

4.  Mary's  visit  to  Elisabeth,  and  her  song 

of  praise.  —  Jutta  ? 
5.  The  birth  of  John  the  Baptist.—  Jutta  ?  . 

•• 

1.  B9-56 
1.  57-80 

6.  An  angel  appears  to  Joseph.  —  Nazareth  . 

1.  18-25 

7.  The  birth  of  Jesus.—  Bethlehem      . 

2.1-7 

8.  Angelic    message    to    the    shepherds.  — 
Near  Bethlehem  

2.  8-20 

9.  The  Circumcision  ;    Presentation  in  the 

Temple.  —  Bethlehem  and  Jerusalem     . 

.  . 

2.  21-38 

10.  The  visit  of  the  Magi.  —  Jerusalem  and 

Bethlehem  

2.  1-12 

11.  The  flight  into  Egypt.     Herod's  cruelty. 
The  return  from  Egypt  to  Nazareth    . 

2.  13-23 

2.  39,  40 

12.  At  twelve  years  of  age  Jesus  goes  to  the 

Passover.  —Jerusalem 

•• 

2.  41-52 

PART   II.  —  ANNOUNCEMENT   AND   INTRO- 

DUCTION  OF    OUR     LORD'S    PUBLIC 

MINISTRY. 

13.  The  ministry  of  John  the  Baptist.—  The 

Desert.     The  Jordan  .... 

3.  1-12 

1.1-8 

3.  1-18 

14.  The  baptism  of  Jesus.—  The  Jordan 

3.  13-17 

1.  9-11 

3.  21-23 

15.  The  Temptations.—  Desert  of  Judaea 

4.  1-11 

1.  12,  13 

4.  1-13 

16.  Testimony  of  John  the  Baptist  to  Jesus. 

—Bethaoara       

1.  15-34 

17.  Two  of   John's  disciples   follow  Jesus. 

Andrew  brings  Peter  to  Him 
18.  Jesus  returns  to  Galilee.     Philip  becomes 

•• 

•• 

•• 

1.  35-42 

His  disciple,  and  brings  Nathanael  to 

1.  43-51 

19.  The  marriage  at  Cana  in  Galilee.     Visit 

to  Capernaum    

•• 

•• 

2.  1-12 

PART  III.  —  FROM  THE  FIRST    PASSOVER 

DURING  OUB  LORD'S  PUBLIC  MINISTRY 

UNTIL  THE   SECOND. 

20.  Jesus  goes  up  to  Jerusalem  to  the  Pass- 

over.    He  cleanses  the  Temple  . 
21.  Nicodemus     visits     Him    at    night.  — 

•• 

•• 

•• 

2.  13-25 

Jerusalem  

3.  1-21 

22.  Jesus  leaves  Jerusalem,  but  remains  in 

Judaea  and  makes  disciples.     Further 

testimony    of    John    the    Baptist.  — 

JEnon         

3.  22-36 

23.  Jesus  departs  for  Galilee  after  John  is 

4   12 

1.  14 

4.  14 

4.  1-3 

24.  He  converses  with  a  woman  of  Sychar  at 

Jacob's  well.    Samaritans  believe  on 

Him  

4.4-42 

25.  He  arrives  in  Galilee,  and  teaches  publicly 

4.17' 

1.  14,  15 

4.  14,  15 

4.  43-45 

26.  He  comes  again   to   Cana  in   Galilee"; 

heals  the  son  of  a  nobleman  at  Caper- 

naum        ...... 

m  . 

.  , 

4.  46-54 

27.  Jesus  at  Nazareth  ;    is  there  rejected  ; 

goes  to  Capernaum,  fixes  His  abode 

there,   and    teaches  publicly  on   the 

Sabbath     

4.  13-16 

4.  16-31 

JESUS  CHRIST] 


245 


[JESUS  CHEIST 


BVENTS 

MATT. 

MARE 

LUKE 

JOHN 

SECT. 

ch.  ver. 

ch.  ver. 

ch.  ver. 

ch.  ver. 

28.  The  call  of  Peter,  Andrew,  James,  and 

John,  and  the  miraculous  draught  of 

fishes.1  —  Sea  of  Galilee  :   near  Caper- 

naum          

4.  18-22 

1.16-20 

5.  1-11 

29.  Jesus  heals  a  demoniac  in  the  synagogue. 

—  Capernaum     ..... 

.  . 

1.  21-28 

4.  31-37 

30.  He  heals  Peter's  wife's  mother,  and  many 

others         

8.  14-17 

1.29-34 

4J  38-41 

31.  He  makes   His  first    circuit  with    His 

disciples  throughout  Galilee 

4.  23-25 

1.  35-39 

4.42-44 

32.  He  heals  a  leper.     He  retires  from  the 
town  to  desert  places  .... 

8.2-4 

1.40-45 

5.  12-16 

33.  He  returns  to  Capernaum.     The  people 
flock  to  Him.     He  heals  a  paralytic  . 

9.2-8 

2.  1-12 

5.  17-26 

34.  He  calls  Matthew   

9  9 

2.  13,  14 

5.  27,  28 

PAST  IV.  —  FROM  THE  SECOND  *  PASSOTBB 

UNTIL  THE  THTJBD. 

35.  Jesus   at   Jerusalem  at  the   Passover  ; 

heals  an  infirm  man  at  the  Pool  of 

Bethesda  on  the  Sabbath.     The  Jew* 

seek  to  kill  Him         .... 

., 

5.1-47 

36.  The  disciples  pluck  ears  of  corn  on  the 
Sabbath.  —  On  the  way  to  Galilee  ? 

12.  1-8 

2.  23-28 

6.1-5 

37.  Healing   of   a   withered    hand    on    the 

Sabbath  —Galilee 

13  9-14 

3.1-6 

6.6-11 

38.  Jesus  withdraws  to  the  Sea  of  Galilee, 

and  is  followed  by  great  multitudes. 

He  heals  many  

12.  15-21 

3.  7-12 

39.  He  retires  to  the  mountain,  and  chooses 

the  Twelve  ;   the  people  follow  Him. 

—  Near  Capernaum     .... 
40.  The  Sermon  on  the  Mount 

10.2-4 
5.  1  to  8.  1 

3.  13-19 

6.  12-19 
6.20-49 

41.  Healing    of    a    centurion's    servant.  — 

Capernaum         ..... 

8.5-13 

,  , 

7.  1-10 

42.  Jesus  raises  a  widow's  son  at  Nain.     His 

fame  spreads  through  all  the  neigh- 

bourhood and  in  Judaea 

.  . 

.  , 

7.  11-17 

43.  John  the  Baptist  in  prison  sends  disciples 

11  2-19 

7.18-35 

44.  Jesus     upbraids     the     inhabitants    of 

Chorazui,  Bethsaida,  and  Capernaum  . 
45.  While  sitting  at  meat  with  a  Pharisee, 

11.20-30 

Jesus    is    anointed    by    a    penitent 

woman.  —  Capernaum? 
46.  Jesus,  with  the  Twelve,  makes  a  second 

•• 

•• 

7.36-50 

circuit  in  Galilee         .... 

.  . 

.  . 

8.1-3 

47.  He  heals  a  demoniac.     The  scribes  and  ^ 
Pharisees   charge   Him  with   being  > 
in  league  with  Satan.  —  Galilee     .       ) 

12.  22-37 

3.  19-30  | 

11.  14,  15, 
17-23 

48.  Our  Lord  refuses  their  request  of  a  sign  . 

12.  38-45 

..      { 

11.  16,  24- 
36 

49.  His  reference  to  His  mother  and  brethren 

12.46-50 

3.  31-35 

8.  19-21 

50.  At  a  Pharisee's  table,  He  exposes  the 

hypocrisy  of  the  Pharisees  and  scribes 
51.  He  discourses  upon  hypocrisy,  worldli- 

•• 

•• 

11.  37-54 

ness,  and  unwatchfulness    . 

,  , 

.  . 

12.  1-59 

52.  Our     Lord's     observations    upon     the 

slaughter  of  certain  Galileans.     Par- 

able of  the  barren  fig-tree  . 

•  • 

13.  1-9 

1  This  "call"  is  regarded  by  many  expositors  as  given  on  at  least  two  distinct  occasions: 
see  Dr.  E.  R.  Conder,  Outlines  of  the  Life  of  Christ,  p.  73. 

2  It  is  here  assumed  that  the  "feast  of  the  Jews,"  mentioned  in  John  5.1,  was  the   Pass- 
over.    The  third  Passover  is  the  one  mentioned  in  John  6.4. 


JESUS  CHRIST] 


246 


[JESUS  CHRIST 


EVENTS 

MATT. 

MARK 

LUKE 

JOHN 

SECT. 

ch.  ver. 

ch.  ver. 

ch.  ver. 

ch.  ver. 

53.  A  great  multitude  collect  around  Him  ; 

and    He   addresses   them   out   of   a 

vessel  on  the  lake.     Parable  of  the 

sower          

13.  1-23 

4.  1-25 

8.4-18 

54.  Parables  of  the  tares,  the  grain  of  mustard 

seed,  the  learen,  the  hidden  treasure, 

the  pearl  of  great  price,  and  the  drag- 

net      

13.  24-53 

4.  26-34 

55.  Jesus  crosses  the  lake  with   His  dis-> 
ciples,  and  stills  a  storm     .        .        j 

8.  18-27 

4.  35-41  -j 

8.  22-25 
9.  57-62 

56.  The  two  demoniacs  of  Gadara.—  8.E.  ( 
coast  of  Sea  of  Galilee           .         .         ( 
57.  The  feast  at  Levi's  house,  with  publicans 
and  sinners.  —  Capernaum   . 

8.28     ) 
9.1      j- 

9.  10-13 

5.  1-21 
2.  15-17 

8.26-40 
5.  29-32 

58.  The    question    of    John's   disciples    on 
fasting  ;  and  our  Lord's  reply    . 
59.  liaising  of  Jairus's  daughter  ;   and  heal- 
ing of  a  woman  with  an  issue  of  blood 

9.  14-17 
9.  18-26 

2.  18-22 
5.22-43 

5.  33-39 
8.  41-56 

60.  Two  blind   men  healed,   and   a  dumb 

spirit  cast  out.  —  Capernaum  ?     . 

9.27-34 

61.  Jesus  teaches  in  His  own  country,  and 

is  rejected.  —  Nazareth 

13.  54-58 

6.1-6 

62.  A  third  circuit  throughout  the  country. 

The  Twelve  sent  forth 

9.  35  to  11.1 

6.6-13 

9.1-6 

63.  Herod,  hearing  of  Jesus,  supposes  Him 

to  be  John  the  Baptist,  whom  he  had 

just  before  beheaded 

14.  1-12 

6.  14-29 

9.7-9 

64.  The  Twelve  return  to  Jesus.     He  retires 

with  them  to  a  desert  place  on  the 

other  side  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee  ;    is 

followed  by  a  multitude,  and  feeds 

14  13-21 

6.30-44 

9.  10-17 

6.  1-14 

65.  The  disciples  return  across  the  Sea  of 

Galilee  ;  Jesus  comes  to  them  walking 

upon  the  water.     He  goes  to  Genne- 

saret,  and  great  multitudes  resort  to 

Him  

14.22-36 

6.  45-56 

t  , 

6.  15-21 

66.  The  people  seek  Jesus  and   find   Hirm 

at  Capernaum.     He  teaches  in  the 
synagogue.       Many     disciples      are  V 

••  { 

6.  22-71 
7.  1 

offended,    and    leave    Him.     Peter's 

1 

confession  ' 

PABT  V.  —  FROM   TIIE  THIED  PASSOVER 

UNTIL     OUR      LORD'S      ARRIVAL     AT 

BETHANY,  six  DAYS   BEFORE   THE 

FOURTH. 

67.  Pharisees  and   scribes   from  Jerusalem 

object  to   the  disciples  disregarding 
the    tradition    of    the    elders.     Our 

Lord's  reply.  —  Capernaum 
68.  Jesus  goes  to  the  borders  of  Tyre  and 

15.  1-20 

7.  1-23 

Sidon.      A     Syrophenician     woman 

obtains  deliverance  for  her  daughter 

15.  21-28 

7.  24-30 

69.  He    returns    through    Decapolis    to    a 

mountain  near   the  Sea  of   Galilee. 

Great   multitudes    follow   Him  ;    He 

heals  many,  and  feeds  four  thousand 

15.  29-38 

7.31  to  8.  9 

70.  Jesus    sends    away    the    people,    and  ^ 
crosses    the    lake    to    Dalmanutha.  I 

15.  39    ) 

The  Pharisees  and  Sadducees  again  ? 

16.  1-4  ] 

8.  10-12 

require  a  sign                                        ) 

71.  Jesus    again    crosses    the    lake.     The 

disciples  cautioned  against  the  leaven 

of  the  Pharisees,  etc  

16.  4-12 

8.  13-21 

JESUS  CHRIST] 


247 


[JESUS  CHRIST 


EVENTS 

MATT. 

MAKK 

LUKE 

JOHN 

SECT. 

ch.  ver. 

ch.  ver. 

ch.  ver. 

ch.  ver. 

72.  A  blind  man  healed.  —  Bethsaida  (Julias) 

m  t 

8.  22-26 

73.  Jesus    goes  to  the    region  of  Csesarea 

Philippi.      Peter     and     the     other 

disciples  again  profess  their  faith  in 
*     Him  

16.  13-20 

8.  27-30 

9.  18-21 

74.  He  foretells  His  own  death  and  resurrec-~| 

(  O         0  1      "\ 

tion,  and  the  trials  of  His  followers.  >• 

16.  21-28 

(8.    6l-\ 

1  Q«   Q      1   f 

9.  22-27 

—  Region  of  Ccesarea  Philippi     .        ) 

{68  9.  1) 

75.  Our  Lord's  transfiguration  and  subse- 

quent discourse           .... 

17.  1-13 

9.  2-13 

9.  28-36 

76.  Healing  of  a  demoniac,  whom  the  dis- 

ciples could  not  heal   .... 

17.  14-21 

9.  14-29 

9.  37-43 

77.  Jesus  again  foretells  His  own  death  and 

resurrection.  —  Galilee 

17.  22,  23 

9.  30-32 

9.43-45 

78.  The    tribute-money    miraculously    pro- 

vided. —  Capernaum    .... 
79.  The  disciples  contend  who  shall  be  the 

17.  24-27 

9.33 

greatest.     Jesus  exhorts  to  humility, 
forbearance,  and  brotherly  love  . 

18.  1-35 

9.  33-50 

9.46-50 

80.  The  Seventy  instructed  and    sent  out. 

—  Samaria  ...... 

1  t 

10.  1-16 

81.  Jesus  finally  leaves   Galilee,  to  go  up 

to  Jerusalem  to  the  feast  of  Taber- 

nacles.    A  Samaritan  village  refuses 

9.  51-56 

7.  2-10 

82.  Ten  lepers  cleansed.  —  Samaria?    . 

17.  11-19 

83.  Jesus  at  Jerusalem  at  the  festival  of'v 

Tabernacles  (about  six   months  after  \ 

(711    *& 

the  third   passover).     He  teaches  in  j- 

.  . 

.  . 

.  , 

I.  11—  O<~> 

the  Temple.     The  rulers  attempt  to 

(.8.  1 

seize  Him  J 

84.  His  judgment  is  asked  on  a  woman  guilty 
of  adultery.  —  Jerusalem 

8.  2-11 

85.  Further  public  teaching  of   our  Lord. 

He  reproves   the  unbelieving   Jews, 
and  they  attempt  to  stone  Him  . 

8.  12-59 

86.  Reply   to    the    question   of    a  lawyer. 
Parable  of  the  good  Samaritan    . 

10.  25-37 

87.  Jesus  at  the  house  of  Martha  and  Mary. 

Bethany     

m  1 

10.  38-42 

88.  The  disciples  again  taught  how  to  pray. 
Near  Jerusalem  ..... 

11.  1-13 

89.  The  Seventy  return,  having  accomplished 

their  mission      ..... 

1  t 

,  . 

10.  17-24 

90.  A  man  born  blind    is    healed   on  the^ 
Sabbath.     Questions  and  objections.  > 
—  Jerusalem                                          ) 

•• 

•• 

•• 

(9.  1-41 
\10.  1-21 

91.  Jesus  in  the  Temple  at  the  festival  of 

Dedication  (about  three  months  after 

the  feast  of  Tabernacles  :   §  83).     The 

Jews  seek  to  seize  Him  ;    He  retires 

beyond  Jordan  ;  and  many  resort  to 
Him  

10.  22-42 

92.  He  is  informed  of  the  sickness  of  Lazarus, 

goes  to  Bethany,  and  raises  Lazarus 

from  the  dead  

.  , 

.  . 

11.  1-46 

93.  The  Jewish   council    determine  to  put 

Jesus  to  death.     He  retires  with  His 

disciples  to  Ephraim  near  the  wilder- 

ness    

.  . 

.  . 

.  . 

11.  47-54 

94.  He   withdraws  beyond    Jordan,  and  is 

followed    by   multitudes.     He   heals 

an  infirm  woman  on  the  Sabbath 

19.  1,  2 

10.1 

13.  10-21 

95.  He  goes  through  Peraea  towards  Jeru- 

salem, teaching  on  His  way.     Some 
Pharisees  warn  Him  respecting  Herod 

•• 

•• 

13.  22-35 

JESUS  CHRIST] 


248 


[JESUS  CHRIST 


EVENTS 

MATT. 

MARE 

LUKE 

JOHN 

SECT. 

ch.  ver. 

ch.  ver. 

ch.  ver. 

ch.  ver. 

96.  He  dines  with  a  chief  Pharisee  on  the 

Sabbath,  and   addresses   the  guests. 

Parable  of  the  great  supper.  —  Percea 
97.  He  teaches  the  multitude  what  is  re- 

•• 

•• 

14.  1-24 

quired  of  true  disciples 
98.  Publicans  and  sinners  flock  to  Him. 

•• 

•• 

14.25-35 

The  Pharisees  murmur.     Parables  of 

the  lost  sheep,  the  lost  piece  of  silver, 
and  the  prodigal  son  .... 

15.  1-32 

99.  Parable  of  the  unjust  steward 

.  . 

16.  1-13 

100.  The   Pharisees  reproved.    Parable  of 

the  rich  man  and  Lazarus  . 

.  . 

.  . 

16.  14-31 

101.  Jesus  inculcates  forbearance,  faith,  and 

humility     

m  . 

,  , 

17.  1-10 

102.  Reply  to  the  question  of  the  Pharisees 

concerning  the  coming  of  the  kingdom 

of  God        

9 

17.  20-37 

103.  Parables  :     the    importunate   widow  ; 

the  Pharisee  and  publican  . 

.  . 

18.  1-14 

104.  Precepts  as  to  divorce  .        .        .        . 

19.  3-12 

10.  2-12 

105.  Jesus  receives  and  blesses  little  chil- 

dren     

19.  13-15 

10.  13-16 

18.  15-17 

106.  A  rich  young  ruler  rejects  the  terms'j 
of     discipleship.      Parable    of    the  V 
labourers  in  the  vineyard  .        .        J 

19.16-30 
20.  1-16 

1  10.  17-31 

18.  18-30 

107.  On  the  way  to  Jerusalem,  Jesus  a  third 

time      foretells      His     death      and 

resurrection        

20.  17-19 

10.  32-34 

18.  31-34 

108.  The  ambitious  request  of  James  and 

John  

20.  20-28 

10.  35-45 

109.  Healing  of  two  blind  men  near  Jericho 

20.  29-34 

10.  46-52 

(18.  35 
tl9.  1 

110.  Visit  to  Zacchaeus.—  Jm'cfco 

19.  2-10 

111.  Parable  of  the  ten  servants  entrusted 

with  ten  pounds  

.  . 

.  , 

19.  11-28 

112.  Jesus  arrives    at    Bethany  six  days^ 

before    the    Passover.     Those   who 

c 

11.  55-57 

have  come  up  to  the  festival  inquire  V 
after  Him  ;  and  many  come  to  Him 

•• 

•  • 

••  \ 

12*.  1,  9-11 

at  Bethany                                               J 

PABT  VI.  —  THE  LAST  PASSOVEB  WEEK. 

113.  First  day  of  the  week.    Jesus  enters) 
Jerusalem  publicly,    and    at   night  > 

21.  1-11,) 

14  171 

11.  1-11 

19.  29-44 

12.12-19 

returns  to  Bethany                              ) 

IT~JL  i  j 

114.  Second  day  of  the  week.    He  goes  in  to  A 

Jerusalem  ;  on  His  way,  curses  the  1 
barren  fig-  tree  ;  expels  the  traders  V 
from  the  Temple  ;  and  in  the  evening  1 

21.12,  13,  > 
18,  19  j" 

11.  12-19 

19.  45,  46 

returns  again  to  Bethany  .        .        J 

115.  Third  day  of  the  week.     He  again  goes 

into  the  city  in  the  morning,  passing 

by  the  withered  fig-tree 

21.  20-22 

11.  20-26 

116.  He    teaches    in    the    Temple.     His  A 
authority  is   questioned.      Parables  ( 
of  the  two  sons,  and  of  the  vineyard  f 
let  out  to  husbandmen     .        .         ) 

21.  23-46 

f  11.  27-33 
\12.  1-12 

(19.47,48 
•1  20.  1-19 
(21.  37,  38 

117.  Parable  of  the  marriage  feast 
118.  Question  of  the  Pharisees  and  Herod  ians 

22.  1-14 

concerning    payment    of    tribute    to 

Caesar         

22.  15-22 

12.  13-17 

20.  20-26 

119.  Question  of  the  Sadducees  as  to  the 

resurrection        

22.  23-33 

12.  18-27 

20.  27-40 

120.  A  lawyer  questions  Jesus.     The  two 

great  commandments 

22.34-40 

12.28-34 

JESUS  CHRIST] 


249 


[JESUS  CHRIST 


EVENTS 

MATT. 

MARE 

LUKE 

JOHN 

SECT. 

ch.  ver. 

ch.  ver. 

ch.  ver. 

ch.  ver. 

121.  Our  Lord's  question  respecting  the  Son 
of  David      

22.  41-4G 

12.  35-37 

20.  41-44 

122.  Warnings  against  the  example  of  the 
scribes  and  Pharisees.     Woes  against 

them.     Lamentation  over  Jerusalem  . 

23.  1-39 

12.  38,  40 

20.  45-47 

123.  The  widow's  offering  to   the  Temple 

treasury     

.  . 

12.  41-44 

21.  1-4 

124.  Certain    Greeks   desire   to   see    Jesus. 

The  unbelief  of  the  Jews     . 

,  . 

.  , 

,  . 

12.20-50 

125.  Jesus  leaves  the  Temple  ;   and  on  the 

Mount   of   Olives,    on    His    way    to 

Bethany,  foretells  its  destruction  and 

the  overthrow  of  the  Jewish  state 

24.  1-42 

13.  1-37 

21.5-36 

126.  He  proceeds  to  speak  of  His  final  com-] 
ing  to  judgment.     Parables   of  the  / 
ten  virgins  and  the  five  talents   .         J 

24.  43-51 
25.  1-46 

127.  Fourth  day  of  the  week  (beginning  at 

sunset).     The  rulers  conspire  to  seize 

Jesus  secretly  and  put  Him  to  death. 

At  a  supper  at  Bethany,  He  is  anointed 

by    Mary.      Judas    lays    his    plan  ; 

Jesus  remaining  at  Bethany  this  day 

26.  1-16 

14.  1-11 

22.1-6 

12.2-8 

128.  Fifth  day  of  the  week.     Jesus  sends  two 

disciples  to  the  city  to  make  pre- 

paration for  the  Passover,  and  Him- 

self repairs  thither  in  the  afternoon     . 

26.  17-19 

14.  12-16 

22.  7-13 

129.  Sixth  day  of  the   week  (beginning  at\ 

sunset).    Jesus  celebrates  the  paschal  ( 
supper  with  the  Twelve.     They  con-  f 
tend  who  shall  be  the  greatest    .       ) 

26.20 

14.  17     -[ 

22.  14-18, 
24-30 

130.  Jesus  washes  His  disciples'  feet     . 

13.  1-20 

131.  He  foretells  His  betrayal,  and  points 

out  the  traitor.     Judas  withdraws     . 

26.  21-25 

14.  18-21 

22.  21-23 

13.  21-35 

132.  He  foretells  the  fall  of  Peter,  and  the 

dispersion  of  the  Twelve     . 

26.  31-35 

14.  27-31 

22.  31-58 

13.  36-38 

133.  He  institutes  the  Lord's  Supper    . 

1  Cor.  11.  23-25 

26.  26-29 

14.  22-25 

22.  19,  20 

134.  Our  Lord's  valedictory  address  to  His) 
disciples  :  His  intercessory  prayer      ) 

.. 

.. 

••  { 

14.  Ito 
n2fi 

135.  His  agony  in  Gethsemane       .        .        4 

26.30, 
36-46 

14.26,   \ 
32-42) 

22.  39-46 

•  —  o 
18.1 

136.  He  is  betrayed,  and  made  prisoner 

26.  47-56 

14.  43-52 

22.  47-53 

18.  2-12 

137.  He  is  brought  before  the  high  priest  in  f 
the  night.    Peter  thrice  denies  Him  \ 

26.  57,  58, 
69-75 

14-i.%} 

22.54-62 

(18.13-18, 
\     25-27 

138.  In  the  morning  He  is  brought  before 

the  high  priest  and  the  council.     He 

declares  Himself  to  be  the  Christ  ;  is 

condemned  and  mocked 

26.  59-68 

14.  55-65 

22.  63-71 

18.  19-24 

139.  The  chief  priests  and  rulers  take  Him) 
before  Pilate,  in  order  to  obtain  His  > 
crucifixion  .....        J 

27.  1,  2,  | 
11-14  C 

15.1-5 

23.1-5 

18.  28-38 

140.  Pilate  pronounces  Him  innocent,  but 

sends  Him  to  Herod  :    Herod  sends 

Him  back  to  Pilate    .... 

23.  6-12 

141.  Pilate    seeks   to   release   Him;     but) 

finally  delivers  Him  up  to  be  crucified.  > 
He  is  scourged  and  mocked         .         ) 

27.15-30 

15.  6-19 

23.  13-25 

f  18.  39  to 
119.6 

142.  Judas  repents,  and  hangs  himself  . 

Acts  1.  18,  19 

27.  3-10 

143.  Jesus  is  led  away  to  be  crucified 

27.  31-34 

15.  20-23 

23.  26-33 

19.  16,  17 

144.  The  crucifixion     

27.35-44 

15.  24-32 

23.  33-43 

19.  18-27 

145.  Jesus    expires   on    the    cross.    Super- 

natural signs  accompany  His  death  : 

the  testimony  of  the  centurion    . 
146.  The  taking  down  of  the  body  from  the 

27.  45-56 

15.  33-41 

23.  44-49 

19.  28-30 

cross.    The  burial      .... 

27.  57-61 

15.42-47 

23.50-56 

19.  31-42 

JESUS  CHRIST] 


250 


[JESUS  CHRIST 


EVENTS 

MATT. 

MARK 

LUKE 

JOHN 

SECT. 

ch.  ver. 

ch.  ver. 

ch.  ver. 

ch.  ver. 

147.  Seventh  day  of  the  week.     The  guard  set 
at  the  sepulchre  ..... 

27.  62-66 

PART  VII.—  OUE  LORD'S  RESURRECTION, 

HIS     SUBSEQUENT     APPEARANCES      TO 

His  DISCIPLES,  AND  His  ASCENSION. 

148.  First  day  of  the  week.    The  resurrection. 

fl8  2-4 

16.  1 

149.  Visit  of  the  women  to  the  sepulchre. 

Mary  Magdalene  returns 
150.  Vision  of  angels  at  the  sepulchre  . 

28.1 
28.  5-7 

16.2-4 
16.  5-7 

24.1-3 

24.  4-8 

20.  1,  2 

151.  The  women  return  to  the  city.     Jesus 

meets  them        

28.  8-10 

16.8 

24.  9-11 

152.  Peter  and  John  run  to  the  sepulchre 

9  , 

.  . 

24.12 

20.  3-10 

153.  Our  Lord  is  seen  by  Mary  Magdalene 

16.  9-11 

20.  11-18 

154.  Report  of  the  guard  on  returning  into 

the  city      

28.  11-15 

155.  Our  Lord  is  seen  by  Peter  ;  then  by  two 

disciples  on  the  way  to  Emmaus 
1  Cor.  15.  5 

16.  12,  13 

24.  13-35 

156.  Evening  following  the  first   day   of   the 

week.     'He  appears  to  the  apostles, 
Thomas  being  absent  .        1  Cor.  15.  5 

16.14 

24.  36-49 

20.  19-23 

157.  Evening  following  the  first  day  of  the 
next  week.    He  appears  to  them  again, 
Thomas  being  present 

20.  24-29 

158.  The  apostles  go  to  Galilee.     Jesus  shows 
Himself  to  nine  of  them  at  the  Sea 

of  Tiberias  

28.  16 

.  , 

.  . 

21.  1-24 

159.  He  meets  fire  hundred  on  a  mountain 

in  Galilee  .        .        .        1  Cor.  15.  6 

28.  16-20 

16.  15-18 

160.  He  is  seen  by  James,  and  then  by  all 

the  apostles.  —  Jerusalem     . 

Acts  1.  3-8  ;  1  Cor.  15.  7. 

161.  He  ascends  into  heaven.  —  Bethany 
Acts  1.  9-12 

•• 

16.  19,  20 

24.  50-53 

IV.  The  Divinity  of  our  Lord  is  clearly 
claimed  by  Him.  Pre-existence  (John  8.58), 
with  the  Father  (John  17.4,5,  and  cf. 
17.24),  in  heaven  (John  3.13);  Relationship 
as  Son  with  the  Father  ( John  10.30, 14.23  ;  and 
cf.  Matt.  16.13-17,  26.62-64) ;  a  mission  from 
the  Father  (John  10.36,  16.28)— these  are 
specifically  claimed  by  our  Lord.  These  claims 
must  be  considered  in  the  light  of  His 
moral  perfection  [see  infra,  on  the  Character 
of  our  Lord].  He  Himself  asks,  "Whom  do 
men  say  that  I  am?"  (Mk.  8.27).  His 
claims  find  support  in  the  works  of  our 
Lord.  He  Himself  offered  them  to  John  as 
such  evidence  (Matt.  11.2-6 ;  and  cf.  John 
10.37,  38),  and  called  attention  to  the  sin  of 
rejecting  their  witness  (Matt.  11.21-24;  John 
15.23-25).  Their  influence  upon  some  was 
decisive,  even  when  it  stopped  short  of  full 
recognition  (Matt.  8.27 ;  Mk.  5.37-43 ;  Lk. 
7.13-16  ;  John  11.33-46).  And,  as  He  bestowed 
miraculous  gifts  of  healing  and  succour,  so  also 
He  presents  Himself  as  the  source  of  spiritual 
blessing.  He  can  say,  "  Believe  ...  in  Me  " 


(John  14.1) ;  "  I  will  give  you  rest "  (Matt. 
11.28).  To  love  Him  is  to  love  God  (John 
14.23) ;  surrender  to  Him  is  surrender  to  God 
(John  17.10) ;  fellowship  with  Him  is  fellow- 
ship with  God  (John  17.23) ;  to  dwell  with  Him 
is  to  dwell  with  God  (John  14.23) ;  and  He  can 
forgive  sin  (Matt.  9.6).  Whilst  this  is  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Gospels,  the  Epistles  are  not  less 
definite.  He  is  God  (Rom.  9.5),  the  Son  sent 
by  the  Father  (Heb.  1.2),  omnipotent  (Phil 
3.21;  Col.  2.9,10),  unchangeable  (Heb.  13.8), 
Creator  (Col.  1.16,  17 ;  Heb.  1.2),  Judge  (Rom. 
14.10),  and  object  of  worship  (Phil.  2.10,  11). 
[SON  OP  GOD.] 

V.  The  Manhood  of  our  Lord  is  equally  clear 
from  Holy  Scripture.  As  we  believe  that  the 
Son  is  "  the  Word  of  the  Father,  begotten  from 
everlasting  of  the  Father,  the  very  and  eternal 
God,  and  of  one  substance  with  the  Father," 
so  also  we  believe  that  He  "  took  man's  nature 
in  the  womb  of  the  blessed  Virgin,  of  her 
substance ;  so  that  two  whole  and  perfect 
natures,  that  is  to  say,  the  Godhead  and  Man- 
hood, were  joined  together  in  one  i'erson,  never 


JESUS  CHRIST] 


251 


[JESUS  CHRIST 


to  be  divided,  whereof  is  one  Christ,  very 
God,  and  very  Man  "  (Art.  II.  of  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles).  "  The  Word  became  flesh  " 
(John  1.14).  The  event  was  prepared  for.  In 
the  promise  of  Gen.  3.15  ;  in  the  assurance  to 
Abraham,  "  In  thee  shall  all  families  of  the 
earth  be  blessed  "  (Gen.  12.3) ;  in  the  develop- 
ment by  the  Messianic  idea  ;  and  more  particu- 
larly in  the  picture  given  by  "  the  servant  of 
the  Lord  "  (Isai.  40-66) — in  all  these  the  coming 
is  foreshadowed.  [MESSIAH.]  The  birth  was 
supernatural;  by  the  operation  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  the  Virgin  conceived.  Thus  the  Lord 
"  cometh  from  above "  (John  3.31),  though 
"  made  of  a  woman  "  (Gal.  4.4)  and  "  in  the 
likeness  of  men  "  (Phil.  2.7).  As  "  it  behoved 
Him  to  be  made  like  unto  His  brethren  "  (Heb. 
2.17),  He  experienced  needs  common  to  men. 
He  hungered  (Matt.  4.2),  thirsted  (John  4.6,  7), 
and  needed  sleep  (Mk.  4.38).  He  experienced 
emotions  familiar  to  man  :  He  was  capable  of 
wonder  and  of  anxiety  (John  12.27,  13.21);  of 
indignation  (Mk.  3.5) ;  of  sorrow  and  sympathy 
(Matt.  20.34;  John  11.35).  He  endured  spiritual 
conflict  (Matt.  4.1-11,  26.36-46);  He  felt  the 
value  of  prayer  (Mk.  1.35  ;  Lk.  6.12).  Yet  He 
Himself,  though  tempted  (Matt.  4 ;  Lk.  4 ; 
Heb.  4.15),  was  sinless  (2  Cor.  5.21  ;  Heb.  4.15, 
7.26,  9.14  ;  1  Pet.  2.22).  [SoN  OF  MAN.] 

VI.  The  purpose   of   the   Incarnation   of   our 
Lord    is    stated    in     the    familiar    words    of 
John  3.16,  and  is  succinctly  described  by  St. 
John   when   he   says,    "  The   Father  sent   the 
Son  to  be  the  Saviour  of  the  world "  (1  John 
4.14).    This  mission  of  our  Lord  was  not  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Jew  only.    On  the  contrary,  whilst 
on  earth  He  was  not  unmindful  of  the  "  other 
sheep"   (John  10.16),   and  His  last  command 
expressly  directs  His  followers  to  a  world-wide 
enterprise.     In    carrying    out    this    work    He 
"  gave  Himself  a  ransom  for  all "  (1  Tim.  2.6), 
dying  "  for  our  sins "  (1  Cor.  15.3).     [For  this 
aspect  of  His  mission  see  ATONEMENT,  JUSTI- 
FICATION.]   This    coming    of     our    Lord    was 
therefore  for  a  purpose  much  wider  than  that 
of  presenting  an  example  of  perfect  manhood. 
It  was  an  act  of  God  relating  to  a  greater  purpose 
of  the  Godhead,  in  which  God  as  well  as  man 
is  concerned.    For  "  God  was  in  Christ,  recon- 
ciling   the  world   unto  Himself,  not   imputing 
their  trespasses  unto  them  "  (2  Cor.  5.19). 

VII.  The  Character  of  our  Lord,  as  portrayed 
in  the  Gospels,  is  worthy  of  especial  attention. 
In    its   presentation    the  writers   refrain   from 
praise.     They  describe  it  in  a  manner  wholly 
unstudied ;    in    simple,   unaffected   narratives. 
But  whilst  in  the  Gospels  four  authors,  in  some 
cases  recording  different  facts  and  preserving 
different  parts  of  His  teaching,  deal  with  our 
Lord's  life,  they  all  present  a  clear  and  con- 
sistent view  of  the  same  character.     And  this 
view  is  entirely  original.     It  is  not  in  accordance 
with  the  higher  pagan  thought  of  the  time  ; 
it  is  not  such  as  the  Jewish  teachers  of  the  day 
would  have  produced.     It  is  itself,  and  unique. 
In  the  reverent  study  of  our  Lord's  character, 


as  disclosed  in  His  earthly  life,  the  following 
features  will  be  noticed  : — 

His  holiness  impressed  all  observers,  and  was 
accepted  by  them  (Matt.  26.59,  60,  27.23,  24  ; 
Lk.  23.13-15  ;  John  8.46,  10.32  ;  Acts  3.13,  14  ; 
1  Pet.  2.21-23). 

His  benevolence  and  compassion  were  re- 
peatedly demonstrated  (Matt.  9.36,  etc.,  18.11, 
etc. ;  Mk.  7.26,  etc.,  10.13-21,  45-52 ;  Lk.  9.55, 
10.30-37, 13.16, 14.12,  22.50,  51 ;  John  4). 

His  kindness  and  affection  appear  in  Matt. 
14.27-31 ;  Lk.  19.5,  41,  22.61 ;  John  11,  19,  and 
25-27. 

His  meekness  and  humility  are  manifest  from 
Matt.  5.1-12,  9.28,  18.22,  etc. ;  Lk.  22.24-27 ; 
John  13.4. 

His  moral  courage,  firmness,  and  resignation 
are  disclosed  in  Matt.  26.39-46;  Mk.  10.32; 
Lk.  4.23,  etc.,  13.31,  etc.,  18.29,  etc.;  John 
11.7, 18.4,  etc. 

His  sincerity  and  abhorrence  of  hypocrisy 
and  courting  popularity  appear  in  Matt.  6.1-18, 
10.16-39,  22.18,  etc.  ;  Mk.  12.38-40  ;  Lk.  11.44, 
etc.  ;  John  16.1-6. 

His  moderation  and  the  absence  of  calculated 
austerity  are  noted  in  Malt.  8.19,  23.23  ;  Mk. 
12.17;  Lk.  5.29-35;  John  2.1,  etc. 

Our  Lord  definitely  asserted  His  own  moral 
perfection,  and  presented  Himself  to  His  disciples 
as  One  who  had  kept  the  Father's  command- 
ments (John  15.10),  who  did  the  "  things  that 
are  pleasing  to  Him  "  ( John  8.29),  who  could 
offer  to  His  enemies  this  challenge,  "  Which  of 
you  convinceth  Me  of  sin  ?  "  ( John  8.46). 

The  character  of  our  Lord  as  thus  shown  in 
the  Gospel  has  not  impressed  those  alone  who 
accept  Him  as  their  Lord  ;  it  has  won  testimony 
also  from  the  critics  and  opponents  of  Christi- 
anity. It  may  be  convenient  to  cite  the  opinions 
of  some  few,  whose  attacks  upon  the  Christian 
position  have  long  been  familiar  in  Europe  and 
America,  and  more  recently  have  been  trans- 
lated into  the  languages  of  the  East.  The 
testimony  of  Renan  is  :  "  This  Sublime  Person, 
who  daily  presides  still  over  the  destiny  of  the 
world,  we  may  call  divine,  not  in  the  sense  that 
Jesus  absorbed  all  the  divine,  or,  to  use  a 
scholastic  word,  was  adequate  to  it ;  but  in  the 
sense  that  Jesus  is  the  individual  who  has  made 
His  species  take  the  greatest  step  towards  the 
divine."  "  Jesus  is  the  highest  of  the  pillars 
that  show  to  man  whence  he  comes  and  whither 
he  ought  to  tend.  In  Him  is  condensed  all  that 
is  good  and  exalted  in  our  nature  "  ( Vie  de 
Jesus,  pp.  457,  458 » llth  French  ed.).  So  Strauss, 
in  his  second  Leben  Jesu,  1864,  speaks  as  if 
Christ's  teaching  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount 
brought  to  the  world  a  genial  revolution,  "  like 
a  f  ertilising  rain  in  spring."  He  grants  "  that  in 
every  respect  Jesus  stands  in  the  first  line  of 
those  who  have  developed  the  ideal  of  humanity," 
and  "  by  embodying  it  in  His  own  person  has 
given  it  the  most  living  warmth,  while  the 
society  that  proceeded  from  Him  has  secured  for 
this  ideal  the  widest  reception  among  mankind  " 
(Leben  Jesu,  pp.  204,  625,  G26).  John  Stuart 


JETHEB] 


252 


[JEWS 


Mill  is  not  less  decisive :  "  When  this  pre- 
eminent genius  is  combined  with  the  qualities 
of  probably  the  greatest  moral  reformer  and 
martyr  to  that  mission  who  ever  existed  upon 
the  earth,  religion  cannot  be  said  to  have  made 
a  bad  choice  in  pitching  upon  this  man  as  the 
ideal  representative  and  guide  of  humanity ;  nor 
even  now  would  it  be  easy  even  for  an  unbeliever 
to  find  a  better  translation  of  the  rule  of  virtue 
from  the  abstract  to  the  concrete  than  to 
endeavour  so  to  live  that  Christ  would  approve 
our  life  "  (Essays  on  Theism,  p.  255).  We  may 
add  the  tribute  of  a  more  modern  critic,  Samuel 
Laing :  "  It  is  the  example  and  teaching  of 
Jesus,  the  son  of  the  carpenter  of  Nazareth, 
which  have  been  mainly  instrumental  in  diffus- 
ing ideas  of  divine  love,  charity,  and  purity 
throughout  the  world,  and  humanising  the  iron- 
clad and  iron-souled  warriors,  whose  trust  was 
in  their  stout  hearts  and  strong  right  arms, 
and  who  knew  no  law  but 

"  '  The  simple  plan, 

That  he  should  take  who  has  the  power, 
And  he  should  keep  who  can.'  " 
(Modern  Science  and  Modern  Thought,  p.  109  ; 
Rationalistic  Press  Association  edition.) 

Je'ther. — Abundance :  1.  A  form  of  Jethro, 
which  appears  in  Ex.  4.18.  The  father-in-law 
of  Moses.  [JKTHEO.]  2.  Gideon's  first- 
born son.  He  was  with  his  father  when  the 
latter  defeated  the  Midianites,  and  avenged 
his  slain  brethren.  Being  but  a  youth,  how- 
ever, he  feared  to  obey  his  father  when  told 
to  assist  in  the  (laughter  of  the  Midianites 
(Judg.  8.20).  3.  Another  form  of  Ithra  (2  -Sam. 
17.25),  where  by  a  copyist's  mistake  he  is 
wrongly  called  an  Israelite.  The  captain  of 
Absalom's  army.  He  was  an  Ishmaelite,  and 
the  father  of  Amasa,  David's  nephew  (1  K. 
2.5,  32;  1  Ch.  2.17).  He  was  married  4o 
Abigail,  the  sister  of  David,  during  the  tatter's 
sojourn  in  Moab.  4.  The  son  of  Jerahmeel  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  2.32).  5.  A  descendant 
of  Caleb  (1  Ch.  4.17).  6.  A  chief  of  a  family 
of  Asher  (1  Ch.  7.38). 

Je'theth.— One  of  the  dukes  (princes)  of 
Edom,  whose  names  are  separately  mentioned 
in  the  list  of  Esau's  descendants  (Gen.  36.40 ; 
1  Ch.  1.51). 

Jeth'lah  (R.V.  Ithlah).— (?)  Hanging :  a  city 
of  Dan  between  Ajalon  and  Elon  (Josh.  19.42). 
Its  site  has  not  yet  been  identified. 

Jeth'ro. — Abundance  :  a  priest-prince  of 
Midian  and  the  father-in-law  of  Moses. 
[MOSES,  ZIPPOEAH.]  Called  also  Jether  and 
Reuel,  and  perhaps  also  Hobab.  It  is  believed 
that  he  was  a  priest  of  the  true  God,  and 
maintained  the  true  religion.  He  was  de- 
scended from  Midian,  son  of  Abraham  and 
Keturah.  Moses  invited  him  to  offer  sacrifices 
to  the  Lord,  on  his  arrival  in  the  camp  of  Israel, 
as  one  who  adored  the  same  God  (Ex.  18.11, 12). 
By  his  advice  Moses  chose  a  council  of  elders 
to  help  in  the  government  and  to  judge  the 
inferior  cases  (Ex.  18).  He  was  requested  by 


Moses  to  share  the  wanderings  of  the  Israelites 
and  to  act  as  guide,  an  office  rendered  unneces- 
sary by  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant  (Num.  10.31, 33). 
His  hospitable  reception  of  Moses,  when  the 
latter  had  fled  for  his  life  from  Egypt,  is  a 
beautiful  and  true  picture  of  life  and  manners 
in  the  East.  That  he  was  more  than  usually 
cordial  was  due  to  the  fact  that  Moses  had 
helped  his  daughters  to  water  the  flocks. 
[REUEL,  HOBAB.] 

Jetur. — (?)  Enclosed:  a  son  of  Ishmael  (Gen. 
25.15  ;  1  Ch.  1.31,  5.19). 

Jeu'eL — A  Judahite  who  settled  in  Jerusalem 
after  the  return  (1  Ch.  9.6). 

Je'ush.  —  He  comes  to  help :  1.  Esau's 
son  by  Aholibamah.  He  was  a  duke  of  Edom 
(Gen.  36.5 ;  1  Ch.  1.35).  2.  A  Benjamite 
chief  of  David's  time  (1  Ch.  7.10).  3.  A  Levite 
(1  Ch.  23.10, 11).  4.  The  son  of  King  Reho- 
boam,  by  Abihail  (2  Ch.  11.18, 19).  [JEHUSH.] 

Je'uz. — Counsellor :  a  Benjamite  chief  born 
in  Moab  (1  Ch.  8.10). 

Jewel — This  word  is  used  in  Scripture  to 
designate  not  only  gems  and  jewellery,  but 
objects  of  value  and  ornament.  It  is  also  used 
figuratively  to  denote  anything  that  is  precious, 
as,  for  instance,  in  the  beautiful  passage  in 
Mai.  3.17,  where  the  Lord  says,  "  In  that  day 
when  I  make  up  My  jewels,"  where  the  Hebrew 
word  means  "  My  peculiar  treasure  "  (see  Ex. 
19.5).  In  Prov.  20.15  knowledge  (wisdom)  is 
likened  to  "a  precious  jewel"  [PEECIOUS 
STONES  under  separate  titles.] 

Jewess  (Acts  16.1,  24.24).— These  are  the 
only  two  instances  where  the  word  occurs  in  the 
Bible.  But  see  JEHUDIJAEL 

Jewry. — Found  only  in  A.V.  of  Dan.  5.13; 
Lk.  23.5,  and  John  7.1  (R.V.  Judah  or  Judaea). 
It  is  an  old  English  word,  derived  through 
Norman-French  juerie. 

Jews. — A  "  Jew  "  meant  in  the  first  instance 
a  member  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah  (2  K.  16.6, 
25.25 ;  Jer.  34.9).  During  the  Captivity  and 
after  the  return  the  Israelites  who  formed  the 
new  state  were  generally  known  as  Judaoans,  or 
Jews.  Other  members  of  the  race,  scattered 
throughout  the  world,  came  in  time  to  be  called, 
and  to  call  themselves,  Jews  (Esth.  3;  Dan. 
3.8-12).  [DISPERSION,  HEBREW,  ISRAELITE.] 

Among  the  nations  where  they  were  settled 
they  were  chiefly  remarkable  for  their  extreme 
exclusiveness.  Believing  themselves  under  the 
special  protection  of  Jehovah,  they  soon  re- 
covered from  any  chastisement  sent  for  dis- 
obedience to  the  Divine  commands,  and  resumed 
their  old  complacency  as  the  "  chosen  "  people. 

With  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  over- 
throw of  the  Temple,  the  national  existence  of 
the  Jews  terminated.  Henceforth  they  were 
strangers  domiciled  among  other  nations.  They 
had  spread  into  other  lands,  where  they  formed 
large  and  powerful  communities  long  before 
the  conquest  of  Titus.  A  certain  number 
had  remained  behind  after  the  return  from 
Babylon.  In  Egypt  and  Gyrene  they  were 
almost  aa  numerous,  while  in  Rome  and  in 


JEWS] 


253 


[JEZEBEL 


other  great  cities  they  formed  large  colonies. 
How  widely  they  wore  scattered  may  be 
gathered  from  the  list  given  by  Luke  in 
his  narrative  of  the  doings  on  the  Day  of 
Pentecost  (Acts  2.1-11).  With  any  other 
nation  the  result  of  the  dispersion  would  have 
been,  as  was  the  case  with  the  Danes  and 
Saxons  among  ourselves,  the  disappearance  of 
their  national,  if  not  racial,  peculiarities,  and 
their  absorption  in  the  nations  among  whom 
they  were  dwelling.  But  for  2000  years  they 
have  dwelt  apart,  while  obeying  the  laws, 
complying  with  the  customs  of  their  hosts, 
and  speaking  their  language.  After  all  they 
have  gone  through  in  all  nations,  Hebrew  is 
still  their  national  language,  and  is  being 
revived  to-day  for  ordinary  intercourse ;  their 
religion  is  still  the  ancient  worship  of  Israel. 
Through  all,  over  all,  though  subjects  of  a 
hundred  kingdoms,  the  Jew  remains  a  Jew, 
and  a  Jew  only. 

It  was  this  power  of  resistance  to  outward 
influences  that  enabled  them  to  re-establish  the 
Sanhedrin  a  few  years  after  the  final  destruction 
of  Jerusalem.  In  two  generations,  with  the 
wonderful  vitality  which  has  ever  distinguished 
them,  the  Jews  "  had  recovered  in  a  great 
measure  their  numbers,  their  wealth,  and  their 
unconquerable  spirit."  It  is  easy  now  for  us 
to  understand  how  it  was  that  the  Temple 
treasure,  so  frequently  carried  off,  was  so 
quickly  replaced.  On  the  news  of  each  fresh 
disaster  the  foreign  communities  of  Jews  would 
send  convoys  of  money  and  men  to  Jerusalem 
for  the  Temple  service,  and  to  replace  the 
plundered  treasure. 

The  calamities  and  miseries  endured  by  the 
Jews  are  perhaps  unequalled  by  those  of  any 
other  nation.  Our  Saviour  wept  at  the  fore- 
sight of  the  rapine,  murder,  fire  and  pestilence, 
and  other  horrors  about  to  fall  upon  God's 
chosen  people.  It  is  hardly  possible  to  con- 
sider the  extent  of  their  sufferings  and  not  to 
think  of  the  awful  imprecation  they  called  down 
upon  their  own  heads  in  Matt.  27.25 — "  His 
blood  be  on  us,  and  on  our  children."  In  the 
early  centuries  of  the  Christian  era  the  position 
of  the  Jews  in  nearly  all  countries  was  pitiable 
in  the  extreme.  In  Spain  (700  A.D.)  they  were 
ordered  to  be  enslaved.  In  the  eighth  and 
ninth  centuries  they  were  everywhere  abused, 
being  made  to  wear  a  distinctive  and  degrading 
dress,  to  ride  without  stirrups  on  asses  and 
mules.  They  were  murdered  wholesale  every- 
where during  the  Crusades.  In  France  multi- 
tudes were  burnt.  And  at  the  coronation  of 
Richard  i.  of  England  they  were  mobbed  and 
murdered  with  impunity.  In  Egypt,  Syria, 
Mesopotamia,  Persia,  they  were  murdered  and 
otherwise  ill-used.  They  were  expelled  from 
France  in  1358,  as  they  had  previously  been 
from  England  in  1291.  In  1492  over  half  a 
million  were  banished  from  Spain  under  cir- 
cumstances of  great  cruelty  and  hardship.  It 
was  the  same  story  in  mid-  and  northern 
Europe,  and  it  is  only  within  the  last  century 


or  two  that  their  condition  in  Europe  has  been 
at  all  tolerable.  Even  in  this  generalisation 
we  must  exclude  Russia  from  the  list  of  those 
countries  extending  any  sort  of  friendship  to 
God's  ancient  people. 

In  the  face  of  all  this  persecution  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  Jews  is  marvellous.  "  The  bush  of 
Moses,  surrounded  with  flames,  ever  burns,  and 
is  never  consumed.  The  Jews  have  been 
expelled,  at  different  times,  from  every  part  of 
the  world,  but  this  has  only  served  to  spread 
them  in  all  regions.  From  age  to  age  they  have 
been  exposed  to  misery  and  persecution ;  yet 
they  still  subsist,  whilst  the  greatest  monarchies 
have  fallen,  leaving  nothing  but  the  name." 

Almost  all  the  modern  Jews  are  Pharisees  in 
doctrine,  though  they  do  not  call  themselves 
such,  and  are  as  much  attached  to  the  traditional, 
i.e.  the  oral  law,  as  their  ancestors  were. 
They  entertain  an  implacable  hatred  to  the 
Karaites  (a  sect  of  Scripturists),  who  adhere 
to  the  text  of  Moses,  rejecting  rabbinical  inter- 
pretation. There  are  no  professed  Sadducees, 
but  many  "  Reformed  "  Jews  hold  opinions  not 
dissimilar.  Of  the  Samaritans,  about  200  still 
remain,  chiefly  at  Nablous. 

All  over  the  world  at  the  present  time  the 
eyes  of  Jews  are  turned  expectantly  towards 
the  Holy  Land.  Many  have  already  travelled 
thither,  and  established  colonies  for  tilling  the 
soil,  and  the  conduct  of  small  manufactures. 
The  Zionist  movement  has  given  a  great 
impetus  in  this  direction. 

Jezani'ah.— [JAAZANIAH  1.] 

Jez'ebeL— Daughter  of  Ethbaal,  king  of  the 
Zidonians,  and  wife  of  Ahab,  king  of  Israel 
(1  K.  16.31).  This  princess  introduced  into  the 
kingdom  of  Samaria  the  Syrian  form  of  the 
worship  of  Baal,  Astarte,  and  other  Phoenician 
deities.  With  this  worship,  she  also  brought 
into  the  country  many  of  those  abominations 
which  had  incensed  God  against  the  Canaan- 
ites.  Jezebel  was  so  zealous  in  this  vile 
worship  that  she  fed  at  her  table  450  prophets 
or  priests  of  Baal,  and  400  priests  of  Astarte 
(1  K.  18.19). 

It  was  an  evil  day  for  Israel  when  Ahab 
brought  his  foreign  queen  to  share  his  throne. 
Unlike  Solomon,  who  established  each  of 
his  heathen  wives  apart  by  herself,  Ahab 
allowed  Jezebel  to  share  in  his  government, 
sometimes  even  to  the  exclusion  of  himself 
(1  K.  21.25).  The  attack  on  the  prophets  of 
Jehovah  (1  K.  18.13  ;  2  K.  9.7)  was  the  occasion 
for  a  fierce  rising  of  the  people,  instigated  by 
Elijah,  who  destroyed  almost  entirely  the 
worshippers  of  Baal  (1  K.  19.1).  But  even 
Elijah  quailed  beneath  the  fierce  anger  of 
Jezebel  on  receipt  of  the  news  of  the  slaughter 
of  her  priests,  and  fled  for  his  life  (1  K.  19.3). 

Jezebel,  like  Lady  Macbeth,  was  a  woman  of 
firmer  purpose  than  her  husband.  Unscrupu- 
lous in  the  use  of  the  power  that  should  have 
been  retained  in  the  king's  own  hands,  she 
procured  the  death  of  Naboth  (1  K.  21.14),  and 
then  bade  her  husband  seize  on  the  murdered 


JEZER] 


254 


[JIPHTHAHEL 


man's  lands,  long  coveted  by  him.  For  herself 
she  probably  cared  nothing  for  the  coveted 
vineyard  or  its  owner  ;  but  for  power  she  cared 
a  great  deal,  and  it  was  for  the  cruel  exercise 
of  this  that  the  prophet's  curse  fell  upon  her 
(1  K.  21.23).  The  story  of  her  dreadful  end, 
with  the  merciless  Jehu  as  executioner,  is  told 
with  full  dramatic  effect  in  2  K.  9.30-37.  Jehu's 
own  words,  as  the  messenger  whom  he  had  sent 
out  to  bury  her,  "  for  she  is  a  king's  daughter," 
returned  and  informed  him  what  had  happened 
to  the  body,  recalled  the  prophecy  of  Elijah 
(2  K.  9.36,  37).  It  may  be  noted  that  to  have 
left  her  unburied  would  have  been  an  insult  to 
the  king  of  Tyre.  Jezebel  must  have  been  of 
considerable  age  when  she  died,  for  she  survived 
Ahab  fourteen  years,  playing  the  same  prominent 
part  in  the  court  of  her  sons  as  she  had  done  by 
the  throne  of  her  husband.  Taken  altogether, 
Jezebel  was  probably  the  wickedest,  as  she  was 
the  greatest  and  cleverest,  of  the  queens  of 
Israel.  [AHAB,  JEHU,  ELIJAH,  NABOTH.] 

Je'zer. — Form  or  'purpose:  son  of  Naphtali 
(Gen.  46.24  ;  Num.  26.49). 

Jez'iah  (R.V.  Izziah).  —  (?)  May  Jehovah 
sprinkle :  one  who  took  a  strange  wife  (Ezra 
10.25). 

Jezi'eL — (?)  United  by  God  :  one  of  David's 
valiant  men  who  joined  him  at  Ziklag.  He  was 
a  Benjamite  slinger  (1  Ch.  12.3). 

Jezli'ah.— (R.V.  Izliah).— A  Benjamite  (1  Ch. 
8.18). 

Jezo'ar.— (?)  Tawny  :  a  man  of  Judah.  It 
should  be  read  as  Izhar  or  Zohar  (1  Ch.  4.7). 

Jezrahi'ah. — Jehovah  is  rising,  or  shining:  a 
chief  of  the  singers  at  the  dedication  of  the  wall 
of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  12.42). 

Jezre'eL — God  sows :  1.  A  town  in  the 
southern  district  of  Judah  near  Carmel  (Josh. 
15.56  ;  1  Sam.  25.43).  2.  A  Judahite,  descend- 
ant of  the  founder  of  Etam  (1  Ch.  4.3).  3.  A 
symbolic  name  for  Israel  (due  to  the  importance 
of  Jezreel  4)  (Hos.  1.4, 11),  and  also  for  the  eldest 
son  of  Hosea  (Hos.  1.4).  4.  The  well-known 
city  in  Issachar  built  on  a  spur  of  Mount  Gilboa, 
on  the  brow  of  a  very  steep,  rocky  descent.  It 
first  appears  in  Scripture  as  a  city  of  Issachar 
(Josh.  19.18).  Ahab  chose  it  as  his  principal 
residence,  and  Jezebel  died  there  (1  K.  18.45,  46, 
21 ;  2  K.  9.10,  30-37).  Thither  the  wounded 
Joram  fled  (2  K.  8.29),  and  Ahab's  sons  slain 
(2  K.  10).  About  ij  miles  east  of  Jezreel 
is  Ain  Jalud  (Well  of  Goliath),  the  fountain  of 
Jezreel,  where  Saul  camped  before  his  last  battle 
(1  Sam.  29.1).  From  its  commanding  position 
at  the  opening  of  the  plain  Jezreel  was  visible 
from  Carmel.  Here  Jezebel  maintained  400 
priests,  and  established  a  temple  and  grove 
of  Astarte  (1  K.  18.19  ;  2  K.  10.11).  Ahab's 
palace,  the  "  Ivory  House  "  (1  K.  22.39),  and 
also  Jezebel's  abode,  formed  part  of  the  city 
wall  on  its  east  side.  On  the  east  also  was  the 
gate  flanked  by  the  huge  square  watch-tower. 
Immediately  in  front  of  the  gateway  was  the 
open  space  where  offal  was  thrown,  and  where 
the  dogs,  who  acted  as  scavengers,  prowled  about. 


Hence  the  rapidity  with  which  the  battered 
remains  of  Jezebel  were  consumed  (2  K.  9.35). 
Naboth's  vineyard,  just  beyond  the  walls 
[NABOTH],  was  the  spot  where  Elijah  met  Ahab, 
Jehu,  and  Bidkar  (1  K.  21.16).  The  modern 
name  of  Jezreel  is  Zerin.  [See  JEHU,  JEZEBEL, 
NABOTH,  ELIJAH,  and  the  two  following  articles.] 

Jezre'el,  Plain  of  (and  more  generally  the 
Plain  of  Esdraelon). — A  plain  called  by  the  Arabs 
Merj  ibn  Amer.  This  extends  from  the  base  of 
the  Nazareth  hills  on  the  north  about  12  miles 
to  the  hills  of  Samaria  on  the  south,  and  from 
the  mountain  range  of  Carmel  on  the  west  about 
24  miles  to  Tabor  and  Gilboa  on  the  east.  On 
the  east  side  are  three  great  extensions,  separated 
from  each  other  by  the  ridges  of  Little  Hermon 
and  Gilboa ;  the  north  and  middle  [VALLEY  OP 
JEZREEL]  branches  extend  to  the  Jordan;  the 
south  extension  is  a  cul-de-sac.  On  the  north- 
west the  plain  is  contracted  by  Carmel  into  a 
pass,  by  which  access  is  gained  to  the  plain  of 
Akka,  and  through  which  flows  the  Kishon.  The 
plain  of  Jezreel  was  the  great  throughfare  and 
battlefield  of  Palestine.  Here  Barak  and  Sisera 
fought  (Judg.  4.13, 14,  5.19-21),  also  Gideon  and 
the  Amalekites  and  Midianites  ( Judg.  7.1,  22).  It 
was  the  scene  also  of  the  conflict  between  Josiah 
and  Pharaoh-nechoh  (2  K.  23.29 ;  2  Ch.  35.22), 
and  of  Shalmanezer's  victory  (Hos.  1.4,  5, 11, 
2.22).  This  plain  was  part  of  the  territory  of 
Issachar  (Josh.  19.18),  and  after  the  death  of 
Saul  was  held  for  awhile  by  Ishbosheth 
(2  Sam.  2.9).  Solomon  made  it  one  of  his  com- 
missariat districts  because  of  its  fertility  (1  K. 
4.12).  It  was,  however,  an  insecure  place  for 
habitation,  and  so  the  people  lived  in  villages 
in  the  surrounding  hills.  [ESDRAELON, 
MEGIDDO.] 

Jezre'el,  Valley  of.— A  long,  beautiful,  and  very 
fruitful  valley  running  from  the  Plain  of  Jezreel 
to  the  Jordan.  It  was  15  miles  long,  and  varying 
in  width  from  2  to  3  miles.  At  its  western 
end  lay  the  city  of  Jezreel  (which  see),  and  at 
the  eastern  extremity  Beth-shean  (Josh.  17.16). 
This  narrow  valley  was  the  scene  of  Saul's  final 
defeat  by  the  Philistines  (1  Sam.  31.1),  and  of 
Jehu's  advance  against  Joram  (2  K.  9). 

Jezre'elite. — Inhabitant  of  Jezreel  4  (1  A". 
21.1).  [NABOTH.] 

Jezre'elitess.  —  Inhabitant  of  Jezreel  1 
(ISam.  27.3).  [AHINOAM.] 

Jib'sam  (R.V.  Ibsam). — Sweet-smelling :  a 
descendant  of  Issachar  (1  Ch.  7.2). 

Jid'laph.— Son  of  Nahor  (Gen.  22.22). 

Jim'na.— The  eldest  son  of  Asher.  His 
descendants  were  called  Jimnites  (Num.  26.44). 
He  is  called  Imnah  in  1  Ch.  7.30,  and  Jimnah  in 
Gen.  46.17. 

Jim'nah,— [JIMNA.] 

Jiph'tah  (R.V.  Iphtah). — He  openeth  :  a  town 
in  the  lowlands  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.43).  Its 
site  has  not  been  identified. 

Jiph'thah-el  (R.V.  Iphtah-el).— God  openeth : 
a  valley  forming  the  boundary  between  Zebulun 
and  Asher  (Josh.  19.14, 27).  It  has  been 
identified  with  Jotapata,  a  city  besieged  by 


JOAB] 


255 


[JOASH 


the  Emperor  Vespasian,  and  now  the  little 
village  of  Jefat.  The  valley  itself  is,  therefore, 
the  Wady-Abitin,  which,  starting  near  Jefat, 
trends  westward  towards  the  sea. 

Jo'ab. — Jehovah  is  father :  1.  David's  nephew, 
and  son  of  Zeruiah,  David's  sister.  Brother  to 
Abishai  and  Asahel,  and  one  of  the  most  valiant 
soldiers  of  David's  time.  Joab  was  also  cruel, 
revengeful,  and  imperious.  He  performed  great 
services  for  David,  to  whose  interests  he  was 
always  firm  and  loyal,  and  was  commander-in- 
chief  of  his  forces,  when  David  was  king  of 
Judah  only.  His  statesmanlike  qualities  raised 
him  to  the  second  place  in  the  kingdom. 

Unlike  his  brother  Abishai,  who  had  joined 
his  fortunes  to  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Sam.  2G.6), 
Joab  is  mentioned  for  the  first  time  when  he 
departs  from  Hebron  at  the  head  of  David's 
guard  to  watch  Abner.  The  fatal  duel  that 
ensued  between  twelve  champions  on  each 
side  led  to  a  general  battle  between  the 
tribes  of  Benjamin  and  Judah,  the  defeat  of 
the  former  (2  Sam.  2),  and  the  death  by  Abner 
of  Asahel,  Joab's  brother.  Asahel's  death  was 
treacherously  avenged  by  Joab  (2  Sam.  3.27). 
In  obedience  to  the  angry  outburst  of  David  on 
hearing  the  news,  Joab  appeared  at  the  funeral 
of  Abner  in  sackcloth  and  ashes  (2  Sam.  3.31). 
It  was  at  the  siege  of  Jebus  [JERUSALEM]  that 
Joab  gained  both  distinction  and  the  command 
of  David's  army.  The  fortress  of  Jebus  stood 
on  a  high  rock,  and  was  deemed  impregnable. 
But  when  David  offered  the  post  of  chief  of  the 
army  to  any  one  who  would  lead  the  way  in, 
Joab  succeeded.  The  stronghold  taken,  Joab 
busied  himself  with  the  fortifications  of  the 
place,  which  was  occupied  by  David  as  his 
capital  and  military  headquarters  (1  Ch.  11.8). 
Here  Joab  remained  and  built  himself  a  house 
(2  Sam.  14.30),  leaving  Jerusalem  only  to  lead 
the  army  in  the  numerous  wars  engaged  in  by 
the  king.  In  this  position  he  materially  assisted 
in  the  consolidation  of  David's  empire.  His 
many  successful  campaigns  against  the 
Ammonites,  the  Edomites,  and  the  Syrians 
caused  his  name  to  be  a  word  of  terror  to 
the  surrounding  nations  (1  K.  11.15, 16,  21). 
At  the  siege  of  Kabbah  (which  see)  he  was 
accompanied  by  the  Ark  (2  Sam.  11.1-11), 
took  the  lower  city,  and  then  sent  to  his  royal 
master  to  come  and  have  the  honour  of  taking 
the  citadel  (2  Sam.  12.26-28).  It  was  this 
loyalty  that  led  Joab  to  fall  in  with  David's 
plot  to  procure  the  death  of  Uriah  (2  Sam.  11) ; 
and  though  from  this  time  forward  Joab  ac- 
quired further  influence  over  the  mind  of  the 
king,  his  act  was  not  necessarily  prompted  by 
selfish  motives.  His  loyalty  was  further  shown 
when  he  successfully  pleaded  for  Absalom  after 
the  murder  of  Amnon ;  an  occasion  on  which 
David  showed  keen  appreciation  of  his  general 
(2  Sam.  14.1-20).  And  then,  later,  when 
Absalom  rebelled,  Joab,  realising  the  necessity 
for  removing  so  dangerous  an  enemy  to  the 
king,  took  full  responsibility  for  his  death 
(2  Sam.  18.2-15,  19.5-7).  For  this  act  Joab 


was  removed  from  the  command  of  the  army, 
and  Arnasa,  a  rebel  himself,  appointed  in  his 
stead  (2  Sam.  20.4).  But  though  Joab  through- 
out acted  with  the  utmost  devotion  to  his  king, 
this  did  not  prevent  him  from  carrying  out  deeds 
of  private  vengeance  ;  as  witness  the  murder  of 
Amasa,  following  immediately  on  his  appoint- 
ment by  David  to  an  office  which  Joab  had  held 
(2  Sam.  20.7, 10  ;  IK.  2.5).  Joab's  resistance 
to  the  desire  of  David  to  number  the  people  was 
a  question  of  conscience,  and  though  the  king 
"  prevailed  "  against  him,  yet  he  contrived  that 
two  tribes,  Benjamin  and  Levi,  should  escape 
the  census  (2  Sam.  24.1-4  ;  1  Ch.  21.6). 

A  man  of  blood  from  his  youth,  it  was  perhaps 
natural  that  Joab's  own  end  should  be  a  violent 
one.  His  great  trait  hitherto  had  been  loyalty 
to  the  throne.  Now,  at  the  end  of  a  long  and 
strenuous  life,  he  "  turned  after  Adonijah " 
(1  K.  2.28).  David  lay  dying.  He  could  not 
punish  his  old  war-chief  himself,  but  he 
remembered  the  murder  of  Abner  and  Amasa, 
and  enjoined  Solomon  to  avenge  them  (1  K. 
2.5,  6).  David  died,  and  Joab,  fearing  the 
vengeance  of  Solomon,  fled  to  the  altar  at 
Gibeon  for  sanctuary.  By  Solomon's  direction, 
Benaiah  slew  the  old  man  there  (1  K.  2.28-34). 
[DAVID,  ABNEB,  ADONIJAH.]  2.  Son  of  Seraiah, 
a  descendant  of  Kenaz  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  4.14). 
3.  The  name  of  a  family  which  returned  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.6,  8.9  ;  Neh.  7.11).  4.  A 
name  mentioned  in  an  obscure  passage,  appar- 
ently connected  with  Bethlehem.  It  may  refer 
to  Joab  1  (1  Ch.  2.54). 

Jo'ah. — Jehovah  is  Brother :  1.  Keeper  of  the 
records  in  Hezekiah's  time  (2  K.  18.18  ;  Isai. 
36.3,11,22).  2  and  3.  Levites  (1  Ch.  6.21; 
2  Ch.  29.12).  4.  A  Levite,  son  of  Obed-edom.  A 
door-keeper  of  the  temple  appointed  by  David 
(1  Ch.  26.4).  5.  Keeper  of  the  records  in 
Josiah's  time  (2  Ch.  34.8). 

Joa'haz. — Jehovah  hath  grasped:  father  of 
Joan  4  (2  Ch.  34.8). 

Joan'na  (R.V.  Joanan). — Jehovah  is  gracious : 
1.  The  name  of  a  man  in  the  genealogy  of 
Christ  (Lk.  3.27).  [HANANIAH.]  2.  The  wife 
of  Chuza,  Herod's  steward  (Lk.  8.3,  24.10) ; 
one  of  those  women  who  followed  our  Lord,  and 
assisted  Him  with  their  substance. 

Jo'ash. — (?)  Jehovah  hath  aided  :  1.  A  descend- 
ant of  Benjamin  through  Becher  (1  Ch.  7.8).  2. 
One  of  David's  household  officials  (1  Ch.  27.28). 
3.  (This  and  the  following  are  different  words 
from  the  two  preceding.) — (?)  Jehovah  is 
strong  :  the  father  of  Gideon,  who  maintained 
at  his  own  place  an  altar  and  an  Asherah  to 
Baal.  Yet  when  Gideon  at  the  command  of 
God  had  cast  down  Baal's  altar  Joash  pleads 
for  his  life  with  the  enraged  idolaters  (Judg. 
6.31).  4.  A  son  of  Ahab  (1  K.  22.26). 

5.  King  of  Judah.  The  only  one  of  Ahaziah's 
sons  to  escape  the  massacre  ordered  by  Athaliah 
(2  K.  11.2).  He  was  rescued  by  Jehoshabeath, 
and  hidden  for  six  years  in  the  Temple.  At  the 
expiration  of  this  period  a  revolution  raised 
him,  the  only  surviving  descendant,  to  the  throne 


JOATHAM] 


256 


[JOB,  BOOK  OP 


of  Solomon.  A  period  of  prosperity  ensued, 
and  the  true  religion  was  re-established.  But 
when  Jehoiada  died,  Joash  lent  himself  to  evil 
counsel,  restoring  Baal- worship  and  the  erection 
of  groves  to  Ashtoreth.  Rebuked  by  Zechariah, 
Joash  caused  him  to  be  stoned  in  the  court  of 
the  Temple.  Retribution  followed.  Hazael, 
king  of  Syria,  plundered  the  country ;  and 
sickness  fell  upon  Joash,  during  which  his 
servants  slew  him  in  bed  (2  Ch.  24.20-25).  His 
reign  had  lasted  for  forty  years.  He  was  buried 
at  Jerusalem,  but  his  body  was  denied  a  place 
in  the  sepulchres  of  the  kings  of  Judah  (2  K. 
11.2  ft;  2  Ch.  24.25). 

6.  King  of  Israel.  Son  of  Jehoahaz,  whom 
he  succeeded,  and  father  of  Jeroboam  n.  (2  K. 
14.1).  In  consequence  of  a  visit  Joash  paid 
to  the  dying  Elisha,  he  was  promised  three 
victories  over  the  enemies  of  his  country  (1  K. 
20.26-30).  He  thrice  defeated  Benhadad,  and 
regained  certain  lost  cities.  He  was  also 
victorious  in  a  war  with  Amaziah,  king  of 
Judah  (2  Ch.  25  ff.).  The  cause  of  this  war  was 
unique.  Amaziah  had  hired  for  100  talents  of 
silver  an  army  of  Israel's  fighting  men,  to  take 
part  in  an  expedition  against  Edom.  Being  per- 
suaded, however,  to  go  to  battle  without  them, 
he  dismissed  them.  Enraged  at  their  treat- 
ment, the  mercenaries  plundered  a  number  of 
the  cities  of  Judah  on  the  way  home.  Amaziah, 
in  revenge,  declared  war  against  Joash.  Joash 
defeated  Amaziah  at  Bethshemesh,  broke  down 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem,  and  plundered  the  city 
and  Temple,  carrying  off  some  of  the  inhabitants 
as  hostages.  He  died  at  Samaria  (2  K.  13.9  ff., 
14.1-27;  2  Ch.  25;  Eos.  1.1;  Amoi  1.1). 
7.  A  Judahite  who  apparently  had  dominion 
in  Moab  (1  Ch.  4.22).  8.  One  of  the  heroes  who 
went  to  David's  help  at  Ziklag.  He  was  made 
second  in  command,  and  otherwise  honoured 
(1  Ch.  12.3). 

Jo'atham. — God  is  perfect:  another  form  of 
Jotham  (Matt.  1.9).  [JOTHAM  2.] 

Job.— (?)  Hated,  or,  reverent :  1.  The  principal 
figure  in  the  book  which  bears  bis  name.  A 
patriarch  in  "  the  land  of  Uz  "  (Job  1.1),  happy 
and  prosperous,  he  is,  by  permission  of  God 
(1.12),  sorely  tried  by  Satan.  The  experiences 
of  Job  lead  to  a  series  of  discussions  between 
the  sufferer  and  certain  friends.  Ultimately 
he  submits  himself  to  God,  who  "  turned  "  his 
"  captivity,"  giving  him  "  twice  as  much  as 
he  had  before  "  (42.10).  His  prosperity  fully 
restored,  he  lived,  "  after  this  ...  an  hundred 
and  forty  years"  (42.16).  Job  is  classed  by 
Ezekiel  with  Noah  and  Daniel  (Ezek.  14.14,  20), 
and  his  patience  is  referred  to  by  James  (Jas. 
5.11).  For  some  of  the  questions  associated 
with  the  personality  of  Job,  see  JOB,  BOOK  OF. 

2.  A  different  word  from  the  preceding,  and 
probably  corrupt.  The  third  son  of  Issachar 
(Gen.  46.13,  R.V.  lob).  His  name  is  correctly 
given  as  Jashub  in  1  Ch.  7.1.  In  Num.  26.24 
Jashub  is  again  incorrectly  given  as  Jashib. 

Job,  Book  of. — This  book  is  named  from  the 
patriarch  whose  experiences  are  recorded  in  it. 


The  age  in  which  Job  lived  is  a  question  that 
has  created  much  discussion.  Ancient  opinion 
fixes  it  as  earlier  than  Abraham,  according  to 
which  view  it  would  stand  between  Gen.  11  and  12, 
as  a  supplement  to  the  records  of  the  early  con- 
dition of  our  race,  given  by  Moses.  On  the  other 
hand,  some  think  they  detect,  in  chaps.  15.34, 
18.15,  20.26,  allusions  to  the  destruction  of 
Sodom,  etc.  ;  and  adduce  the  coincidence  of 
many  names  occurring  in  this  book  with  those 
of  some  of  Abraham's  descendants,  through 
Ishmael  and  Esau,  as  indications  of  a  somewhat 
later  age.  By  some  of  these  writers  it  is  assigned 
to  the  period  of  the  sojourn  in  Egypt.  Other 
critics  regard  the  book  as  the  product  of  a 
still  later  period,  even  of  the  post-exilic  age. 
Its  unity,  either  of  structure  or  of  purpose, 
is  denied  by  some,  who  regard  the  book  as  a 
thing  of  growth. 

The  authorship  of  the  book  has  been  ascribed 
not  only  to  Job  himself,  but  also  (with  the 
Rabbins  generally)  to  Moses,  to  Elihu,  to 
Solomon,  to  Ezra,  and  other  O.T.  writers ; 
whilst  some  critics  find  in  it  the  work  of  successive 
unknown  authors  who  corrected  or  supplemented 
each  other. 

The  scene  of  the  events  described  is  not  easily 
determined.  Some  think  it  to  have  been  in 
Idumaea,  or  Arabia  Deserta ;  others  fix  it  in 
Mesopotamia.  It  was  evidently  within  reach 
of  the  Sabceans  (1.15),  of  the  Chaldaeans  (ver.  17), 
and  of  Teman  in  Idumaea  (2.11) ;  facts  which 
point  to  a  locality  somewhere  in  the  north  of 
the  Arabian  peninsula. 

The  contents  of  the  book  divide  themselves 
into  three  parts  : — 

I.  The    Historical     Introduction     in    prose 
(chaps.  1,  2),  giving  a  narrative  of  sudden  and 
severe  affliction  (through  the  agency  of  Satan, 
represented  as  appearing  in  the  court  of  heaven, 
as  Job's  accuser),  borne  with  exemplary  patience 
and  trust  in  God. 

II.  The  Argument,   or  Controversy,   in  five 
scenes  or  divisions. 

1.  The  first  series  of  discussions,  comprising 
Job's  complaint  (3) ;  the  speech  of  Eliphaz  (4, 5), 
and  Job's  answer  (6,  7) ;  of  Bildad  (8),  and  Job's 
answer    (9,    10) ;    of   Zophar   (11),    and   Job's 
answer  (12-14). 

2.  The  second  series,  comprising  the  speech 
of  Eliphaz  (15),  and  Job's  answer  (16,  17) ;   of 
Bildad  (18),  and  Job's  answer  (19) ;  of  Zophar 
(20),  and  Job's  answer  (23 ). 

3.  The  third  series,  comprising  the  speech  of 
Eliphaz  (22),  and  Job's  answer  (23,   24);    of 
Bildad  (25),  and  Job's  answer  (26-31).     It  has 
been  urged  that  a  part  of  the  speech  attributed 
to  Job  (27.7-23)  was  really  a  third  reply  by 
Zophar,  wrongly  placed  by  a  transcriber's  error ; 
but  this  view  is  not  widely  accepted. 

The  question  discussed  thus  far  is,  whether 
great  suffering  be  not  an  evidence  of  great  guilt. 
Job's  friends  affirm  it,  and  exhort  him  to  repent 
and  reform.  Job  denies  it,  appeals  to  facts, 
and  complains  bitterly  of  his  friends  for  aggravat- 
ing his  distress  by  false  charges. 


JOB,  BOOK  OF] 


257 


[JOEL,  BOOK  OF 


4.  The  speech  of  Elihu  (32-37). 

Elihu  maintains  that  afflictions  are  meant  for 
the  good  of  the  sufferer,  even  when  not,  strictly 
speaking,  the  consequence  of  sin ;  he  reproves 
Job  for  justifying  himself  rather  than  God, 
and  vindicates  the  Divine  character  and 
government. 

5.  The  close  of  the  discussion,  by  the  address 
of  the  Almighty,  not  condescending  to  explain 
His  conduct,   but  illustrating  His  power  and 
wisdom  (38-41) ;    and  Job's  response  and  peni- 
tential submission  (42.1-6). 

III.  The  conclusion  in  prose  (42.7-17),  giv- 
ing an  account  of  Job's  acceptance  and  pro- 
sperity. 

The  practical  lessons  suggested  by  the  book 
are  obvious  and  important.  Uncharitableness 
is  of  the  devil  (1.9, 10).  Its  origin,  no  less  than 
its  unloveliness,  should  put  us  on  guard  against 
it.  ...  Perfect  and  upright  men  are  among  the 
first  to  confess  their  vileness  (1.1,  40.4,  42.6). 
Our  progress  in  holiness  may  be  measured  by 
our  humility.  .  .  .  What  wisdom  is  needed  to 
conduct  controversy  wisely,  when  even  Job 
failed  !  .  .  .  How  needful  is  a  specific  revela- 
tion, when  even  good  men,  with  an  accurate 
knowledge  of  God,  and  of  many  principles  of 
His  government,  misread  the  lessons  written 
upon  His  works  !  To  correct  human  misappre- 
hension on  such  questions,  God  had  Himself  to 
interpose. 

Inquiry  into  the  relation  between  Job  and 
other  O.T.  looks  shows  certain  coincidences  in 
expression  between  Job  and  passages  in  the 
Psalms,  Proverbs,  and  Isaiah,  suggesting  that 
the  book  was  familiar  in  the  days  of  the  Hebrew 
monarchy.  There  is  in  the  N.T.  but  one 
explicit  quotation  from  Job  (1  Cor.  3.19)  (pre- 
faced by  the  formula  "  it  is  written "),  from 
5.13.  Compare  also  Phil.  1.19  with  13.16.  In 
Jas.  5.11  there  is  a  reference  to  the  "patience" 
(or  endurance)  "  of  Job."  The  phrase,  "  the 
day  of  wrath  "  (Rom.  2.5),  although  occurring 
first  in  Job,  may  have  been  quoted  by  the 
apostle  from  Zeph.  1.15,  18. 

The  literary  character  of  the  book  drew  a 
striking  testimony  from  Thomas  Carlyle  :  "  I 
call  this  Book,  apart  from  all  theories  about  it, 
one  of  the  grandest  things  ever  written  with 
pen.  One  feels,  indeed,  as  if  it  were  not  Hebrew  ; 
such  a  noble  universality,  different  from  ignoble 
patriotism  or  sectarianism,  reigns  in  it.  A  noble 
Book,  all  men's  Book  !  It  is  our  first,  oldest 
statement  of  the  never-ending  Problem — man's 
destiny,  and  God's  ways  with  him  here  in  this 
earth.  And  all  in  such  free,  flowing  outlines  ; 
grand  in  its  sincerity,  in  its  simplicity  ;  in  its 
epic  melody,  and  repose  of  reconcilement. 
There  is  the  seeing  eye,  the  mildly  understand- 
ing heart.  So  true  every  way  ;  true  eyesight 
and  vision  for  all  things  ;  material  things  no 
less  than  spiritual.  .  .  .  Such  living  likenesses 
were  never  since  drawn.  Sublime  sorrow, 
sublime  reconciliation;  oldest  choral  melody, 
as  of  the  heart  of  mankind  ;  so  soft,  and  great ; 
as  the  summer  midnight,  as  the  world  with  its 


seas  and  stars !  There  is  nothing  written,  I 
think,  in  the  Bible  or  out  of  it,  of  equal  literary 
merit  "  (Lectures  on  Heroes,  ii.). 

Jo'bab.— (?)  Cry  shrilly :  1.  A  son  of  Joktan 
(Gen.  10.29;  1  Ch.  1.23).  2.  A  king  of  Edom 
(Gen.  36.33,  34 ;  1  Ch.  1.44).  3.  A  king  of  Madon 
in  north  Canaan,  who  was  conquered  by  Joshua  at 
Merom  (Josh.  11.1).  4.  A  Benjamite  (1  Ch.  8.9). 

5.  A  Benjamite  (1  Ch.  8.18). 

Joche'bed. — Jehovah  is  glory :  the  mother  of 
Moses,  and  wife  and  aunt  of  Amram  (Ex.  2.1, 
6.20 ;  Num.  26.59). 

Joda.— [JUDA  2.] 

Jo'ed. — Jehovah  is  a  witness:  a  Benjamite 
(Neh.  11.7). 

Jo' el— Jehovah  is  God :  1.  The  first-born  son 
of  Samuel.  In  I  Ch.  6.28  the  word  Vashni 
(meaning " and  the  second")  comes  in  his  place. 
Probably  there  is  a  copyist's  error,  and  we  should 
read  "  the  first-born  Joel,  and  the  second  Abiah." 
In  his  old  age  Samuel  made  Joel  and  bis  brother 
Abiah  judges  of  Israel.  But  their  disgraceful 
behaviour  and  the  bribery  they  were  guilty  of 
ultimately  led  to  a  change  of  government,  and 
the  anointing  of  Saul  as  the  first  king.  He  was 
father  of  Heman  the  singer  (1  Sam.  8.2 ;  1  Ch. 
6.33,  15.17).  2.  A  Simeonite  prince  (1  Ch.  4.35). 
3.  A  Reubenite  (1  Ch.  5.4,  8).  4.  A  Gadite  chief 
(1  Ch.  5.12).  5.  A  chief  of  Issachar  (1  Ch.  7.3). 

6.  A  brother  of   Nathan,  and   one   of   David's 
valiant  men  (1  Ch.  11.38).     7.  A  Levite  (1  Ch. 
15.7, 11) ;   perhaps  the  same  as  No.  8.     8.  A 
Levite  (1  Ch.  23.8,  26.22).    9.  A  prince  of  the 
half-tribe  of  Manasseh,  west  of  the  Jordan.     He 
lived  in  the  time  of  David  (1  Ch.  27.20).     10.  A 
Kohathite  Levite.    He  was  sent  by  his  tribe  to 
represent  them  at  the  solemn  purification  pre- 
ceding the  restoration  of  the  Temple  (2  Ch.  29.12). 
11.  A  Jew  who  had  taken  a  strange  wife  (Ezra 
10.43).     12.  A  headman  of  a   Benjamite  class 
who  lived  in  Jerusalem  after  the  Return  (Neh. 
11.9). 

13.  The  prophet  and  author  of  the  book  bearing 
his  name.  He  is  described  as  "  the  son  of 
Pethuel "  (Joel  1.1),  but  no  other  details  of  his 
personal  history  are  given.  The  frequent  refer- 
ences to  Jerusalem  and  to  Judah  suggest  that  he 
was  a  prophet  of  the  Southern  Kingdom,  and  may 
have  dwelt  at  Jerusalem  [JOEL,  BOOK  OF.] 

Joel,  Book  of. — The  work  named  from  the 
prophet  whose  message  it  contains  (Joel  1-3). 
The  date  of  Joel  has  been  much  discussed.  His 
prophecy  names  among  the  enemies  of  his 
country  the  Phoenicians  (3.4),  Edomites  and 
Egyptians  (3.19),  making  no  reference  to  Assyrians 
and  Babylonians.  From  this  it  is  inferred  that 
he  wrote  either  before  these  powers  had  become 
formidable,  or  after  they  had  ceased  to  be  so. 
He  must  have  been,  therefore,  among  the  earliest 
or  ttie  latest  of  the  prophets.  The  former  view 
has  been  most  generally  held,  and  appears  to  be 
correct.  Joel's  message  shows  that  he  lived  at 
a  time  when  the  people  of  Judah  had  not  fallen 
into  the  extreme  depravity  of  their  latter  days. 
He  may  be  placed,  therefore,  between  the  reigns 
of  Joash  and  Uzziah.  He  was  contemporary 


JOELAH] 


258 


[JOHN 


with  Hosea  and  Amos ;  and  as  they  addressed 
Israel,  so  he  addressed  Judah. 

The  contents  of  the  book  may  be  divided 
into  two  parts,  the  second  beginning  at  2.18. 
In  1-2.11  the  prophet  delineates,  with  most 
graphic  force,  an  impending  devastation,  succes- 
sive armies  of  locusts  (1.4),  and  burning  drought 
(1.18,  19),  representing  in  this  form,  probably, 
the  calamities  consequent  on  coming  invasions. 
He  then  exhorts  to  penitence,  fasting,  and 
prayer  (2.12-17),  promising  the  removal  of  these 
evils,  and  rich  blessing.  He  foretells  the  effusion 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  (2.18-31;  cf.  Acts  2.1-21, 
10.41),  and  the  "terrible  day  of  the  Lord" 
(2.31,  3.14;  cf.  Matt.  24.29).  In  chap.  3,  Joel 
foretells  the  assembling  of  the  nations  in  the 
Valley  of  Jehovah's  Judgement  and  their 
destruction,  the  establishment  of  Jerusalem  as  the 
holy  city,  and  the  glorious  state  of  peace  and 
prosperity  to  be  enjoyed  by  the  Church  in  the 
days  of  the  Messiah. 

In  chap.  1  the  delineation  is  evidently  literal) 
depicting  the  most  grievous  calamities  of  an 
agricultural  people.  The  question  is  whether  in 
the  second  chapter  also  the  same  interpretation 
holds,  or  whether  the  locust-plague  is  symbolic- 
ally used  for  a  hostile  invasion  (cf.  Rev.  9.3-11), 
or  for  repeated  invasions,  as  those  by  Tiglath- 
pileser,  Shalmaneser,  Sennacherib,  and  Nebu- 
chadnezzar ;  or  even  for  the  subjugation  of  the 
country  by  yet  later  foes.  Other  interpretations 
combine  these  views,  and  deem  it  a  description 
of  impending  calamity  generally,  both  literal  and 
figurative.  "  Locust "  is  certainly  used  with  this 
double  reference  in  Scripture ;  and  in  the  second 
chapter  expressions  appear  with  apparently  a 
double  aspect,  as  like  expressions  were  after- 
wards used  by  our  Lord  (Matt.  24),  referring  to  an 
earlier  and  a  final  visitation.  Indeed,  as  all  great 
and  Divine  deliverances  prefigure  or  represent 
deli verance  through  the  Cross,  so  all  great  punitive 
visitations  supply  figures  for  describing  the 
Judgement. 

The  style  of  Joel  is  clear  and  elegant ;  obscure 
only  towards  the  close.  The  double  destruction 
foretold  in  chaps.  1-2.11,  the  first  by  the 
locusts,  the  second  by  the  enemies  of  whom 
they  were  harbingers,  is  painted  in  terms  that 
are  admirably  adapted  to  the  twofold  character 
of  the  description. 

Of  the  O.T.  books,  Amos  has  relation  to  Joel  in 
that  Joel  3.16  furnishes  the  keynote  to  Amos  1.2. 
In  the  N.T.,  Peter,  on  the  Day  of  Pentecost, 
quotes  Joel's  prediction  respecting  "  the  last 
days  "  (2.28-32),  as  fulfilled  in  the  gift  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  (Acts  2.17-21).  The  closing  words  of  this 
prophecy  are  quoted  by  Paul  (Rom.  10.13).  The 
locust-symbol  of  a  destroying  army  is  reproduced 
in  Rev.  9.7-9. 

Joe'lah.— (?)  May  He  avail:  one  of  David's 
warriors  who  joined  him  at  Ziklag  (1  Ch.  12.7). 

Joe'zer. — Jehovah  is  a  help  :  a  Korahite,  and 
one  01  David's  warriors  who  joined  him  at  Ziklag 
(1  Ch.  12.6). 

Jogbe'hah.— High,  lofty  place  :  a  fortified  town 
of  Gad  on  the  east  of  Jordan.  Gideon,  in  pursuit 


of  uie  Midianites,  passed  near  it  (Num.  32.35; 
Judg.  8.11).  The  place  is  now  known  as  el- 
Jubeihah,  north-west  from  Arnmon  on  the  way 
to  es-Salt. 

Jog'li. — Led  into  exile  :  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Dan 
(Num.  34.22). 

Jo'ha.— 1.  A  Benjamite  (1  Ch.  8.16).  2. 
A  member  of  David's  guard  (1  Ch.  11.45). 

Joha'nan. — Jehovah  is  gracious :  1.  Another 
form  of  John.  Son  of  Azariah  the  high- priest  in 
Solomon's  time  (1  Ch.  6.9, 10).  2.  The  eldest  son 
of  Josiah,  king  of  Judah.  He  died  in  early  life 
(1  Ch.  3.15).  3.  A  prince  of  David's  line  after  the 
Return  (1  Ch.  3.24).  4.  A  high-priest  about 
370  B.C.  Probably  the  same  as  Jonathan  10 
(Neh.  12.22,  23).  5.  A  Benjamite  warrior  of 
David  (1  Ch.  12.4).  6.  A  Gadite  warrior  of 
David  (1  Ch.  12.12).  7.  An  Ephraimite  who  in 
the  time  of  Ahaz  objected  to  the  making  slaves 
of  the  captives  (2  Ch.  28.12).  8.  An  exile  who 
returned  with  Ezra  (Ezra  8.12).  9.  Son  of 
Eliashib.  A  chamber  in  the  Temple  was  called 
after  him.  Perhaps  the  same  as  No.  4  (Ezra  10.6). 
10.  Son  of  Abiah  the  Ammonite  (Neh.  6.18).  11. 
The  son  of  Kareah,  and  an  officer  in  the  army  of 
Judah.  He  escaped  from  Jerusalem  when  the 
city  was  assaulted  by  the  Chaldeans,  took  refuge 
with  the  Ammonites  and  Moabites  until  the 
invaders  had  withdrawn,  and  then  submitted 
to  the  new  governor  of  Jerusalem.  He  rescued 
the  captives  carried  off  by  Gedaliah  from  Mizpah 
( Jer.  41.11-16).  With  other  captains  he  settled 
at  Tahpanhes,  and  is  then  lost  sight  of  (2  K. 
25.23;  Jer.  40,  41,  42,  43). 

John. — The  Grace  of  God  :  1.  In  other  places 
the  name  appears  as  Jehohanan  and  Johanan. 
A  kinsman  of  the  high-priest  Annas.  With 
Annas  and  Caiaphas  he  inquired  concerning  the 
teaching  of  the  Apostles  Peter  and  John,  and  the 
cure  of  the  lame  man  (Acts  4.6).  Nothing  more 
is  known  of  him. 

2.  John  Mark,  the  evangelist,  a  son  of  Mary, 
and  cousin  (not    nephew)  of    Barnabas.      lie 
is  mentioned    as    John  but  five   times   (Acts 
12.12, 25,    13.5, 13,    15.37) ;    in    every    other 
instance  he  is  spoken  of  as  Mark.     [MARK.! 

3.  The  Baptist,  the  Forerunner.     The  coming 
of  John  was  intimated  in  prophecy  (Isai.  40.3  ; 
Mai.  4.5  ;  cf .  Matt.  11.14),  and  his  birth  foretold 
to  his  aged  parents  by  "  an  angel  of  the  Lord  " 
(Lk.    1.5-23).     His   father,    Zacharias,    was    a 
priest,  and  his  mother,  Elisabeth,  "  a  daughter 
of    Aaron."     The    coming    of    the    child    was 
intimated  also  to  the  Virgin  Mary  at  the  an- 
nunciation   (Lk.    1.36).     The    birth    of    John 
(Lk.  1.57)  was  followed  at  his  circumcision  by 
the  restoration  to  Zacharias  of  his  speech,  which 
had  been  taken  from  him  when  the  coming  of 
the  child  was  foretold  by  the  angel  (Lk.  1.20,  64). 

Of  the  early  life  of  John  the  Baptist  we  learn 
no  more  than  that  he  "  grew,  and  waxed 
strong  in  spirit,  and  was  in  the  deserts 
till  the  day  of  his  showing  unto  Israel " 
(Lk.  1.80).  Thus,  whilst  consecrated  to  the 
office  of  preacher  and  teacher  before  his  birth 
(Lk.  1.13-15),  John  did  not  enter  upon  it  until 


JOHN] 


259 


[JOHN 


ripe  manhood,  and  after  spending  several  years 
in  solitude  and  self-denial.  The  appearance 
and  manner  of  the  Baptist  when  he  first  came 
into  notice  excited  general  attention.  His 
clothing  was  of  camel's  hair,  bound  around  him 
with  a  leathern  girdle,  and  his  food  the  product 
of  the  wilderness,  locusts  and  wild  honey 
(Lev.  11.22  ;  Ps.  81.16  ;  Matt.  3.4). 

The  ministry  of  John  began  "  in  the  wilderness 
of  Judsea "  (Matt.  3.1 ;  Mk.  1.4 ;  Lk.  3.3 ; 
John  1.6-28).  He  preached  repentance  and  the 
coming  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  with  the 
result  that  the  whole  country  appeared  to  be 
moved  (Matt.  3.5;  Mk.  1.5),  and  multitudes 
came  to  him  for  baptism.  He  denounced  in 
unmeasured  terms  the  sin  of  the  Pharisees  and 
Sadducees  who  thus  approached  him  (Matt. 
3.7),  warning  also  other  classes  of  the  com- 
munity (Lk.  3.7-14),  and  pointing  to  the  mission 
of  our  Lord  (Lk.  3.15-17;  John  1.29-31), 
Whom  he  baptized  (Matt.  3.13-17,  reff.).  Men 
wondered  whether  John  were  the  promised 
Christ  (Lk.  3.15) ;  but  he  set  all  doubts  at  rest 
(John  1.20). 

The  importance  of  John's  ministry  is  clearly 
indicated  in  the  references  of  our  Lord  and  the 
apostles  to  John's  character  and  work.  After 
answering  the  messengers  of  John  (Matt.  11.2-6  ; 
Lk.  7.19-23),  our  Lord  spoke  to  "  the  multi- 
tudes "  of  John's  character  and  mission,  de- 
claring that  "  among  them  that  are  born  of 
women  there  hath  not  risen  a  greater  than 
John  the  Baptist  "  (Matt.  11.7-11 ;  Lk.  7.24-28). 
Later  on,  our  Lord  definitely  identified  John 
with  the  promised  Elias  (Matt.  17.10-13  ;  Mk. 
9.11-13) ;  used  the  baptism  of  John  as  the 
subject  of  a  question  which  placed  the  "  chief 
priests  and  the  elders  of  the  people  "  in  a  diffi- 
culty (Matt.  21.23-27) ;  and  pressed  upon  them 
their  responsibility  for  rejecting  John's  appeal 
(Matt.  21.32).  The  baptism  of  John  was  re- 
called by  our  Lord  after  He  had  risen  (Acts 
1.5);  was  referred  to  by  Peter  (Acts  3.22, 
10.37,  11.16);  and  by  Paul  (Acts  13.24,  25). 
Apollos  knew  only  "  the  baptism  of  John " 
(Acts  18.25) ;  so  also  did  "  certain  disciples  " 
at  Ephesus  (Acts  19.1-4).  [For  "  the  baptism 
of  John,"  see  BAPTISM.] 

John's  bold  ministry  appears  to  have  alarmed 
Herod,  the  tetrarch  of  Galilee,  who,  according 
to  Josephus  (Ant.  xiii.  5.  2),  regarded  him  as 
a  demagogue  and  a  dangerous  person.  John, 
having  rebuked  the  sin  of  Herod  in  marrying 
Herodias,  wife  of  his  still  living  brother  Philip 
[HEEODIAS],  was  imprisoned  by  Herod.  Fear 
of  popular  indignation  (Matt.  14.5)  might  have 
restrained  Herod  from  killing  John  ;  but  the 
daughter  of  Herodias,  as  the  outcome  of  a 
rash  promise  made  by  Herod,  obtained  John's 
death  (Matt.  14.3-12). 

4.  The  Apostle.  John,  the  brother  of  James, 
was  the  son  of  Zebedee  (Matt.  4.21)  and  of 
Salome,  who  probably  was  sister  of  Mary,  the 
mother  of  our  Lord  (of.  Matt.  27.56  with 
Mk.  15.40;  John  19.25).  In  that  case  John 
was  cousin  to  Jesus,  a  relationship  making  the 


more  natural  the  committal  of  Mary  to  the  care 
of  John  after  the  crucifixion  (John  19.25-27). 
John  was  employed  with  his  father  as  a  fisher- 
man at  Bethsaida  in  Galilee,  on  the  Lake  of 
Gennesareth  (Matt.  4.18, 21).  The  family 
seem  to  have  been  in  easy  circumstances  ;  for 
his  father  had  "  hired  servants  "  (Mk.  1.20) ; 
his  mother  was  among  the  women  who  accom- 
panied Jesus  from  Galilee,  and  "  ministered  unto 
Him  of  their  substance  "  (Matt.  27.56) ;  John 
himself  was  an  acquaintance  of  the  high- priest 
(John  18.15),  and  had  a  home  of  his  own  (John 
19.27).  He  is  identified  with  the  unnamed 
disciple  of  John  the  Baptist,  who,  with  Andrew, 
followed  Jesus  (John  1.35-40).  The  definite 
call  of  John  and  his  brother  James  is  recorded 
in  Matt.  4.21,22;  Mk.  1.19,20).  He  was 
numbered  amongst  the  twelve  apostles  (Matt. 
10.2,  and  reff.)'  To  John  and  his  brother  our 
Lord  gave  the  name  of  Boanerges  (Mk.  3.17). 
In  his  early  manhood  John  appears  to  have  been 
of  an  ardent,  impulsive  temperament,  and  so 
drew  upon  himself  rebuke  from  our  Lord  for 
forbidding  a  worker  of  miracles  (Mk.  9.38, 39  ; 
Lk.  9.49,  50),  for  desiring  the  miraculous  punish- 
ment of  hostile  Samaritans  (Lk.  9.51-56),  and  for 
personal  ambition  (Mk.  10.85-40).  Yet  he  it 
was  who  is  called  the  disciple  "  whom  Jesus 
loved"  (John  21.20),  and  to  whom  (with 
James  and  Peter)  our  Lord  gave  the  privilege 
of  witnessing  so  many  great  events  in  His 
ministry.  John  was  at  the  healing  of  Peter's 
wife's  mother  (Mk.  1.29),  the  raising  of  Jairus's 
daughter  (Mk.  5.37  ;  Lk.  8.51),  the  miraculous 
draught  of  fishes  (Lk.  5.10),  the  transfigura- 
tion (Matt.  17.1,  and  reff.),  and  the  agony  at 
Gethsemane  (Matt.  26.37,  and  reff.).  Like  the 
other  disciples,  John  forsook  our  Lord  at  His 
apprehension,  but  followed  Him  to  the  high- 
priest's  palace  (John  18.15),  and  was  present 
at  the  Cross  (John  19.26,  27).  He  visited  with 
Peter  the  emptied  tomb  of  our  Lord  (John 
20.2-8),  he  recognised  the  risen  Lord  at  the 
miraculous  draught  of  fishes  (John  21.7),  and 
his  future  was  the  subject  of  an  inquiry  by 
Peter,  our  Lord's  answer  to  which  was  by 
some  misunderstood  (John  21.21-23). 

After  the  close  of  the  Gospel  narrative  John 
is  mentioned  but  seldom,  and  then  always  in 
connexion  with  Peter.  He  was  imprisoned 
by  the  Sanhedrin  (Acts  4.1-19),  and  sent  by  the 
Church  to  Samaria  (Acts  8.14-17).  When  Paul 
first  visited  Jerusalem  after  his  conversion, 
John  was  absent  (Gal.  1.19) ;  he  was  found  there 
by  Paul  at  a  later  period  (Gal.  2.9) ;  but  he 
probably  was  not  there  at  the  time  of  that 
apostle's  last  visit  (Acts  21.18,  etc.).  The 
almost  unvarying  belief  of  the  Christian  Church 
has  been  that  he  remained  at  Jerusalem  until 
the  death  of  Mary,  about  48  A.D.  ;  and  that, 
after  Paul  finally  left  Asia  Minor,  John  went  to 
labour  there,  residing  chiefly  at  Ephesus,  and 
founding  several  Churches  in  that  country ; 
that,  during  the  persecution  under  Domitian, 
or  (as  many  hold)  towards  the  end  of  the  reign 
of  Nero,  he  was  banished  to  Patmos,  an  island 


JOHN,  THE  GOSPEL] 


260 


[JOHN,  THE  GOSPEL 


in  the  JEgean  Sea,  where  he  saw  the  visions  of 
the  Apocalypse  ;  and  that,  on  his  liberation,  he 
returned  to  Ephesus,  where  he  continued  to 
labour  until  his  death,  in  the  hundredth  year  of 
his  age,  about  100  A.D.  Though  some  of  the 
apostles  were  married  (1  Cor.  9.5),  tradition 
holds  that  John  was  a  celibate.  Jerome  (in 
Gal.  vi.  10)  has  a  story  that  when  John  was  too 
old  to  preach,  he  had  himself  carried  to  church, 
and  addressed  to  the  people  the  exhortation, 
"  Little  children,  love  one  another."  No  details 
are  known  as  to  his  death. 

John,  The  Gospel  according  to. — Upon  no 
book  of  the  N.T.  has  criticism  laboured  more 
strenuously  than  upon  the  Fourth  Gospel. 
Whilst  the  voice  of  Christian  antiquity  almost 
without  exception  ascribed  it  to  the  Apostle 
John,  some  modern  critics  have  sought  to 
prove  that  the  author  cannot  have  been  the 
son  of  Zebedee,  cannot  have  been  an  apostle, 
an  eye-witness  of  the  events  described,  nor  a 
contemporary  of  our  Lord.  The  composition 
of  the  book  is  thus  deferred  until  the  second 
century,  and  it  is  regarded  as  the  work  of  a 
devout  Christian  of  philosophic  character,  who 
cast  his  views  of  Christianity  into  the  form  of 
a  Life  of  our  Lord.  This  position  is  based  on 
considerations,  some  of  which  must  have  been 
as  apparent  to  the  earliest  readers  of  the  four 
Gospels  as  to  ourselves.  These  considerations 
will  be  noted  below.  It  will  be  convenient  first 
to  consider — 

The  positive  evidence  for  the  authorship  of 
John,  the  son  of  Zebedee. 

The  author's  own  claim  meets  us  in  the  Gospel 
itself.  In  three  passages  (1.14,  19.35,  21.24) 
the  writer,  though  remaining  anonymous, 
appears  to  refer  to  himself,  and  definitely  to 
claim  the  authority  of  an  eye-witness.  Guid- 
ance as  to  the  identity  of  the  writer  is  furnished 
in  the  last  of  these  statements— 21 .24.  Who  was 
"  the  disciple  which  beareth  witness  of  these 
things  "  ?  The  answer  is,  "  The  disciple  whom 
Jesus  loved,  which  also  leaned  on  His  breast 
at  the  supper"  (21.20;  cf.  13.23,  25, 19.26,  20.2, 
21.7).  Now  there  were  present  at  the  incidents 
of  chap.  21,  Peter,  Thomas,  Nathanael,  the  sons 
of  Zebedee,  and  "  two  other  of  His  disciples " 
(21.2).  We  seek  for  "the  beloved  disciple" 
amongst  those  three  who  appear  in  the  Synoptics 
as  admitted  to  closest  intimacy  with  the  Lord — 
Peter,  James,  and  John.  But  Peter  is  excluded 
by  the  narrative  itself ;  James  suffered  martyr- 
dom long  before  this  Gospel  could  have  been 
written.  There  remains  only  the  Apostle  John. 

The  internal  evidence  furnished  by  the  Gospel 
itself  supports  this  identification.  The  narrative 
warrants  the  inference  that  its  author  was — 

1.  A  Jew :  for  he  is  perfectly  familiar  with 
Jewish  opinions  (especially  the  Messianic  expec- 
tation, 1.21 ;  4.25;  6.14,15;  7.52;  12.13,34; 
19.15,  21)  and  with  Jewish  usages  and  observ- 
ances. Explanations  furnished  by  him  are 
such  as  would  be  given  by  a  Jew  writing  at  a 
distance  from  Palestine,  after  the  overthrow  of 
the  Jewish  polity  and  worship,  and  when  Gentile 


converts  to  Christianity  had  become  numerous. 
Thus  he  calls  the  feasts  (which  he  is  careful  to 
note)  "  feasts  of  the  Jews  "  (5.1,  6.4)  ;  explains 
the  "  Sea  of  Galilee  "  as  being  the  same  as  the 
"  Sea  of  Tiberias  "  (6.1) ;  tells  his  readers  that 
"  Rabbi "  signifies  Teacher  (1.38),  and  "Messiah  " 
Christ  (1.41) ;  and  accounts  for  the  conduct  of 
the  Samaritans  by  recalling  the  fact  that  "  the 
Jews  had  no  dealings  with  the  Samaritans " 
(4.9). 

2.  A  Jew  of  Palestine :    for  he  shows  minute 
knowledge  of  the  topography  of  Palestine  and 
of  Jerusalem,  already  in  ruins  when  the  Gospel 
was  written. 

3.  An  Aramaic-speaking  Jew :    for  the  style 
is  Semitic,   and  the   O.T.   quotations  showing 
acquaintance  with  the  Hebrew  as  well  as  with 
the  LXX  version  (in  Greek). 

4.  An   eye-witness :    for   time,   persons,    and 
places  are  constantly  specified,  while  the  graphic 
character  of  the  narrative  shows  either  "  the 
skill  of  a  consummate  artist  or  the  recollection 
of    an    observer"    (Westcott).     And    see    the 
passages  in  the  Gospel  referred  to  above — 1.14, 
19.35,  21.24. 

5.  An   Apostle :     for    he    is    an    eye-witness 
closely  intimate  with  the  thoughts  and  doings 
of  the  apostles  and  of  the  Lord. 

From  these  considerations,  drawn  from  the 
Gospel  itself,  we  pass  to  external  testimony  in 
favour  of  the  authorship  by  John.  John  1.1  is 
quoted,  with  the  preface  "  John  says,"  by 
Theophilus  of  Antioch  (about  180  A.D.).  Irenseus 
(who  knew  Poly  carp,  who  knew  the  Apostle 
John)  unhesitatingly  ascribes  the  Gospel  to 
"  John,  the  disciple  of  the  Lord  who  also  leaned 
upon  his  breast,"  and  affirms  that  he  wrote 
in  Ephesus,  where  he  remained  till  the  times  of 
Trajan  (98-117  A.D.).  Similar  testimony  is 
given  by  Tertullian,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and 
later  writers.  "  In  the  last  quarter  of  the  second 
century, ' '  says  D  rummond  ( Character  and  A  uthor- 
ship  of  the  Fourth  Gospel,  p.  79),  "  and  subse- 
quently, if  we  except  the  shadowy  Alogi,  the 
Gospel  was  universally  and  without  hesitation 
received  as  the  work  of  the  Apostle  John,  who 
composed  it  at  Ephesus  in  his  old  age,  after 
the  publication  of  the  other  Gospels."  More- 
over, investigations  prove  the  use  of  this  Gospel 
by  Tatian  (about  170),  make  it  all  but  certain 
that  it  was  known  to  Justin  Martyr  (about  150), 
trace  citations  from  it  in  Valentinus  (about  130) 
and  in  Basilides  (about  125)  as  quoted  by  Hippo- 
lytus,  and,  by  vindicating  the  genuineness  of 
the  Ignatian  Epistles  and  the  Epistle  of  Poly- 
carp,  carry  back  at  least  a  familiarity  with 
Johannine  ideas  and  phrases  to  the  beginning 
of  the  second  century. 

So  much  for  evidence  in  favour  of  the  author- 
ship by  John.  It  remains  to  consider  some  of 
the  objections  and  difficulties  raised. 

And  first  in  regard  to  difficulties  suggested  by 
the  Gospel  itself. 

The  contrast  between  the  Fourth  Gospel  and  the 
Synoptic  Gospels  is  obvious,  alike  in  regard  to 
the  facts  given  and  in  regard  to  the  presenta- 


JOHN,  THE  GOSPEL] 


261 


[JOHN,  FIRST  EPISTLE  OF 


tion  of  our  Lord  and  His  teaching.  Thus  it 
is  urged  that  Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke  knew 
only  a  one-year  ministry  of  our  Lord,  whilst 
John  extends  the  ministry  over  three,  or  even 
more.  But  it  will  be  remembered  that  all  the 
Gospels  are,  in  a  sense,  incomplete  ;  that  is, 
they  do  not  give  a  full  and  everywhere  detailed 
account  of  our  Lord's  earthly  life.  Moreover, 
Mark  does  afford  some  indications  of  a  ministry 
exceeding  one  year ;  in  the  Synoptic  Gospels 
there  is  room  for  the  additional  matter  of  the 
fourth  (cf.  John  20.30,  21.25) ;  while  in  the 
lament  over  Jerusalem  (Matt.  23.37;  Lk. 
13.34,  35)  there  is  suggested  a  previous  ministry 
there,  just  as  the  woes  upon  Chorazin  and 
Bethsaida  (Matt.  11.21 ;  Lk.  10.13)  are  the  only 
notices  of  "  mighty  works "  done  in  those 
cities  of  Galilee.  Other  difficulties  are  met  if 
the  later  origin  of  this  Gospel  and  the  aims  of 
its  writer  are  kept  in  mind.  John  was,  no 
doubt,  acquainted  with  the  earlier  Gospels. 
He  writes  as  one  who  supposes  his  hearers  to 
be  informed  of  the  chief  events  of  the  Saviour's 
life.  He  repeatedly  alludes  to  facts  recorded 
by  the  other  evangelists  ;  but  rarely  relates  the 
same  events,  and  then  only  when  they  are 
closely  connected  with  the  main  object  of.  his 
Gospel.  He  records  only  eight  miracles,  of  which 
six  are  peculiar  to  this  Gospel.  He  omits  all 
the  parables  found  in  the  other  evangelists,  as 
well  as  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  and  our  Lord's 
last  prophetic  discourse.  The  Synoptic  Gospels 
dwell  chiefly  on  our  Lord's  ministry  in  Galilee 
and  Peraea,  although  intimating  in  various  ways 
that  His  work  extended  to  Judaea  also.  Of 
this  Judaean  ministry  John  gives  larger  details. 
Thus  two-thirds  of  his  book  are  entirely  new ; 
and  those  matters  which  are  found  elsewhere 
are  given  here  with  such  important  additions 
as  to  place  them  in  a  new  light. 

The  evangelist's  subject,  as  announced  by 
himself  (1.4, 14),  is  the  manifested  glory  of  the 
Incarnate  Word,  the  Life  and  the  Light  of 
men ;  and  his  object  is  to  lead  his  readers  to 
faith  in  Jesus,  viewed  in  this  aspect,  that  they 
may  attain  eternal  life  (20.31).  For  this 
purpose  he  selects  such  passages  of  the  Saviour's 
life,  and  places  them  in  such  a  light,  as  may  dis- 
play most  fully  the  "  grace  and  truth"  of  the  Son 
of  God.  He  relates  those  discourses  in  which 
our  Lord  speaks  most  plainly  of  His  own 
nature,  of  the  work  given  to  Him  by  the  Father, 
and  of  the  efficacy  of  His  death,  as  an  atonement 
for  the  sins  of  the  world.  It  is  from  this 
Gospel  that  the  most  numerous  and  decisive 
proofs  of  our  Lord's  Deity  are  derived.  Yet 
no  evangelist  has  portrayed  the  gentler  linea- 
ments of  our  Lord's  humanity  with  more 
delicacy  and  beauty,  or  disclosed  more  of  the 
inmost  affections  and  feelings  of  the  Saviour's 
heart. 

A  further  difficulty  suggested  by  the  differ- 
ence between  the  Gospel  and  the  Revelation 
is  discussed  under  the  latter  book.  [REVELA- 
TION.] 

Objections  are  also  made  on  the  ground  that 


the  external  evidence  is  weak.  Stress  is  laid 
upon  the  comparative  silence  of  the  Apostolic 
Fathers ;  but  when  it  is  remembered  that  a 
Gospel  issued  later  than  the  others  would  be 
at  some  disadvantage,  the  evidence  from  this 
source  is  sufficient,  in  view  of  the  fulness  of 
external  testimony  from  the  year  170  onwards. 
The  absence  of  recognition  by  the  heretic  Marcion 
is  to  be  explained  on  the  ground  that  its  special 
character  made  it  unsuited  to  his  purpose 

The  date  of  the  book  can  only  be  inferred.  It 
suggests  (John  21.19)  a  retrospect  of  long- 
past  events,  though  this  chapter  may  have 
been  an  appendix  to  the  original  narrative. 
The  date  could  hardly  be  earlier  than  the  year  80, 
and  may  have  been  in  the  last  decade  of  the 
first  century.  There  is  no  sufficient  ground  for 
doubting  the  belief  of  the  early  Church  that 
the  Gospel  was  written  at  Ephesus. 

The  contents  of  the  Gospel  may  be  summar- 
ised thus : — 

I.  The  prologue,  displaying  the  glory  of  the 
Son  of  God  in  His  original  Divine  nature  and 
operations,  as  well  as  in  the  fact  and  the  purpose 
of  His  incarnation  (1.1-18). 

II.  Events  which  occurred  during  His  public 
life,  manifesting  His  glory  to  the  whole  people 
(1.19-12.50) :    1.  In  the  earlier  portion :— the 
testimony  of  the  Baptist,  the  faith  of  His  early 
disciples,   the  inquiry  of  Nicodemus,   and   the 
faith  of  the  Samaritans  and  of  a  Galilean  noble- 
man (1.19-4.54) ;   2.  In  the  subsequent  narra- 
tives : — Christ's    own    miracles,    conversations, 
and  deportment,   amidst    violent  and  growing 
opposition  (5.1-12.36).     This  is  closed  by  re- 
flections on  the  foregoing  narratives  (12.37-50). 

III.  Events  preparatory   to   and   connected 
with  His  death,  manifesting  His  glory  specially 
to  His  disciples  (13.1-21.25) :  1.  In  His  private 
discourses  with  His  intimate  followers  and  His 
intercessory   prayer    (13.1-17.26) ;    2.  In  His 
trial,  sufferings,  and  death  (18.1-19.42) ;  3.  In 
His    resurrection    and    appearances    to    His 
disciples  (20),  of  which  a  further  account  is 
added  in  an  appendix  (21). 

John,  First  Epistle  of.— This  book  has  the 
character  rather  of  a  treatise  or  discourse  on  the 
belief  and  duty  of  the  Christian  than  of  a  letter 
addressed  to  a  particular  Church.  It  has  no 
greetings,  farewells,  or  other  personal  allusions. 
It  is  called  a  "  general "  Epistle,  as  being  addressed 
to  the  Church  at  large.  The  authorship  is 
ascribed  to  John  by  some  of  the  earliest  Christian 
writers.  The  similarity  of  its  ideas  and  language 
to  those  of  the  Fourth  Gospel  support  the  same 
belief.  Indeed,  this  Epistle  has  all  the  character 
of  a  companion  or  supplement  to  and  comment 
on  the  Gospel.  Comp.,  e.g.,  1.4  with  16.24 ;  2.3 
with  14.]  5 ;  2.8  with  13.34 ;  2.11  with  12.35.  The 
Epistle  seems  definitely  to  claim  to  have  been 
written  by  an  eye-witness  of  the  person  and 
labours  of  our  Lord  (1.1-4,  4.14).  The  place  of  its 
origin  is  believed  to  have  been  Ephesus ;  but  its 
precise  date  is  uncertain ;  a  late  date  is  highly 
probable,  from  the  errors  which  are  here  con- 
demned. 


JOHN,  SECOND  EPISTLE  OF] 


[JOKNEAM 


The  object  of  the  Epistle  is  stated  by  the  author 
(5.13) :  he  seeks  to  confirm  and  enforce  the 
Gospel,  and  to  assure  believers  that  they  have 
eternal  life.  In  pursuit  of  this  the  author  has 
to  enter  upon  controversy.  Thus  early  in  the 
life  of  the  Church  false  doctrine  had  crept  in. 
Some  questioned  the  divine  dignity  of  our 
Lord,  and  denied  Him  to  be  the  Son  of  God. 
These  the  apostle  calls  deceivers  and  antichrist 
(2.22,  415,  5.1).  Others  denied  His  humanity, 
thus  contradicting  the  real  fellowship  of  Christ 
with  men  (Heb.  2.16, 4.15),  and  the  reality  of  His 
death  and  propitiation.  His  incarnation  was,  as 
they  held,  but  an  appearance,  and  the  story  of 
His  life  a  myth.  This  delusion  the  apostle 
strongly  denounces  (4.3),  and  declares  that  he 
had  himself  felt  with  his  hand  the  body  of  bis 
Lord  (1.1),  and  alludes  in  decisive  terms  to  the 
water  and  blood  from  His  pierced  side  (5.G).  A 
third  party  seem  to  have  held  that  it  was  enough 
to  worship  God  with  the  spirit,  leaving  the  body 
to  indulgence.  This  the  apostle  refutes  by 
showing  that  every  sin  is  real  transgression 
(3.4);  that  fellowship  with  God  purifies  the 
Christian,  and  that  by  this  purity  only  can  we  be 
recognised  as  His  (2.5,  3.8-10,  4.13,  5.11). 

The  contents  of  the  Epistle  abound  in  positive 
teaching  under  three  main  heads  : — 

1.  The   true  nature  of  fellowship   with  God 
(1.3).    He  is  light  (1.5)  and  love  ;  and  fellowship 
implies  conformity  to  Him :  light,  and  therefore 
man  must  be  purified  and  redeemed  (1.7-2.2)  : 
light,  and  therefore  man  must  be  holy  (2.3-7) : 
love,  and  therefore  we  must  love  one  another 
(2.10).     If  Christ  be  denied,  these  blessings  are 
lost  (2.22-24), 

2.  We  are  taught  the  blessedness  and  duties 
of  sonship.     Not  only  fellowship,  but  adoption 
is  our  privilege  in  Christ.     But  God  is  righteous, 
and,  as  His  children,  we  must  be  righteous  also 
(2.29-3.3).    Christ  came  to  take  away  sin ;  and 
in  Him  is  no  sin  ;  to  Him  we  must  be  conformed 
(3.4-10).    He  gave  His  life  for  us,  and  herein  His 
love  is  our  model  (3.11-18).    Having  His  Spirit 
we   shall   share   His   other  blessings   (3.19-24). 
Again,  let  Christ  be  denied,  in  His  human  nature 
especially,  and  these  blessings  are  lost  (3.19-4.6). 

3.  God  is  not  only  light:  God  is  love  (4.7,  8). 
Love  is  His  essence,  was  manifested  in  the  mission 
and  character  of  His  Son,  and  is  the  necessary 
condition  of  sonship  (4.21).    Love  to  God  and 
one  another,  faith  in  Christ,  such  confidence  as 
casts  out  fear,  are  all  among  the  results  which 
ibis  revelation  secures.     Only  let  us  truly  believe 
mat  God  gives  eternal  life,  and  that  life  is  in  His 
Son  (5.11-13),  and  we  become  holy  and  happy ; 
we   are   forgiven    and    sanctified.      Reject    this 
truth,  or  any  part  of  it,  and  we  are  left  without 
hope.    Like  the  world,  we  lie  in  the  evil  one 
(5.19). 

John,  Second  Epistle  oi— This  letter  is 
addressed  to  "  the  elect  lady  and  her  children  " 
(ver.  1),  to  whom  the  children  of  her  "  elect 
sister"  send  greeting  (ver.  13).  Some  have 
assumed  that  under  this  figure  the  apostle  writes 
to  a  particular  Church,  or  to  the  Church  at  large, 


and  sends  greeting  from  a  sister  Church.  It  is 
more  generally  thought  that  the  letter  is  a  personal 
one,  and,  like  the  Epistle  to  Philemon,  an  example 
of  an  apostle's  private  correspondence.  For  the 
words  "  the  elect  lady  " — an  unnamed  corre- 
spondent— some  would  read,  "  the  elect  Kyria," 
and  others,  "  the  lady  Electa."  The  R.V.  retains 
the  rendering  "  the  elect  lady." 

The  authorship  of  the  Epistle  has  been  by  the 
voice  of  antiquity  very  generally  ascribed  to 
John,  though  by  some  ancient  authorities  it 
is  classed  amongst  the  disputed  books  of  the 
Canon.  The  internal  evidence  points  strongly 
to  the  same  author  as  that  of  the  First  Epistle. 
Of  its  thirteen  verses,  eight  are  substantially 
found  in  the  former.  "  The  elder,"  literally 
"  the  presbyter,"  the  name  assumed  by  the 
author  of  this  and  the  succeeding  Epistle  (ver.  1), 
is  the  same  title  as  that  by  which  Peter  designates 
himself  (1  Pet.  5.1),  and  may  have  been  used  in 
either  an  official,  or  in  its  primary,  simple  sense 
of  one  advanced  in  years.  The  view  that  there 
was  another  "  John  the  presbyter,"  the  author 
of  these  Epistles,  rests  on  a  passage  written  by 
Papias,  preserved  by  Eusebius.  There  are 
strong  reasons  for  believing  that  the  presbyter 
John  of  Papias  is  the  same  as  John  the  Apostle. 

The  date  and  place  of  writing  this  Epistle  cannot 
be  determined. 

John,  Third  Epistle  of.— This  letter  is  in 
its  address  definitely  personal  (ver.  1),  and  is 
another  example  of  apostolic  private  correspond- 
ence. It  is  addressed  to  "  the  well-beloved 
Gaius  "  (ver.  1),  who  may  have  been  the  Gaius 
of  Rom.  16.23,  and  possibly  also  of  1  Cor.  1.14 ; 
or  the  Gaius  of  Acts  19.29  ;  or  the  Gaius  of  Acts 
20.4,  5,  who  may  be  identical  with  the  Gaius  of 
Rom.  16.23.  Or,  as  the  name  was  a  common  one, 
an  entirely  different  person  may  have  been 
addressed.  The  author  of  the  Epistle  was  no 
doubt  the  writer  of  the  Second  Epistle.  Its  date 
and  place  of  writing  cannot  be  determined.  Its 
object  was  to  congratulate  Gaius,  to  warn  him 
against  one  Diotrephes,  and  to  commend  one 
Demetrius. 

Joia'da. — Jehovah  knows  :  the  son  of  Eliashib, 
a  high-priest  in  the  time  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  12.10, 
11,  22) ;  a  contraction  of  Jehoiada. 

Joia'kim. — Jehovah  raiseth  up  :  a  high-priest, 
the  son  of  Jeshua  the  high-priest,  in  the  time  of 
Zerubbabel.  The  name  is  a  contraction  of 
Jehoiakim  (Neh.  12.10, 12). 

Joia'rib. — Jehovah  plead eth  :  1.  A  teacher  in 
Ezra's  time  (Ezra  8.16).  2.  A  man  of  Judah 
(Neh.  11.5).  3.  (Neh.  11.10).  [JEHOIARIB.] 

Jokde'am. — A  town  in  the  mountains  of 
Judah  (Josh.  15.56).  Its  site  has  not  been 
identified. 

Jok'un. — The  same  word  as  Jehoiakim.  The 
third  son  of  Shelah,  the  son  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  4.22). 

Jokme'am. — (?)  Let  the  people  be  established  : 
a  town  of  Ephraim  assigned  to  the  Kohathites, 
on  the  east  boundary  of  the  tribe  in  the  Jordan 
valley  (1  K.  4.12,  R.V. ;  1  Ch.  6.68),  though  the 
exact  site  is  not  known. 

Jokne'am.— Situated  under  Carmel,  near  the 


JOKSHAN] 


263 


[JONAH,  BOOK  OF 


north-west  angle  of  Esdraelon.  A  Canaanite 
town  taken  by  Joshua  (Josh.  12.22).  In  Zebulun 
(19.11).  It  became  a  Levitical  city  (21.34). 
Possibly  the  modem  Tell  Kaimun. 

Jok'shan.— (?)  A  fowler :  a  son  of  Abraham 
and  Keturah,  and  the  father  of  Sheba  and  Dedan 
(Gen.  25.2,  3 ;  1  Ch.  1.32).  The  descendants  of 
Jokshan  are  very  numerous,  for  places  bearing 
his  name  or  those  of  his  sons  are  to  be  found 
stretching  right  across  Arabia. 

Jok'tan.— (?)  Little,  small :  the  son  of  Eber, 
and,  through  his  thirteen  sons,  the  founder  of 
many  South  Arabian  tribes  of  Arabs  (Gen.  10.25 ; 

1  Ch.  1.19).     [ARABIA.] 

Jokthe'el. — 1.  A  town  in  the  lowlands  of 
Judah  (Josh.  15.38).  Its  site  is  unknown,  but  it 
lay  on  the  road  between  Beitgibrin  and  Gaza. 
2.  The  name  given  by  Amaziah  to  the  cliff  (Sela, 
i.e.,  as  it  seems,  Petra),  the  Edomite  strong- 
hold, after  he  had  captured  it  (2  K.  14.7; 

2  Ch.  25.11-13)  and   thrown  his  captives  over 
its  edge. 

Jo'aa. — Jehovah  is  gracious :  the  father  of 
Peter  (John  1.42).  In  Matt.  16.17  Peter  is  called 
Simon  Barjona,  and  in  John  21.15-17  Jonas. 
[BARJONA.] 

Jonadab. — Jehovah  is  generous  :  1.  David's 
nephew,  and  the  cousin  of  Amnon,  to  whom  he 
gave  such  fatal  advice  (2  Sam.  13.3  ff.).  The 
word  "  subtil "  used  in  ver.  3  is  in  the  original 
the  same  word  translated  "  wise  "  in  the  account 
of  Solomon.  2.  The  son  of  Rechab  (Jer.  35.6-19). 
In  some  verses  the  name  is  Jehonadab  (which  see). 
The  Rechabites  were  a  family  of  the  Kenites 
(1  Ch.  2.55),  probably  descended  from  the  father- 
in-law  of  Moses  (Judg.  1.16).  Jonadab  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  chief  of  the  tribe  in 
the  days  of  Jehu,  and  was  held  in  high  esteem 
for  wisdom  and  piety  (2  K.  10.15).  It  was 
therefore  important  for  Jehu  to  have  his  public 
approval  of  the  slaughter  of  the  worshippers 
of  Baal.  The  self-denying  observance  of  his 
commands  by  the  people,  during  a  period  of 
nearly  300  years,  is  used  as  a  rebuke  to  the 
Israelites,  who  had  repeatedly  broken  Jehovah's 
laws ;  and  a  curse  is  pronounced  upon  the 
Israelites,  and  a  blessing  on  the  Rechabites.  The 
character  of  Jonadab  makes  it  appear  that  the 
regulations  concerning  houses,  etc.,  were  intended 
to  preserve  the  people  from  the  luxury  which  was 
enervating  and  debasing  the  Hebrews  (Jer.  35.7). 

Jo'nah. — A  dove :  son  of  Amittai  (Truthful), 
a  native  of  Gath-hepher,  a  small  village  of 
Zebulun,  in  Galilee,  now  el-Meshhad,  mentioned 
in  2  K.  14.25  as  having  predicted  the  extension 
of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  to  its  former  boundaries ; 
which  was  accomplished  by  means  of  the  valour 
and  prudence  of  Jeroboam  II.  He  may  have 
lived  during  that  reign ;  or  perhaps  at  an  earlier 
period,  about  the  time  of  Jehoahaz.  He  is 
commonly  identified  with  the  principal  figure 
in  the  Book  of  Jonah,  which  see. 

Jonah,  Book  of. — The  author  of  this  book 
has  been  identified  with  the  Jonah  of  2  K.  14.25. 
On  the  other  hand,  some  modern  critics  refuse  to 
regard  the  work  as  a  record  of  fact,  and  represent 


it  as  a  religious  story,  prepared  for  edifying 
purposes  after  the  Exile.  This  is  inconsistent 
with  the  references  of  our  Lord  to  Jonah. 

The  contents  of  the  book  consist,  with  the 
exception  of  the  prayer  in  chap.  2,  of  a  simple 
narrative.  It  relates  that  Jonah,  being  sent  on  a 
mission  to  Nineveh,  attempts  to  flee  to  Tarshish  ; 
but  is  overtaken  by  a  storm,  is  cast  into  the 
sea,  and  is  swallowed  by  a  great  fish,  in  whose 
belly  he  continues  for  three  days  (chap.  1),  when, 
earnestly  praying  to  God,  he  is  wonderfully 
delivered  (chap.  2).  At  the  renewed  command 
of  God  he  goes  to  Nineveh,  and  announces  its 
destruction;  upon  which  the  Ninevites,  believ- 
ing his  words,  fast,  pray,  repent,  and  are 
graciously  spared  (chap.  3).  Jonah  is  vexed  at 
the  Divine  forbearance,  and  wishes  for  death. 
Leaving  the  city,  he  is  sheltered  by  a  gourd, 
which,  however,  shortly  withers;  and  Jonah, 
manifesting  great  impatience,  is  taught,  through 
his  concern  about  the  gourd,  the  propriety  of 
God's  mercy  to  Nineveh  (chap.  4). 

The  question  of  the  historical  character  of  the 
book  is  deemed  one  of  great  difficulty.  The 
existence  and  ministry  of  this  prophet,  together 
with  the  main  facts  of  his  history,  are  referred 
to  by  our  Lord  (Matt.  12.39-41,  16.4;  Lk. 
11.29,  30),  who  not  only  explicitly  recognises  his 
prophetical  office,  but  in  Matt.  12.40  (though  it 
is  just  possible  that  this  is  only  a  comment  by 
the  Evangelist)  represents  his  being  in  the 
belly  of  the  sea-monster  as  indicating  a  future 
analogous  event  in  His  own  history ;  and,  after 
mentioning  the  prophet's  preaching  at  Nineveh, 
and  the  repentance  of  the  inhabitants,  speaks  of 
Himself  as  "  a  greater  than  Jonah."  If  the 
events  recorded  in  the  book  never  took  place, 
it  would  be  necessary  to  suppose  that  our  Lord 
was  content  to  take  popular  beliefs  for  granted. 
There  is  nothing  strange  in  Jonah's  reluctance 
to  undertake  a  mission  to  a  distant  heathen  city, 
which  would  expose  him  to  peril  both  from  the 
king  and  from  the  people.  Moses  (Ex.  3.11), 
and  even  the  bold  Elijah  (1  K.  19),  had  shrunk 
from  similar  dangers.  And  we  can  hardly  be 
surprised  that  no  record  of  the  repentance  of 
Nineveh  has  been  found  in  the  cuneiform 
inscriptions.  Jonah's  want  of  sympathy  with 
God's  sparing  mercy  is  commonly  ascribed  to  a 
selfish  regard  to  his  own  safety  and  reputation, 
or  rather  to  a  strong  national  exclusiveness, 
which  made  him  unwilling  that  the  doom  of 
a  heathen  city  should  be  averted.  He  was 
unwilling  to  undertake  a  mission  which  he  saw 
would  end  in  an  act  of  mercy. 

The  "great  fish"  (Jon.  1.17)  is  often  erro- 
neously supposed  to  have  been  a  whale.  But 
it  may  be  remarked  that  there  is  nothing  either 
in  the  Hebrew  of  this  passage  or  in  the  Greek 
of  Matt.  12.40  to  show  that  it  was  a  whale. 
That  there  are  fishes  in  the  Mediterranean 
capable  of  swallo  uing  a  man  whole  has  been 
fully  proved  by  credible  testimony.  The  real 
difficulty  lies  not  in  the  fact  of  a  man  being 
swallowed  by  a  fish,  but  in  his  remaining  un- 
injured by  the  gastric  juices.  A  canard,  pub- 


JONAN] 


264 


[JORDAN 


lished  in  1895  of  an  American  sailor  having  been 
swallowed  by  a  whale  in  1891,  and  found  alive 
within  it  on  the  next  day,  is  mentioned  approv- 
ingly by  Konig  in  Hastings'  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible ;  but  the  falsehood  of  this  supposed  parallel 
to  Jonah  has  since  been  demonstrated. 

The  narrative  presents  the  most  striking  con- 
trast between  the  long-suffering  mercy  of  God 
and  the  rebellion  and  impatience  of  His  servant ; 
and  further,  between  the  readiness  with  which 
the  Ninevites  repented,  at  the  preaching  of  a 
prophet  who  visited  them  as  a  stranger,  and  the 
manner  in  which  the  Israelites  treated  the 
servants  of  Jehovah,  who  lived  and  laboured 
amongst  them.  These  events  would  serve  to 
teach  them  that  the  Divine  regard  and  com- 
passion were  not  confined  to  them  alone,  but 
were  extended  to  men  of  all  nations. 

Jo'nan. — A  contraction  of  Johanan ;  an 
ancestor  of  Jesus  Christ  (Lk.  3.30). 

Jonas.— The  prophet  Jonah  (Matt.  12.39-41, 

16.4).      [JONAH.] 

Jon'athan. — Jehovah  hath  given  :  the  name  of 
many  O.T.  personages.  1.  A  Levite  of  Beth- 
lehem and  a  descendant  of  Moses.  Becoming 
acquainted  with  Micah,  a  wealthy  Ephraimite, 
he  was  made  priest  over  the  latter's  house  of 
gods.  When  the  army  of  Dan  went  against 
Laish  they  seized  Micah's  gods,  and  induced 
Jonathan  to  go  with  them.  This  he  did,  and 
when  Laish  was  taken  and  put  to  the  sword  he 
was  made  priest  of  the  images.  The  office  re- 
mained in  his  family  until  the  time  of  the 
Captivity  (Judg.  17,  18).  [LAISH,  MICAH.] 

2.  The  eldest  son  of  Saul  (1  Sam.  13.2)  and  close 
friend   of   David.    His  great  personal   courage 
appears  from  the  narrative  in  1  Sam.  14.    The 
attachment  of  Jonathan  to  David  seems  to  have 
originated  at  David's  defeat  of  Goliath  (1  Sam. 
18.1-4),  and  was  unimpaired  by  the  growth  of 
Saul's  hostility  to  David  (1  Sam.  19.1-7).    The 
tie  between  father  and  son,  once  so  intimate 
(1  Sam.  20.2),  was  strained  to  breaking-point  by 
Saul's  attitude  towards  David  (1  Sam.  20.34). 
Nevertheless  the  friends  parted  (1  Sam.  20.42), 
Jonathan,    though    he    foresaw    the    future    of 
David  (1  Sam.  23.17),  adhering  to  his  father's 
cause,  and  falling  with  him  at  Gilboa  (1  Sam. 
31.1,  2  ;   2  Sam.  1.5).    David's  lamentation  over 
Saul,  and  more  especially  over  Jonathan,  is  one 
of  the  most  pathetic  passages  in  Holy  Scripture 
(2  Sam.  1.17-27).     His  affection  for  Jonathan  is 
reflected  in  his  treatment  of  Mephibosheth,  his 
friend's  son  (2  Sam.  4.4,  9.6-13).     [SAUL,  DAVID, 
MEPHIBOSHETH,  MEEIB-BAAL.] 

3.  David's  nephew.     Like  his  uncle,  he  killed 
a  giant  of  Gath,  who  had  on  each   hand   six 
fingers  and  on  each  foot  six  toes  (2  Sam.  21.21 ; 
1    Ch.   20.7).     4.   An  uncle   and   counsellor   of 
David   (1   Ch.   27.32).     5.  The  last  descendant 
of  Eli.     He  makes  his  appearance  twice,   each 
time  as  a  trusted  messenger  of  important  State 
matters  (2  Sam.  15.27,36, 17.17,20;  1 K.  1.42,43). 
6.    One    of    David's    heroes    (2    Sam.    23.32; 
1  Ch.  11.34).     7.  The  brother  of  Johanan.     With 
other  captains  who  had  escaped  from  Jerusalem, 


he  wandered  in  the  open  country  of  the  Ammonites 
until  the  invaders  had  withdrawn.  He  is  lost 
sight  of  after  he  went  to  Mizpah  to  join  Gedaliah 
(Jer.  40.8).  8.  Father  of  Ebed,  who  returned 
with  Ezra  (Ezra  8.6).  9.  A  priest  who  inquired 
into  the  question  of  foreign  wives  (Ezra  10.15). 

10.  A  priest  in  the  time  of  Joiakim  (Neh.  12.14). 

11.  The  son  of  Joiada,  and  himself  a  high- priest 
(Neh.  12.11).     Probably  the  same  as  Johanan  4. 

12.  Father    of    a   priest  who    assisted    at    the 
dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  12.35). 

13.  A  scribe  in  whose  house  Jeremiah  was  im- 
prisoned (Jer.  37.15,  20,  38.26).     14.  A  Judahite 
(1  Ch.  2.32,  33). 

Jop'pa. — (?)  Beautiful :  a  town  on  the  steep 
sides  of  a  hill  overhanging  the  sea,  on  the  east 
coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  30  miles  north-west 
from  Jerusalem,  of  which  it  has  been  the  seaport 
from  the  time  of  Solomon.  It  was  allotted  to 
Dan  (Josh.  19.46,  A.V.,  Japho).  It  was  the 
port  of  delivery  of  wood  from  Lebanon  for  the 
building  of  the  Temple  (2  Ch.  2.16 ;  Ezra  3.7). 
Jonah  embarked  at  Joppa  for  Tarshish  (Jon. 
1.3).  Here  Peter  raised  Tabitha  to  life,  and  saw 
the  vision  which  led  him  to  visit  Cornelius  (Acts 
9.32-43,  10.1-23,  11.5-13). 

The  harbour  at  Joppa  is  very  poor,  and  has 
always  been  dangerous.  As  a  consequence, 
except  as  the  port  of  Jerusalem,  it  has  been  little 
used.  Yet,  poor  as  it  was,  Joppa  was  frequently 
the  subject  of  siege  and  assault,  and  in  the 
interval  between  the  O.T.  and  N.T.  records 
changed  hands  several  times.  It  was  destroyed 
twice  at  least,  by  Cestius  and  Vespasian,  the 
second  time  as  a  means  of  clearing  out  the 
pirates,  of  which  it  had  become  a  veritable  nest. 
Its  more  recent  history  has  been  but  a  repetition 
of  its  ancient  experience,  being  alternately 
burned,  sacked,  rebuilt,  and  refortified  by  its 
changing  owners,  its  last  calamity  being  the 
dreadful  "  Massacre  of  Joppa  "  by  Napoleon  i. 
in  1799.  It  was  the  seat  of  a  Christian  bishop  in 
the  fifth  century,  and  has  at  the  present  time 
several  convents  belonging  to  the  different 
Churches. 

Jo'rah. — (?)  Early  rain  :  ancestor  of  a  family 
which  returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.18). 

[HARIPH.] 

Jo'rai. — Jehovah  teacheth :  a  Gadite  chief  (1  Ch. 
5.13). 

Jo'ram. — Jehovah  is  exalted :  a  short  form  of 
Jehoram.  1.  Son  of  Jehoshaphat  (2  K.  8.21). 
[JEHORAM  1.]  2.  Son  of  Ahab  (2  K.  8.16  ff.). 
[JEHORAM  2.]  3.  Son  of  Toi,  king  of  Hamath 
(2  Sam.  8.10).  4.  A  Levite  in  the  time  of  David 
(1  Ch.  26.25).  5.  A  priest  who  travelled  through 
Judah  teaching  the  law  at  the  command  of 
Jehoshaphat  (2  Ch.  17.8). 

Jor'dan. — (?)  Descending :  the  Jordan  is  essenti- 
ally the  river  of  Palestine  and  the  natural 
boundary  of  the  country  on  the  east.  It  is  char- 
acterised by  its  depth  below  the  general  surface 
of  the  country,  its  swift  descent,  its  many  rapids, 
and  great  sinuosity.  Rising  in  the  mountains  of 
Syria,  it  flows  through  Lake  Merom,  the  Sea  of 
Galilee,  and  finally  empties  itself  into  the  Dead 


JORIM] 


265 


[JOSEPH 


Sea,  after  a  course  of  about  200  milei.  It  is  a 
river  without  any  considerable  town  on  its  banks 
— with  two  bridges  and  a  great  many  fords,  of 
which  the  most  important  is  at  Beth-shean — 
without  traffic,  and  without  fisheries.  It  has 
twenty-seven  rapids  in  its  course,  and  is  often 
in  flood. 

Jordan  is  first  named  in  Gen.  13.10.  Though 
it  is  not  so  stated,  Abraham  must,  like  Jacob 
(Gen.  32.10),  have  crossed  the  river  at  the  ford 
near  Succoth.  The  remarkable  passage  of  the 
children  of  Israel  under  Joshua  occurred  near 
Jericho  ( Josh.  3.15, 16,  4.12, 13).  The  miraculous 
parting  of  the  waters  by  Elijah  and  Elisha 
(2  K.  2.8-14)  must  also  have  been  in  this  neigh- 
bourhood. Two  other  miracles  are  associated  with 
Jordan — the  healing  of  Naaman  (2  K.  5.14),  and 
the  making  of  the  iron  axe-head  to  swim  (2  K. 
6.5,  6).  John  the  Baptist,  in  the  course  of  his 
ministry,  baptized  our  Lord  (Mk.  1.9  and  reff.) 
and  multitudes  (Matt.  3.6)  in  Jordan. 

The  "  plain  of  Jordan "  (Gen.  13.10)  is 
literally  the  "  circle  "  of  Jordan,  and  marks  the 
low  country  bordering  Jordan  towards  the 
south. 

Jo'rim. — A  name  in  the  genealogy  of  Jesus 
Christ  (Lk.  3.29).  The  word  is  used  in  the 
Septuagint  as  a  transliteration  of  Jarib  and 
Joiarib. 

Jorko'am,  Jorke'am. — A  descendant  of  Hebron 
of  Judah  (1  Ch.  2.44). 

JosaTbad.— Jehovah  hath  bestowed  (1  Ch.  12.4). 

[JOZABAD.] 

Josa'phat— (Matt.  1.8).    [JEHOSHAPHAT.] 

Jo'se  (R.V.  Jesus). — A  name  in  the  genealogy 
of  Jesus  Christ  (Lk.  3.29).  [JosES.] 

Jose'dech  (R.V.  Jehozadak). — Jehovah  is  just : 
father  of  Jeshua,  the  high-priest  in  the  time  of 
Zerubbabel  (Hag.  1.1).  In  Ezra  and  Nehemiah 
the  name  also  appears  as  Jozadak. 

Joseph. — He  [Jehovah]  adds :  1.  The  son  of 
the  patriarch  Jacob  by  Rachel,  born  in  Padan- 
aram,  after  Rachel  had  long  hoped  in  vain  for  a 
child  (Gen.  30.1,22-24).  The  children  of  the 
favourite  wife  (Gen.  29.30),  Joseph  and  his 
brother  Benjamin  were  the  peculiar  objects  of 
their  father's  affection.  From  this  partiality 
sprang  events  of  surpassing  moment.  The  first 
mention  of  Joseph  after  his  birth  reveals  him  as 
a  lad  of  seventeen,  the  favourite  son  of  the 
patriarch  (Gen.  37.2,  3),  who  in  the  meantime 
had  crossed  the  Jordan  and  had  settled  in 
Canaan.  Rachel  was  dead ;  and  thus  Jacob 
had  the  sole  care  of  the  two  children  of  his  old 
age.  As  the  favourite  son,  and  also  on  account 
of  his  youth,  Joseph  served  as  messenger  to  his 
elder  brothers,  who  were  away  keeping  the  herds 
and  flocks ;  but  he  was  clothed  in  a  style  superior 
to  them,  a  thing  which  gave  them  great  offence. 
Perhaps  his  father  had  worked  his  "  coat  of  many 
colours  "  with  his  own  hands,  in  accordance  with 
a  custom  still  prevailing  among  the  Bedouins. 
Their  jealousy  and  hatred  is  easily  explained. 
His  mother  and  he  had  been  put  in  the  place  of 
honour  from  the  first.  Rachel  was  the  true  wife, 
and  is  alone  named  in  the  pedigree  in  Gen.  46 


as  "  Jacob's  wife."  Their  own  conduct,  too, 
was  such  that  they  felt  themselves  condemned 
by  the  purer  and  more  peaceful  conduct  of 
Joseph.  Then,  in  his  visits  between  their 
encampment  and  the  homestead  at  Hebron,  he 
carried  to  Israel  reports  of  then1  misdeeds  (Gen. 
37.2).  But  it  seems  that  it  was  the  bestowal  of 
the  "  coat  of  many  colours "  (Gen.  37.3)  that 
caused  their  hatred  to  manifest  itself  in  action. 

When  we  recall  the  outrage  of  Reuben,  the 
vindictive  cruelty  of  Simeon  and  Levi,  and  the 
ill-regulated  life  of  Judah,  it  is  easy  to  conjecture 
the  difficulties  and  pitfalls  that  beset  the  life  of 
Joseph,  who  on  the  one  hand  had  to  serve  his 
brethren  in  the  affairs  of  daily  life,  and  on  the 
other  was  bound  above  all  to  be  loyal,  open- 
hearted,  and  faithful  to  their  common  father. 
Grievous  offence  was  given  by  Joseph  when  he 
reported  the  dreams  that  had  come  to  him 
(Om.  37.5-11).  The  opportunity  of  revenge 
soon  presented  itself.  Joseph's  brothers  had 
returned  to  their  flocks  at  Shechem,  50  miles 
away,  and  Jacob,  yearning  to  know  of  their 
welfare,  sent  Joseph  to  make  inquiries.  But 
they  had  moved  on  as  far  as  Dothan,  and  thither 
Joseph  journeyed,  another  15  miles.  He  had 
drunk  of  Jacob's  well  for  the  last  time.  Dothan 
was  an  important  halting-place  on  the  great 
caravan  road  from  Damascus  to  Egypt.  It 
was  in  the  midst  of  a  rich  pasture- land  well 
supplied  with  cisterns,  or  wells.  These  were 
constructed  in  the  shape  of  a  bottle,  with  the 
narrow  mouth  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and 
often  dry,  even  in  winter.  They  were  occasion- 
ally used  as  prisons.  Here  Joseph  overtook  his 
brethren,  who  resolved  on  his  death  (£en.  37.19, 20). 
Reuben,  aided  by  Judah,  succeeded  in  saving  his 
life ;  but  only  at  the  cost  of  the  lad  being  sold 
into  slavery  (Gen.  37.36).  His  purchasers,  at 
the  price  of  twenty  pieces  of  silver,  were  Ish- 
maelites  (Gen.  37.25)  or  Midianites  (37-28),  on 
then-  way  to  Egypt.  Meanwhile  the  brethren  of 
Joseph,  carrying  to  their  father  the  coat  of  many 
colours,  which  they  stained  with  the  blood  of  a 
goat,  inflicted  upon  him  a  wound  scarcely  less 
severe  than  that  they  had  dealt  their  brother 
himself  (Gen.  37.31-35). 

It  was  doubtless  towards  the  close  of  the  rule 
of  the  Shepherd  Kings  [EGYPT]  that  Joseph  was 
carried  as  a  slave  into  Egypt,  and  sold  to 
Potiphar,  captain  of  Pharaoh's  guard  (Gen.  39.1). 
He  won  his  master's  confidence,  and  was  made 
his  major-domo,  or  overseer  of  his  house  (Gen. 
39.4).  Tempted  by  Potiphafs  wife,  Joseph 
remained  true  to  God  and  to  his  master  (Gen. 
39.8, 9) ;  but  was  falsely  accused  by  his  mistress, 
and  cast  into  prison  (Gen.  39.20).  Here  Joseph 
won  the  respect  of  the  prison-governor  (Gen. 
39.21),  and  successfully  interpreted  the  dreams 
of  two  fellow-prisoners,  the  chief  butler  and 
chief  baker  of  Pharaoh  (Gen.  40).  Although 
the  chief  butler  "forgat"  Joseph,  yet  when 
Pharaoh  himself  needed  the  help  of  an  inter- 
preter he  reported  to  the  monarch  the  skill  Joseph 
had  shown  (Gen.  41.1-13).  Joseph,  sent  for 
accordingly,  explained  that  he  could  only  inter- 


JOSEPH] 


266 


[JOSEPH 


pert  as  a  medium  for  the  Most  High  God  (Gen. 
41.16).  The  dream  explained,  he  added  advice 
as  to  the  policy  to  be  followed  in  view  of  the 
threatened  famine.  Pharaoh  accepted  his 
judgment,  placed  him  in  office  to  deal  with  the 
situation,  and  gave  him  in  marriage  the  daughter 
of  the  priest  of  On  (Gen.  41.37-45).  [ASENATH.] 
A  new  name  was  at  this  time  bestowed  by 
Pharaoh  on  Joseph,  "  Zaphnath-paaneah." 

During  seven  productive  years  Joseph  pre- 
pared for  famine  by  laying  up  a  fifth  of  the  corn 
harvested  (Gen.  41.47-49).  Such  forethought 
was  essential  in  such  a  land  at  a  period  when 
means  of  transport  were  more  limited.  Egyptian 
governors  of  an  earlier  date  than  Joseph  had 
boasted  that  they  had  so  provided  that  there  had 
been  no  scarcity  in  their  times.  But  a  famine  of 
seven  years  was  unusual,  so  unusual  that  we  find 
one  mentioned  in  an  inscription  in  a  tomb  at 
El-kab,  in  which  the  deceased  governor  of  the  pro- 
vince declares  that  he  collected  the  harvests  and 
distributed  the  corn  during  many  years  of  famine. 
If  this  was  the  same  famine,  this  governor,  whose 
name  was  Baba,  must  have  acted  under  the 
supreme  direction  of  Joseph ;  for  it  is  expressly 
stated  in  the  Sallier  Papyrus  that  the  whole  land 
brought  its  productions  to  Agrepi  (Joseph's 
Pharaoh)  at  Avaris  (Hanar).  But  amid  such 
cares  Joseph  did  not  forget  his  God  or  his  kindred. 
His  two  sons,  Manasseh  and  Ephraim,  were  born 
before  the  famine.  That  he  gave  them  both 
Hebrew  names  showed  that  his  heart  was  still 
with  his  own  people,  and  especially  that  he  was 
still  devoted  to  the  God  of  his  fathers  (Gen. 
41.50-52).  Indeed,  events  were  so  shaping  them- 
selves as  to  bring  him  again  into  touch  with  bis 
kindred.  The  "  famine  was  sore  in  the  land  of 
Canaan,"  and  Jacob  looked  towards  Egypt  for 
succour  (Gen.  42.1-6).  The  story  of  the  visit  of 
the  patriarch's  sons  to  Egypt  and  their  recog- 
nition of  Joseph  is  told  in  Gen.  42-45.  There  is 
nothing  strange  in  the  fact  that  while  Joseph 
recognised  his  brethren  they  did  not  know 
him  (Gen.  42.8).  Since  their  parting  he  had 
grown  from  youth  to  mature  manhood,  while 
they  had  reached  a  period  of  life  when  the  out- 
ward appearance  changes  little.  Joseph  also 
had  become  an  Egyptian  in  dress  and  language, 
while  they  retained  the  primitive  style  of  their 
forefathers  ;  he  had  become  a  very  great  prince, 
while  they  remained  the  simple  shepherds  he  had 
known  them. 

Having  revealed  himself  to  his  brethren, 
Joseph  sends  for  his  aged  father  (Gen.  45.4-13), 
his  request  having  the  authority  of  Pharaoh 
behind  it.  The  patriarch,  his  family,  and  his 
following  accordingly  came  to  Egypt,  were 
settled  in  "  the  best  of  the  land  "  (Gen.  47.6), 
and  were  maintained  by  Joseph  (Gen.  47.12). 
It  has  been  suggested  that  the  land  of  Goshen  of 
Joseph's  time  may  be  taken  as  having  its  northern 
boundary  from  about  the  present  railway  junction 
of  Zagazig  nearly  to  Tel-el-Kebir,  and  that 
it  extended  southwards  somewhat  farther  than 
Belbeis.  The  country  is  fruitful,  with  a  large 
and  prosperous  population.  Zagazig  is  near  the 


ancient  Bubastis,  the  territory  of  which  in 
Pharaonic  times  was  called  Sckhetnuter,  "  the 
divine  meadow."  The  recent  researches  at 
Bubastis  (Tel  Basta)  have  for  the  first  time  re- 
vealed the  fact  that  this  was  a  chief  residence  of 
the  Hyksos  kings.  The  famine  in  Egypt  enabled 
Joseph,  acting  in  the  interests  of  his  master,  to 
concentrate  the  ownership  of  land  in  the  hands 
of  the  sovereign  (Gen.  47.13-26),  with  certain 
exceptions  in  regard  to  the  priests.  But  the 
people  were  saved  from  the  horrors  of  starvation. 
Meanwhile  the  Hebrew  colony  "  multiplied  ex- 
ceedingly »  (Gen.  47.27). 

Seventeen  years  later  Joseph  is  found  making 
to  Jacob  a  solemn  promise  that  he  will  bury 
him  with  his  fathers  (Gen.  47.29-31).  The  sons 
of  Joseph  were  brought  to  the  aged  patriarch 
and  blessed  by  him  (Gen.  48  ;  Eeb.  11.21).  Then 
the  sons  of  the  patriarch  were  called  before  him, 
their  characters  and  the  future  of  their  families 
predicted,  and  they  were  charged  to  bury  their 
father  in  the  cave  that  Abraham  bought.  And  so 
Jacob  died  (Gen.  49.33).  Joseph's  burial  of  his 
father  was  performed  with  a  splendour  befitting 
the  son's  condition  (Gen.  50.7-9).  His  brethren 
saw  with  some  apprehension  the  passing  of 
Jacob,  but  were  reassured  by  Joseph  (Gen. 
50.15-21).  He  himself  lived  a  hundred  and  ten 
years,  and  died  in  Egypt  (Gen.  50.26).  His  body 
was  embalmed,  and,  according  to  his  own  dying 
direction  (Gen.  50.25),  was  carried  to  Canaan  by 
the  Israelites  and  buried  at  Shechem  (Ex.  13.19 ; 
Josh.  24.32;  Acts  7.16). 

The  title  Joseph  is  used  in  Deut.  33.13  of  the 
two  tribes  descended  from  Joseph's  sons,  Ephraim 
and  Manasseh ;  and  in  Amos  5.6, 15  of  the 
northern  kingdom,  in  which  the  tribe  of  Ephraim 
was  predominant. 

2.  Father  of  Igal,  who  was  one  of  the  spies. 
He  belonged  to  Issachar  (Num.  13.7).  3.  Son 
of  Asaph  in  the  time  of  David  (1  Ch.  25.2,  9). 

4.  One  who  took  a  strange  wife   (Ezra  10.42). 

5.  A  member  of  the  priestly  family  of  Shebaniah 
in  the  time  of  Joiakim  the  high-priest  (Neh.  12.14). 

6.  A  name  in  the  genealogy  of  Joseph,  the  hus- 
band of  Mary,  the  mother  of  our  Lord  (Lk.  3.24). 

7.  Another,  but  read  Josech  with  the  R.V.  (Lk. 
3.26).     8.  Another  (Lk.  3.30). 

9.  The  husband  of   Mary,  the  mother  of  our 
Lord ;  an  upright  and  just  man,   who  was  of 
the  lineage  of  David,  his  name  occurring  as  in 
the  direct  line   in   the  registers   (Matt.   1.20; 
Lk.  2.4,  3.23  ;  John  1.45).    Joseph  was  by  trade 
a  carpenter,  and  carried  on  that  occupation  at 
Nazareth  both  before  and  after  his  sojourn  in 
Egypt.     That  he  died  before  the  crucifixion  is 
tolerably  certain  (John  19.27),  but  of  the  time 
or    manner    of    his    death   nothing    is    known 
(Matt.   1.16-24;     Lk.  1.27;    John  1.45,    6.42). 
[BRETHREN     OF     THE    LOED,    JESUS    CHRIST, 
GENEALOGIES.] 

10.  Of  Arimathaea.     He  was  a  member  of  the 
Jewish  Senate,  or  Sanhedrin,  and  also  a  believer 
in  the  Divine  mission  of  the  Saviour  ( John  19.38). 
Luke  informs  us  that  he  was  a  good  and  just  man, 
who  did  not  give  his  consent  to  the  crucifixion  of 


JOSES] 


267 


[JOSHUA,  BOOK  OF 


Christ  (Lk.  23.50,  51).  Though  he  was  unable 
to  restrain  the  Sanhedrin  from  their  purpose,  yet 
he  went  to  Pilate  by  night,  and  begged  the  body 
of  Jesus.  This  he  then  placed  in  a  new  tomb, 
which,  as  a  wealthy  man,  he  had  prepared  for 
himself  (Matt.  27.57-60  ;  John  19.38-42).  Though 
a  good  man,  Joseph  was  timid  and  fearful ;  but 
the  death  of  our  Lord  seems  to  have  inspired  him 
with  courage  and  confidence.  The  events  of  the 
crucifixion  would  seem  to  have  convinced  him  of 
the  Divinity  of  Jesus  Christ  and  the  truth  of  His 
claim.  There  are  many  legendary  stories  con- 
nected with  the  name  of  Joseph  of  Arimathaea, 
but  nothing  is  known  of  him  beyond  that 
recorded  in  the  Gospels  ( Matt.  27.57,  59 ;  Mk. 
15.43  ;  Lk.  23.50  ;  John  19.38).  [ARIKATILEA.] 
11.  Barsabas,  who  was  one  of  the  nominees  to 
the  vacant  discipleship  caused  by  the  treachery 
of  Judas  (Acts  1.23).  [BARSABAS.]  12.  The 
first  name  of  the  Apostle  Barnabas  (Acts  4.36). 
[BARNABAS,  JOSES.] 

Joses. — 1.  The  Greek  form  of  Jose,  the 
Galilean  abbreviation  of  Joseph.  Brother  of 
our  Lord  (Mk.  6.3).  [BRETHREN  OF  THE  LORD, 
JAMES.]  2.  The  brother  of  James  the  Little 
(which  see),  whose  mother  Mary  stood  by  the 
cross  in  addition  to  the  Virgin  Mary  (Mk. 
15.40,  47).  3.  The  first  name  of  the  Apostle 
Barnabas.  But  Joseph  is  read  in  the  R.V. 
(Acts  4.36). 

Jo'shah.— A  Simeonite  (1  Ch.  4.34). 

Josha'phat. — Jehovah  judges  :  a  shortened 
form  of  Jehoshaphat.  One  of  David's  guards 
(1  Ch.  11.43). 

Joshavi'ah. — One  of  David's  guards  (1  Ch. 
11.46). 

Joshbeka'shah. — (?)  Seated  in  a  hard  place: 
a  son  of  Heman  (1  Ch.  25.4,  24). 

Joshibiah. — [JOSIBIAH.] 

Joshua. — Jehovah  is  salvation  :  1.  The  heroic 
son  of  Nun,  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim ;  originally 
called  Hoshea  (or  Hosea),  " salvation"  or  "wel- 
fare" ;  Jehoshua,  "  Jehovah  is  salvation,"  con- 
tracted to  Joshua,  also  Jeshua  (Neh.  8.17). 
Jesus,  as  the  Greek  equivalent  of  Joshua,  is  found 
in  Acts  7.45  ;  Heb.  4.8.  Joshua  devoted  himself 
to  the  help  of  Moses,  whose  servant  he  is 
commonly  called,  and  with  whom  he  was  on  Sinai 
(Ex.  24.13,  33.11). 

Joshua  was  a  man  of  forty  years  of  age  on 
leaving  Egypt.  He  first  comes  into  notice  when 
the  Israelites  were  about  to  fight  the  Amalekites 
at  Rephidim,  when  he  led  the  fighting  men  (Ex. 
17.9).  He  conducted  himself  on  this  occasion 
with  such  valour  that  thenceforth  he  played  a 
most  important  part  in  the  nation's  early 
struggles. 

The  wanderings  in  the  wilderness  were  almost 
over  when  Moses  was  directed  by  God  to  invest 
Joshua  in  the  presence  of  Eleazar  with  full 
authority  over  the  people  (Num.  27.18-23; 
Deut.  31.14).  Thenceforward  the  history  of 
Joshua  is  the  history  of  the  Israelites  in  their 
struggle  against  the  peoples  of  Canaan.  For 
six  years  he  led  the  armies  of  the  Lord,  and 
iu  that  time  the  aged  warrior  conquered  six 


nations  and  thirty-one  kings.  The  fighting 
over,  Joshua,  with  the  aid  of  Eleazar  and  the 
heads  of  the  tribes,  completed  the  division 
of  the  land  (Josh.  13-21),  appointed  six  cities 
of  refuge,  established  the  temple  at  Shiloh, 
assigned  forty-eight  cities  to  the  Levites,  and 
dismissed  his  fighting  men.  Shortly  after  Joshua 
brought  all  the  people  together  again,  for  a  last 
exhortation  and  warning.  This  done,  he  caused 
them  to  renew  their  covenant  with  God  at 
Shechem  (Josh.  24.1-25).  He  died  at  the  age  of 
a  hundred  and  ten,  and  was  buried  at  Timnath- 
serah. 

In  the  character  of  Joshua,  piety,  courage,  and 
disinterested  integrity  are  conspicuous  through- 
out. "The  Spirit"  was  in  him  (Num.  27.18). 
Having  a  certain  promise  of  success  (Josh.  1),  he 
yet  prudently  used  every  means  likely  to  secure 
it.  He  sent  spies  and  disciplined  his  forces ;  not 
resting,  however,  in  these,  but  looking  still  to 
God.  Thus  before  attacking  the  Canaanites  he 
solemnly  renewed  the  dedication  of  himself  and 
the  people  ( Josh.  5) ;  and  in  seasons  of  emer- 
gency he  sought  by  prayer  special  blessing  and 
help  (Josh.  10.12-14).  His  piety  and  devotion 
are  displayed  in  his  closing  appeals,  and  the 
spirit  of  affectionate  submission  with  which  the 
people  received  them  gives  us  a  favourable 
impression  of  his  influence  (Josh.  23.22). 

2.  A  Bethshemite  (1  Sam.  6.14).  3.  A 
governor  of  Jerusalem  under  Josiah  (2  K.  23.8). 
4.  A  high-priest  at  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple 
(Hag.  1.1 ;  Zech.  3.1).  [JESHTJA.] 

Joshua,  Book  of. — We  have  no  certain  infor- 
mation either  as  to  the  author  or  the  precise 
date  of  this  book.  Jewish  writers  and  Christian 
antiquity  ascribed  it  to  Joshua,  the  son  of  Nun, 
a  view  followed  by  some  modern  critics.  It 
was  undoubtedly  written  before  the  time  of 
David  (cf.  15.63  with  2  Sam.  5.6-8) ;  and  prob- 
ably by  one  who  was  a  contemporary  (6.25), 
if  not  an  eye-witness  of  what  he  relates.  The 
six  books  from  Genesis  to  Joshua  inclusive  are 
sometimes  termed  the  Hexateuch.  The  Book  of 
Joshua  may  be  regarded  in  many  important 
respects  as  a  sequel  to  the  Pentateuch.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  classed  by  Jewish  writers  with 
the  succeeding  books,  down  to  and  including 
2  Kings,  as  "  the  Earlier  Prophets." 

The  place  of  the  narrative  in  the  history  of 
Israel  suggests  the  purpose  of  the  book.  In  the 
books  preceding  it  there  have  been  shown  the 
frequent  rebellions  and  provocations  of  the 
Israelites  who  came  out  of  Egypt,  on  account  of 
which  they  were  excluded  from  the  good  land 
which  they  had  despised.  This  book  carries  on 
the  history  of  the  next  generation — those  who 
were  under  twenty  years  of  age  when  they  left 
Egypt,  and  those  who  had  been  born  and  grown 
up  in  the  wilderness — who  appear  to  have  been 
of  a  better  spirit  than  their  fathers.  The  trials 
and  discipline  that  they  underwent  during  their 
long  wanderings,  together  with  the  instructions 
of  Moses,  had,  through  the  grace  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  the  effect  of  awakening  and  humbling 
them,  and  fitting  them  to  receive  the  fulfilment 


JOSIAH] 


268 


[JOTBATH,  JOTBATHAH 


of  the  promise.  It  was  with  this  generation 
that  God  renewed  His  covenant,  as  related  in 
Deut.  29.  And  He  did  great  things  for  them. 
They  believed  in  God  ;  and,  by  faith,  overcame 
the  armies  of  the  Canaanites,  and  obtained 
possession  of  the  land.  They  showed,  in  several 
instances,  a  fervent  zeal  for  God ;  as  on  the 
occasion  of  Achan's  sin,  and  when  they  suspected 
that  the  two  tribes  and  a  half  had  set  up  an  altar 
in  opposition  to  the  appointed  altar  of  burnt- 
offering  (22) ;  and  their  piety  is  specially  com- 
mended in  23.8. 

The  contents  of  the  book  may  be  divided  into 
three  principal  sections  : — 

1.  The    conquest    of    Canaan,    including    the 
appointment  of  Joshua,  and  his  directions  to  the 
people  (1) ;    the  spies  sent  to  Jericho  (2) ;    the 
passage  of  the  Jordan  (3,  4) ;    the  circumcision 
and  passover  at  Gilgal  (5.1-13) ;  the  capture  and 
destruction  of  Jericho  and  of  Ai,  with  Achan's 
sin  and  punishment  (5.14-8.29) ;  the  reading  of 
the  law  on  Mounts  Ebal  and  Gerizim  (8.30-35) ; 
the  wily  conduct  of  the  Gibeonites  (9) ;   victories 
over  the  Canaanites,  first  in  the  south,  and  then 
in  the  north ;  and  the  subjugation  of  the  country 
(10, 11) ;    with   a   recapitulation   of   conquests 
(12). 

2.  The    division    of    the    country,    including 
both  the  conquered  and  the  unconquered  parts  ; 
describing   the  portions  of    the  several   tribes 
(13-19);     the    appointment    of    the    cities    of 
refuge   and   the  Levitical  cities  (20,  21) ;    the 
return   of  the  two  tribes   and  a   half   cast  of 
Jordan,  and  transactions  which  followed  there- 
upon (22). 

3.  Joshua's    farewell    admonitions    and    death 
(23,  24). 

Allusions  to  events  recorded  in  the  book  are 
found  in  the  O.T.  in  1  Ch.  2.7, 12.15  ;  Ps.  44.2,  3, 
68.12-14,  78.54,  55 ;  Isai.  28.21 ;  Hob.  3.11-13  ; 
and  in  the  N.T.  in  Acts  7.45 ;  Heb.  4.8, 11.30,  31 ; 
Jas.  2.25. 

Josi'ah. — Jehovah  supports  or  heals :  1.  The 
son  of  Amon,  whom  he  succeeded  on  the  throne  of 
Judah  at  the  age  of  eight  (2  K.  21.26).  Even  at 
this  early  age  he  was  conspicuous  for  his  piety 
(2  K.  22.2 ;  2  Ch.  34.3).  In  his  twelfth  year  he 
began  to  put  down  idolatry  throughout  his 
kingdom  (2  Ch.  34.3  ff.).  Everywhere  he  de- 
stroyed the  high  places,  groves,  images,  and 
other  signs  of  heathen  worship.  To  this  duty  he 
attended  personally,  and  made  a  circuit  of  the 
country,  returning  only  when  he  had  accom- 
plished his  purpose.  This  done,  he  sent  officers 
to  inspect  the  repairs  of  the  Temple  (2  Ch.  34.8). 
It  was  during  the  course  of  these  repairs  that 
Hilkiah  the  high-priest  found  the  lost  Book  of 
the  Law,  the  reading  of  which  had  a  remarkable 
effect  upon  Josiah  and  his  people.  This  Book  of 
the  Law  may  have  been  the  original  copy  of  the 
law  of  Moses  (2  Ch.  34.14)  or  of  the  covenant 
which  was  renewed  with  the  people  in  the  plains 
of  Moab,  for  they  were  laid  up  beside  the  ark 
(Deut.  31.24-26),  or,  more  probably,  a  copy  of 
the  central  part  of  Deuteronomy.  It  is  probable 
that  during  the  reigns  of  Manasseh  and  Amon  the 


reading  of  the  law  had  been  prohibited,  and  gener- 
ally given  up.  The  passages  read  to  the  king  pro- 
foundly moved  him  (2  K.  22.11).  It  would  seem 
that  Josiah  had  never  before  heard  them,  though 
many  copies  of  the  law  had  been  made  under  the 
direction  of  Hezekiah.  To  account  for  this  it  is 
supposed  that  the  people  generally  at  that  time 
were  satisfied  with  a  sort  of  ritual  directing  them 
in  the  outward  observances  of  religion,  ignoring 
the  threatenings  and  cursings  of  the  law  against 
its  transgressors.  Concerned  for  himself  and  his 
people,  Josiah  sent  to  the  prophetess  Huldah  to 
inquire  whether  the  denunciations  of  the  Law 
would  fall  upon  the  country  in  his  time.  Huldah 
predicted  coming  ruin  to  the  country,  but  a 
peaceful  end  for  himself  (2  Ch.  34.14  fl.).  Josiah 
thereupon  determined  to  adhere  to  the  directions 
of  the  law.  For  this  purpose  he  called  together 
the  people,  and  with  them  renewed  the  covenant 
(2  Ch.  34.29  ff.). 

Josiah's  plans  of  reformation  were  resisted  by 
the  inveterate  habits  of  the  Israelites ;  so  that 
his  zealous  and  persevering  efforts  were  in- 
effectual, and  the  country  was  visited  with  those 
calamities  which  had  been  foretold  (2  K.  22.20). 
Pharaoh-Necho  was  at  war  with  the  Assyrians. 
Josiah,  who  was  bound  in  some  way  to  the  king 
of  Assyria,  opposed  himself  and  his  army  to 
Pharaoh  as  the  latter  was  marching  along  the  sea- 
coast  (2  Ch.  35.20).  Necho,  who  was  anxious 
to  avoid  a  conflict  with  the  king  of  Judah,  and 
to  get  to  Carchemish  (on  the  Euphrates)  with 
his  forces  intact,  tried  to  remove  Josiah  from  his 
front  by  pacific  means  (2  Ch.  35.21).  But  Josiah 
was  determined,  and  in  consequence  was  mortally 
wounded  at  Megiddo  (2  Ch.  35.23)  in  the  thirty- 
ninth  year  of  his  age.  He  was  buried  with  every 
circumstance  of  pomp  and  affection  in  the  tombs 
of  the  kings.  Jeremiah,  who  began  bis  public 
career  about  the  time  that  Josiah  began  to  reign, 
composed  a  solemn  elegy  (not  now  extant)  on  the 
occasion,  which  was  annually  sung  or  recited 
for  long  afterwards  (2  Ch.  35.25).  In  Matt.  1.10 
Josiah  is  called  Josias. 

2.  The  son  of  Zephaniah,  into  whose  house  in 
Jerusalem  Zechariah  took  Heldai  and  others  who 
had  come  from  Babylon  with  presents  to  witness 
the  solemn  crowning  of  the  high-priest  Joshua 
(Zech.  6.9-15).  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  a 
treasurer  of  the  Temple. 

Josi'as.— Matt.  1.10.    [JOSIAH  1.] 

Josibi'ah  (R.V.  Joshibiah).— Jehovah  causes  to 
dwell :  a  Simeonite  (1  Ch.  4.35). 

Josiphi'ah. — Jehovah  increases :  father  of 
Shelomith,  who,  as  it  seems,  returned  with  Ezra 
(Ezra  8.10). 

Jot. — A  shortened  form  of  the  Greek  letter  iota, 
and  the  Hebrew  yod  or  jod.  It  is  the  smallest 
letter  in  each  of  these  alphabets,  and  is  used 
emphatically  to  denote  the  smallest  part  (Matt. 

5.18).      [TITTLE.] 

Jot'bah. — Pleasantness :  the  birthplace  of 
Meshullemeth,  wife  of  Manasseh  (2  K.  21.19). 
Probably  in  Judah,  but  site  unknown. 

Jot 'bath,  Jotba'thah. — Pleasantness :  an  en- 
campment of  the  Israelites  in  the  desert  (Num. 


JOTHAM] 


269 


[JUDAH 


33.33,  34  ;  Deut.  10.7).  Possibly  el  Talah  in  the 
Arabah,  about  15  miles  north  of  Elath. 

Jo'tham. — Jehovah  is  'perfect'.  1.  Gideon's 
youngest  son,  who  escaped  the  murderous  hand 
of  Abimelech  at  Ophra.  When  Abimelech  was 
crowned  king,  Jotham  uttered  his  famous  parable 
of  the  trees  who  chose  a  king,  as  a  warning  to  the 
men  of  Shechem.  He  fled  to  Beer  for  safety,  and 
there  his  history  ends  ( Judg.  9.5-57). 

2.  Son  of  Azariah,  king  of  Judah.  Jotham 
acted  as  regent  for  twenty-five  years,  during  his 
father's  leprosy,  before  he  came  to  the  throne. 
He  was  a  righteous  man  and  king,  although  he 
did  not  abolish  the  high-places  of  idolatry.  When 
the  Ammonites  refused  to  pay  the  tribute  levied 
upon  them  by  his  father,  he  compelled  them  to 
do  so  by  force  of  arms.  His  reign  was  prosperous, 
though  towards  the  end  its  peace  was  threatened 
by  the  king  of  Damascus  and  by  Pekah.  He  was 
contemporary  with  the  prophet  Isaiah  (2  K.  15  ; 
2  Ch.  27).  3.  A  descendant  of  Caleb  (1  Ch.  2.47). 

Journey,  a  Day's.— A  day's  journey  was 
reckoned  at  about  16  or  20  miles.  To  this 
distance  around  the  camp  were  the  quails 
scattered  for  food  (Nwm.  11.31).  A  Sabbath- 
day's  journey  (Matt.  24.20;  Acts  1.12)  was  7  fur- 
longs, which  distance  might  be  traversed  with- 
out breaking  the  law  (Ex.  16.29).  The  first  day's 
journey  on  any  expedition  was  always  a  short 
one,  that  anything  forgotten  or  needing  altera- 
tion might  be  attended  to  before  the  travellers 
had  gone  too  far. 

JozaT)ad  or  Josa'bad. — Jehovah  hath  bestowed  : 
several  Scripture  characters  bear  this  name. 
Reference  to  them  will  be  found  in  the  following 
passages— 1  Ch.  12.4,  20  bis ;  2  Ch.  31.13,  35.9 ; 
Ezra  8.33,  10.22,  23 ;  Neh.  8.7,  11.16.  In 
each  of  these  texts  Jozabad  is  probably  a 
separate  and  distinct  individual.  It  is  a  short- 
ened form  of  Jehozabad. 

Joza'char  (R.V.  Jozacar).— Jehovah  hath  re- 
membered :  the  son  of  Shimeath  and  one  of  the 
murderers  of  king  Joash  (2  K.  12.21).  In  2  Ch. 
(24.26)  he  is  called,  by  a  clerical  error,  Zabad. 
The  motive  of  Jozachar  and  his  accomplice  for 
the  murder  of  Joash  is  not  clear.  It  may  have 
been  an  act  of  personal  revenge,  or  they  may 
have  been  urged  to  the  deed  by  the  family  of 
Jehoiada.  The  murderers  were  put  to  death 
by  Amaziah  (2  K.  14.5, 6). 

Jozadak.— [JEHOZADAK.] 

Ju'bal. — The  son  of  Lamech  and  Adah,  and  the 
inventor  of  musical  instruments  (Gen.  4.21). 

Jubilee. — The  ram's  horn :  the  year  after 
seven  Sabbatic  years  was  the  Jubilee  (Lev. 
25.8-11).  This  fiftieth  year  was  announced  by  a 
great  blast  of  rams'  horns  on  the  10th  of  Tisri 
[MONTHS],  the  great  day  of  propitiation.  As  in 
the  ordinary  Sabbatic  year  the  land  was  to  lie 
untilled  and  the  fruits  ungathered,  except  by 
the  poor,  though  the  people  were  free  to  hunt 
or  get  their  sustenance  in  any  other  way.  In 
the  Jubilee  year  all  servants  or  slaves  were 
to  obtain  their  freedom  (Lev.  25.39-46 ;  Jer. 
34.8-14).  All  the  land  throughout  the  country, 
and  the  houses  in  the  cities  of  the  Levites, 


sold  during  the  preceding  fifty  years,  were  to 
be  returned  to  the  sellers,  except  such  as  had 
been  consecrated  to  God,  and  redeemed  (Lev. 
25.17-28,  27.16-24).  All  mortgaged  lands,  too. 
were  to  be  released  without  charge.  The 
completeness  of  the  release  provided  by  these 
arrangements  makes  the  Jubilee  a  type  of  the 
Gospel  (/sot.  61.2 ;  Lk.  4.19).  The  moral  and 
spiritual  purposes  of  these  festivals  is  plain. 
They  all  tended  to  unite  the  people  in  a  brother- 
hood, and  to  separate  them  from  the  heathen. 
They  preserved  the  memory  of  past  mercies.  They 
illustrated  the  Divine  holiness.  They  lightened 
the  load  of  poverty,  checked  oppression  and 
covetousness,  and  were  all  either  types  of  Gospel 
blessings  or  suggestive  to  a  spiritual  mind  of  the 
truths  to  be  fully  unveiled  and  realised  in  Christ. 

The  purpose  of  the  Jubilee  was  that  every 
Israelite  should  recover  his  right  to  the  land 
originally  allotted  to  his  ancestors.  Houses  in 
walled  cities  were  not  subject  to  the  law  of 
Jubilee,  though  a  house  could  be  redeemed  within 
a  year  of  its  sale ;  but  houses  connected  with 
the  land  in  the  country,  and  so  essential  to  the 
cultivation  of  the  soil,  were  not  excepted,  but 
were  to  be  returned  in  the  Jubilee  year.  The 
houses  in  Levitical  cities  were  not  exempt  from 
the  Jubilee  law,  but  were  to  return  to  the 
original  owners ;  while  the  land  connected  with 
them  round  about  was  not  affected  in  any  way,  as 
it  could  never  be  sold  under  any  condition.  It 
must  be  remembered,  however,  that  we  have  no 
direct  evidence  that  the  legislation  of  the  Jubilee 
year  was  ever  put  into  force.  [SABBATIC  YEAR.] 

Ju'caL— [  JEHUCAL.  ] 

Ju'da. — 1.  A  name  in  the  genealogy  of  Jesus 
(Lk.  3.30).  2.  A  later  name  in  the  same  gene- 
alogy (iJfc.  3.26).  3.  One  of  the  brethren  of  Jesus 
(Mk.  6.3).  In  Matt.  13.55  he  is  called  Judas. 
[JuoE,  JUDAS.]  4.  The  same  as  Judah  1  (Lk. 
3.33  ;  Heb.  7.14  ;  Rev.  5.5,  7.5).  5.  Jutah. 

Judaea.— [  JUDAH.] 

Ju'dah. — Praise:  the  name  that  elsewhere 
occurs  as  Juda,  Judas,  Jude.  Judaea  is  also 
called  Judah  in  a  number  of  instances. 

1.  The  name  first  occurs  in  Gen.  29.35,  where 
Leah  gives  it  to  her  fourth  son,  when  she  said, 
"  Now  will  I  praise  the  Lord :  therefore  she 
called  his  name  Judah."  He  was  born  at  Haran 
in  Mesopotamia.  With  the  exception  of  Joseph 
he  figures  more  largely  in  the  history  of  Israel 
than  any  of  his  brethren.  It  was  he  who 
advised  the  sale  of  Joseph  to  the  Ishmaelite 
merchants,  in  preference  to  his  murder  (Gen. 
37.26, 27).  He  stands  out  as  the  leader  in  family 
affairs,  or,  as  it  is  expressed  in  1  Ch.  5.2,  "  he 
prevailed  above  his  brethren."  On  the  memor- 
able journeys  to  Egypt  for  corn  it  was  Judah 
who  remonstrated  against  the  detention  of 
Benjamin  by  Jacob,  and  he  who  undertook,  by 
offering  his  own  sons  as  hostages,  to  bring 
Benjamin  back  again  (Gen.  43.3-10).  In  the 
other  dramatic  occurrences  and  scenes  connected 
with  the  family  relations  to  Joseph  and  the  final 
removal  to  Egypt  it  was  Judah  who  always  spoke 
for  the  others.  That  Jacob  recognised  this 


JUDAH,  JUD-ffiA] 


270 


[JUDAH,  JUDAEA 


ascendancy  over  his  brethren  is  shown  in  the 
patriarch's  last  words  to  him,  "  Thy  father's  sons 
shall  bow  down  before  thee"  (Gen.  49.8-10). 
Judah  had  five  sons,  of  whom  two  died  young. 
The  other  three,  Shelah,  Pharez,  and  Zerah,  went 
with  their  father  to  Egypt  (Gen.  46.12).  These 
sons  were  born  in  Palestine  in  a  part  of  the 
country  repossessed  by  the  family,  then  the  tribe, 
at  the  conquest.  [ JUDAH,  JUDAEA.] 

2.  A  Levite  of  the  time  of  Zerubbabel,  who 
helped  to  restore  the  Temple  (Ezra  3.9).  We 
should  probably  read  Hodaviah,  which  see.  3. 
A  Levite  who  put  away  his  strange  wife  (Ezra 
10.23).  4.  A  Benjamite.  An  overseer  over  part 
of  Jerusalem  in  the  time  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  11.9). 
5.  A  Levite.  Probably  the  same  as  Judah  2 
(Neh.  12.8).  6.  A  leader  of  those  who  dedicated 
the  wall,  if  we  should  not  rather  understand 
the  tribe  as  such  (Neh.  12.34).  7.  A  priest  at 
the  dedication  of  the  wall  (Neh.  12.36). 

Judah,  Judaea. — The  name  sometimes  applied 
to  the  whole  of  Palestine  (Acts  28.21 ;  and  per- 
haps Lk.  23.5),  but  more  generally  to  the  southern 
part  only.  The  extent  of  the  territory  allotted 
to  Judah  is  given  with  minuteness  in  Josh.  15,  a 
fact  due,  no  doubt,  to  the  unbroken  line  of  kings, 
and  also  to  the  presence  of  the  priesthood,  who 
doubtless  reduced  the  lists  to  their  present  form. 
The  north  boundary  of  the  original  allotment  began 
where  the  Jordan  entered  the  Dead  Sea  and  ran 
west  past  Beth-shemesh  to  Jabneel  near  Ekron, 
some  10  miles  from  the  Mediterranean.  It  then 
ran  in  a  south-east  direction  in  an  almost 
straight  line,  skirting  the  country  of  the  Philis- 
tines, and  the  borders  of  Simeon  to  Kadesh 
Barnea,  on  the  edge  of  the  desert.  Its  eastern 
boundary  was  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  mountains 
of  Seir  in  the  land  of  Moab.  But  after  the  death 
of  Solomon  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  followed  Judah 
in  giving  allegiance  to  the  house  of  David,  and 
thus  Jerusalem  was  brought  within  the  boundaries 
of  the  new  kingdom  and  made  a  royal  city 
(2  Sam.  2.9).  A  part  of  Simeon  (1  Sam.  27.6) 
and  of  Dan  (2  Ch.  11.10)  were  also  included 
in  Judah.  A  further  extension  of  territory 
was  made  later  on  by  the  inclusion  of  part  of 
Ephraim  (2  Ch.  13.19,  15.8,  17.2).  The  whole 
of  this  territory  was  about  45  miles  from  north 
to  south,  and  about  50  miles  from  east  to 
west,  and  was  divided  into  four  regions.  Of 
ihese  regions  that  called  the  South  consisted 
of  the  pasture-lands  and  the  flat  deserts  in  the 
lower  part  of  Palestine  (Josh.  15.21).  This 
district  was  also  called  the  Wilderness  of  Judah 
(Judg.  1.16).  It  contained  37  cities,  about  half 
of  which  were  included  in  Simeon  (Josh.  19.1-9). 
The  next  great  division  was  the  Lowland  or  Valley 
(Josh.  15.33),  lying  between  the  hilly  country  of 
the  interior  and  the  sea.  Its  proper  name  was  the 
Shefelah,  a  name  it  still  bears.  It  was  the  country 
of  the  Philistines  and  the  granary  of  Palestine. 
The  Philistine  strongholds  were  on  the  coast, 
built  on  promontories,  and  overlooking  the  sea 
on  the  one  hand  and  the  very  productive  cornfields 
and  vineyards  on  the  other.  Modern  travellers 
still  marvel  at  the  wonderful  beauty  and  fertility 


of  the  land.  From  the  abundance  of  this  rich 
country  Solomon  paid  Hiram  for  his  help  in  the 
building  of  the  Temple  and  royal  palace.  In  N.T. 
days  also  the  countries  of  Tyre  and  Sidon  were 
"  nourished "  from  here  (Acts  12.20).  Its 
population  was  large,  for  there  were  42  cities, 
besides  villages.  The  third  division  of  Judah,  the 
Hill  Country,  was  the  largest  and  most  important 
politically.  On  it  were  planted  the  cities  of 
Jerusalem,  Shechem,  Hebron,  and  38  other  towns, 
as  enumerated  in  Josh.  15.48-60.  But  the  whole 
undulating  country  (it  is  not  so  rugged  as  the 
country  to  the  north  of  Jerusalem)  is  strewn  with 
the  ruins  of  cities  and  fortifications,  showing  that 
at  one  time  the  land  must  have  been  very 
populous  indeed.  It  is  now  covered  with  brush- 
wood and  flowers,  where  not  planted  with  the 
olive  and  vine.  The  fourth  district,  the  Wilder- 
ness, was  the  deep  depression  between  the  shore 
of  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Hill  Country.  It  consists 
chiefly  of  salt  plains,  had  few  cities,  and  was  of 
small  importance  compared  with  either  the  Hill 
Country  or  the  Shefelah.  The  "  Wilderness  "  of 
Jesus  and  John  the  Baptist  was  the  extension  of 
this  country  above  Jericho  and  along  the  Jordan. 

When  Joshua  and  Eleazar  divided  the  land 
among  the  tribes  (Josh.  14.1,  19.51),  and  Judah 
received  their  portion,  they  had  a  hard  task  before 
them.  They  had  already  fought  the  Philistines 
(Josh.  10.28-35),  and  advanced  as  far  as  Hebron 
(Josh.  10.36-39).  The  Philistines  were,  however, 
never  completely  suppressed,  and  retained 
possession  of  some  of  the  cities.  But  the  tribe  of 
Judah  fixed  itself  firmly  in  the  mountainous  region, 
where  they  were  left  undisturbed  to  settle  down. 
Even  when  the  Philistines  troubled  the  middle 
and  northern  tribes  Judah  was  avoided,  though 
she  had  sent  men  to  Saul's  aid.  [DAVID,  SAUL.] 
After  the  death  of  Saul,  without  consulting  the 
rest  of  the  country,  this  independent  and  capable 
people  went  to  David  and  elected  him  king. 
They  knew  their  own  minds,  and  had  also  an  ac- 
quaintance with  the  man  (2  Sam.  2.4-11).  They 
knew  he  had  all  the  tribe's  sturdy,  independent 
will  and  boldness  of  action.  Yet  they  held  aloof 
when  the  other  tribes  followed  suit,  and  elected 
their  king  ruler  over  the  whole  country.  Judah, 
though  willing  to  act  upon  occasion  in  concert 
with  others,  yet  never  hesitated  to  move  alone,  if 
the  occasion  seemed  to  require  it.  It  was  this 
independence  of  character  and  aloofness  of  dis- 
position that  caused  them  to  be  charged  with 
"  despising  "  others  (2  Sam.  19.41-43). 

For  a  list  of  the  cities  of  Judah  see  Josh. 
15.21-63.  Nine  of  the  cities  were  allotted  to 
the  priests  (Josh.  21.9-19).  The  Levites  had 
no  cities  in  the  tribe,  and  the  priests  had  none 
among  the  other  tribes.  The  case  of  Bethlehem 
alone  appears  doubtful.  It  may  have  been  a 
Levitical  city  (Judg.  17.7,  9, 19.1). 

After  David  had  made  Jerusalem  his  capital, 
Judah  became  the  predominant  part  of  the  king- 
dom until  the  disruption  under  Rehoboam.  From 
that  time  the  throne  was  occupied  for  nearly  400 
years  by  20  kings,  all  descendants  of  D~avid. 
Only  once  during  this  long  period  was  any  serious 


JUDAH,  JUD-EA] 


271 


[JUDAH, 


attempt  made  to  break  the  Davidic  line.  This 
was  when  the  dread  of  Assyria  led  Rezin,  king 
of  Syria,  and  Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  to  form  a 
confederacy  into  which  they  strove  to  force  Ahaz, 
king  of  Judah.  Isaiah  graphically  shows  the 
frustration  of  the  design  (Isai.  7).  Of  the  kings 
of  Judah,  Asa,  Jehoshaphat,  Josiah,  Hezekiah, 
receive  special  commendation.  Others  were 
impious  and  depraved ;  of  these,  Ahaz,  Manasseh, 
and  Amon  were  pre-eminent.  Some,  again,  whose 
careers  on  the  whole  were  praiseworthy,  com- 
mitted grievous  faults.  But  the  Divine  purpose 
was  steadfastly  maintained  in  the  long  prepara- 
tion for  the  Messiah,  as  shown  in  the  royal 
genealogy  in  the  first  chapter  of  Matthew.  It  is 
noticeable  that  even  when  kings  of  Judah  were 
cut  off  by  violent  deaths  (Ahaziah,  Joash,  Amon) 
no  attempt  was  made  to  interfere  with  the 
Davidic  line  of  succession. 

The  internal  condition  of  the  kingdom  of 
Judah  was  on  the  whole  prosperous ;  and  its 
annals  were  for  the  most  part  uneventful,  apart 
from  those  of  Jerusalem.  It  is  specially  recorded 
of  Asa  that  in  addition  to  measures  to  purify  the 
land  from  idolatry,  not  even  sparing  bis  own 
mother,  he  built  and  fortified  several  cities.  Of 
Jehoshaphat  it  is  recorded  that  he  caused  a 
knowledge  of  the  law  to  be  diffused  throughout 
the  kingdom,  and  appointed  officers  of  public 
instruction.  In  2  Ch.  17  there  is  an  interesting 
picture  of  a  peaceful  and  prosperous  community 
under  a  wise,  far-seeing  king.  Jehoshaphat  also, 
after  the  example  of  Solomon,  attempted  to 
maintain  a  mercantile  fleet  at  what  was  then 
the  port  of  Ezion-geber.  Uzziah,  during  bis  long 
reign,  successfully  cultivated  the  arts  of  peace  as 
well  as  of  war  (2  CA.26).  "  He  loved  husbandry," 
and  showed  his  commercial  sagacity  by  securing 
and  refortifying  the  port  of  Elath,  at  the  head 
of  the  eastern  arm  of  the  Red  Sea,  which  since 
the  days  of  Solomon  had  been  held  by  Edom. 
Fifty  years  afterwards,  however,  Elath  was 
captured  from  Ahaz  by  either  Syria  or  Edom. 

The  national  existence  of  Judah  was  more  than 
once  threatened ;  but,  under  the  Divine  pro- 
tection, and  centred  in  its  mountain-fortress  of 
Jerusalem,  the  little  kingdom  was  able  to  hold 
its  own.  Egypt  was  at  first  its  most  formidable 
foe,  being  governed  by  the  fierce  and  aggress- 
ive kings  of  the  Bubastitic  or  twenty-second 
dynasty.-i  In  the  days  of  Rehoboam,  Shishak 
pillaged  the  Temple  and  threatened  the  kingdom, 
but  the  proud  young  king,  humbled  before 
Jehovah,  "  strengthened  himself  in  Jerusalem, 
and  reigned  "  (2  Ch.  12.13).  Zerah  (which  see), 
another  Egyptian  monarch,  invaded  south-west 
Palestine  during  the  reign  of  Asa,  at  the  head  of 
a  vast  horde  of  Ethiopians,  but  was  defeated  at 
Mareshah,  in  the  Shephelah  or  Maritime  plain. 
It  was  a  victory  that  relieved  Judah  for  some 
two  centuries  from  all  pressure  on  her  southern 
frontiers.  It  showed  the  Egyptians  also  that 
they  had  more  to  gain  from  the  friendship  than 
the  enmity  of  Judah,  and  their  attitude  to  the 
kingdom  changed  (2  K.  17.4,  18.21-24;  Isai. 
20.5,6,  30.2-7). 


Jehoshaphat's  reign  was,  on  the  whole,  peaceful, 
but  he  had  to  encounter  once  a  confederacy  of 
Moab,  Ammon,  and  Edom.  The  armies  met  on 
the  slopes  above  En-gedi,  where  the  songs  of  the 
Levites,  accompanied  by  trumpet,  harp,  and 
psaltery,  struck  such  panic  into  the  heathen 
hosts  that  they  turned  their  arms  one  against 
another,  and  the  scene  of  the  encounter  became 
memorable  as  the  Vale  of  Berachah  ("  blessing  "). 
This  invasion  and  victory  are  vividly  described 
in  2  Ch.  20. 

But  Judah  had  more  cause  to  fear  enmity 
nearer  home.  This  was  the  hostility  of  Israel, 
or  Ephraim,  as  the  northern  kingdom  was  dis- 
tinctively called.  Abijah,  the  son  of  Rehoboam, 
was  compelled  to  fight  Jeroboam.  The 
latter  met  with  a  decisive  defeat  (1  K.  15.6 ; 
2  Ch.  13.2-20).  A  more  serious  and  prolonged 
strife  between  Asa  and  the  Israelite  king,  Baasha, 
led  to  momentous  consequences.  Baasha  was 
erecting  a  fortress  at  Ramah,  on  the  frontier 
of  the  two  kingdoms,  and  only  6  miles  from 
Jerusalem,  in  rivalry  to  that  great  stronghold. 
The  counter  policy  adopted  by  Asa  was  mis- 
taken and  sinful,  though  its  immediate  results 
seemed  to  justify  him.  He  subsidised  the  king 
of  Syria  to  attack  Israel  on  the  north,  and  the 
Israelite  forces  were  withdrawn,  to  face  the  new 
danger.  Ramah  was  dismantled,  its  materials 
being  used  to  strengthen  the  defences  of  the 
southern  kingdom.  But  "  Hanani  the  seer " 
perceived  the  terrible  mistake  that  had  been 
made,  and  rebuked  the  king  (2  Ch.  16.7-9).  Asa 
put  Hanani  in  prison,  but  the  course  of  events 
proved  the  prophet's  warnings  to  be  true. 

The  marriage  of  Jehoram,  Jehoshaphat's  son, 
with  Athaliah,  the  daughter  of  Ahab  and  Jezebel, 
was  another  alliance  that  caused  harm  to  the 
kingdom.  Their  son  Ahaziah  (or  Jehoahaz, 
2  Ch.  21.17)  was  slain  at  Jezreel,  leaving  an 
infant  son  to  inherit  the  throne.  This  led  to  the 
usurpation  of  Athaliah  and  the  miserable  train 
of  evils  that  followed. 

These  alliances  with  the  heathen  nation  always 
resulted  badly  for  the  Israelites.  Ahaz  sought 
the  aid  of  Tiglath-pileser  against  the  kings  of 
Israel  and  Syria.  Instead  of  any  real  help  the 
immediate  consequence  was  the  paying  of  a 
heavy  tribute.  It  also  cost  Hezekiah  most  of 
his  treasure,  and  but  for  special  interposition 
would  have  cost  him  his  throne.  It  cost 
Manasseh  bis  liberty  (through  his  alliance  with 
the  Egyptian  Tirhakah) ;  and  Josiah  (who  led  the 
forces  of  Judah  to  resist  Pharaoh-necho)  his  life. 
Jehoahaz,  the  son  of  Josiah,  was  taken  captive 
to  Egypt.  Jehoiakim,  the  brother  and  successor 
of  Jehoahaz,  who  owed  his  crown  to  Neco, 
remained  for  four  years  tributary  to  Egypt ; 
which  power  in  turn  yielded  to  the  forces  of 
Babylon  at  Carchemish,  so  that  Jehoiakim  became 
subject  to  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  at  this  time 
succeeded  his  father  Nabopolassar. 

Four  years  after  the  subjugation  of  Judah, 
Jehoiakim  revolted  from  the  Babylonian  king 
(2  K.  24.1),  who,  after  a  while,  captured  him 
and  put  him  to  death  (2  Ch.  36.6).  Jeconiah,  who 


JUDAS] 


272 


[JUDAS  ISCARIOT 


succeeded,  was  deposed  and  carried  to  Babylon 
(597  B.C.)  ;  Zedekiah,  the  third  son  of  Josiah, 
being  made  king  in  his  stead.  Contrary  to  the 
advice  and  remonstrance  of  Jeremiah,  Zedekiah 
revolted,  and  brought  Nebuchadnezzar  again  to 
Jerusalem  (587  B.C.).  After  a  siege  of  18  months 
the  city  was  taken,  and  most  of  the  inhabitants 
were  put  to  death.  Zedekiah's  children  were  slain, 
and  the  unfortunate  king  had  his  eyes  put  out, 
and  was  carried  in  chains  to  Babylon.  A  little 
later  the  Temple  was  destroyed,  and  the  treasure 
and  most  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  country 
carried  off.  Thus  began  the  Babylonian  Captivity. 
It  is  remarkable  that  no  attempt  was  made  by 
the  conquerors  to  colonise  Judah,  as  had  been 
done  in  the  case  of  Israel.  The  providence 
of  God  thus  kept  the  land  vacant,  ready  for  its 
reoccupation  by  the  people  on  their  return  from 
captivity.  The  only  inhabitants  left  behind  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  and  his  generals  were  a  few  poor 
country  folk,  left  to  till  the  soil  and  to  keep  its 
"  Sabbaths  "  until  those  to  whom  God  had  given 
_itjhould  return  and  repossess  their  heritage. 

The  wealth  of  Judah,  which  must  have  been 
great  (considering  the  number  of  times  the 
treasures  of  the  plundered  capital  [JERUSALEM] 
had  been  renewed),  was  not  alone  derived 
from  pasture  and  tillage.  Its  merchants  were 
great  traders,  and  transacted  business  with 
Egypt  and  other  countries  on  the  Mediterranean 
and  Red  Sea.  It,  or  at  any  rate  Jerusalem, 
received  regular  subsidies  from  scattered 
Jewish  colonies  abroad.  Thus  contemporary 
records  tell  of  convoys  carrying  treasure  for  the 
Temple  services,  making  long  journeys  from 
places  as  far  distant  as  the  countries  north  of 
India,  and  from  beyond  Egypt.  The  country 
had  other  advantages  that  materially  helped  it 
to  maintain  its  existence  long  after  Israel  had 
been  destroyed.  It  had  a  less  exposed  frontier, 
a  more  rugged  and  comparatively  sterile  soil, 
and  a  hardy,  self-reliant  population.  And  no 
great  road  ran  through  it.  Napoleon  himself 
refused  to  run  the  risk  of  taking  his  army  up 
through  its  defiles.  Being  possessed  also  of 
the  Temple  of  Jehovah,  the  people  were  less  led 
astray  after  false  gods,  and  presented  a  more 
solid  and  united  front  to  the  enemy.  Added  to 
this,  the  kings  of  Judah  were  on  the  whole  wise 
and  good,  and  strove  to  promote  the  best 
interests  of  their  subjects.  The  priests  were 
reverenced,  and  while  the  army  was  kept  in  a 
state  of  efficiency  it  was  not  allowed  the  upper 
hand.  [ISRAEL,  KINGS.] 

Ju'das. — The  Greek  form  of  the  Hebrew 
word  Judah.  1.  The  son  of  Jacob  (Matt.  1.2,  3). 
2.  An  inhabitant  of  Damascus,  whose  house 
sheltered  Saul  (Acts  9.11).  It  was  in  the 
"  street  called  Straight,"  or  street  of  bazaars, 
which  penetrated  into  the  heart  of  the  city 
from  the  southern  gate.  A  "  house  of  Judas  " 
is  still  shown  to  travellers.  3.  Surnamed 
Barsabas.  Perhaps  a  brother  of  Jose  (Joseph) 
Barsabas.  A  member  of  the  Church  at 
Jerusalem  (Acts  15.22  ft*.).  He  was  chosen  to 
go  with  Paul  and  Barnabas  as  delegates  to  the 


Church  at  Antioch  to  report  the  resolution  of 
the  apostles  at  Jerusalem,  concerning  the  non- 
observance  of  the  Law  by  the  Gentiles.  He 
had  prophetical  gifts,  was  a  chief  among  the 
brethren,  and  tradition  makes  him  one  of  the 
seventy  disciples.  Nothing  more  is  known  of 
him. 

4.  Judas   of    Galilee    (Acts  5.37).     In    6   or 
7  A.D.  he  opposed  the  enrolment  of  the  people 
made  by  Quirinus  (Cyrenius)  in  Judaea.      This 
enrolment   was   for   the   purpose   of    taxation, 
and   was  always   an   unpopular  measure.     On 
this  occasion,  Judas,  an  inhabitant  of  Gamala, 
succeeded  in  raising  a  very  considerable  rebellion, 
the    insurrectionists    taking    as    their    motto, 
"  We   have   no   lord    nor   master   but    God." 
Judas    denounced    the    paying    of    tribute    to 
Caesar,    and    any   acknowledgment    of    foreign 
authority  as  treason  to  God  and  the  Mosaic 
Law.     He  was  looked  upon  by  a  considerable 
number  of  his  followers,  the  Gaulonites,  as  they 
were    called,    as    the    Messiah.     He    could   do 
nothing,  however,  against  the  might  of  Rome, 
and  although  he  was  able  for  a  while  to  ravage 
the   country  he  was   at  length  slain  and  his 
followers  scattered,  the  movement  receiving  its 
death-blow  at  the  final  overthrow  of  the  nation. 
Though  mistaken  in  his  methods,  and  impiously 
assuming    the    Messiahship,    Judas    must    be 
looked  upon   as  a  national  hero  and  lover  of 
his  country. 

5.  "  Judas  of  James,"  presumably  son  of  one 
James,  also  called  Thaddseus  (which  see,  with 
LEBB^EUS).  He  was  tenth  in  the  catalogue  of  the 
Apostles.     In  John  14.22  he  is  introduced  as 
"  Judas,  not  Iscariot,"  but  in  Lk.  6.16 ;  Acts 
1.13  he  is  simply  Judas,  without  any  distin- 
guishing mark.     Tradition  says  that  he  laboured 
at  Edessa,  the  scene  of  the  mission  and  martyr- 
dom of  Thomas ;  that  he  travelled  into  Assyria, 
and  on  his  return  to  the  west  was  put  to  death 
in  Phoenicia. 

6.  The  brother  of  our  Lord  and  of  James  1. 
Mentioned  by  the  inhabitants  of  Nazareth,  who 
wonderingly  listened  to  the  marvellous  teaching 
of  their  neighbour's  Son  (Matt.  13.55  ;  Mk.  6.3). 
He  it  was  who  wrote  the  Epistle  of  Jude,  de- 
scribing himself   humbly  as  the   "  servant  of 
Jesus  Christ  and  brother  of  James"  (Jude  1). 

Judas  Iscariot. — Man  of  Keriofh  [KERIOTH- 
HEZRON]  :  one  of  the  twelve  Apostles,  and  the 
betrayer  of  our  Lord.  He  is  called  (John  6.71) 
the  son  of  Simon  Iscariot.  His  true  character, 
with  its  issue,  was  always  known  to  his  Master 
( John  6.64).  His  weakness  first  disclosed  itself 
in  the  account  of  the  anointing  at  Bethany  (John 
12.4,  5).  The  expression,  "  Why  this  waste  ?  " 
was  the  feeling  of  the  Twelve  ;  but  the  proposal 
/  that  the  ointment  might  have  been  sold,  and  the 
I  money  given  to  the  poor,  came  from  Judas,  as 
we  learn  from  John,  who  also  gives  the  betrayer's 
real  motive,  because  he  was  a  thief,  and  "  had 
the  bag,  and  bare  [or  conveyed  away,  i.e.  stole] 
what  was  put  therein  "  (John  12.4-6).  In  this 
revelation  of  character  the  ultimate  treachery 
of  Judas  may  sufficiently  be  explained.  I  Greed, 


JUDE] 


273 


[JUDE,  EPISTLE  OF 


coupled  with  disappointment  at  the  nature  of 
our  Lord's  mission,  would  account  for  the 
development  in  the  mind  of  Judas  of  the  feeling 
which  culminated  in  the  decisive  surrender 
indicated  by  the  words  "  Satan  entered  into 
him  "  (John  13.27),  in  the  compact  with  the 
chief  priests,  and  in  the  betrayal  of  our  Lord. 
But  endeavours  have  been  made  to  present 
the  tragedy  of  Judas  in  a  different  light.  De 
Quincey  and  others  have  urged  that  the  motive 
of  Judas  was  a  patriotic  desire  to  force  his 
Master  into  an  appeal  to  the  populace ;  whilst 
others  have  supposed  him  to  argue  that  betrayal 
would,  if  Jesus  were  indeed  the  Messiah,  bring 
angelic  powers  to  His  rescue,  whilst,  if  He  were 
not  the  Messiah,  His  destruction  would  be 
deserved.  It  may  suffice  to  say  that  these 
theories  are  inconsistent  with  the  Gospel 
narratives.  The  turning-point  was  reached 
after  the  scene  at  Bethany  (Matt.  26.14).  Satan 
found  his  instrument,  and  Judas  went  to  the 
chief  priests  (Lk.  22.3, 4).  He  probably  expected 
more  than  the  thirty  pieces  of  silver  (Matt. 
26.15),  for  there  was  evidently  a  dispute  as  to 
the  amount ;  but  he  agreed  to  play  the  traitor, 
and  waited  his  opportunity.  He  accompanied 
his  Master  and  colleagues  as  before  to  and 
from  Bethany  and  Jerusalem;  he  had  been 
with  them  to  Gethsemane  (John  18.2) ;  he  was 
present  at  the  Last  Supper,  had  his  feet  washed 
by  the  Saviour,  and  was  among  those  who 
asked,  "  Is  it  I  ?  "  (Matt.  26.25).  His  infamy 
was  completed  when  he  betrayed  his  Master 
with  a  kiss,  an  act  that  increased  the  sorrow  of 
his  victim  (Lk.  22.48). 

Judas,  the  deed  done,  was  seized  with  remorse. 
His  repentance  was  sincere  enough  to  make 
him  wish  to  undo  the  evil  he  had  wrought 
(Matt.  27.3,  4).  It  was  in  this  frame  of  mind  that 
he  took  back  the  thirty  pieces  of  silver ;  only 
to  be  mocked.  He  was  "  the  son  of  perdition  " 
(John  17.12),  for  whom  there  was  no  hope  of 
pardon  in  this  life ;  so  he  "  departed,  and  he 
went  away  and  hanged  himself"  (Matt.  27.5). 

There  is  a  single  wind-bent  tree  that  crowns 
the  Hill  of  Evil  Counsel,  at  the  southern  end  of 
the  riclge  of  Olivet,  but  separated  from  it  by  the 
Kedron  Valley.  Its  name  is  the  "  Tree  of 
Judas,"  and  from  its  branches  the  traitor  is 
said  to  have  hanged  himself.  Here  was  the 
potter's  field,  afterwards  bought  with  the 
blood- money,  and  called  the  "  field  of  blood." 
According  to  the  English  version  of  Acts  1.18 
Judas  himself  bought  the  field,  and,  falling 
headlong  in  it,  his  bowels  gushed  out.  The 
accounts  of  his  death  are  then  reconcilable, 
if  we  understand  that  Judas  first  hanged  him- 
self from  some  tree  on  the  edge  of  a  precipice  ; 
and  that,  the  rope  or  branch  breaking,  he  was 
dashed  to  pieces  by  the  fall.  But  for  "  falling 
headlong "  we  should  probably  read  "  being 
swollen  up." 

Acts  1.20  associates  the  death  of  Judas  with 
the  predictions  in  Ps.  69.25,  109.8;  cf.  also 
John  17.12. 

Jude. — Another  form  of  Juda,  Judas. 

18 


Jude,  Epistle  of. —The  authorship  of  this 
letter  has  been  in  turn  ascribed  to  two  persons 
bearing  the  name  of  Jude  or  Judas.  One  of 
these  is  the  apostle  Judas,  called  also  Lebbaeus 
and  Thaddseus  (Matt.  10.3 ;  John  14.22).  But 
there  is  no  evidence  that  this  apostle  was 
"the  brother  of  James,"  as  the  writer  of  the 
Epistle  calls  himself.  In  Lk.  6.16 ;  Acts  1.13, 
the  word  "  brother "  is  not  in  the  original ; 
and  it  would  be  more  accordant  with  the 
general  usage  of  the  language,  and  particularly 
of  the  N.T.  writers,  if  the  word  "  son " 
were  supplied.  Moreover,  if  the  writer  of  this 
Epistle  had  been  an  apostle,  he  could  hardly 
have  felt  it  necessary  to  make  himself  known  as 
"  the  brother  of  James  "  ;  noi  would  he  have 
distinguished  himself  from  the  apostles,  as  he 
appears  to  do  in  ver.  17.  From  these  circum- 
stances it  is  inferred  that  the  James  mentioned  in 
ver.  1  was  "  the  brother  of  the  Lord  "  (Gal.  1.19  ; 
cf.  Mk.  6.3) ;  who  appears  so  prominently  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  apostolic  age.  It  would  follow 
that  Jude  stood  in  the  same  earthly  relationship 
to  our  Lord  (Matt.  13.55  ;  Mk.  6.3),  the  two  being 
probably  among  those  brethren  of  our  Lord  who 
were  with  the  apostles  after  His  ascension 
(Acts  1.14;  1  Cor.  9.5).  [BRETHREN  OF  THE 
LORD.] 

Of  the  life  of  Jude  we  have  no  certain  informa- 
tion. His  descendants  are  mentioned  by  Euse- 
bius,  who  says  that  when  Domitian  ordered  that 
all  the  posterity  of  David  should  be  slain,  "  some 
of  the  heretics  accused  the  descendants  of  Judo 
as  the  brother  of  our  Saviour  according  to  the 
flesh,  because  they  were  of  the  family  of  David, 
and  as  such  were  also  related  to  Christ."  He 
then  refers  to  the  good  confession  which  they 
made  before  their  persecutors  (Eccl.  Hist.,  iii.  20). 

The  Epistle  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
addressed  to  any  local  body  of  believers.  Accord- 
ing to  early  tradition,  Jude  laboured  in  countries 
eastward  of  Judsea ;  from  which  some  infer  that 
the  Epistle  was  sent  to  the  Christians  in  those 
regions.  Others  suppose  that  it  was  written  to 
Christians  in  Palestine. 

Its  date  can  only  be  inferred  from  the  nature 
of  the  heresies  and  evil  practices  denounced, 
and  from  the  manner  in  which  the  preaching  of 
the  apostles  is  spoken  of  as  belonging  to  the 
past  rather  than  the  present.  It  seems  to  have 
been  written  in  the  later  apostolic  period,  a  few 
years  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem; 
perhaps  about  the  year  67  A.D. 

The  relation  of  this  Epistle  to  2  Peter  is  obvious. 

There  is  a  remarkable  resemblance,  both  in 
thought  and  in  language,  between  the  two.  The 
terseness  of  the  style  of  Jude's  Epistle,  its 
peculiar  freshness  and  vigour  of  thought  and 
language,  and  its  close  coherence  throughout,  all 
make  against  the  notion  that  it  was  borrowed. 
Whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  2  Pet.  2,  in  which  the 
resemblance  to  Jude  is  found,  appears  to  differ 
from-  Peter's  ordinary  style.  There  are  parts 
also  in  Peter's  Epistle  which  require  the  corre- 
sponding passage  in  Jude  to  explain  their 
meaning.  Compare  2  Pet.  2.11  with  Jude  9. 


JUDEA] 


274 


[JUDGE 


On  the  whole,  the  Epistle  of  Jude  appears  to  have 
been  the  original ;  which  Peter,  while  following 
it  to  some  extent,  nevertheless  employs  in  an 
independent  manner,  abridging  in  part,  and 
adding  fresh  details. 

The  special  object  of  the  Epistle  seems  to  have 
been  to  guard  Christians  against  certain  false 
teachers,  who  made  religion  consist  in  mere 
speculative  belief  and  outward  profession,  and 
sought  to  allure  the  disciples  into  insubordina- 
tion and  licentiousness.  The  contents  deal  with 
(1)  the  punishment  (5-7),  and  (2)  the  general 
character  of  these  seducers  (8-19). 

Jude,  like  Paul  in  certain  instances  (Acts  17.28  ; 
2  Tim.  3.8 ;  Tit.  1.12),  uses  quotations  from  other 
than  scriptural  sources.  The  reference  to  the 
dispute  between  Michael  and  the  devil  about  the 
body  of  Moses  (ver.  9)  is  said  to  be  taken  from 
The  Assumption  or  Ascension  of  Moses,  a  Jewish 
apocalyptic  work,  written,  it  is  supposed,  about 
50  A.D.,  fragments  only  of  which  are  extant. 
The  Ethiopic  Book  of  Enoch  (of  which  1.9  is 
quoted  in  ver.  14)  was  well  known  in  N.T. 
times,  and  coincidences  of  thought  and  language 
are  found  in  some  of  the  Pauline  Epistles,  in  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  and  in  the  Apocalypse. 

A  characteristic  of  the  Epistle  is  the  author's 
frequent  use  of  triplets.  Observe  the  threefold 
salutation  and  threefold  benediction  (vers.  1,  2). 
Three  examples  of  Divine  retribution  are  cited — 
the  unbelieving  Israelites,  the  rebel  angels,  and 
the  cities  of  the  plain  (vers.  5-7) ;  three  types  of 
wickedness — Cain,  Balaam,  Korah  (ver.  11) ; 
three  classes  of  evil-doers — murmurers,  dis- 
contented, self-willed  (ver.  16) ;  three  modes  of 
Christian  service  towards  the  erring  (see  R.V.) 
— "  on  some  have  mercy,  who  are  in  doubt "  ; 
"  some  save,  snatching  them  out  of  the  fire  "  ; 
"  on  some  have  mercy  with  fear  "  (vers.  22,  23). 

Jude'a. — A  form  of  Judah  found  in  Ezra  5.8 
and  in  the  N.T.  [JUDAH.] 

Judge. — In  the  earliest  times,  and  while  still 
in  Egypt,  the  Israelites  had  their  own  laws, 
which  were  administered  by  elders.  Moses  had 
his  earliest  communications  with  the  people 
through  the  elders  (Ex.  4.29),  who  were,  no 
doubt,  the  heads  of  tribes  or  families  of 
the  Israelites  (Deut.  29.10;  Josh.  23.2) — a 
system  long  in  vogue,  and  indeed  existing 
side  by  side  with  others  even  to  David's  time 
(Num.  7.2,  10;  Josh.  22.14).  The  first  regular 
magistrates  were  appointed  upon  the  advice  of 
Jethro  (Ex.  18.14-26),  who  saw  that  one  man's 
strength  was  unequal  to  the  task  of  judging  a  whole 
nation.  These  judges  were  chosen  not  only  for 
their  moral  fitness,  but  also  because  their  position 
in  the  tribe  naturally  placed  them  at  the  head 
(Deut.  1.15, 16).  The  law  of  primogeniture  was 
recognised,  and,  their  suitability  in  other  respects 
being  proved,  the  heads  of  tribes  and  families 
were  chosen.  These  judges  had  both  civil  and 
criminal  cases  brought  before  them,  except  those 
of  the  first  magnitude.  As  for  the  law  itself,  this 
was  taught  to  the  people  by  the  Levites,  who  thus 
became  the  lawyers,  as  we  understand  the  term. 
The  manner  of  the  appointment  of  these  judges, 


their  succession,  their  peculiar  powers,  are  all 
unknown  to  us ;  but  it  is  evident  that  they 
possessed  considerable  authority,  and  that,  with 
their  assistance,  public  affairs  might  proceed 
without  a  king,  or  supreme  judge,  or  legislative 
body.  There  was  also  a  council  of  seventy 
counsellors  or  assistants  to  Moses,  not  originally 
a  judicial  tribunal  (Nwn.  11.24,  25).  After  the 
Captivity  in  Babylon,  this  council,  called  the 
Sanhedrin,  ruled  the  nation.  [SANHEDRIN.] 

In  addition  to  the  high-priest,  or  ecclesiastical 
ruler,  who  was  the  immediate  channel  for  inter- 
course with  God,  there  was  a  supreme  ruler  for  civil 
affairs,  to  whom  even  the  former  were  subordinate. 
Moses  was  the  first  of  these,  then  Joshua  (Num. 
27.18).  After  him,  the  elders,  who  had  formed  Ms 
council,  carried  on  the  government.  After  the 
death  of  Joshua  and  the  elders  whom  he  had 
appointed,  a  state  of  anarchy  ensued  in  which  the 
Divine  commands  were  disobeyed  (Judg.  2.12-15). 
Then  individual  persons  were  chosen,  by  Divine 
appointment,  to  act  as  judges  or  "deliverers." 
[JUDGES,  BOOK  OP.]  They  had  no  power  to  make 
new  laws,  but  only  to  adjudge  according  to  the 
law  of  Moses.  They  were  also  the  executive  power, 
though  their  jurisdiction  sometimes  extended  over 
only  a  part  of  the  country.  They  had  no  regular 
pay,  but  the  people  were  accustomed  to  bring 
them  presents  or  offerings.  This  form  of  govern- 
ment continued  from  the  death  of  Joshua  to  the 
appointment  of  Saul  as  king,  a  space  of  about 
460  years.  Samuel,  the  most  notable  of  these 
judges,  seems  to  have  chiefly  confined  himself  to 
the  office  of  a  prophet  during  the  latter  part  of 
his  life.  With  the  election  of  Saul  ended  the 
Theocratic  form  of  government  (1  Sam.  8.7). 
The  judge  was  revered  as  holy  and  sacred,  so 
that  consulting  him  was  called  "  inquiring  of 
God  "  (Ex.  18.15).  He  was  Divinely  instructed 
not  to  fear  the  face  of  man,  "  for  the  judgment 
is  God's  "  (Deut.  1.17, 18  ;  cf.  Ps.  82). 

But  their  powers  differed  from  that  of  kings  in 
several  ways.  They  were  not  hereditary ;  they 
had  no  absolute  power  over  life  and  death,  but 
their  verdict  had  to  be  according  to  law ;  they 
never  declared  war  of  their  own  pleasure,  but  only 
by  the  command  of  God  or  the  direct  call  of  the 
people ;  they  levied  no  tribute  ;  the  office  was  not 
perpetual,  for  sometimes  there  was  an  interval 
of  several  years  from  the  death  of  one  judge  to 
the  appointment  of  a  successor;  they  used 
neither  sceptre  nor  diadem  or  other  trapping  of 
royalty ;  finally,  they  had  no  authority  to  make 
laws.  Sometimes  the  Hebrew  judges  seem  to 
have  been  appointed  only  at  periods  of  national 
danger  or  some  extraordinary  emergency,  the 
ordinary  procedure  for  the  settlement  of  disputes, 
etc.,  being  sufficient.  This  was  the  case  parti- 
cularly with  respect  to  Othniel,  Ehud,  and 
Gideon.  The  power  of  these  judges  while  in 
office  was  very  great,  nor  does  it  seem  to  have 
been  limited  to  a  certain  period  of  time.  Yet  it 
is  supposed  that  when  they  had  performed  the 
business  for  which  they  had  been  appointed  they 
retired  into  private  life.  Gideon  certainly 
did  so. 


JUDGE] 


275 


[JUDGES,  BOOK  OP 


Besides  the  supreme  judges  there  were  the 
city  elders.  Every  city  in  the  commonwealth 
had  its  elders,  who  formed  a  court  of  judicature, 
with  the  power  of  determining  the  lesser  local 
matters  (Deut.  16.18).  These  minor  judges 
were  chosen  from  the  seniors,  the  Levites,  heads 
of  families,  and  those  whose  wealth  placed  them 
above  the  temptations  of  their  office,  for  the 
Hebrews  were  sensitive  as  regards  the  administra- 
tion of  justice.  These  local  judges  were  called 
"  princes  "  if  they  belonged  to  the  higher  order; 
or  "  elders  "  if  to  the  lower  (Ex.  2.14 ;  Judg.  8.14  ; 
Ezra  10.8;  Job  29.9).  They  had  certain  heads 
of  families  to  assist  them,  recognised  as  leaders 
rather  than  elected.  These  were  the  judges 
in  the  gates  (Judg.  8.14,  15)  [BOAZ,  RUTH], 
men  of  recognised  influence  and  judgment. 
In  addition,  the  Levites  were  scattered  among 
all  the  tribes,  so  that  there  were  few  places 
far  distant  from  a  Leritical  city.  The  judges 
were  usually  selected  from  the  tribe  of  Levi,  as 
being  most  conversant  with  the  law  (2  Ch. 
19.5-11,  35.3). 

Although  appeal  could  be  made  to  the  high- 
priest  in  the  last  resort  (Deut.  17.12),  such  appeal 
was  seldom  made,  apparently  because  they  were 
loth  to  act  in  that  capacity,  for  we  find  that  the 
demand  for  a  king  is  made  on  the  ground  that 
he  is  wanted  "  to  judge  "  rather  than  to  help 
them  against  their  foes  (1  Sam.  8.5,  20). 

The  chief  judges  were  fifteen  in  number — Oph- 
niel,  Ehud,  Shamgar,  Deborah  and  Barak,  Gideon, 
Abimelech,  Tola,  Jair,  Jephthah,  Ibzan,  Elon, 
Abdon,  Samson,  Eli,  and  Samuel.  These  were 
followed  by  the  kings  until  the  time  of  the  Baby- 
lonian Captivity.  After  the  Captivity,  Ezra 
appointed  two  classes  of  judges  (Ezra  7.25),  but 
difficult  cases  were  still  brought  before  the  high- 
priest,  until  the  Sanhedrin,  or  great  council,  was 
instituted.  This  supreme  council  consisted  of 
seventy-two  persons,  under  a  president  and  vice- 


president.  From  the  time  of  Herod  the  office  of 
president  was  distinct  from  that  of  high-priest, 
and  became  of  considerable  importance. 

In  Ex.  21.6  and  22.8,  9,  for  "  unto  judges  "  we 
should  read  (with  TLV.)  "  unto  God,"  Who  was 
supposed  to  preside  at  the  tribunal.  Indeed,  this 
was  the  underlying  idea  of  the  whole  system 
of  judges,  until  the  time  of  the  kings,  when 
the  judges  represented  the  kingly  power  and 
authority.  Our  Lord  refers  to  the  term  in 
John  10.34. 

Judges,  Book  of.— The  authorship  and  date 
of  this  book  cannot  certainly  be  known.  It  is 
ascribed  by  an  ancient  Jewish  tradition  to 
Samuel,  and  nothing  appears  to  render  this 
impossible.  It  was  certainly  written  before  the 
events  recorded  in  2  Sam.  5.6-9.  (See  1.21.) 
Some,  however,  have  inferred,  from  the  expres- 
sions used  in  17.6,  18.1,  19.1,  21.25,  that  the 
book  is  the  work  of  an  ardent  partisan  of  the 
monarchy,  who  could  hardly  have  lived  in  times 
when  kingly  government  had  seriously  de- 
generated. Thus  it  would  appear  to  have  been 
written  in  the  reign  of  David  or  of  Solomon, 
and  the  prophets  Nathan  and  Gad  have  been 
suggested  as  possible  authors. 

The  chronology  of  the  book  has  been  much 
discussed.  The  principal  data  are  the  follow- 
ing :— 

1.  The  statement  in  1  K.  6.1  that  the  building 
of  the  Temple  was  begun  by  Solomon  "  in  the 
480th  year  after  the  children  of  Israel  were 
come  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt." 

2.  The  declaration  by  Jephthah  ( Judg.  11.26) 
that  Israel  had  dwelt  for  300  years  in  Heshbon 
and    the    trans- Jordanic    territory.     Jephthah 
evidently  speaks  in  round  numbers. 

3.  The  successive  enumerations  in  the  Book 
of  Judges  of  the  periods  of  servitude  and  of  rest, 
amounting  to  350  years,  up  to  the  end  of  Abdon's 
judgeship,  as  shown  in  the  following  table  : — 


Servitude. 

Years. 

Deliverers  and  Judges. 

Years. 

Total 
Years. 

Mesopotamia  (3.8) 

8 

Othniel  (3.11)    

40 

48 

Moab  (3.14) 

18 

Ehud  and  Shamgar  (3.30)   . 

80 

98 

Jabin  (4.3) 

20 

Deborah  and  Barak  (5.31)  . 

40 

60 

Midian  (6.1) 

7 

/Gideon  and  Abimelech  (8.28,  9.22) 
\Tola  and  Jair  (10.2,  3)         ... 

43 
45 

}•* 

Ammonites  (10.8) 

18 

/  Jephthah  (12.7)           .... 
\Ibzan,  Elon,  Abdon  (12.9,  11,  14) 

6 
25 

}49 

350 

Then  followed  the  40  years'  oppression  by  the 
Philistines  (13.1),  probably  including  the  judge- 
ship  of  Samson  (20  years,  15.20).  Thus  we 
have  an  apparent  total  of  390  years  between 
the  oppression  by  Chushan-rishathaim  and  the 
death  of  Samson.  But  the  round  numbers  of 
years  (20,  40,  80)  are  possibly  not  to  be  taken 
with  e^act  ljteralnes.9  ;  and  it  is  further  probable 


that  certain  of  these  periods  overlapped  each 
other.  For  instance,  the  oppression  by  the 
Ammonites  in  the  east  may  well  have  been 
coincident  with  that  by  the  Philistines  in  the 
west.  Jephthah  and  Samson  would  thus  be 
contemporaries.  The  capture  of  the  Ark,  again, 
which  caused  the  death  of  Eli,  was  evidently 
before  the  chief  exploits  of  Samson  against  th.e 


JUDGMENT] 


276 


[JUDGMENT-DAY 


Philistine  power,  so  that  the  early  chapters 
of  1  Sam.  must  be  taken  as  preceding  Judg. 
15, 16. 

4.  The  Apostle  Paul  (Acts  13.20),  according 
to    the    ordinary    text,    specifies    "  about   450 
years  "  as  the  period  of  the  Judges.     The  read- 
ing, however,  there  is  doubtful. 

5.  The  genealogies  have  been  thought  by  some 
to  show  that  the  period  of  the  Judges  was  much 
shorter  than  has  usually  been  supposed.     Thus, 
between  Nahshon,  a  prince  of  Judah  at  the  time 
of  the  entrance  into  Canaan,  and  David,  his 
descendant,  only  four  names  are  given  (Salmon, 
Boaz,  Obed,  Jesse).     These,  on  any  reckoning, 
would  give  too  short  a  time  ;    and  there  must 
have  been  omissions,  which  render  the  genea- 
logical tables  in  themselves  an  insufficient  guide. 

The  contents  of  this  book  are  as  follows  : — 

I.  An  account  of  the  extent  to  which  the  wars 
against  the  Canaanites  were  carried  on  after  the 
death  of  Joshua,  followed  by  a  sketch  of  the 
course  of  events  during  the  times  of  the  Judges, 
forming  an  introduction  to  the  narratives  which 
follow  (1-3.4). 

II.  The  oppressions  of  the  Israelites  by  their 
enemies,  and  their  deliverances  by  their  Judges  : 
comprising   their   subjection   to   the   kings   of 
Mesopotamia  and  of  Moab,  and  their  deliver- 
ance by  Othniel  and  by  Ehud  ;   the  deliverance 
of   the  western   tribes  by  Shamgar   (3.5-31) ; 
the  oppression  of  the  northern  tribes  by  Jabin, 
king    of    Canaan,    and    their    deliverance    by 
Deborah  and  Barak  (4,  5) ;    the  deliverance  of 
the    eastern    and    northern    tribes    from    the 
Midianites.  with  the  history  of  Gideon  and  his 
family  (6-9) ;    the  administrations  of  Tola  and 
Jair ;  the  deliverance  of  Israel  from  the  Ammon- 
ites by  Jephthah ;    and  the  administrations  of 
Ibzan,  Elon,  and  Abdon  (10-12) ;   the  servitude 
of  the  Israelites  to  the  Philistines,  their  deliver- 
ance by  Samson,  and  his  history  (13-16).     With 
this,  the  regular  narrative  closes. 

III.  An  appendix,  probably  composed  at  a 
later  date  than  the  rest,  detailing  events  which 
happened  not  long  after  the  death  of  Joshua, 
and  therefore  preceded  in  time  the  greater  part 
of   the   history.     It  gives  an  account  of  the 
introduction  of  idolatry  among  the  Israelites, 
and  their  consequent  corruption  and  punish- 
ment,    exemplified     by — 1.  An     account     of 
Micah's  idols,  which  were  stolen  by  the  Danites 
(17,    18).     2.  The    brutal    outrage    committed 
by  the  men  of  Gibeah,  leading  to  a  fierce  civil 
war,  in  which  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  were  nearly 
destroyed  (19-21). 

Allusions  to  the  events  recorded  in  Judges 
in  other  books  of  the  O.T.  are  frequent,  and 
will  be  found,  e.g.,  in  1  Sam.  12.9-11 ;  2  Sam. 
11.21 ;  Ps.  78.56  ff.,  83.9-11,  106.34-45  ;  Isai. 
9.4.  In  the  N.T.  the  main  references  are 
Acts  13.20;  Heb.  11.32  ff. 

Judgment. — The  judgments  of  the  Almighty 
are  the  punishments  inflicted  by  Him  for 
particular  crimes  (Gen.  7.19-24  ;  Ex.  14  ;  Acts 
12.23,  etc.).  Man  has,  however,  to  guard  against 
inferences  from  events  such  as  the  fall  of  the 


tower  in  Siloam  (Lk.  13.4).  Hasty  judgment  is 
forbidden  (Matt.  7.1;  1  Cor.  4.5). 

The  "  judgment "  of  Matt.  5.22  was  that 
of  a  local  court,  consisting,  according  to 
llabbinical  tradition,  of  twenty-three  judges. 

Judgment-Day. — The  representation  of  judg- 
ment (Matt.  25.31  ff.)  carries  the  view  beyond 
the  circle  of  Christ's  professed  disciples 
and  embraces  "  all  the  nations."  The  term  is 
generally  used  in  Scripture  to  describe,  and 
certainly  here  includes,  the  judgment  of  the 
Gentiles,  i.e.  it  is  universal;  and  there  seems  a 
special  reference  to  forms  of  unconscious  service. 
Those  accepted  and  welcomed  did  not  know 
that  they  were  ministering  to  Christ,  but  the 
Holy  Spirit  prompted  them  to  acts  of  beneficence 
and  charity  (Acts  16.31;  I  Cor.  15.24-26; 
1  Thess.  4.14-17).  It  is  in  reference  to  the 
judgment-day  that  Peter  says,  "  The  heavens 
that  now  are,  and  the  earth,  by  the  same  word 
have  been  stored  up  for  fire,  being  reserved 
against  the  day  of  judgment  and  destruction  of 
ungodly  men ' '  (2  Pet.  3. 7,  R. V. ).  The  time  fixed 
by  the  apostle  for  the  burning  of  the  heavens 
and  the  earth,  namely,  the  day  of  judgment 
and  punishment  of  ungodly  men,  shows  that  the 
apostle  is  speaking  not  of  the  destruction  of  a 
single  city  or  nation,  as  some  have  supposed, 
but  of  the  earth  itself,  with  all  the  wicked  who 
have  dwelt  thereon. 

A  general  judgment  appears  to  be  required  by 
the  justice  of  God  (2  Thess.  1.6,  7) ;  suggested 
by  the  accusations  of  natural  conscience 
(Dan.  5.6 ;  Acts  24.25 ;  Rom.  2.1-15) ;  by 
man's  relation  to  God,  as  creature  to  Creator 
(Rom.  14.12) ;  and  by  the  resurrection  of 
Christ  (Acts  17.31  ;  Rom.  14.9).  It  is  clearly 
indicated  in  Holy  Scripture  (Matt.  25  ;  Acts 
24.25;  Rom.  2.1-16,  3.6,  14.10,11;  2  Cor. 
5.10  ;  1  Thess.  4.16, 17 ;  2  Thess.  1.7,  10 ; 
Jude  14, 15). 

The  time  of  the  judgment  is  fixed  to  take 
place  after  the  resurrection  (2  Tim.  4.1 ;  Heb. 
6.2).  There  is  a  day  appointed  (Acts  17.31), 
but  it  is  unknown  to  men  (2  Thess.  2.1-14). 

As  to  its  procedure,  the  judgment  will  com- 
mence with  the  opening  of  certain  books  (Rev. 
20.12).  Among  them  may  be  the  book  of 
Divine  remembrance  (Mai.  3.16) ;  conscience 
(Rom.  2.15) ;  and  the  book  of  Life,  in  which 
the  names  of  the  justified  are  enrolled  (Lk. 
10.20  ;  Rev.  3.5,  20.12, 15). 

As  to  the  Judge,  Holy  Scripture  declares  that 
God  will  judge  the  world  by  Jesus  Christ  (Acts 
17.31).  The  triune  God  will  be  the  Judge, 
as  to  original  authority,  power,  and  right  of 
judgment ;  but  the  work  is  assigned  to  the 
Son  (Rom.  14.9,10),  who  will  appear  in  His 
human  nature  (John  5.27  ;  Acts  17.31)  with 
great  power  and  glory  (1  Thess.  4.16,  17)  visible 
to  every  eye  and  penetrating  every  heart 
(1  Cor.  4.5).  He  will  have  full  authority  over 
all  (Matt.  28.18),  and  act  with  strict  justice 
(2  Tim.  4.8). 

This  day  is  the  great  hope  of  the  Christian, 
for  his  body  is  to  be  raised  and  the  worfc  of 


JUDGMENT-HALL] 


277 


[JUSTIFICATION 


redemption  completed.  [COMING  OF  CHRIST, 
THE  SECOND.] 

Judgment-Hall. — The  Praetorium.  Originally 
the  general's  tent  in  a  Roman  camp,  then  the 
palace  of  the  governor,  and  finally  the  room 
or  office  where  he  sat  to  administer  justice. 
Pilate's  praetorium  was  the  Tower  of  Antonia, 
the  citadel  of  Jerusalem.  In  Phil.  1.13  the  word 
"  palace  "  or  "  Caesar's  Court  "  is  so  translated 
from  the  original  word  praetorium  (as  also  is  the 
term  "common  hall"  of  Matt.  27.27),  but  it 
may  mean  there  the  praetorian  guard  of  soldiers 
who  guarded  Caesar. 

Judgment,  Breastplate  ot — [BREASTPLATE, 
URIM.] 

Judith. — Jewess :  the  wife  of  Esau  (Gen. 
26.34),  and  daughter  of  Beeri  the  Hittite. 

Julia. — Feminine  of  Julius  :  a  Christian  at 
Rome.  Apparently  she  was  a  connexion  of 
Philologus,  and  with  him  was  saluted  by  Paul 
(Rom.  16.15). 

Julius. — The  centurion  to  whose  charge  Paul 
was  committed  to  be  taken  to  Rome  (Acts 
27.1, 3).  The  "  Augustus'  band "  was  the 
Augustan  cohort,  a  detachment  of  the  Praetorian 
Guards  attached  to  the  person  of  the  Roman 
governor  at  Caesarea.  Julius  proved  himself  a 
true  friend  to  Paul  during  the  journey. 

Junia,  Junias. — Like  Juno :  this  name  should 
be  Junias,  a  contraction  of  Junianus,  the  feminine 
being  a  mistranslation.  Junias  was  a  Roman 
Christian  mentioned  by  Paul  as  a  kinsman 
(i.e.  a  Jew)  and  fellow-prisoner.  He  was  a 
disciple  before  Paul,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
been  one  of  the  seventy  (Rom.  16.7). 

Juniper. — There  are  358  leguminous  or  pod- 
bearing  plants  in  Palestine  and  the  sur- 
rounding districts.  Of  these,  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  useful  is  the  rothem,  a  species  of 
broom  or  genista,  the  plant  that  is  called  juniper 
in  our  version  of  the  Scriptures.  Travellers 
speak  with  delight  of  its  pink-white  blossoms, 
massed  on  the  hillsides  or  dotted  about  the 
plain,  and  exhaling  a  sweet  odour.  It  is  called 
by  the  Arabs  rit'm  or  retem,  and,  like  the 
dispirited  prophet  of  old  (1  K.  19.4,5),  these 
wanderers  are  glad  to  avail  themselves  of  its 
shelter,  for  it  grows  to  a  height  of  eight  to  ten 
feet.  Stanley,  Robinson,  and  other  travellers 
speak  of  its  grateful  shade  in  the  "  weary  land  " 
of  the  south.  In  Ps.  120.4  "  coals  of  juniper  " 
are  mentioned  for  their  fierceness,  and  to-day 
the  charcoal  of  the  retem  is  so  highly  valued 
that  the  Bedouins  destroy  large  quantities  of 
the  shrub  to  make  it  for  the  Egyptian  markets. 
Job  (30.4)  speaks  of  the  famine  causing  its 
victims  to  "  cut  up  juniper  roots  for  their  meat," 
a  striking  figure  of  speech,  and  showing  the 
intensity  of  the  famine,  for  these  roots  are  very 
bitter  and  nauseous.  The  fruit  of  the  plant 
is  liked,  however,  by  sheep.  One  of  the  stations 
of  the  Israelites  was  Rithmah  (Num.  33.18,  19), 
so  called  (we  may  presume)  from  the  abundance 
of  rothem  in  the  neighbourhood. 

Ju'piter. — Shining :  the  supreme  god  of  the 
Roman  mythology  (Greek,  Zeus),  whom  the 


people  of  Lystra  supposed  to  have  descended 
from  heaven  in  the  person  of  Barnabas  (Acts 
14.12).  On  the  same  occasion  Paul  was  thought 
to  be  Mercury  (Greek,  Hermes),  from  his  elo- 
quence. 

Jushab-hesed.— Kindness  is  returned :  a  son 
of  Zerubbabel  (1  Ch.  3.20). 

Justification.— Justification  is  connected  with 
the  supreme  question  affecting  human  life, 
"  How  shall  man  be  just  with  God  ? "  No 
fewer  than  three  times  this  question  is  found  in 
the  Book  of  Job  (4.17  (R.V.  marg.),  9.2,  25.4, 
cf.  15.14).  Earnest  Israelites  felt  its  pressure 
(Ps.  143.2;  Mic.  6.6).  It  was  implied  in  the 
entire  Mosaic  ritual.  It  is  also  involved  in  all 
heathen  ritual  and  ceremonial.  The  first  sug- 
gestion of  the  true  solution  of  the  problem  is 
found  in  Gen.  15.1-6,  where,  for  the  first  time, 
we  have  the  well-known  terms  "  righteousness  " 
and  "  believe."  God's  word  is  said  to  come  to 
Abram  (ver.  1),  with  the  result  that  he  re- 
sponded by  trust  to  this  Divine  revelation,  and 
the  outcome  was  righteousness.  This  passage 
is  in  some  respects  the  key  to  every  other 
reference  to  righteousness  and  trust  found 
elsewhere  in  Scripture.  The  same  idea  of 
justification  through  trust  in  God  is  touched 
upon  in  Ps.  32.1,  2,  and  Hob.  2.4 ;  but  of 
course  the  full  doctrine  of  justification  is  only 
found  in  the  N.T. 

Justification  is  solely  concerned  with  our 
true  relation  with  God,  not  with  spiritual 
condition,  but  with  judicial  position.  This  true 
relation  to  God  was  forfeited  by  sin,  which 
at  once  resulted  in  guilt,  condemnation,  and 
separation.  Justification  involves  the  restora- 
tion of  this  relation  through  the  removal  of 
condemnation  by  forgiveness,  the  removal  of 
guilt  by  righteousness,  and  the  removal  of 
separation  by  fellowship.  Justification  means 
the  reinstatement  of  man  in  his  true  relation 
to  God.  He  is  regarded  as  righteous,  accepted 
before  God  as  "  right "  in  the  eyes  of  the  Divine 
law,  and  therefore  restored  to  his  true  position. 
Justification  is  thus  very  much  more  than 
forgiveness,  though  forgiveness  is  necessarily 
a  part  of  justification.  The  two  are  distin- 
guished in  Acts  13.38,  39.  Forgiveness  is  only 
negative,  for  the  removal  of  condemnation. 
Justification  is  also  positive,  for  the  removal  of 
guilt  and  the  bestowal  of  a  relationship  with 
God.  Forgiveness  is  an  act,  and  a  succession 
of  acts  repeated  from  time  to  time  throughout 
our  Christian  life.  Justification  is  complete, 
never  repeated,  and  covers  the  whole  of  our 
life,  past,  present,  and  future.  "  He  that  has 
been  lathed  (justification)  needeth  not  save 
to  wash  his  feet  (forgiveness)"  (John  13.10). 
Justification  is  also  to  be  distinguished  from 
sanctification,  which  is  generally  understood 
to  mean  "  making  holy."  Although  the  two  are 
inseparable  in  experience,  they  must  be  clearly 
distinguished  in  thought.  Justification  is 
concerned  with  our  spiritual  position  ;  sanctifica- 
tion with  our  spiritual  condition.  The  one  is 
connected  with  our  relationship,  the  other 


JUSTUS] 


278 


[KADMONITES 


with  fellowship  ;  one  deals  with  our  accept- 
ance, the  other  with  our  acceptableness ;  one 
is  the  foundation  of  our  peace,  Christ  for  us, 
the  other  the  foundation  of  our  purity,  Christ 
in  us. 

The  basis  of  our  justification  is  the  redemptive 
work  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  "  Him  who  knew 
no  sin  He  made  to  be  sin  on  our  behalf;  that 
we  might  become  the  righteousness  of  God  in 
Him  "  (2  Cor.  5.21).  "  By  Him  all  that  believe 
are  justified"  (Acts  13.39).  It  is  therefore 
through  Christ's  work,  not  our  own  works  or 
merits,  that  we  are  justified.  Man  has  always 
tried  to  establish  his  own  righteousness;  but 
universal  failure  has  been  the  outcome,  because 
he  has  been  unable  either  to  cancel  the  past  or 
guarantee  the  future.  "  By  grace  are  ye  saved  : 
.  .  .  not  by  works,  lest  any  man  should  boast " 
(Eph.  2.8, 9).  Justification  becomes  ours  through 
faith.  "  All  that  believe  are  justified  "  (Acts 
13.39) ;  "  being  justified  by  faith  "  (Eom.  5.1). 
Trust  always  implies  our  dependence  on  some 
one  outside  ourselves;  it  is  the  acknowledg- 
ment of  our  own  inability,  and  of  some  one  else's 
ability.  Faith  links  us  to  Christ,  and  is  the 
only  possible  answer  we  can  give  to  God's 
revelation.  It  is  the  renunciation  of  self,  and 
the  reception  of  the  Saviour.  We  rest  our  hearts 
on  Him,  and  receive  His  perfect  righteous- 
ness. The  great  truth  of  justification  by 
Christ  through  faith  is  of  supreme  value  for 
spiritual  life  and  service.  It  is  the  basis  of 
spiritual  peace  (Rom.  5.1).  It  is  the  foundation 
of  spiritual  liberty,  removing  the  bondage  of 
sin,  and  leading  us  into  the  very  presence  of 
God.  It  is  the  guarantee  of  holiness,  for  it 
brings  into  our  hearts  the  power  of  the  Holy 
Spirit.  It  is  also  the  inspiration  of  all  service ; 
for  the  soul,  delivered  from  anxiety  about 
its  own  salvation,  is  set  free  to  work  for  the 
salvation  of  others. 


There  is  no  contradiction  between  St.  Paul 
and  St.  James  on  this  doctrine  of  justification, 
although  both  apostles  use  Abraham  as  their 
example.  Paul  in  Eom.  4,  deals  with  Abraham 
in  relation  to  the  story  in  Gen.  15 ;  James 
deals  with  him  in  relation  to  the  story  in  Gen. 
22,  that  is,  an  event  that  happened  twenty- 
five  years  afterwards.  But  during  those 
twenty-five  years  Abraham  occupied  the  stand- 
ing of  a  man  justified  by  faith  (Gen.  15.6),  and 
then,  when  the  time  came  for  the  great  testing 
(Gen.  22),  he  showed  his  faith  by  his  works.  So 
Paul  writes  concerning  non-Christians,  and  uses 
Gen.  15  to  prove  the  necessity  of  faith,  and  that 
works  must  bring  forth  faith.  James  writes 
to  Christians,  and  uses  Gen.  22  to  prove  the 
necessity  of  works,  and  that  faith  must  be 
proved  by  works.  Paul  is  dealing  with  a 
legalistic  spirit,  and  against  all  human  merit; 
James  witii  an  antinomian,  and  against  mere 
intellectual  orthodoxy.  The  one  deals  with 
the  instrument,  the  other  with  the  proof  of 
justification.  As  Arnot  well  says,  Paul  and 
James  are  not  two  soldiers  of  different  armies 
fighting  against  each  other,  but  two  of  the 
same  army  fighting  back  to  back,  against 
enemies  coming  from  opposite  directions. 

Justus.  —  Upright :  1.  The  surname  of 
Joseph,  called  also  Barsabas,  who  was  nominated 
to  succeed  Judas  Iscariot  as  an  apostle 
(Acts  1.23).  2.  A  Corinthian  believer,  host  of 
Paul  (Acts  18.7).  3.  A  Roman  Christian,  a 
Jew,  with  Paul  when  he  wrote  to  the  Church 
at  Colossse,  and  called  a  fellow-helper  (Col.  4.11). 
His  first  name  was  Jesus. 

Jutah,  Juttah.— A  town  in  the  mountains  of 
Judah,  assigned  to  the  priests  ( Josh.  15.55) ;  the 
traditional  residence  of  Zacharias  and  birth- 
place of  John  the  Baptist  (Lk.  1.39, 40). 
[JUDAH  5.]  It  is  identified  with  the  modern 
Yuttah,  5  miles  south  of  Hebron, 


Kab.— (R.V.  2  K.  6.25).    [CAB.] 

Kabze'el. — God  gathers :  a  town  on  the  ex- 
treme south-east  frontier  of  Judah,  just  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  ascent  of  Akrabbim  (Josh.  15.21) ; 
the  native  place  of  Benaiah,  the  son  of  Jehoiada, 
one  of  David's  mighty  men  (2  Sam.  23.20  ;  1  Ch. 
11.22) ;  reinhabited  after  the  Captivity  (Neh. 
11.25,  Jekabzeel). 

Ka'desh  (sacred  or  sanctuary),  Ka'desh-Bar'nea 
(called  En  Mishpat,  spring  of  judgment). — Now 
'Ain  Kadis,  50  miles  south  of  Beersheba.  On  the 
threshold  of  the  Promised  Land  (Gen.  16.14, 20.1 ). 
Here  Chedorlaomer  smote  the  Amorite  chiefs 
(Gen.  14.7).  The  children  of  Israel  encamped 
here  while  the  spies  searched  out  the  land 
(Num.  13.26,  32.8;  Deut.  1.2,19,46,  9.23; 
Josh.  14.6,  7),  and  it  was  probably  their  head- 
quarters for  thirty-eight  years.  It  was  the 


place  at  which  Moses  smote  the  rock  (Num. 
27.14;  Deut.  32.51);  whence  the  Israelites 
departed  for  their  wandering  (Num.  14.25 ; 
Deut.  2.1, 14) ;  whither  they  returned  on  their 
way  to  Canaan  by  Mount  Hor,  and  where 
Miriam  died  (Num.  20.1, 14,  22,  33.36,  37  ; 
Judg.  11.16, 17).  [MERIBAH,  KEDESH  3,  TAHTIM- 
HODSHI.] 

Kadmi'el. — God  the  primeval:  1.  A  Levite 
whose  descendants  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.40;  Neh.  7.43).  2.  One 
who  assisted  in  rebuilding  the  Temple  (Ezra  3.9). 
3.  A  Levite  who  led  the  devotions  of  the  people 
(Neh.  9.4). 

Kadmon'ites. — Easterners:  a  tribe  who  in- 
habited Palestine  east  of  the  '  Jordan,  about 
Mount  Hermon,  descended  from  Canaan,  the 
son  of  Hani  (Gen.  15.19).  Compare  the  term 


KAIN] 


279 


[KENITE,  THE 


Bene-Kedem,  the  "  children  of  the  East,"  the 
general  name  for  the  tribes  who  lived  in  the 
great  waste  tracts  on  the  east  and  south-east  of 
Palestine  (Judg.  6.3). 

Kain.— R.V.  for  Cain  2.  It  may  be  also  the 
city  of  the  Kenites  in  Num.  24.22  (see  K.V. 
marg.). 

Kallai. — The  head  of  the  priestly  family  of 
Sallai  in  the  days  of  Joiakim  (Neh.  12.20). 
Kamon.— [C  AMON.  ] 

Ka'nah. — Reed :  1.  A  town  in  Asher  near 
Sidon,  10  miles  from  the  Mediterranean 
(Josh.  19.28).  2.  A  torrent  which  formed  the 
boundary  between  Ephraim  and  Manasseh 
(Josh.  16.8,  17.9).  Perhaps  the  stream  which 
enters  the  sea  at  Nahr  Falaik,  half-way  between 
Joppa  and  Caesarea. 

Kare'ah,  Care'ah. — Bald :  the  father  of 
Johanan,  a  captain  of  the  Jews  when  Gedaliah 
was  made  governor  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (2  K. 
25.23  ;  Jer.  40.8,  etc.). 

Karka'a  (R.V.  Kar'ka).— Floor :  a  place  on 
south  boundary  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.3). 

Kar'kor. — A  place  in  the  level  country  east 
of  the  Jordan,  where  Gideon  surprised  the 
Midianite  chiefs  Zeba  and  Zalmunna  (Judg. 
8.10). 

Kar'tah. — A  town  of  Zebulun,  given  to  the 
Merarites  (Josh.  21.34). 

Kar'tan. — (?)  Double  town :  a  town  of  Naphtali, 
assigned  to  the  Gershonites  (Josh.  21.32) ;  the 
same  as  Kirjathaim  (1  Ch.  6.76). 

Kat'tath. — Little:  a  town  of  Zebulun 
(Josh.  19.15).  Perhaps  the  same  as  Kartah  or 
as  Kitron. 

Ke'dar. — The  black-skinned  or  black-tented 
man  :  a  son  of  Ishmael  (Gen.  25.13),  the  father 
of  the  Kedarenians.  They  lived  in  tents,  and 
often  changed  their  habitation  ;  but  they  dwelt 
principally  in  the  south  of  Arabia  Deserta,  the 
north  of  Arabia  Petraea,  and  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  Red  Sea.  Some  of  them,  however,  settled 
in  villages  or  towns  (Cant.  1.5;  Isai.  42.11). 
Famous  for  flocks  (Isai.  60.7  ;  Jer.  49.28)  and 
archers  (Isai.  21.16, 17). 

Kede'mah.  —  Eastern  :  the  youngest  son  of 
Ishmael  (Gen.  25.15  ;  1  Ch.  1.31). 

Kede'moth. — Eastern :  a  town  of  Reuben, 
assigned  to  the  Merarites  (Josh.  13.18,  21.37  ; 
1  Ch.  6.79). 

Ke'desh.  —  Sanctuary  :  1.  Kedesh  -  Naphtali 
(Judg.  4.6).  Now  Kades,  north-west  of  Lake 
Huleh  ;  a  town  in  the  middle  of  the  west  side 
of  the  plain  of  Zaanaim ;  full  of  interesting 
ruins.  It  was  a  fortified  city  of  Naphtali 
(Josh.  19.37) ;  a  city  of  refuge  for  the  northern 
tribes,  and  was  allotted  to  the  Gershonites 
(Josh.  20.7,  21.32 ;  1  Ch.  6.76).  Kedesh  was 
the  residence  of  Barak,  where  he  and  Deborah 
assembled  the  tribes  of  Zebulun  and  Naphtali 
before  the  conflict.  Near  it  was  the  tree  in 
Zaanannim,  where  was  pitched  the  tent  of  the 
Kenites  Heber  and  Jael  his  wife,  where  Sisera 
met  his  death  (Judg.  4.6-11).  It  was  taken 
by  Tiglath-pileser  (2  K.  15.29).  2.  Now  Tell 
Abu  Kudeis,  near  Megiddt ;  a  royal  Canaanite 


town  taken  by  Joshua,  allotted  to  Issachar, 
and  assigned  to  the  Gershonites  (Josh.  12.22  ; 
1  Ch.  6.72).  3.  A  town  of  Judah,  in  extreme 
south  (Josh.  15.23).  Possibly  identical  with 
Kadesh-Barnea. 

Kehela'thah.— Place  of  assembly:  site  of 
an  Israelite  encampment  (Num.  33.22). 

Kei'lah.— 1.  Now  Kila,  c.  8  miles  north-west 
of  Hebron.  A  town  in  Judah  (Josh.  15.44), 
rescued  by  David  from  the  Philistines,  but  its 
inhabitants  were  ready  to  hand  him  over  to 
Saul  (ISam.  23.1-13) ;  reoccupied  after  the  return 
from  the  Captivity  (Neh.  3.17,18).  2.  The 
Garmite,  a  connexion  of  Caleb  (1  Ch.  4.19). 

Kelai'ah.— A  Levite  who  had  taken  a  foreign 
wife  during  or  after  the  Captivity ;  called  also 
Kelita  (Ezra  10.23). 

Keli'ta.— (?)  Stunted :  one  of  those  who 
"  caused  the  people  to  understand  the  law " 
when  read  by  Ezra  (Neh.  8.7).  He  was  also 
amongst  those  who  agreed  to  put  away  their 
foreign  wives,  and  sealed  the  covenant  (Ezra 
10.23  ;  Neh.  10.10).  [KELAIAH.] 

Kemu'el.— (?)  God  stands  or  rises :  1.  The 
third  son  of  Nahor,  who  was  Abraham's  brother 
(Gen.  22.21).  2.  A  prince  or  chief  of  Ephraim  ; 
one  of  those  appointed  to  divide  the  land 
(Num.  3424).  3.  A  Levite,  the  father  of 
Hashabiah,  who  was  ruler  of  the  Levites  in 
David's  reign  (1  Ch.  27.17). 

Ke'nan. — (?)  One  acquired  or  begotten:  the 
great-grandson  of  Adam  (1  Ch.  1.2 ;  Gen.  5.9-14, 
where  A.V.  reads  Cainan). 

Ke'nath. — (?)  Possession  :  now  Kanawat, 
south-east  of  the  Lejah,  about  20  miles  north  of 
Busrah.  It  was  a  town  of  Manasseh,  east  of 
Jordan ;  taken  by  Nobah  and  called  by  bis 
name ;  recaptured  by  Geshur  and  Aram  (Num. 
32.42 ;  Judg.  8.11 ;  1  Ch.  2.23).  Its  ruins  cover 
a  space  one  mile  long  by  half  a  mile  wide. 

Ke'naz,  Ke'nez. — 1.  A  grandson  of  Esau  and 
one  of  the  dukes  of  Edom ;  the  founder  of  the 
family  of  Kenezites  (Gen.  36.11, 15,  42  ;  Josh. 
14.6, 14 ;  1  Ch.  1.53).  Caleb  and  Othniel  were 
among  his  descendants  (Num.  32.12).  2.  A 
grandson  of  Caleb  (1  Ch.  4.15). 

Kenez'ite.Keniz'zite.— (Gen.  15.19).   [KENBZ.] 

Ke'nite,  The,  and  Reunites,  The.— One  of  the 
tribes  of  Palestine  in  the  time  of  Abraham 
(Gen.  15.19),  dwelling  in  the  fastnesses  in 
south  of  Judah  (1  Sam.  15.6,  27.10),  apostro- 
phised by  Balaam  (Num.  24.21,22).  Jethro, 
the  father-in-law  of  Moses,  was  a  Kenite 
(Judg.  1.16).  For  his  sake,  and  because  they 
showed  kindness  to  Israel  when  they  came  out 
of  Egypt,  the  Kenites  were  saved  from  the 
destruction  which  came  upon  the  Amalekites 
(1  Sam.  15.6)  long  after  the  conquest  of 
Canaan.  In  the  time  of  Deborah,  Heber  the 
Kenite  lived  A  in  the  far  north  (Judg.  4.11). 
Hemath,  a  Kenite,  was  the  founder  of  the  sect  or 
family  known  as  the  Rechabites.  [RECHABITES.] 
As  showing  the  long-continued  friendly  relations 
which  existed  between  this  tribe  of  Midianite 
wanderers  and  Israel,  it  should  be  noted  that 
the  Eechabites  are  actually  included  in  the 


KEREN-HAPPtfCH] 


280 


[KING 


genealogies  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  2.55).  Prof.  Sayce 
thinks  that  the  Kenites  were  a  tribe  of  smiths. 

Ke'ren-Hap'puch. — Horn  of  antimony  (the 
pigment  used  by  Eastern  ladies  to  colour  their 
eyelashes):  the  youngest  of  the  daughters  of 
Job,  born  to  him  after  his  trials  (Job  42.14), 
and  so  called  probably  from  her  great  beauty. 

Ke'rioth,  Kirioth,— (?)  Cities :  1.  A  city  of 
Moab  (Jer.  48.24).  It  has  been  identified  with 
Kureiyeh,  a  ruined  town  of  some  extent  lying 
between  Busrah  and  Sulkhad  in  the  south  part 
of  the  Hauran ;  and  perhaps  better  as  Rabba, 
11  miles  south  of  Arnon.  2.  Kerioth 
(R.V.  Kerioth-hezron),  a  town  in  the  south 
of  Judah,  on  the  frontier  of  the  hill  country, 
about  12  miles  south  of  Hebron  (Josh.  15.25) ; 
now  called  Kuryetein.  [JUDAS  ISCAEIOT.] 

Ke'ros. — (?)  Bent :  one  of  the  Nethinim  whose 
descendants  returned  to  Jerusalem  with  Zerub- 
babel  (Ezra  2.44  ;  Neh.  7.47). 

Ketu'rah. — (?)  Incense  :  the  wife  of  Abraham, 
after  Sarah's  death  (Gen.  25.1-4 ;  1  Ch.  1.32,  33). 
Abraham  had  six  sons  by  her,  including  Midian. 

Key. — The  key  used  in  O.T.  times  was  very 
different  from  the  modern  key,  and  was  a  long 
piece  of  wood  fitted  with  wires  or  short  nails. 
This,  inserted  in  the  hollow  bolt  which  serves 
as  a  lock,  raises  other  pins  within  the  staple 
so  as  to  allow  the  bolt  to  be  drawn  back.  It 
is  common  to  see  a  man  of  authority  among  the 
Moors  marching  along  with  a  large  brass  key 
attached  to  his  shoulder  by  means  of  a  kerchief. 
This  illustrates  Isai.  22.22,  "  The  key  of  the 
house  of  David  will  I  lay  upon  his  shoulder" 
(cf.  Matt.  16.19). 

Kezi'a. — Cassia :  the  second  daughter  of  Job, 
born  after  his  trial  (Job  42.14). 

Kezi'z,  The  Valley  of  (R.V.  Emek-keziz).— 
(?)  Clipped:  it  formed  part  of  east  border  of 
Benjamin  (Josh.  18.21). 

Kib'roth-Hattaa'vah. — Graves  of  lust:  the 
site  of  an  Israelite  encampment,  and  the  scene 
of  the  pestilence  consequent  on  eating  quails 
sent  in  answer  to  craving  for  flesh  (Num.  11.34, 
35,  33.16, 17). 

Kibza'im.—  (?)Two  heaps:  a  town  of 
Ephraim,  given  to  the  Kohathites  (Josh.  21.22). 
Probably  the  same  as  Jokmeam. 

Kid.— [Go  AT.] 

Kidneys. — The  viscera,  especially  the  kidneys, 
were  amongst  Semitic  peoples  regarded  as  the 
seat  of  emotion  and  of  sentiment  (Job  16.13 ; 
Ps.  7.9,  73.21).  The  feeling  explains  the 
position  given  to  these  parts  in  certain  sacrifices 
(Lev.  3.4,5,  8.16).  "The  fat  of  kidneys  of 
wheat "  (Deut.  32.14)  is  a  reference  to  the  shape 
and  richness  of  the  grain. 

Kid'ron. — Black :  a  stream  which  rises  1J 
miles  north-west  of  Jerusalem,  runs  to  the 
east  for  1£  miles  along  the  north  side,  then 
curves  sharply  round  to  the  south,  passes  be- 
tween the  city  and  the  Mount  of  Olives,  contracts 
and  sinks  rapidly,  and  becomes  a  deep,  narrow, 
dark  torrent  bed,  through  which  no  water  flows 
except  during  the  heavy  rains  of  winter.  It  is 
joined  at  Bir  Eyub,  670  feet  below  its  starting- 


point,  by  the  Valley  of  Hinnom ;  thence  it 
pursues  a  south-east  course  to  the  Dead  Sea.  It 
was  crossed  by  David  in  his  flight  from  Absalom 
(2  Sam.  15.23) ;  by  our  Lord  to  the  Mount  of 
Olives  and  to  Gethsemane  (John  18.1).  Into  it 
were  cast  idols  and  other  impurities  (2  K.  23.4, 
6,12;  2  Ch.  29.16,  30.14;  Jer.  31.40).  The 
name  appears  as  Cedron  in  A.V.  of  John  18.1. 
It  is  now  commonly  known  as  the  Valley  of 
Jehoshaphat. 

Ki'nah.—  Lament :  a  town  of  Judah,  on  the 
extreme  south  boundary  (Josh  15.22). 

King. — 1.  The  title,  as  implying  supreme 
authority  and  power,  is  used  of  God  (as  in  Ps. 
10.16,  47.7;  1  Tim.  1.17).  2.  The  title  was 
applied  to  our  Lord  as  King  of  the  Jews  (Matt. 
27.11,  37,  and  reff.).  3.  In  the  O.T.  the  title 
king  is  employed  in  a  very  wide  sense,  not 
only  of  great  potentates  such  as  the  Pharaohs 
of  Egypt  (Gen.  41.46)  or  the  king  of  Persia 
(Ezra  1.1),  but  also  of  petty  monarchs  such  as 
the  king  of  Jericho  (Josh.  2.2 ;  and  cf. 
Judg.  1.7).  4.  The  title  is  also  used  of  the 
people  of  God  (Rev.  1.6);  of  death,  as  the 
"king  of  terrors"  (Job  18.14);  and  of  the 
"  leviathan  "  as  "  king  over  all  the  children  of 
pride  "  ( Job  41.34). 

5.  In  the  history  of  the  Hebrews,  government 
by  kings  succeeded  to  government  through 
the  medium  of  judges.  The  provision  of  a 
monarch,  such  as  surrounding  peoples  had, 
was  a  concession  by  God  (1  Sam.  8.7, 12.12)  to 
a  desire  on  the  part  of  the  people.  That  desire, 
which  had  previously  found  expression  in  the 
offer  to  Gideon  (Judg.  8.22,23)  and  in  the 
appointment  of  Abimelech  as  king  of  Shechem 
(Judg.  9.6),  was  equivalent  to  a  rejection  of  the 
theocracy  (1  Sam.  8.7).  For  Jehovah  was  the  true 
King  of  the  nation  (1  Sam.  8.7  ;  Isai.  33.22). 
Even  the  land  was  held  as  by  direct  tenure  from 
Him  (Lev.  25.23).  Nevertheless  His  care  and 
guidance  were  not  withdrawn  (1  Sam.  12.22 ; 
1  K.  6.13).  The  monarchy  so  constituted  was 
hereditary,  though  the  succession  did  not 
necessarily  go  by  the  right  of  primogeniture ; 
for  David  appointed  Solomon  as  his  successor 
in  preference  to  Adonijah,  his  elder  brother. 
The  person  of  the  king  was  inviolable  (1  Sam. 
24.5-8 ;  2  Sam.  1.14).  When  the  diadem  was 
placed  on  the  head  of  the  monarch  he  entered 
into  a  solemn  covenant  with  his  subjects  to  rule 
them  in  righteousness  (2  Sam.  5.3;  1  Ch.  11.3), 
after  which  the  nobles  pledged  themselves  to 
obedience,  and  confirmed  the  pledge  with  the  kiss 
of  homage  (1  Sam.  10.1).  The  royal  revenue  was 
derived  from  cornfields,  vineyards,  and  olive- 
gardens  (1  Sam.  8.14;  1  Ch.  27.26-28);  the 
produce  of  the  royal  flocks  (1  Sam.  21.7  ;  2  Sam. 
13.23  ;  1  Ch.  27.29-31 ;  2  Ch.  26.10)— a  nominal 
tenth  of  the  produce  of  cornland  and  vine- 
yards and  of  sheep  (1  Sam.  8.15,17);  tribute 
from  merchants  who  passed  through  Hebrew 
territory  (1  K.  10.15);  presents  made  by  the 
king's  subjects  (1  Sam.  10.27, 16.20 ;  1  K.  10.25 ; 
Ps.  72.10);  spoils  of  war  and  tribute  from 
conquered  nations  (2  Sam.  8.2, 7, 8, 10 ; 


KING] 


281 


[KING 


1  K.  4.21  ;  2  Ch.  27.5).  A  further  important 
equivalent  of  wealth  was  the  power  of  exacting 
compulsory  labour.  Solomon,  further,  may 
have  derived  profit  from  his  commercial  enter- 
prises over  the  sea  (I  K.  10.22).  The  power 


or  the  monarch  was  absolute  (1  Sam.  22.17,  18  ; 
2  Sam.  1.15).  The  history  of  the  monarchy, 
first  as  to  the  united  and  then  as  to  the  divided 
kingdom,  is  summarily  presented  in  the  following 
table  :— 


KINGS  OF  ISRAEL  AND  JUDAH 

B.C.  THE  UNDIVIDED  KINGDOM 

[?  1060  SAUL.] 

1020  DAVID,  king  in  Hebron  (2  Sam.  2.1-4). 

1013  DAVID,  king  over  all  Israel  (2  Sam.  5.3). 

c.  990  Rebellion  of  Absalom  (2  Sam.  15-18). 

980  Accession  of  SOLOMON  (1  K.  1.39). 

977  Building  of  the  Temple  begun  (1  K.  6.1). 

969  Dedication  of  the  Temple  (1  K.  8). 

938  Death  of  Solomon,  and  Division  of  the  Kingdom  (1  K.  11,  12). 

THE  DIVIDED  KINGDOM 
Dates  mostly  as  in  Kamphausen's  "  Chronologic,"  1883 


JUDAH 

REHOBOAM  (1  K.  14.21 ;  2  Ch.  12.13).  She- 
maiah  forbids  attack  on  Israel  (1  K.  12.21-24  ; 
2  Ch.  11.1-4).  Relapse  of  the  people  into 
idolatry  (1  K.  14.22-24). 

Shishak  (Shashanq)  plunders  Jerusalem 
(1  K.  14.25-28  ;  2  Ch.  12.2-12). 

ABIJAH,  or  Abijam ;  defeats  Jeroboam 
(2  Ch.  13.3-22). 

ASA  (1  K.  15.9,10;  2  Ch.  14.1),  puts  away 
idolatry  and  strengthens  the  kingdom  (1  K. 
15.11-15;  2  Ch.  14.2-8,  15.16-18).  Victory 
over  Zerah  "  the  Ethiopian  "  (2  Ch.  14.9-15). 
Subsidises  Ben-hadad  i.  against  Baasha  (1  K. 
15.16-22).  Hanani,  protesting,  is  imprisoned 
(2  Ch.  16.7-10).  Other  prophets,  Oded  and 
Azariah  (2  Ch.  15.1,8). 


JEHOSHAPHAT:  his  piety  and  prosperity 
(l/i.  15.24,  22.41-50;  2  Ch.  17.1-6,  20.31-33). 
His  son  Jehoram  married  Ahab's  daughter 
Athaliah.  The  two  kings  join  in  the  expedition 
against  Syria  at  Ramoth-gilead  ;  Jehoshaphat 
reproved  by  Jehu  (2  Ch.  19.1-3).  Organises  a 
system  of  jurisprudence  (19.4-11).  Defeats  a 
great  confederacy  (Moab,  Ammon,  Edom,  etc.) 
in  the  Valley  of  Blessing  (2  Ch.  20)  (see  Ps.  82, 
115). 

Jahaziel  and  Eliezer,  prophets.  Abandons 
naval  alliance  with  Ahaziah  (1  K.  22.49). 

Alliance  with  Joram  against  Moab  (2  K. 
3.5-27). 


JKHOHAM.  Revolt  of  Edom  (2  K.  8.20,  21  ; 
2  Ch.  21.8-10) ;  Jehoram  falls  into  idolatry  : 
attacked  by  Philistines  and  Arabians  (2  Ch. 
21.16, 17) ;  unhonoured  in  his  death  (21.20). 


B.C. 

937 


920 

917 
915 

914 


891 

890 


878 

876 


856 

854 
851 


ISRAEL 

JEROBOAM  i.  (Shechem)  (1  K.  12.25).  Calf- 
worship  at  Dan  and  Bethel  (12.28,  29).  A 
non-Levitical  priesthood  (13.33, 34).  Pro- 
phets:  a  Man  of  God  out  of  Judah  (13.1). 
Ahijah  (14.2-18).  Death  of  the  young  prince 
Abijah  (14.12-18).  Constant  war  with 
Judah  (14.30). 


NADAB  (1  K.  14.19,  20,  15.25-29),  slain  by 
Baasha.  Jeroboam's  family  extinct. 

BAASHA  (1  K.  15.27-34),  defeated  by  Ben- 
hadad  i.  (2  Ch.  16.1-6).  Denounced  by  Jehu 
(1  K.  16.1-4). 


ELAH,  murdered  by  Zimri  (1  K.  16.6-8). 

ZIMEI,  reigned  only  for  a  week  :  committed 
suicide  on  the  election  of  Omri  (1  K.  16.9-20). 

OMBI,  long  civil  war  with  Tibni.  Samaria 
built  (1  K.  16.21-28). 

AHAB  :  son  of  Omri,  married  Jezebel,  a 
Sidonian  princess,  and  introduced  Baal- 
worship  into  Israel :  withstood  by  Elijah. 
Ben-hadad  n.  besieges  Samaria,  but  is  twice 
defeated  and  forms  an  alliance  with  Ahab  ; 
denounced  by  a  prophet  (1  K.  20.13, 28). 
Naboth's  vineyard :  prophecy  of  Micaiah. 
Ahab  falls  in  the  attempt  to  win  Ramoth- 
gilead  from  the  Syrians  (16.29-22.40). 


AHAZIAH  :  son  of  Ahab.  Revolt  of  Moab 
(1  K.  22.51-53;  2  K.  1.1).  Dies  from  the 
effects  of  a  fall.  Elijah  translated  (2  K.  2). 

JEHORAM  (or  Joram),  brother  of  Ahaziah. 
War  with  Moab  continued  (2  K.  3)  (Tablet  of 
Mesha).  Prophecies  and  miracles  of  Elisha. 
Siege  of  Samaria  by  Ben-hadad  and  sudden 
deliverance  (2  K.  6.24-7.20).  Afterwards- 
wounded  in  battle  with  Syrians,  retreats  to- 
Jezreel,  and  is  slain  by  Jehu. 


KING] 


282 


[KING 


JUDAH 

AHAZIAH  :  bis  fatal  alliance  with  Joram 
against  the  Syrians :  both  kings  slain  at  Jezreel 
(2  K.  9.16-28). 

ATHALJAH,  mother  of  Ahaziah,  usurps  the 
throne  for  six  years.  Slain  by  Jehoiada 
(2  #.11). 

JEHOASH,  or  JOASH,  placed  on  the  throne  by 
Jehoiada  at  the  age  of  seven  (2  K.  11 ;  2  Ch.  23). 
Restores  the  Temple,  but  forsakes  Jehovah. 
Zechariah,  son  of  Jehoiada,  protests,  and  is 
slain  in  the  court  of  the  Temple  (2  Ch.  24.20-22). 
Incursion  of  the  Syrians  (2  K.  12.17, 18 ;  2  Ch. 
24.23,  24) ;  Joash  slain  by  his  servants. 

AMAZIAH  :  hires  Israelite  troops  to  assist  him 
against  Edom,  but  at  a  prophet's  command 
sends  them  back  (2  Ch.  25.5-10).  Conquers  the 
Edomites,  but  falls  into  their  idolatry  (2  K. 
14;  2  Ch.  25.11-16).  Challenges  Joash  to 
battle,  but  is  defeated  and  afterwards  mur- 
dered (2  K.  14.19  ;  2  Ch.  25.27). 

UZZIAH  (Azariah),  under  the  influence  of  the 
prophet  Zechariah,  begins  bis  reign  well ; 
develops  the  resources  of  the  country ;  forti- 
fies Jerusalem  and  the  outposts  of  the  Judsean 
territory ;  secures  a  fortified  post  of  vantage 
at  Elath  ;  near  the  end  of  his  reign,  invading 
the  priests'  office,  he  is  stricken  with  leprosy, 
Jotham  becoming  regent  (2  K  15.1-5 ;  2  Ch.  26). 

Jotham  as  regent. 


Isaiah,  Micah. 


JOTHAM,  sole  king  :  both  as  associated  with 
his  father  and  alone  he  reigned  well  and  pros- 
perously (2  K.  15.32-35 ;  2  Ch.  27.1-9),  but 
towards  the  close  of  his  reign  the  kingdom  was 
much  troubled  by  the  alliance  between  Israel 
and  Syria  (2  £.15.37). 

AHAZ,  an  impious  and  reckless  king  prone  to 
idolatry,  harassed  by  the  confederate  forces  of 
Syria  and  Israel ;  seeks  the  aid  of  Assyria,  but 
is  induced  to  desist  by  the  strong  protest  of 
Isaiah.  Jewish  prisoners  of  war  returned  by 
Pekah  at  the  instance  of  Oded  (2  Ch.  28.5-15). 

HEZEKIAH,  a  deeply  religious  and  generally 
prosperous  king  (2  K.  18.7,  8) ;  in  the  four- 
teenth year  of  his  reign,  invaded  by  Sargon 
(Isai.  10.24-34).  Isaiah's  prophecy  of  de- 
liverance and  of  a  spiritual  kingdom  (11.1-10). 
Illness  of  the  king,  and  recovery,  with  promise 
of  prolonged  life.  Campaign  of  Sennacherib 
against  Judah,  sudden  destruction  of  his  army 
(2  K.  18.17-37,  19  ;  Isai.  36.2-22,  37  ;  2  Ch 
32.9-23;  Ps.  76).  Embassy  of  Merodach- 
baladan  from  Babylon.  Isaiah  predicts  the 
Captivity  (Isai.  39). 


B.C. 

843 

842 

836 
814 
797 


796 
781 


777 


750 
741 


740 
737 
736 
735 


734 
730 


727 

722 


ISRAEL 


JEHU,  general  in  Joram's  army,  anointed 
king  (2  K.  9.1-13).  Slays  Jezebel,  Ahab's 
sons  and  Baal's  worshippers  (10).  Tributary 
to  Shalmaneser. 

JEHOAHAZ.  Disastrous  wars  with  Hazael 
and  Ben-hadad  in.  (2  K.  10,  13.1-9). 

JEHOASH,  or  Joash.  Death  of  Elisha. 
Ben-hadad  in.  defeated  three  times.  Victories 
over  Amaziah  of  Judah  (2  Ch.  25.17-24). 

JEROBOAM  n.  :  an  irreligious  man,  but  a 
prosperous  king ;  reclaims  the  territory 
conquered  by  Syria,  according  to  the  word  of 
Jonah  (2  K.  14.25-27),  extended  the  kingdom 
in  many  directions  including  Damascus  and 
Hamath  (14.28).  Ministry  of  Joel  (?),  Hosea, 
Amos. 


ZACHAEIAH  (R.V.  ZECHAEIAH),  last  of  Jehu's 
line :  assassinated  by  Shallum  (2  K.  15.8, 11). 

SHALLUM,  reigns  but  one  month,  slain  by 
Menahem. 

MENAHEM,  tributary  to  Assyria. 

PEKAHIAH,  slain  by  Pekah. 

PEKAH,  slain  by  Hoshea. 


HOSHEA  :  attacked  and  made  tributary  by 
Shalmaneser ;  discontinuing  tribute  and 
secretly  negotiating  with  Egypt,  he  is  im- 
prisoned by  the  Assyrian  monarch.  Samaria 
is  besieged,  and  its  overthrow  completed  by 
Sargon.  End  of  the  Israelite  Monarchy. 

The  Ten  Tribes  were  carried  into  captivity, 
and  dispersed  through  the  regions  subject  to 
Assyria.  Their  place  in  Palestine  was  filled 
by  colonists  from  the  East — a  mixed  people, 
from  whom  sprang  the  Samaritans. 


KING] 


283 


[KINGDOM  OF  GOD 


THE  JDD.&AN  MONARCHY  AFTEB  THK  FALJU  OF  SAMABIA 
For  the  latter  part  of  Hezekiah's  reign  see  above. 

B.C. 

697  MANASSEH  restores  idolatry  and  persecutes  the  worshippers  of  Jehovah.  Unavailing  protest 
of  the  prophets  (2  K.  20.14,  19,  21.1-16 ;  2  Ch.  33.1-10).  (Tradition  of  Isaiah's  martyrdom.) 
Taken  captive  by  the  Assyrian  king  Esar-haddon  and  deported  to  Babylonia.  His  conversion 
and  reinstatement  in  his  kingdom  (2  Ch.  33.12  17)  (not  mentioned  in  Kings).  Nahum's 
ministry,  c.  660. 

642  AMON  :  his  impiety  (2  K.  21.19-22  ;  2  Ch.  33.20-24) ;  slain  by  his  servants. 

640  JOSIAH  :  his  piety,  measures  against  idolatry,  restoration  of  the  Temple  ;  discovery  of  the  Book 
of  the  Law  (2  K.  22;  2  Ch.  34).  Huldah,  prophetess.  Great  celebration  of  the  Passover 
(2  K.  23.21-23  ;  2  Ch.  35.1-19).  Prophets— Jeremiah,  Zephaniah,  Habakkuk.  The  king  slain 
in  battle  at  Megiddo  :  greatly  lamented. 

008  JEHOAHAZ  or  Shallum  ;  son  of  Josiah,  king  for  three  months  ;  deposed  and  imprisoned  by  Pharaoh- 
neco  ;  subsequently  exiled  to  Egypt,  where  he  died  (2  K.  23.33,  34  ;  2  Ch.  36.3,  4). 
JEHOIAKIM  or  Eliakim  ;  eldest  son  of  Josiah,  made  tributary  king  by  Neco. 

606  After  the  battle  of  Carchemish  the  vassalage  of  Judah  was  transferred  to  Babylon.  Beginning  of 
the  Seventy  Tears'  Captivity.  Daniel  and  his  companions  taken  to  Babylon.  After  three  years 
Jehoiakim  broke  his  oath  of  allegiance  (2  K.  24.1),  and  troubles  ensued,  in  the  midst  of  which  the 
king  fell  in  some  unknown  way  (see  Jer.  22.13-19). 

598  JEHOIACHIN,  or  JECONIAH,  son  of  Jehoiakim,  succeeded  to  his  uneasy  throne,  but  occupied  it  only 
three  months,  Nebuchadrezzar  himself  arriving  at  Jerusalem,  and  sending  him  captive  to 
Babylon  (2  K.  24.6-16). 

ZEDEKIAH  or  Mattaniah,  son  of  Josiah,  and  uncle  therefore  to  Jehoiachin ;  weak  and  perQdious, 
intriguing  with  Egypt  against  Babylon,  notwithstanding  the  remonstrances  of  Jeremiah ; 
Nebuchadrezzar's  captain,  Nebuzaradan,  took  Jerusalem  after  a  protracted  siege,  slew  many  of 

587  the  chief  men,  and  carried  Zedekiah,  blinded  and  in  chains,  to  Babylon  (fulfilling  two  pre- 
dictions, Jer.  32.5 ;  Ezek.  12.13).  The  Temple  was  burned  ;  the  people  were  deported,  only  a 
few  poor  persons  left  to  till  the  land.  Jeremiah's  Lamentations  over  the  fallen  city  and  the 
desolated  land.  Ezekiel  notes  these  transactions  from  his  home  in  Babylonia.  Obadiah  refers 
to  the  cruel  exultation  of  Edom  over  the  catastrophe. 


Kingdom  of  God,  of  Heaven. — The  phrase 
"  the  kingdom  of  heaven "  is  found  only  in 
Matthew,  who  uses  "  the  kingdom  of  God " 
only  some  four  times.  Probably  the  former 
term  represents  the  actual  expression  employed 
by  our  Lord,  for  "heaven"  was  to  Jews 
synonymous  with  God,  and  was  preferred  from 
motives  of  reverence.  But  the  other  writers 
of  the  N.T.  had  to  do  more  with  non-Jewish 
Christians,  and  therefore  used  the  more  intelli- 
gible expression  "  the  kingdom  of  God."  It  is 
generally  granted  now  that "  kingdom"  connotes 
"  rule,"  "  dominion,"  rather  than  the  place  or 
district  ruled.  But  the  two  meanings  easily 
run  one  into  another. 

On  our  Lord's  lips  the  phrase  discountenanced 
the  Jewish  view  of  His  time  as  to  the  nature 
of  Messiah's  kingdom.  That  view,  based  on 
Dan.  2.44,  7.14;  and  cf,  Ps.  2.6,  110.2, 
represented  a  material  kingdom  of  political 
significance.  For  this  holy  men,  like  Joseph 
of  Arirnathaea,  no  doubt  waited  in  faith  with 
hopes  religious  rather  than  secular  (Mk.  15.43) ; 
but  in  most  minds  the  political  and  material 
aspects  of  this  kingdom  were  more  prominent 
than  the  spiritual  and  moral.  The  exist- 
ence of  this  expectation  explains  the  third 
temptation  of  our  Lord  (Matt.  4.8-11);  the 
attitude  of  the  people  who  would  "  come  and 
take  Him  by  force,  to  make  Him  a  King" 
(John  6.15) ;  the  request  of  the  mother  of 
Zebedee's  children  (Matt.  20.20,21);  the  cry 
of  the  "  whole  multitude  of  the  disciples  "  (Lk. 


19.37,  38) ;  and  the  question  of  Pilate  (Matt. 
27.11).  Even  farniliarity  with  the  teaching  of 
our  Lord  did  not  expel  the  old  conviction. 
Witness  the  lament  of  the  two  disciples  during 
the  walk  to  Emmaus  (Lk.  24.21),  and  the 
appeal  of  the  infant  Church  (Acts  1.6).  Never- 
theless, this  view  of  the  kingdom  was  definitely 
repudiated  by  our  Lord  (John  18.36 ;  and  cf. 
Lk.  12.14). 

The  kingdom  of  God,  the  kingdom  of 
heaven,  as  presented  in  the  words  of  our  Lord, 
is  inseparably  connected  with  His  redemptive 
work ;  but  it  is  not  earthly  in  its  origin  or 
support.  It  is  not  political  —  a  kingdom  of 
geographical  or  race  limits.  It  is  a  spiritual 
and  moral  domain — a  kingdom  in  which  God 
is  supreme.  It  is  open  to  all  (Matt.  8.11, 12, 
25.31, 34) ;  not  race  but  obedience  qualifies 
for  its  citizenship  (Matt.  7.21  ;  and  cf.  5.20). 
It  is  contrasted  with  material  possessions,  and 
placed  above  them  (Matt.  6.33).  Inasmuch  as 
the  kingdom  is  already  operative  in  the  lives 
of  its  subjects,  it  is  said  to  be  "  within  "  them 
(Lk.  17.21).  Yet  its  growth,  and  especially  its 
consummation,  were  to  be  prayed  for  (Matt. 
6.10) ;  its  nearness  was  announced  by  the  apostles 
(Matt.  10.7),  and  our  Lord's  own  message  was 
called  "  the  gospel  of  the  kingdom "  (Matt. 
9.35).  This  kingdom  was  at  times  spoken  of  by 
our  Lord  in  terms  referring  to  its  members,  as  in 
I  he  parable  of  the  tares  and  the  net  (Matt.  13) ; 
and  to  the  place  or  state  in  which  its  member* 
shall  hereafter  be  found  (Matt.  8.11,  25.34). 


KINGS,  THE  BOOKS  OF  THE]        284 


[KIRJATHAIM 


The  apostolic  uses  of  the  words  in  like 
manner  combine  the  two  thoughts  of  the  present 
life  of  God's  people  on  earth  and  of  their  future 
glory.  Thus,  the  kingdom  is  "  not  meat  and 
drink  ;  but  righteousness,  and  peace,  and  joy  in 
the  Holy  Ghost  "  (Rom.  14.17) ;  it  is,  in  its  other 
aspect,  a  kingdom  which  "  flesh  and  blood " 
cannot  inherit  (1  Cor.  15.50),  a  heritage  to  come 
(Gal.  5.21).  [MESSIAH.] 

Kings,  The  Books  of  the. — The  books  known 
as  the  First  Book  of  the  Kings  and  the  Second 
Book  of  the  Kings  were  originally  one.  The 
Greek  translators  of  the  O.T.,  who  produced  the 
Septuagint,  divided  the  work  into  the  two  parts. 
This  separation,  made  in  such  a  way  as  to  divide 
the  reign  of  Ahaziah,  is  entirely  arbitrary.  The 
authorship  of  the  books  is  unknown.  A  Jewish 
tradition  attributes  the  work  to  the  prophet 
Jeremiah,  a  view  which  finds  some  support  in 
certain  coincidences  of  style  and  language,  and 
in  the  correspondence  between  2  K.  24.18-25.21 
and  Jer.  52.1-27.  The  events  recorded  would 
appear,  however,  to  extend  beyond  the  life  of 
the  prophet.  The  work  is,  in  any  case,  a  com- 
pilation, in  the  preparation  of  which  material 
from  the  records  of  the  kings  and  from  lives  of 
the  prophets  was  freely  employed.  The  sources 
referred  to  are — (1)  the  Book  of  the  Acts  of 
Solomon  (1  K.  11.41) ;  (2)  the  Book  of  the  Chron- 
icles of  the  Kings  of  Judah  (1  K.  14.29),  referred 
to  fifteen  times ;  (3)  the  Book  of  the  Chronicles 
of  the  Kings  of  Israel  (1  K.  14.19),  referred  to 
seventeen  tunes ;  (4)  in  addition,  there  are 
frequent  insertions,  with  little  or  no  alteration, 
of  the  records  of  eye-witnesses  in  the  narrative 
portions  of  the  histories  of  the  prophets,  Elijah, 
Elisha,  and  Micaiah.  The  compiler  gives 
prominence  to  the  Law  of  Moses,  referring  for 
the  most  part  to  the  Book  of  Deuteronomy. 
The  date  of  the  completion  of  the  books  would 
appear  to  be  not  later  than  the  year  538  B.C., 
and  not  earlier  than  561  B.C.,  the  first  year  of 
Evil-Merodach,  whose  accession  is  recorded  in 
2  K.  25.27,  though  the  greater  part  may  have 
been  composed  long  before.  The  language  sup- 
ports this  inference  from  the  contents  of  the 
book.  The  compiler  uses  many  words  not  found 
in  Holy  Scripture  until  about  the  time  of  the 
Captivity. 

The  contents  of  the  two  books  cover  the  history 
of  the  Hebrews  from  the  closing  years  of  David's 
reign  to  the  Captivity,  and  carry  the  story  from 
the  splendour  of  the  United  Kingdom  under 
David  and  Solomon  to  the  misery  of  the  exile 
and  the  spectacle  of  Jehoiachin,  a  pensioner  at 
the  court  of  Evil-Merodach.  [For  a  summary 
oi  the  history,  see  KINGS.]  In  the  course  of 
the  narrative  particular  attention  is  given  to 
the  agency  and  influence  of  the  prophets. 
Nathan's  interference  secures  the  accession  of 
Solomon  (1  K.  1.45).  Ahijah  announces  the 
division  of  the  kingdom, with  its  causes  (11. 29-40). 
Shemaiah,  after  the  division  has  taken  place, 
confirms  it,  by  directing  Rehoboam  to  disband 
his  army  (12.22,  23).  By  various  prophets, 
Jeroboam's  idolatry  is  publicly  reproved,  and 


its  punishment  threatened  (13.1-3, 147);  judg- 
ment is  denounced  against  the  house  of  Baasha 
(16.1) ;  and  Ahab's  doom  is  distinctly  declared 
(22.17-28).  Whilst,  in  the  midst  of  the  national 
history,  the  works  of  the  two 'great  prophets, 
Elijah  and  Elisha,  occupy  so  much  of  several 
chapters,  that  the  kings  appear  to  hold  but  a 
secondary  place  (1  K.  17-2  K.  13). 

The  relation  between  the  Books  of  the  Kings 
and  the  Chronicles  is  that  of  independent  works 
drawn  from  the  same  or  similar  sources.  The 
comparative  dates  of  Kings  and  Chronicles 
explain  various  differences  of  phraseology  and 
other  variations.  Differences  in  the  order  of 
events  are  explained  by  the  fact  that  none  of 
the  writers  profess  to  give  the  exact  order  of 
time.  Additions,  omissions,  and  abbreviations 
may  be  ascribed  to  the  different  aim  of  each 
narrative.  Other  differences,  amounting  to 
discrepancies,  are  occasionally  found,  and  refer 
chiefly  to  numbers  and  names.  It  is  well  known 
that  the  text  of  Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chronicles 
is  in  a  worse  condition  than  that  of  any  other 
of  the  inspired  writings ;  nor  must  we  ascribe 
to  the  author  what  may  be  due  to  the  errors  of 
copyists.  These  variations,  it  may  be  added, 
do  not  affect  any  article  of  faith  or  rule  of  life. 
[KINGS,  CHRONICLES,  BOOKS  OF  THE.] 

King's  Dale  (R.V.  Vale).— The  valley  where 
the  kings  of  Sodom  met  Abraham  (Gen.  14.17), 
and  Absalom  raised  a  memorial  for  himself 
(2  Sam.  18.18).  It  is  usually  identified  with  the 
valley  on  the  east  of  Jerusalem. 

King's  Pool,  The. — The  large  reservoir  on  the 
west  side  of  Jerusalem,  also  called  the  Upper  or 
Old  Pool;  now  Birket-el-Mamilla  (Neh.  2.14; 
Isai.  7.3,  22.11). 

Kinsman. — In  the  O.T.  a  word  mainly  used 
in  the  sense  of  the  nearest  male  blood  relation, 
upon  whom  rested  certain  obligations  very 
clearly  illustrated  in  the  Book  of  Ruth  (chaps. 
2-4).  In  the  N.T.  the  word  is  used  in  a  more 
elastic  sense  to  include  members  of  the  same 
race  (Rom.  9.3). 

Kir. — The  original  home  of  the  Syrians  (Amos 
9.7),  to  which  they  were  to  be  carried  as  exiles 
(Amos  1.5),  as  fulfilled  by  Tiglath-pileser  (2  K. 
16.9).  People  of  this  name  formed  part  of  the 
Assyrian  army  (Isai.  22.6).  The  land  may  have 
been  south-east  of  Babylonia. 

Kir  of  Moab,  Kir-hara'seth,  Kir-hare 'seth, 
Kir-ha'resh,  Kir-he 'res.— One  of  the  two  chief 
strongholds  of  Moab  (2  K.  3.25  ;  Isai.  15.1, 
16.7,  11 ;  Jer.  48.31,  36) ;  on  the  crown  of  a  hill, 
3370  feet  above  the  Dead  Sea,  10  miles  aAvay, 
overlooking  the  two  forks  of  the  Wady  Kerak. 

Kiriath. — [KIBJATH.] 

Kiriatha'im. — Double  city :  a  town  of  Moab 
taken  and  rebuilt  by  Reuben  (Num.  32.37 ; 
Josh.  13.19) ;  recovered  by  Moab,  and  the  sub- 
ject of  prophetic  denunciation  (Jer.  48.1, 23 ; 
Ezck.  25.9).  [KIRJATHAIM.] 

Kiri'oth.— ( Jer.  48.41 ;  Amos2.2).  [KERIOTH.] 

Kir'jath  (R.V.  Kiriath).— City  :  a  town  of 
Benjamin  ( Josh.  18.28).  [KIRJATH-JEARIM.] 

Kirjatha'im  (R.V.  Kiriathaim).— A  town  of 


KIBJATS-ARBA] 


285 


[KOHATH 


Naphtali,  assigned  to  the  Gershonites  (1  Ch, 
6.76) ;  contracted  to  Kartan  (Josh.  21.32). 

Kir'jath-arba  (R.V.  Kiriath-arba).— City  of 
Arba :  an  early  designation  of  Hebron  (Gen. 
23.2,  35.27 ;  Josh.  14.15, 15.13, 54 ;  20.7,  21.11 ; 
Judg.  1.10  ;  Neh.  11.25). 

Kir'jath-a'rim    (R.V.    Kiriath-arim).—  (Ezra 

2.25).       [KlRJATH-JEARIM.] 

Kirjath-baal  (R.V.  Kiriath-baal).—  City  of 
Baal  (Josh.  15.60,  18.14).  [KIRJATH-JEARIM.] 
Called  also  Baalah  and  Baale  of  Judah.  The 
names  point  to  the  existence  of  a  sanctuary  of 
Baal  at  this  spot  before  the  invasion  of  Palestine. 

Kir'jath-hu'zoth  (R.V.  Kiriath-huzoth).— 
City  of  streets  :  a  place  in  Moab  whence  Balak, 
king  of  Moab,  and  Balaam  overlooked  the 
Israelite  encampment  (Num.  22.39). 

Kir'jath-jea'rim  (R.V.  Kiriath-jearim).— City 
of  forests  (called  also  Kirjath,  Kirjath-arim, 
Kirjath-baal,  Baalah,  and  Baale):  a  Gibeonite 
town,  on  the  boundary  of  Judah  and  Ben- 
jamin, allotted  to  Judah  (Josh.  9.17,  15.9,60, 
18.14,15,23;  Judg.  18.12;  1  Ch.  2.50,52); 
the  resting-place  of  the  ark  for  twenty  years 
(1  Sam.  6.21,  7.1,2;  2  Sam.  6.2;  1  Ch. 
13.5,  6  ;  2  Ch.  1.4) ;  "  the  fields  of  the  wood  " 
(Ps.  132.6) ;  reoccupied  after  the  Captivity 
(Ezra  2.25;  Neh.  7.29);  the  residence  of  the 
prophet  Urijah  (Jer.  26.20)  who  enforced  the 
warnings  of  Jeremiah,  and  was  cruelly  murdered 
by  Jehoiakim.  Its  site  is  unknown,  but  pos- 
sibly identifiable  with  Kuriet-el-Enab,  about 
8  miles  west  of  Jerusalem. 

Kir'jath-san'nah  (R.V.  Kiriath-sannah).— 
City  of  the  (?)  palm  branch  (Josh.  15.49). 

[  KlR  J  ATH-SEPHER.  ] 

Kir'jath-se'pher  (R.V.  Kiriath-sepher).— City 
of  the  book :  the  early  name  of  Debir,  found 
only  in  the  account  of  the  capture  of  the 
place  by  Othniel,  who  gained  thereby  the  hand 
of  his  wife  Achsah,  Caleb's  daughter  (Josh. 
15.15, 16  ;  Judg.  1.11,  12). 

Kish.— 1.  The  father  of  Saul,  the  first  king  of 
Israel  (1  Sam.  9  ;  2  Sam.  21.14).  2.  A  Ben- 
jamite  (1  Ch.  9.36).  3.-  A  Benjamite,  great- 
grandfather of  Mordecai  (the  cousin  of  Queen 
Esther).  He  was  taken  captive  at  the  time  that 
Jeconiah  was  carried  to  Babylon  (Esth.  2.5). 
4.  A  Merarite,  of  the  house  of  Mahli,  of  the 
tribe  of  Levi  (1  Ch.  23.21, 22,  24.28,  29).  "  Kish 
the  son  of  Abdi "  (2  Ch.  29.12)  denotes  the 
Levitical  house  or  division  under  its  chief, 
rather  than  an  individual. 

Kish'i.— (?)  Jehovah  is  Lord:  a  Levite  of 
the  Merari  family  whose  son  Ethan  was  set 
over  the  service  of  song  (1  Ch.  6.44).  He  is 
called  Kuahaiah  in  1  Ch.  15.17. 

Ki'shion,  Ki'shon. — (?)  Hardness  :  a  town 
of  Issachar,  assigned  to  the  Gershonites  (Josh. 
19.20,  21.28). 

Ki'shon,  Ki'son.  --  A  river  which  rises  in 
Mount  Gilboa,  and  with  its  affluents,  winter 
torrents,  drains  the  plain  of  Jezreel  and  the  sur- 
rounding mountains,  passes  close  under  Mount 
Carmel  through  a  very  narrow  pass  into  the  plain 
of  Akka,  and  enters  the  Mediterranean  5  miles 


from  its  source.  It  was  the  scene  of  the  defeat 
of  Sisera,  and  of  the  destruction  of  the  prophets 
of  Baal  (Judg.  4.7,13,  5.21;  1  K.  18.40;  Ps. 
83.9).  It  is  now  called  Nahr  el-Mukatta,  i.e. 
the  river  of  slaughter. 

Kiss. — A  method  of  salutation  customary 
amongst  the  Hebrews.  In  the  O.T.  its  use  is 
noted  between  parents  and  children  (Gen.  27.26) ; 
between  men  who  were  related  (Ex.  4.27) ;  be- 
tween men  unrelated  (2  Sam.  20.9).  It  was  used 
at  meeting  (Gen.  29.11);  and  at  parting  (Ruth 
1.14).  It  could  be  a  mark  of  homage  (Ps.  2.12), 
and  is  so  used  in  idolatrous  worship  (1  K.  19.18 ; 
Hos.  13.2).  In  the  N.T.  kissing  the  feet  ap- 
pears as  an  act  of  humble  reverence  (Lk.  7.45). 
Believers  saluted  one  another  with  a  kiss 
(Acts  20.37  ;  Bom.  16.16;  1  Thess.  5.26  ;  1  Pet. 
5.14). 

Kite. — A  bird  of  prey,  counted  as  unclean 
(Lev.  11.14;  Dent.  14.13).  The  word  trans- 
lated "  vulture  "  in  Job  28.7  should  be  kite. 

Kith'lish  (R.V.  Chith'lish).— (?)  Reparation : 
a  town  in  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.40). 

Ki'tron. — (?)  Knotty:  a  town  of  Zebulun 
from  which  the  Canaanites  were  not  expelled 
(Judg.  1.30).  Possibly  the  same  as  Sepphoris. 
[KATTATH.] 

Kit'tim,  Chittim. — A  great-grandson  of  Noah 
whose  descendants  are  called  Chittim,  i.e. 
the  people  of  Cyprus  and  the  adjacent  coasts 
and  islands  (Gen.  10.4;  1  Ch.  1.7,  and  also 
apparently  Num.  24.24,  as  well  as  Jer.  2.10). 
The  site  of  Kition  in  Cyprus  is  now  occupied 
by  Larnaka.  [CHITTIM.] 

Kneading-troughs. — When  the  Israelites  left 
Egypt  they  bound  up  their  kneading-troughs 
in  their  cloths  upon  their  shoulders.  These 
troughs  were  small  wooden  bowls  (Ex.  8.3, 
12.34).  [BREAD.] 

Knife.— The  Hebrews  made  little  use  of 
knives  in  their  meals,  but  employed  them  for 
slaughtering  animals,  and  for  cutting  up  the 
carcase  (Gen.  22.6 ;  Lev.  7.33,  34,  8.15,  20,  25, 
9.13;  Num.  18.18;  1  Sam.  9.24;  Ezra  1.9; 
Ezek.  24.4).  The  earliest  knives  were  of  flint, 
and  such  may  have  been  retained  for  ceremonial 
purposes  (Ex.  4.25  ;  Josh.  5.2,  3). 

Knop. — i.e.  knob.  Round  ornaments  on  the 
golden  candlestick  (Ex.  25.31) ;  in  the  margins 
of  Amos  9.1 ;  Zeph.  2.14  for  the  round  capitals 
of  pillars. 

Ko'a. — A  nation  near  Babylonia,  probably  on 
the  border  of  Elam  and  Media  (Ezek.  23.23). 

KoTiath. — The  second  son  of  Levi  and 
grandfather  of  Moses,  Aaron,  and  Miriam. 
From  him  through  Aaron  were  descended  all  the 
priests.  Descendants  of  Kohath,  even  though 
not  priests,  took  precedence  of  the  other  de- 
scendants of  Levi  —  though  Kohath  was  not 
the  eldest  son  of  Levi — by  virtue  of  the  fact  that 
in  Kohath's  family  the  priesthood  exclusively  re- 
sided. Kohath's  family  was  appointed  to  carry 
the  ark  and  sacred  vessels  of  the  Tabernacle, 
while  the  Israelites  marched  through  the 
desert.  The  inheritance  of  the  Kohathites — 
apart  from  the  priests  who  had  thirteep  cities 


KOHATHITES] 


286 


[LAMB 


in  Judah,  Simeon,  and  Benjamin — was  in  the 
half-tribe  of  Manasseh,  in  Ephraim,  and  in  Dan. 
Samuel  was  a  Kohathite.  Later,  they  took  a 
leading  part  in  the  Temple  service  (Gen.  46.11 ; 
Ex.  6.16,18;  Num.  3.17,  etc.,  4.2,  etc.,  7.9, 
10.21, 16.1,  26.57  ;  Josh.  21.4,  etc. ;  1  Ch.  6.1, 
etc.,  9.32,  15.5,  23.6 ;  2  Ch.  20.19,  29.12,  34.12). 

KoTiathites. — Descendants  of  Kohath. 

Koheleth.— The  Hebrew  name  of  the  Book 
Ecclesiastes. 

Kolai'ah. — Voice  of  Jah :  1.  A  Benjamite, 
some  of  whose  descendants  dwelt  in  Jerusalem 
after  the  Exile  (Neh.  11.7).  2.  The  father  of  the 
Ahab  who  suffered  death  for  falsely  prophesying 
the  deliverance  of  the  Jews  from  Babylon 
(Jer.  29.21). 

Ko'rah.— (?)  Baldness:  1.  Third  son  of  Esau 
(Gen.  36.5-18 ;  1  Ch.  1.35).  2.  A  Kohathite  who, 
being  dissatisfied  with  the  rank  he  held  among 
the  sons  of  Levi,  and  envying  the  authority 
of  his  cousins,  Moses  and  Aaron,  formed  a 
party  Against  them,  in  which  he  engaged 
Dathan,  Abiram,  and  On,  with  250  of  the 
principal  Levites  (Num.  16).  He  and  his 


followers  perished  by  an  earthquake  with 
flames  of  fire. 

Korahites,  Korhites,  Korathites.  —  The 
descendants  of  Korah  were  preserved  from  the 
catastrophe  in  which  he  was  swallowed  up, 
and  continued  to  serve  as  before  in  the  Taber- 
nacle. David  appointed  them  their  office  in 
the  Temple,  to  guard  the  doors  and  sing  the 
praises  of  God  (1  Ch.  9.19-31).  To  them  are 
ascribed  several  psalms  which  are  designated 
by  the  name  of  Korah.  Whether  these  psalms 
were  composed  by  the  Korahites  themselves  or 
composed  in  order  to  be  sung  by  them  is  doubt- 
ful. [HEMAN.] 

Kore,  Core.— 1.  A  Korahite  (1  Ch.  9.19, 
26.1).  2.  A  Levite  appointed  to  take  charge  of 
the  freewill  offerings  at  the  eastern  gate  of  the 
Temple  (2  Ch.  31.14).  3.  "  The  sons  of  Kore  " 
in  1  Ch.  26.19  should  be  "  the  sons  of  the  Korah- 
ites." 4.  Korah  2  in  Jude  11. 

Koz.— (?)  Thorn  (Ezra  2.61;  Neh.  3.4,21). 
The  same  as  Accoz,  Coz,  and  Hakkoz. 

Kusha'iah.— A  Merarite  called  Kishi  in  1  Ch. 
6.44  (1  Ch.  15.17). 


Laa'dah.— A  grandson  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  4.21). 

Laa'dan  (R.V.  Ladan).— 1.  An  ancestor  of 
Joshua  (1  Ch.  7.26).  2.  A  descendant  of 
Gershon,  the  eldest  son  of  Levi  (1  Ch.  23.7, 
26.21) ;  probably  the  same  as  Libni  1. 

La'ban.— White  :  1.  The  brother  of  Rebekah, 
Isaac's  wife,  and  father  of  Leah  and  Rachel, 
who  were  therefore  first  cousins  of  Jacob,  who 
married  them.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  espousals  of  his  sister  to  Isaac  (Gen.  24.10, 
29-60,  27.43,  29.5).  Laban  was  a  cunning  and 
grasping  man,  as  appears  especially  in  his 
relations  to  Jacob  over  the  marriage  of  Leah 
and  Rachel  (Gen.  29  and  30).  [JACOB,  GALEED, 
JEOAB-SAHADUTHA.]  2.  A  place  in  neighbour- 
hood of  an  Israelite  encampment ;  perhaps  the 
same  as  Libnah  2  (Deut.  1.1). 

La'chish. — An  Amorite  fortress  taken  by 
Joshua  and  allotted  to  Judah  (Josh.  10,  12.11, 
15.39) ;  fortified  by  Rehoboam  and  the  asylum 
of  Amaziah  (2  K.  14.19;  2  Ch.  11.9,  25.27). 
It  was  besieged  by  Sennacherib,  as  represented 
on  Ninevite  slabs  found  at  Kouyunjik,  and  now 
in  the  British  Museum  (2  K.  18.17,  19.8; 
2  Ch.  32.9 ;  Jer.  34.7 ;  Mic.  1.13) ;  but  re- 
occupied  after  the  return  from  the  Captivity 
(Neh.  11.30).  It  is  identified  with  the  modern 
Tell-el-Hesy. 

Ladan.— [LAADAK.] 

La'eL — Belonging  to  God :  the  father  of 
Kliasaph,  prince  of  the  Gershonites  at  the  time 
of  the  Exodus  (Num.  3.24). 

LaTiad. — A  great-grandson  of  Shobal,  the 
son  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  4.2). 

Lahai-ro'i. — Of  the  living  one  who  beholds  me : 


the  well  at  which  Hagar  was  saved  from  perish- 
ing of  thirst  and  realised  that  God  saw  her,  in 
the  wilderness  of  Paran,  between  Kadesh  and 
Bered  (Gen.  16.13, 14,  24.62,  25.11). 

Lah'mam,  Lah'mas.  —  A  city  of  Judah; 
perhaps  the  modern  El-lahm,  about  13  miles 
north-west  of  Hebron  and  10  miles  from  Lachish 
(Josh.  15.40). 

La'nmi.— Probably  we  should  read  the 
Bethlehemite ;  a  brother  of  Goliath,  slain  by 
Elhanan  (1  Ch.  20.5). 

La'ish. — Lion :  1.  A  Sidonian  city  at  the 
north  extremity  of  Palestine;  called  also 
Leshem  (Josh.  19.47) ;  and  afterwards  Dan 
(Judg.  18.7,29).  It  was  the  depository  first 
of  the  graven  image  of  Micah,  and  afterwards 
of  one  of  the  calves  of  Jeroboam.  It  is  now 
called  Banias.  2.  A  Benjamite,  whose  son 
Phalti  became  the  husband  of  Michal,  David's 
wife  (1  -Sam.  25.44 ;  2  Sam.  3.15).  3.  Laishah. 

Laishah  (A.V.  Laish).— (?)  Lion:  a  village 
north  of  Jerusalem  (Isai.  10.30).  Perhaps 
the  modern  Isawiye,  2  miles  north-east  of  the 
city. 

LaTram  (R.V.  Lakkmn). — A  northern  border 
city  in  Naphtali  (Josh.  19.33). 

Lamb. — In  the  O.T.  eleven  words  are  rendered 
into  English  as  "  lamb."  That  most  freely 
used,  especially  in  Leviticus  and  Numbers,  re- 
presents a  young  male.  The  passover  lamb 
might  be  either  a  lamb  or  a  kid  (Ex.  12.5),  the 
word  used  applying  to  both.  The  lamb  was 
conspicuous  amongst  the  sacrifices  directed  by 
the  Law.  It  was  offered  daily  (Ex.  29.38; 
Num.  28.3),  and  op  the  Sabbath  (Num.  28.9 ; 


LAMB  OF  GOD] 


287 


[LAPWING 


cf.  Ezek.  46.4,  13) ;  at  the  Passover  (Ex.  12.5), 
Pentecost  (Lev.  23.18),  and  the  feast  of  Taber- 
nacles (Num.  29.13),  and  on  other  occasions. 
In  the  N.T.  three  Greek  words  are"  rendered 
"  lamb."  The  lamb  appears  as  a  symbol  of 
innocence  and  defencelessness  both  in  the 
O.T.  and  the  N.T.  (Isai.  11.6,  53.7;  and  cf. 
Lk.  10.3;  Acts  8.32).  [SACRIFICE,  LAMB  OP 
GOD.] 

Lamb  of  God.— The  phrase  occurs  only 
twice  (John  1.29,  36),  and  points  to  Isai.  53.7 
(and  cf.  Acts  8.32).  But  the  words  were 
uttered  by  John  when  the  Passover  was  near, 
and  suggest  the  offering  of  the  Paschal  lamb 
(Ex.  12.5;  and  cf.  John  19.36;  1  Cor.  5.7; 
1  Pet.  1.19).  The  phrase  conveys  the  idea  not 
only  of  our  Lord's  innocence,  but  also  of  His 
vicarious  suffering.  He  was  the  Lamb  provided 
for  sacrifice  by  God  Himself  (Gen.  22.8).  The 
epithet  "  Lamb  "  is  applied  to  our  Lord  twenty- 
nine  times  in  Kevelation,  the  word  used  being 
that  only  found  in  Revelation  and  in  John  21.15. 
It  is  a  diminutive  form  of  the  word  used  in 
Lk.  10.3.  [ATONEMENT.] 

La'mech. — 1.  A  descendant  of  Cain,  and  the 
first  polygamist.  He  had  two  wives,  Adah  and 
Zillah.  His  song  is  an  exultation  over  possess- 
ing a  sword  (Gen.  4.18-24).  2.  A  descendant 
of  Seth,  and  the  father  of  Noah  (Gen.  5.28). 

Lamentations,  The,  of  Jeremiah.— The  book 
entitled  in  the  A.V.  and  R.V.  The  Lamentations 
of  Jeremiah  consists  of  five  poems.  Of  these 
the  first  four  are  highly  artificial  in  their  struc- 
ture, being,  in  the  original  Hebrew,  alphabetical 
acrostics,  in  which  every  stanza  begins  with  a 
new  letter.  The  third  has  this  further  peculi- 
arity, that  all  three  lines  in  each  stanza  have 
the  same  letter  at  the  beginning.  The  fifth 
poem  is  not  an  acrostic,  though,  like  the  others, 
it  has  twenty-two  stanzas.  The  authorship  of 
the  book  is  uniformly  ascribed  by  ancient 
authorities  to  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  though  in 
the  Hebrew  no  name  is  attached  to  the  poems. 
The  Septuagint  version  has  a  note  to  the  effect 
that "  Jeremiah  .  .  .  lamented  this  lamentation 
over  Jerusalem,  and  said."  The  elegy  upon 
Josiah,  attributed  to  Jeremiah  in  2  Ch.  35.25, 
is  referred  to  by  Josephus  (Antiq.  x.  5)  as  re- 
maining unto  his  day,  and  is  possibly  a  refer- 
ence to  Lamentations.  Many  modern  critics 
have,  however,  preferred  to  ascribe  the  book  to 
an  unknown  author,  or  to  Baruch,  on  the  ground 
that  there  are  some  assumed  contradictions 
between  Jeremiah  and  Lamentations,  that  some 
characteristic  expressions  of  Jeremiah  are 
lacking,  and  that  the  prophet's  circumstances 
were  inconsistent  with  the  composition  of  this 
work.  The  date  of  the  poems,  if  by  Jeremiah, 
was,  no  doubt,  the  time  immediately  succeeding 
the  fall  of  Jerusalem ;  if  by  some  other  author, 
at  any  time  before  the  Return.  The  contents  of 
the  book  describe  (1)  the  misery  of  the  fallen 
city,  the  confession  of  its  guilt  and  of  the  justice 
of  God's  judgment ;  (2)  the  misery  of  the  city 
still  more  piteously  described ;  (3)  lamentation 
for  the  misery  endured,  followed  by  the 


reassertion  of  God's  mercy  and  justice,  and  a 
prayer  for  His  intervention ;  (4)  a  further  con- 
fession of  sin ;  (5)  a  further  statement  of  the 
affliction  suffered,  and  a  prayer  for  mercy. 

Lamp. — The  first  reference  to  a  lamp  is  in 
that  remarkable  episode  of  the  "  smoking  fur- 
nace and  burning  lamp,"  i.e.  a  torch,  which 
ratified  the  covenant  made  with  Abraham 
(Gen.  15.17),  symbolising  the  fiery  presence  of 
God.  The  lamps  of  Ex.  25.37;  2  Ch.  4.20, 
13.11  ;  and  Zech.  4.2  signify  that  part  of 
the  "  candlestick  "  which  bears  the  light.  The 
lamps  of  the  Tabernacle  were  lighted  every 
evening,  and  cleansed  every  morning  (Ex.  30.7, 
8).  The  houses  in  the  East  were,  from  the 
remotest  antiquity,  lighted  with  lamps,  sustained 
by  large  lampstands  set  upon  the  ground.  The 
houses  of  Egypt  in  modern  times  are  never 
without  lights ;  they  burn  lamps  all  the  night 
long  and  in  every  occupied  apartment.  The 
poorest  people  would  rather  stint  themselves  in 
food  than  do  without  their  lamps.  This  gives 
added  force  to  Job  18.5,  6,  and  21.17.  A  brilliant 
lamp  is  a  symbol  of  prosperity  (Job  29.2,  3). 
The  lamps  of  Judg.  7.16,  20  were  lighted  torches. 
Not  only  oil,  but  pitch,  naphtha,  and  wax  are 
used  in  the  East  to  maintain  flame.  Sometimes 
strips  of  cotton  cloth,  soaked  in  these  com- 
bustible substances,  supply  the  place  of  lamps ; 
and  in  some  cases  it  is  customary  to  carry  a 
pot  of  oil  in  one  hand,  and  a  lamp  full  of  oily 
rags  in  the  other.  Swinging  lamps  are  also  used. 
A  wayfarer  at  night  will  carry  one,  for  even  in 
the  towns  the  streets  are  very  rough  (Ps. 
119.105).  [MARRIAGE  CEREMONIES.] 

Lancet.— A  javelin  or  light  spear  (1  K.  18.28). 

Landmark. — As  the  division  of  the  land  of 
Canaan  among  the  tribes  and  the  families  of  the 
tribes  had,  been  a  work  of  great  care,  and  was 
indeed  one  of  the  foundations  of  national  polity, 
severe  penalties  were  threatened  against  the 
removal  of  landmarks  (Deut.  19.14,  27.17 ; 
Prov.  23.10).  A  cord  or  line  was  used  in  the 
division  of  the  land  among  tribes,  families,  and 
individuals.  Hence  the  expression,  "  The  lines 
are  fallen  unto  me  in  pleasant  places  "  (Ps.  16.6). 

Languages.— [TONGUES,  GIFT  OF.] 

Lantern. — Some  kind  of  covered  torch  (John 
18.3).  [LAMP.] 

Laodice'a. — A  flourishing  and  wealthy  city 
of  Asia  Minor  on  the  river  Lycus,  near  Colossae, 
on  the  high  road  for  traffic  between  the  east  and 
west  of  Asia  ;  the  seat  of  an  important  Christian 
Church,  but  not  visited  by  Paul  (Col.  2.1,  4.13, 
15  ;  Rev.  1.11,  3.14). 

Laodiceans. — The  inhabitants  of  Laodicea. 
St.  Paul's  letter  to  the  Laodiceans  (Col.  4.16)  is 
probably  the  circular  letter  known  as  that  to 
the  Ephesians. 

Lapi'doth  (R.V.  Lappidoth).  —  Torches  or 
lightnings :  the  husband  of  Deborah  the  pro- 
phetess (Judg.  4.4). 

Lapwing. — This  bird  is  enumerated  in  the 
"unclean"  list  inLev.  11. 19  and  Deut.  14.18  which 
were  forbidden  by  the  law  of  Moses  to  be  eaten 
by  the  Israelites.  The  bird  intended  is  the 


LASEA] 


[LAW 


hoopoe,  which  feeda  with  its  very  long  slender 
beak  on  insects  in  dunghills  and  in  watery 
places,  wherever  it  finds  them,  resorting  alike 
to  desert  valleys  and  marshy  spots  by  the  towns. 
It  has  a  tall  crest ;  its  plumage  is  boldly  barred 
with  white,  and  its  movements  are  rather 
grotesque  than  dignified.  The  hoopoe  is  about 
the  size  of  a  thrush,  and  is  only  occasionally  seen 
in  the  British  Islands. 

Lase'a. — A  city  of  Crete,  a  few  miles  to 
the  east  of  Fair  Havens ;  now  in  ruins  (Acts 
27.8). 

La'sha. — The  southern  limit  of  the  country 
of  the  Canaanites,  near  Sodom  and  Gomorrah 
(Gen.  10.19).  It  has  been  identified  with 
Callirhoe,  a  spot  famous  for  hot  springs  near 
the  eastern  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

Lasha'ron  (R.V.  Lassha'ron).  —  A  royal 
Canaanite  town  taken  by  Joshua  (Josh.  12.18) ; 
now  Sarona,  about  6  miles  west  of  south  end  of 
the  Sea  of  Galilee. 

Lat'chet.— The  fastening  by  which  the  sandal 
is  attached  to  the  foot.  It  consists  of  two  straps, 
one  of  which  passes  between  the  great  and  second 
toes  and  the  other  around  the  heel  and  over  the 
instep.  To  unloose  the  straps  or  latchets  was 
the  business  of  a  menial  (Mk.  1.7). 

Latin. — The  language  of  the  Romans  (Lk. 
23.38;  John  19.20).  Our  Lord's  title  on  the 
cross  was  written  in  Latin  (as  well  as  Hebrew 
and  Greek)  as  the  official  language. 

Lattice. — The  lattice  through  which  the 
mother  of  Sisera  looked  (Judg.  5.28)  was  simply 
a  narrow  window.  The  lattice  through  which 
Ahaziah  fell  (2  K.  1.2)  was  network  of  some 
sort.  In  Cant.  2.9  the  word  denotes  a  network 
or  jalousy  before  the  window. 

Laver. — A  vessel  in  which  the  priests  washed 
their  hands  before  officiating.  That  in  use  at 
the  Tabernacle,  situated  between  its  door  and 
the  altar,  was  formed  of  polished  brass,  which 
had  served  for  looking-glasses  for  the  women 
(Ex.  38.8).  In  Solomon's  temple  there  were  ten 
lavers  of  brass  (1  K.  7.27-39),  each  with  a 
capacity  of  forty  baths,  or  about  three  hundred 
gallons.  They  were  used  for  washing  the  animals 
to  be  offered  in  burnt-offerings  (2  Ch.  4.6).  In 
Eph.  5.26  and  Tit.  3.5  "  washing  "  may  possibly 
be  read  as  "  laver,"  the  metaphor  being  applied 
to  baptism. 

Law.— The  word  so  translated  (Tor ah)  means 
properly  a  direction,  originally  of  a  ritual  kind 
(Hag.  3.11  ff.).  The  term  is  used  in  Scripture 
with  a  variety  of  meaning  according  to  the 
scope  and  connexion  of  the  passage  in  which  it 
occurs.  Thus,  for  instance,  sometimes  it  denotes 
the  revealed  will  of  God  (Ps.  1.2,  19.7,  119 ; 
Isai.  8.20,  42.21;  Jer.  31.33).  Sometimes  it 
signifies  the  Mosaic  institution  as  distinguished 
from  the  Gospel  (Matt.  11.13,  12.5  ;  John  1.17  ; 
Acts  25.8).  Hence  we  frequently  read  of  the  law 
of  Moses  as  expressive  of  the  whole  religion  of  the 
Jews  (Matt.  5.17  ;  Heb.  9.19,  10.28) ;  sometimes, 
in  a  more  restricted  sense,  for  the  ritual  or 
ceremonial  observances  of  the  Jewish  religion 
(Eph.  2.15  ;  Heb.  10.1).  It  is  in  reference  to 


this  view  that  the  Apostle  Paul  affirms  that 
"  by  the  deeds  of  the  law  there  shall  no  flesh  be 
justified  "  (Rom.  3.20).  "  The  law  written  in 
their  hearts,"  which  Paul  mentions  in  Rom.  2.15, 
is  the  sense  of  right  and  wrong  inscribed  by 
God  on  man's  conscience.  [JUSTIFICATION.] 

The  dominant  principle  of  the  Law  was 
Theocracy.  Jehovah  Himself  was  regarded 
as  King ;  the  laws  were  delivered  by  Him  ;  the 
Tabernacle  (and  afterwards  the  Temple)  was 
considered  as  His  palace ;  there  He  gave  visible 
manifestations  of  His  glory ;  there  He  revealed 
His  will ;  there  was  offered  "  the  bread  of  the 
presence " ;  there  He  received  His  ministers, 
and  performed  His  functions  as  Sovereign.  To 
Him,  peace  and  war — questions  determined 
under  all  governments  by  the  supreme  authority 
—were  referred  (Deut.  1.41,  42 ;  Josh.  10.40  , 
Judg.  1.1,  2 ;  1  K.  12.24).  Idolatry  was  treason. 
In  relation,  therefore,  to  the  Jews,  Jehovah  was 
both  God  and  King.  [KING.] 

Theocracy  had  its  external  manifestations. 
Thus,  the  Tabernacle,  where  public  worship  was 
held  from  the  Exodus  till  the  reign  of  Solomon, 
was  both  God's  temple  and  palace.  It  was 
His  "  holy  habitation."  It  was  the  place 
where  He  met  the  people  and  communed 
with  them—"  the  tent  of  meeting "  (R.V.  Ex. 
27.21).  [TABERNACLE.]  To  the  Tabernacle 
succeeded  the  Temple,  the  greater  grandeur 
of  the  building  and  its  services  harmonising 
with  clearer  views  of  God's  authority,  as 
well  as  with  the  extended  power  of  the  nation. 
[TEMPLE.]  But  Jehovah  as  King  had  not  only 
His  palace  or  dwelling-place ;  He  had  also  His 
ministers  and  officers  of  state.  Priests  and 
Levites  were  set  apart  for  His  service.  [PRIESTS, 
LEVITES.]  This  rule  of  God  was  acknowledged 
by  sacrifice  and  offering,  of  various  kinds,  made 
under  carefully  defined  conditions,  and  ex- 
pressive of  propitiation,  consecration,  and  com- 
munion. [SACRIFICE.]  The  claims  of  God 
were  further  acknowledged  by  recurring  festivals, 
varying  from  the  weekly  Sabbath  to  the  three 
great  annual  feasts,  and  to  the  Sabbatic  year, 
and  to  the  Jubilee — all  with  a  spiritual  and 
moral  purpose.  [FEASTS,  SABBATIC  YEARS, 
JUBILEE.] 

The  specific  directions  promulgated  in  the 
name  of  God  covered  every  part  of  the  national 
and  individual  life,  but  were  not  all  delivered  at 
one  time  or  place.  There  were  ordinances  made 
in  Egypt  (Ex.  12  and  13) ;  at  Sinai  (Ex.  19  and 
20);  at  Paran  (Num.  15.1);  in  the  plains  of 
Moab  (Deut.  1.5).  The  deliverances  were  at 
times  made  from  the  Tabernacle  (Lev.  1.1). 

That  much  of  this  Law  fell  into  disuse  is 
apparent,  not  only  from  the  decay  of  religion 
and  morals  under  the  kings,  but  also  more 
particularly  from  the  discovery,  in  the  eighteenth 
year  of  King  Josiah,  of  "  the  book  of  the  law  in 
the  house  of  the  Lord"  (2  K.  22.8),  and  the 
reforms  which  followed.  [DEUTERONOMY.] 

The  sum  of  the  ordinances  of  this  Law 
supplied  to  the  nation  a  code  which,  if 
stringent,  was  salutary  (cf.  Neh.  9.13;  Ezek. 


LAWYER] 


289 


[LEATHER,  LEATHERN 


20.11 ;  Rom.  7.12),  and  one  in  which  a  right 
mind  could  rejoice  (Ps.  119.97-100). 

The  ceremonial  institutions,  for  example,  were 
wonderfully  adapted  to  the  needs — spiritual 
as  well  as  material — of  a  people  placed  as  the 
Israelites  were.  For  (1)  they  were  in  some 
respects  sanitary  regulations.  This  was  one 
purpose  of  the  laws  relating  to  various  purifica- 
tions, the  separation  of  lepers,  and  the  distinc- 
tion of  meats,  etc.  (2)  They  also  served  to 
perpetuate  among  the  Israelites  the  knowledge 
of  the  true  God,  to  maintain  reverence  for  holy 
things,  and  to  call  forth  and  exercise  religious 
feelings  in  the  midst  of  their  daily  conduct,  and 
in  all  the  relations  of  life.  The  sacred  festivals, 
in  particular,  were  valuable  for  these  purposes. 

(3)  They  had  the  effect,  further,  of  preventing 
the  Israelites  from  becoming  closely  connected 
or  associating  with  surrounding  nations  (Eph. 
2.14, 17).    They  thus  might  have  guarded  them 
from  the  idolatry  and  corruption  which  reigned 
universally  in  the  world  ;  and  preserved  them  as 
an  entirely  distinct  nation,  until  the  time  came 
when  this  barrier  should  no  longer  be  necessary. 

(4)  These  observances  had  another  use  in  their 
symbolical   meaning.     In  condescension   to  the 
moral  and  intellectual  state  of  the  people,  who 
were  not  yet  capable  of  readily  apprehending 
Divine  truth,  spiritual  things  were  represented 
by  outward  and  visible  objects.     Thus,  ideas  of 
moral  purity  and  of  the  Divine  holiness  were 
communicated  and  cherished  by  the  repeated 
ablutions  of  their  persons  and  dwellings ;  by  the 
selection  of  clean  animals  for  sacrifice  ;  by  the 
unblemished  perfection  required  in  the  victims 
to  be  offered ;  and  by  the  restriction  of  the 
priestly  functions  to  a  class  of  men  who  were 
specially  set  apart  for  these  duties,  and  upon 
whom    repeated    purifications    were    enjoined. 
Further,  by  the  death  of  the  atoning  victim, 
to    which    the    worshipper    had    symbolically 
transferred  his  sins  by  laying  his  hands  upon 
its  head,  and  by  the  presentation  to  God  of  the 
blood,  which  represented  the  life,  the  important 
truth  was  taught  that  sin  deserved  extreme  and 
irremediable  punishment,  which  could  be  averted 
only  by  a  vicarious  sacrifice.     Thus,  by  means 
of   impressive   symbols,    the   worshippers   were 
constantly  reminded  of  the  justice  and  sanctity 
of  the  violated  law,  and  of  their  own  guiltiness 
and  need  of  Divine  mercy ;  and,   when  these 
services  were  performed  in  a  right  spirit,  their 
minds  would  be  inspired  with  a  humble  hope 
of    mercy,  leading  to  corresponding  gratitude, 
obedience,  and  love.     (5)  These  various  institu- 
tions also  prefigured  greater  and  better  things 
to  come  (Gal.  3.24).    We  learn  from  Hebrews  that 
the  priesthood,   the  sacrifices,   and  the  whole 
ritual,  formed  a  typical  prophecy  of  the  person 
and  work  of  the  Great  Deliverer,  and  of  that 
everlasting  redemption  which  He  was  to  accom- 
plish when  "  the  fulness  of  the  time  was  come." 

The  Law  was  not  contradicted  by  the  Gospel. 
That  was  at  once  manifest  from  our  Lord's  own 
declaration.  He  came  not  "  to  destroy,  but  to 
fulfil  "  it  (Matt.  5.17,  18).  Where  the'Law  was 

19 


only  typical,  serving  a  purpose  which  the  coming 
of  Christ  abolished,  the  Law  was  abrogated.  It 
had  done  its  part,  and  was  no  longer  needed 
(Gal.  3.24,  25).  Ceremonial  ceased  to  have  its 
true  signification,  "he  One  to  Whom  it  pointed 
was  come.  There  K  jiained  the  lasting  obliga- 
tions of  the  moral  law,  the  application  of  which 
was  extended  by  our  Lord  (Matt.  5.21-48).  In 
view,  however,  of  the  position  which  the  Law 
had  held  in  the  life  and  thought  of  the  Jewish 
people,  it  is  not  surprising  that  its  place  under 
the  new  Covenant  became  a  matter  of  some 
perplexity.  For  illustration  of  this  see  Acts 
10,  11,  15;  and  the  Epistles  to  the  Romans, 
Galatians,  and  Hebrews.  [ATONEMENT,  CANON 
OF  HOLY  SCRIPTURE,  JUSTIFICATION,  LAW, 
PENTATEUCH,  WORKS.] 

Lawyer. — These  persons,  so  often  mentioned 
in  the  N.T.,  devoted  themselves  to  the  study  and 
explanation  of  the  Law  of  Moses,  together  with 
the  oral  and  traditional  accretions  to  the  Law 
(Matt.  22.35 ;  Lk.  7.30,  10.25,  11.45).  In  Tit. 
3.13  the  word  probably  means  one  who  was 
a  legal  advocate  in  Gentile  courts.  [SCRIBE.] 

Lazarus. — The  Greek  form  of  Eleazar:  1. 
Brother  to  Martha  and  Mary.  He  dwelt  with  his 
sisters  at  Bethany,  near  Jerusalem.  Our  Lord 
did  him  the  honour  of  lodging  at  his  house  when 
He  visited  the  city.  The  raising  of  Lazarus  from 
the  dead  (John  11)  was  the  final  act  which  made 
the  Jews  decide  to  kilt  our  Lord  (John  11.47  ff.). 
2.  Lazarus  is  the  name  given  to  the  poor  man 
in  the  parable  of  the  rich  man  and  Lazarus 
(Lk.  16.20). 

Lead.— Lead  is  first  named  in  Ex.  15.10.  It 
was  used  for  weights  either  in  the  form  of  a  round 
flat  cake  (Zech.  5.7)  or  a  rough  unfashioned 
lump  or  stone  (Zech.  5.8).  In  ancient  times 
stones  were  generally  employed  as  weights 
(Prov.  16.11).  Job  expresses  a  wish  that  his 
words  "  were  graven  with  an  iron  pen  and  lead 
in  the  rock."  The  reference  is  to  the  practice 
of  carving  inscriptions  upon  stone  and  pouring 
molten  lead  into  the  cavities  of  the  letters.  In 
this  way  they  were  made  more  legible  and  more 
enduring.  The  mode  of  purifying  lead  from  the 
dross  which  is  mixed  with  it,  by  subjecting  it 
to  a  fierce  flame,  furnishes  several  allusions  in 
Scripture  to  God's  punishing  or  purifying  the 
people  (EzeJc.  22.18,  20). 

Leah. — Meaning  doubtful,  perhaps  wild  cow, 
as  Rachel  ewe :  the  wife  of  Jacob  and  eldest 
daughter  of  Laban.  By  a  trick  she  was  im- 
posed upon  Jacob  instead  of  her  younger  and 
more  beautiful  sister  Rachel,  for  whom  he  had 
served  her  father  seven  years.  He  was  com- 
pelled to  serve  seven  more  for  Rachel  (Gen.  29.20, 
30).  Both  are  named  in  the  benediction  called 
down  upon  Boaz  (Ruth  4.11). 

Lean'noth. — [M  AHALATH.  ] 

Leasing. — Falsehood  ;  an  Anglo-Saxon  word 
(Ps.  4.2,  5.6).  The  R.V.  has  in  Ps.  4.2  "  false- 
hood," and  in  5.6  "  lies." 

Leather,  Leathern.— Named  only  twice  in 
A.V.  (2  K.  1.8  ;  Matt.  3.4),  but  often  implied. 
It  was  used  by  the  Jews  for  making  shoes, 


LEAVEN] 


290 


[LEOPARD 


bottles,     thongs,    garments,    kneading-troughs, 
ropes,  and  other  articles.     [TANNER.] 

Leaven. — The  ordinary  leaven  consisted  of  a 
lump  of  old  dough  in  a  high  state  of  fermentation, 
which  was  inserted  into  the  mass  of  dough 
prepared  for  baking.  Leaven  was  forbidden  to 
the  Hebrews  during  the  seven  days  of  the 
Passover,  in  memory  of  what  their  ancestors  did, 
when  they  went  out  of  Egypt ;  they  being  then 
obliged  to  carry  unleavened  meal  with  them 
and  to,  make  bread  in  haste  ;  the  Egyptians 
pressing  them  to  be  gone  (Ex.  12.15,  19  ;  Lev. 
2.11).  The  insipidity  of  unleavened  bread  is  a 
suitable  symbol  of  affliction  (Deut.  16.3).  Leaven 
is  used  figuratively  as  a  gradually  transforming 
power  (Matt.  13.33,  18.11;  1  Cor.  5.6),  for 
example,  the  silent  influence  of  the  Gospel  on 
the  heart  of  man. 

Leba'na  (Neh.  7.48)  or  Lebanah  (Ezra  2.45).— 
The  ancestor  of  certain  Nethinim  who  returned 
with  Zerubbabel. 

Lebanon. — White  mown  tain:  on  the  north  border 
of  the  Promised  Land  (Deut.  1.7,  11.24;  Josh. 
1.4).  The  name  is  borne  by  two  ranges,  parallel 
to  each  other,  and  to  the  sea-coast  from  south- 
west to  north-east,  for  about  100  miles,  separated 
by  two  valleys.  The  more  southern  and  smaller 
of  these,  the  Wady  et-Teim,  gives  rise  to  the 
Hasbany,  one  of  the  sources  of  the  Jordan  ;  the 
more  northern  is  the  "  valley  of  Lebanon  "  (Josh. 
11.17).  The  western  range  is  the  Lebanon  of 
Scripture,  whence  Solomon  obtained  timber 
for  the  Temple  (1  K.  5.9).  The  eastern  range, 
Anti-Libanus,  "  Lebanon  toward  the  sun-rising  " 
(Josh.  13.5),  was  originally  inhabited  by  Giblites 
and  Hivites  (Josh.  13.5,  6 ;  Judg.  3.3).  It  was 
sparsely  populated,  and  was  the  haunt  of  many 
wild  beasts  (Cant.  4.8,  7.4).  The  mountains  of 
Lebanon  are  an  impressive  spectacle,  whether 
approached  from  the  Mediterranean  on  the  west 
or  the  desert  on  the  east.  A  refreshing  sight  to  the 
traveller  in  the  desert,  under  a  firmament  of  fire, 
are  the  snow-capped  peaks  (Jer.  18.14).  The 
stupendous  size,  the  extensive  range,  and  great 
elevation  of  Lebanon ;  its  towering  summits 
capped  with  perpetual  snow  or  crowned  with 
fragrant  cedars ;  its  olive  plantations ;  its 
vineyards  producing  the  most  delicious 
wines ;  its  clear  fountains,  and  cold-flowing 
brooks ;  its  fertile  vales  and  odoriferous  shrub- 
beries combine  to  form  in  Scripture  language 
"  the  glory  of  Lebanon  "  (Isai.  35.2).  Numerous 
aromatic  plants  grow  upon  the  mountains ; 
hence  Cant.  4.11  ;  Hos.  14.6. 

Leba'oth. — Lions  or  lionesses :  a  town  in 
extreme  south  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.32) ;  in  Josh. 
19.6  called  Beth-lebaoth. 

Lebbse'us,  Lebbe'us. — Man  of  heart :  the  name 
given  to  the  Apostle  Thaddreus  in  some  manu- 
scripts and  in  the  A.V.  of  Matt.  10.3  (not  R.V.). 
It  may  have  been  his  Hebrew  name,  and 
Thaddaeus  his  Gentile  name.  He  is  evidently 
the  same  person  as  Judas  5.  [THADD;EUS.] 

Lebo'nah. — Frankincense  or  while  village :  a 
grey,  venerable  village  less  than  3  miles  north-west 
of  Shiloh  (Judg.  21.19);  now  called  El-Lubban. 


Le'cah. — A  great-grandson  of  Judah  (1  Ch. 
4.21).  Perhaps  a  place  which  had  Er,  grandson 
of  Judah,  for  its  "  father." 

Leek. — The  Hebrew  word  is  properly  green 
grass,  but  it  is  used  specially  of  leeks  (cf. 
"  greens "  used  of  the  cabbage  order).  The 
Israelites  in  the  desert  lusted  after  the  leeks 
that  they  had  eaten  in  Egypt  (Num.  11.5). 
According  to  Herodotus  the  pyramid  builders  of 
Egypt  were  fed  on  radishes,  onions,  and  garlick  ; 
which,  together  with  lentils,  formed  the  chief 
vegetables  of  the  prolific  land. 

Lees. — The  Hebrew  word  may  mean  dark. 
Wine  "  on  the  lees "  signified  wine  left  in  the 
vessel  into  which  it  was  originally  poured.  So 
standing  it  became  thick  and  syrupy,  full- 
bodied,  in  short ;  hence  the  expression  "  wine 
on  the  lees  "  (Isai.  25.6).  Before  it  was  drunk 
it  was  strained  off  the  lees  or  dregs,  and  hence- 
forth was  considered  "  refined."  "  To  settle 
upon  one's  lees,"  meant  to  remain  contentedly 
unpurified,  and  is  applied  to  lazy,  dull,  heavy 
stupidity  (Jer.  48.11 ;  Zeph.  1.12).  To  drink 
"  to  the  lees "  meant  to  drink  the  whole  cup 
to  the  bottom  (Ps.  75.8;  Isai.  51.17). 

Legion. — A  Roman  military  term,  signifying 
about  6000  foot  soldiers,  with  a  contingent  of 
cavalry.  In  the  N.T.  it  is  used  only  meta- 
phorically of  a  disciplined  host  (Matt.  26.53 ; 
Mk.  5.9). 

Leha'bim. — The  ancestor  of  the  Egyptian 
Libyans  (Gen.  10.13  ;  1  Ch.  1.11).  [LuBiM.] 

Le'hi.  —  Jawbone :  a  district  in  the  hill 
country  of  Judah  near  Philistia,  and  not  far 
from  Jerusalem  (Judg.  15.9,  14,  19) ;  the  scene 
of  Samson's  exploit. 

Lemu'eL— (?)  Godward:  king  of  Massa.  It 
may  be  only  a  poetical  appellation  (Prov. 
31.1, 4).  [MASSA.] 

Lentiles  (R.V.  Lentils).— A  kind  of  vetch. 
The  lentil  plant  grows  to  a  height  of  six  or 
eight  inches,  when  the  purple  flowers  develop 
into  pods,  each  containing  two  or  three  beans. 
In  Palestine  the  harvest  of  lentils  is  reaped  in 
June  and  July,  either  with  a  scythe  or  by  hand, 
and  then  carried  to  the  threshing-floor.  Its 
nutritive  qualities  are  well  known,  and  a  pottage 
made  of  the  red  variety  of  lentil  is  a  savoury 
dish.  It  was  thus  that  the  faint  and  famished 
Esau  cried  out,  at  the  first  sight  of  his  brother's 
tempting  meal,  "  Feed  me,  I  pray  thee,  with  the 
red — the  red,"  into  which  he  might  dip  the 
soft  "  bread,"  spoon-fashion,  as  now  his  de- 
scendants are  accustomed  to  do.  "  Then  Jacob 
gave  Esau  bread  and  pottage  of  len tiles " 
(Gen.  25.29-34).  The  Arabs  have  a  tradition 
that  Hebron  is  the  spot  where  Esau  sold  his 
birthright,  and  in  memory  of  this  event  the 
dervishes  distribute  from  the  kitchen  of  a 
mosque  there  a  daily  supply  of  lentil  soup  to 
travellers  and  poor  inhabitants. 

Leopard.  —  An  animal  once  common  in 
Palestine,  but  now  rare.  Its  spotted  skin  is 
noticed  (Jer.  13.23);  its  swiftness  (Hab.  1.8); 
its  habit  of  lying  in  wait  for  its  prey  (Jer. 
5.6).  The  Bedouins  of  Sinai  have  a  great 


LEPER,  LEPROSY] 


291 


[LEVITICUS,  THE  BOOK  OF 


horror  of  the  leopard,  whose  favourite  food  is 
their  goats,  almost  their  sole  possession.  Hence 
the  point  of  Isaiah's  declaration  that  "  the 
leopard  shall  lie  down  with  the  kid  "  (Isai.  11.6). 

Leper,  Leprosy. — A  skin-disease  described  with 
much  detail  in  Lev.  13,  14,  and  essentially  the 
same  as  the  terrible  scourge  which  we  now  know 
as  leprosy.  But  the  Mosaic  Law  had  in  view  a 
wide  class  of  diseases,  the  symptoms  of  which 
were  eruptions  on  the  skin.  Thus  the  words 
which  we  translate  "  leper,"  "  leprous,"  and 
"  leprosy  "  were  undoubtedly  used  in  a  loose  and 
general  way.  Naaman,  for  example,  though  a 
leper,  lived  at  the  court  and  discharged  the 
duties  of  a  general.  It  is  certain,  therefore, 
that  his  disease  was  not  that  with  which  we  are 
now  so  painfully  familiar  in  the  East.  Twelve 
cases  of  leprosy  are  mentioned  in  the  N.T. 
(Matt.  26.6;  Affc.1.40;  Lie.  5.12,  17.12-19).  It 
is  important  in  studying  the  Mosaic  provisions 
regarding  the  treatment  of  this  disease  not  to 
regard  the  term  "  unclean  "  as  equivalent  to 
"  contagious."  The  details  of  the  ceremonies 
to  be  observed  in  the  "  cleansing  "  of  the  leper 
(Lev.  14)  are  wonderfully  symbolic  of  the 
cleansing  of  the  sinner  by  the  blood  of  Christ. 

Of  the  so-called  "  leprosy  "  of  garments  (Lev. 
13.47-59)  and  of  houses  (Lev.  14.33-53)  nothing 
is  known.  It  must  either  have  died  out,  or 
have  become  less  visible,  or  represent  parasitic 
or  chemical  growths  that  are  comparatively 
innocuous. 

Le'shem. — A  city  on  the  west  of  Mount 
Tlormon  (Josh.  19.47);  also  known  as  Laish  and 
as  Dan. 

Letu'shim.  —  (?)  Oppressed,  struck:  great- 
grandchildren of  Abraham  (Gen.  25.3),  repre- 
senting tribes  in  Arabia. 

Leum'mim.— (?)  Peoples :  brothers  of  Letushim 
(Gen.  25.3). 

Levi.— (?)  Joined:  1.  The  third  son  of  Jacob 
by  Leah.  He  was  associated  with  his  brother 
Simeon  in  the  terrible  vengeance  which  they 
took  upon  the  men  of  Shechem  for  the  dishonour 
of  their  sister,  Dinah  (Gen.  34).  In  other 
passages  of  his  history  he  figures  merely  as  one 
of  the  sons  of  Jacob.  [LEVITES.]  2.  The  great- 
grandfather of  Joseph,  the  husband  of  the 
Virgin  Mary  (Lk.  3.24).  3.  A  remote  ancestor 
(Lk.  3.29).  4.  Another  name  of  Matthew,  the 
apostle  [MATTHEW]  (Mk.  2.14  ;  Lk.  5.27,  29). 

Leviathan.— The  leviathan  of  Jol  41.1  is  the 
crocodile,  which  is  found  in  the  Nile  of  Upper 
Egypt  and  still  exists  in  the  Zerka  or  Crocodile 
river,  which  rises  near  Samaria  and  flows  through 
the  plain  of  Sharon.  The  crocodile  preys 
chiefly  on  fish,  which  it  pursues  with  lightning- 
like  rapidity,  but  it  feeds  occasionally  on  any 
animal  it  can  seize.  The  crocodile  was  re- 
garded as  sacred  by  the  Egyptians.  In  Ps. 
104.25,  26  the  reference  is  not  to  the  crocodile, 
but  to  some  monster  of  the  whale  kind.  There 
are  no  crocodiles  in  the  Mediterranean,  the 
"  great  and  wide  sea "  of  the  passage.  In 
Job  3.8  (R.V.)  there  appears  to  be  an  allusion 
to  the  mythological  dragon  who  devours  the 


sun  in  an  eclipse.     In  Ps.  74.14  ;    Isai.  27.1  it 
is  used  metaphorically  of  Egypt. 

Levites. — All  the  priests  of  the  chosen  people 
were  Levites,  that  is,  descendants  of  Levi, 
through  Kohath  (Levi's  second  son)  and  Aaron. 
Levi,  however,  had  other  sons  whose  descendants 
assisted  the  priests,  formed  the  guard  of  the 
Tabernacle,  and  conveyed  it  from  place  to 
place  (Num.  4.2,  22,  29).  In  David's  time 
the  whole  body  was  divided  into  three  classes, 
each  of  which  was  subdivided  into  twenty-four 
courses.  The  first  class  attended  upon  the 
priests  ;  the  second  formed  the  choir  of  singers 
in  the  Temple,  and  the  third  acted  as  porters  and 
guards  (1  Ch.  24,  25,  26)  in  the  Temple  and  at 
the  gates.  For  the  support  of  this  large  body 
of  men,  forty-eight  cities,  with  a  belt  of  land 
round  each,  were  assigned  ;  a  tenth  of  all  the 
produce  and  cattle  of  the  country  (Lev.  27.30  ; 
Num.  35.1-8),  of  which  tenth  the  priests  had  a 
tenth  ;  all  shared  also  in  another  tenth  of  the 
produce,  which  the  people  generally  were  to 
expend  in  feast-offerings,  to  which  the  Levites 
were  to  be  invited  (Deut.  14.22-27).  [PRIEST, 
HIGH  PRIEST.] 

Leviticus,  The  Book  of.— The  title  of  this 
book  is  derived  from  that  given  to  it  in  the 
Septuagint,  "  The  Levitical  [Book]."  In 
Jewish  writings  it  is  more  commonly  called  by 
its  first  Hebrew  word.  [For  the  critical  questions 
connected  with  its  authorship  and  date,  see 
PENTATEUCH.]  It  is  closely  joined  with  Exodus 
and  Numbers,  but  differs  from  these  books  in 
giving  but  little  historical  narrative  (chaps.  8-10, 
24.10-23).  The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  gives  to 
much  of  Leviticus  a  Christian  interpretation. 

The  contents  of  the  book  may  be  divided  into 
four  sections : — 

(1)  Contains  the  laws  concerning  the  Sacri- 
fices (chaps.  1-4  and  parts  of  5,  6,  and  7). 
(2)  The  institution  of  the  Priesthood  (chaps. 
8-10).  (3)  The  laws  concerning  Purifications 
and  the  ordinances  respecting  the  Day  of 
Atonement  (chaps.  11-16).  (4)  "The  Law  of 
Holiness,"  perhaps  originally  a  separate  Code. 
It  repeatedly  insists  on  "  holiness"  in  connexion 
with  various  portions  of  the  ceremonial  and 
moral  law  (chaps.  17-26).  (5)  An  Appendix 
on  Vo\vs  (chap.  27). 

The  laws  in  Leviticus  were  given  in  the 
Wilderness  at  different  times,  though  certain 
expressions,  as  in  chap.  18.27,  seem  to  imply 
that  some  were  added  after  the  settlement  in 
Canaan.  From  a  comparison  of  the  closing 
words  in  the  last  two  chapters  it  is  thought 
that  chap.  27  is  an  appendix,  added  when  the 
book  was  reduced  to  the  form  in  which  we  have 
it. 

The  references  to  or  quotations  from  Leviticus 
in  the  N.T.  are  peculiarly  interesting  : — The 
characteristic  phrase  of  this  book,  "  Holy,  for  I 
[Jehovah]  am  holy  "  (11.44,  45,  19.2,  20.7,  26), 
is  reproduced  in  1  Pet.  1.16  with  the  formula 
"  It  is  written."  It  is  here  also  (Lev.  19.18) 
that  the  "  royal  law  "  is  given  :  "  Thou  shalt 
love  thy  neighbour  as  thyself,"  cited  Matt. 


LIBERTINES] 


292 


[LINTEL 


19.19,  22.39;  Mk.  12.31;  Lk.  10.27;  Rom. 
13.9;  Gal.  5.14;  Jas.  2.8).  Special  allusions 
to  sacrifices  are  to  the  "  pair  of  turtledoves  " 
for  purification  (12.6,  8  ;  Lk.  2.22,  24) ;  to  the 
sin-offering  of  the  bullock  and  the  goat  (16.18,  27; 
Eeb.  9.12, 13,  10.4,  13.11-13) ;  and  to  the  sacri- 
fices of  thanksgiving  (or  "  praise ")  (7.12 ; 
Eeb.  13.15).  In  Lev.  also  26.11, 12  is  the 
great  promise  of  God  to  His  people  to  set  His 
tabernacle  among  them  (cf.  Ezek.  37.27)  (John 
1.14;  2  Cor.  6.16;  Rev.  7.15,  21.3,  see  R.V. 
marg.). 

x  Libcr'tines. — Freedmen :  apparently  Jews  who 
had  been  captives  at  Rome  (e.g.  by  Pompey, 
63  B.C.),  but  being  freed  had  returned  to 
Jerusalem,  where  they  and  their  descendants 
had  a  synagogue  (Acts  6.9). 

Lib 'nab. — White:  1.  A  town  in  the  south-west 
of  Palestine,  though  the  exact  site  is  uncertain, 
taken  by  Joshua,  allotted  to  Judah  and  appro- 
priated to  the  priests  (Josh.  10.29-39,  12.15, 
15.42,  21.13;  1  Ch.  6.57).  It  revolted  in  the 
reign  of  Jehoram  (2  K.  8.22  ;  2  Ch.  21.10) ;  was 
besieged  by  Sennacherib  (2  K.  19.8  ;  Isai.  37.8). 
Libnah  was  the  native  place  of  Queen  Hamutal, 
mother  of  Jehoahaz  and  Zedekiah  (2  K.  23.31, 
24.18;  Jer.  52.1).  2.  The  site  of  an  Israelite 
encampment  (Num.  33.20,21);  perhaps  the 
same  as  Laban  2. 

Lib'ni.— White:  1.  The  eldest  son  of  Gershom, 
the  son  of  Levi  (Ex.  6.17  ;  Num.  3.18  ;  1  Ch.  6.17, 
20),  and  ancestor  of  the  family  of  the  Libnites  ; 
probably  the  same  as  Laadan  1.  2.  The  grandson 
of  Merari,  the  son  of  Levi  (1  Ch.  6.29). 

Libnites.— [LIBNI  1.] 

Libya. — The  country  on  north  coast  of  Africa, 
west  from  Egypt ;  also  called  Put  or  Phut  (Ezek. 
27.10,  30.5,  38.5  ;  Acts  2.10). 

Lib'yans,  Lu'bim. — The  inhabitants  of  Libya ; 
supposed  to  have  sprung  from  Phut,  the  son  of 
Ham  (Jer.  46.9  ;  Dan.  11.43). 

Lice. — This  word  occurs  only  with  reference 
to  the  third  great  plague  of  Egypt  (Ex.  8.16-18  ; 
Ps.  105.31).  The  Egyptian  priests  were  regarded 
as  unfit  to  perform  their  ministrations  unless 
scrupulously  clean.  Every  third  day  they 
shaved  their  heads  and  bodies,  lest  they  should 
harbour  any  lice.  Hence  such  a  visitation  may 
be  regarded  as  something  worse  than  a  loathsome 
plague.  It  interfered  directly  with  the  perform- 
ance of  their  ceremonial  worship.  Some,  however, 
have  thought  that  the  plague  was  rather  of  gnats 
or  mosquitoes  than  lice  (see  R.V.  marg.). 

Lieutenant. — The  word  is  applied  to  the  satraps 
or  viceroys  who  governed  the  provinces  of  the 
Persian  empire  (Ezra  8.36;  Esth.  3.12,  8.9,  9.3). 
The  word  "prince"  is  used  in  Daniel  to  signify 
the  same  position. 

Lign  Aloes.— [ALOES.] 

Ligure. — One  of  the  precious  stones  in  the 
breastplate  of  the  Jewish  high-priest  (Ex.  28.19, 
A.V.).  The  text  of  the  R.V.  has  jacinth,  the 
margin  amber.  It  appears  to  have  been  yellow. 

LikTli.— (?)  Doctrine  of  Jehovah  :  1.  Son  of 
Shemidah,  a  Manassite  (1  Ch.  7.19). 

Lilith.— (Isai.  34.14,  R.V.  marg.):    a  female 


demon  who  was  active  at  night.  She  figures 
largely  in  Eastern  and  Rabbinical  superstitions. 

Lily. — The  flower  known  among  us  as  the  lily 
of  the  valley  is  not  mentioned  in  Scripture. 
The  "  lilies  of  the  field  "  in  Matt.  6.28  seem  to 
refer  to  whole  families  of  flowers,  comprising 
such  members  as  the  tulip,  iris,  gladiolus, 
hyacinth,  and  fritillary,  as  well  as  anemones. 
If  in  Cant.  2.1,2  and  Hos.  14.5  an  individual 
species  is  intended,  it  is  probably  the  iris. 
Large,  vigorous,  elegant  in  form  and  gorgeous 
in  colouring,  no  fitter  emblem  could  be  found, 
trom  an  Oriental  standpoint,  in  which  to  convey 
the  sentiment  of  admiration  and  love. 

Lime. — Lime  is  named  in  Isai.  33.12  and  Amos 
2.1.  The  use  of  lime  was  familiar  in  Egypt, 
Babylonia,  and  Assyria. 

Linen. — The  "  fine  linen  "  of  ancient  Egypt, 
universally  used  in  that  country  for  clothing 
and  for  wrapping  the  bodies  of  the  dead,  and 
largely  exported,  was  the  spun  fibre  of  flax. 
One  of  the  plagues  of  Egypt  was  the  smiting 
of  the  flax  crops  by  hail.  A  fabric  so  light, 
smooth  and  cleanly  was  specially  fitted 
to  be  the  dress  of  those  who  were  officially 
engaged  in  religious  worship.  The  Jewish  priests, 
like  those  of  Egypt,  were  commanded  to  wear 
linen  garments  (Ex.  28 ;  Ezek.  44.17-19).  The 
Tabernacle  curtains  were  embroidered  upon 
the  same  material  (Ex.  26.1).  Samuel  and 
David  were  "  girded  with  a  linen  ephod  "  (1  Sam. 
2.18;  2  Sam.  6.14).  Angelic  beings  seen  by 
Ezekiel  and  Daniel  (Ezek.  9.2;  Dan.  10.5) 
appeared  as  if  "  clothed  in  linen  "  ;  and  in  the 
final  visions  of  the  Apocalypse  angels  and  glorified 
saints  are  adorned  with  the  same  emblematic 
garments  of  purity  (Rev.  15.6,  19.8,  14).  The 
excellence  of  the  spinning  and  weaving  of 
Jewish  women  is  hinted  at  in  Prov.  31.22-24. 
"  Fine  linen  "  is  among  the  luxuries  for  which, 
in  degenerate  times,  the  Hebrew  women  of 
fashion  are  rebuked  by  the  prophet  (Isai.  3.23). 
The  rich  man  hi  the  parable  was  "  clothed  in 
fine  linen,"  and  Joseph  of  Arimathsea  bestowed 
this  last  honour  upon  the  body  of  the  Saviour 
before  laying  it  in  the  tomb  (Mk.  15.46;  Lk. 
16.19). 

Lines. — "  The  lines  are  fallen  unto  me  in 
pleasant  places"  (Ps.  16.6).  The  reference 
is  to  the  mode  of  measuring  land  with  a  cord 
or  line.  [MEASURES.] 

Lintel. — The  cross-beam  resting  on  the  two 
side-posts  of  a  doorway.  Three  Hebrew  words 
are  translated  lintel.  Of  these  one,  ayil,  has 
itself  been  variously  rendered,  by  "  post "  ;  by 
"  trunk,"  as  of  a  tree ;  the  "  volutes  of  columns  "  ; 
the  triangular  space  above  a  door ;  the  whole 
doorway  itself,  including  the  architrave  or 
lintel  above  it  (1  K.  6.31 ;  Ezek.  40.9-49,  ex- 
cepting 10,  14,  16) ;  and,  in  the  plural,  the 
ornamented  front,  with  its  fluted  columns,  of 
the  building  itself  (Ezek.  40.10,14,16).  The 
second  word,  caphtar,  occurs  in  Amos  9.1 ; 
Zeph.  2.14,  and  is  more  properly  rendered 
"  knop  "  (which  see)  as  in  the  margin  of  A.V. 
The  third,  nuishkoph  (Ex.  12.22,  23),  is  else- 


LINUS] 


293 


[LOGOS 


where  better  rendered  "  upper  doorpost " 
(Ex.  12.7). 

Linus. — A  Christian  at  Rome  known  to  Paul 
and  Timothy  (2  Tim.  4.21).  He  was  the  first 
bishop  of  Rome,  perhaps  from  64-79  A.D. 

Lion. — The  lion  is  mentioned  about  130  times 
in  Scripture — more  frequently  than  any  other 
wild  beast.  The  lion  once  ranged  over  Syria 
and  Asia  Minor,  but  has  not  been  seen  in  Pales- 
tine since  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
Personal  encounters  with  the  lion  are  recorded 
of  Samson  (Judg.  14.6),  David  (1  Sam.  17.36), 
and  Benaiah,  one  of  David's  mighty  men  (2  Sam. 
23.20).  Pitfalls  were  common  means  of  cap- 
turing lions.  Another  method  was  by  driving 
him  from  his  dwelling-place  into  a  wall  of 
net,  which  was  placed  partly  around  it ;  such 
a  means  of  hunting  the  lion  is  still  employed 
in  India.  Sometimes  the  net  and  pit  were 
combined,  when  it  was  desired  to  catch  the 
animal  alive.  There  are  references  to  both 
these  methods  in  Job  19.6  and  Ezek.  19.  The 
natural  death  of  a  lion  is  from  hunger  ;  "  the  old 
lion  perisheth  for  lack  of  prey"  (Job  4.11). 
Lions  were  held  to  be  the  type  of  the  highest 
courage.  Among  David's  best  warriors  were  the 
"  lion-faced  "  men  of  Gad  (1  Ch.  12.8).  The  lion 
was  the  emblem  of  the  princely  tribe  of  Judah  ; 
nevertheless,  on  account  of  its  ferocity,  the  lion 
is  employed  as  a  metaphor  for  cruelty  and 
malignant  curiosity  (Ps.  7.2,  22.21 ;  2  Tim. 
4.17),  and  hence  for  Satan  himself  (1  Pet.  5.8). 

Lizard. — Lizards  are  included  among  the 
unclean  things  that  creep  upon  the  earth 
(Lev.  11.30).  They  abound  in  Palestine. 

Lo-am'mi. — Not  my  people :  the  name  given 
by  Hosea  to  his  second  son  (Eos.  1.9),  to  signify 
the  rejection  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  by 
Jehovah. 

Loan. — It  was  a  religious  duty,  in  the  early 
Hebrew  times,  to  lend  to  the  poor,  and  on  no 
account  was  interest  to  be  exacted  (Ex.  22.25  ; 
Lev.  25.35,37;  Deut.  15.3,7-10,  23.19,20). 
With  the  advance  of  commerce  the  principle 
of  interest  was  introduced,  though  the  original 
spirit  of  the  Law  was  approved  by  Christ  (Matt. 
5.42,  25.27;  Lk.  6.35,  19.23).  Very  rigid 
precautions  were  taken  by  the  Law  of  Moses 
against  the  harsh  treatment  of  debtors  (Ex. 
22.26;  Deut.  24.6,10,11,17).  A  Hebrew 
debtor  might  not  be  detained  as  a  bondsman 
longer  than  the  seventh  (or  Sabbatic)  year, 
or  at  furthest  the  year  of  jubilee  (Ex.  21.2; 
Lev.  25.39,42;  Deut.  15.9).  This  provision 
did  not  apply  to  foreigners  sojourning  among 
the  Hebrews  and  seized  for  debt  (Lev.  25.46  ; 
2  K.  4.2  ;  /sat.  50.1,  52.3).  In  later  times  the 
debtor  was  liable  to  be  detained  in  prison  until 
the  full  discharge  of  his  obligation  (Malt.  5.26). 

Lock. — Bars  of  wood  or  iron  were  used  by 
the  ancient  Hebrews  to  secure  their  doors. 
A  large  key  was  applied  to  the  bar  through  a 
hole  from  the  outside,  and  in  this  way  the  bar 
or  bolt  was  slipped  forward  (Judg.  3.23,  24  ; 
1  K.  4.13 ;  Cant.  5.4,  5 ;  /sot.  45.2).  [KEY.] 

Locust. — An   insect,   belonging  to   the   same 


order  as  grasshoppers,  crickets,  cockroaches, 
earwigs,  white  ants,  arid  dragon-flies.  Its 
food  is  exclusively  of  a  vegetable  character, 
and  when  locusts  occur  in  unusual  abundance 
they  are  very  destructive.  Swarms  which 
obscure  the  sun  at  noonday  alight  on  some 
doomed  neighbourhood,  and  all  hope  of  saving 
crops,  fruit,  and  vegetables  may  be  abandoned. 
The  leaves  are  stripped  from  the  trees,  and 
the  surface  of  the  earth  appears  as  if  it  was 
burned  (Joel  1.4,  2.4-9).  Thus  they  cause  dire- 
ful famines;  fortunately  the  locust  visitations 
are  not  frequent.  Locusts  were  permitted  to  the 
Hebrews  as  food,  and  in  some  places  at  the 
present  day — in  the  Jordan  valley,  Gilead, 
Arabia,  and  Morocco,  for  example — they  are 
esteemed  a  great  delicacy.  They  were  eaten 
by  John  the  Baptist.  The  Hebrew  language 
is  very  rich  in  names  for  them,  but  it  is  not 
certain  whether  these  refer  to  different  stages 
of  their  growth  or  to  different  species.  Several 
such  names  occur  in  Joel  1.4. 

Lod,  Lydda. — A  town  of  Benjamin  in  the 
plain  of  Sharon,  reoccupied  after  the  return 
from  the  Captivity  (1  Ch.  8.12 ;  Ezra  2.33  ; 
Neh.  7.37,  11.35).  It  was  the  scene  of  Peter's 
cure  of  .Eneas  (Acts  9.32-35,  38).  St.  George, 
the  patron  saint  of  England,  is  said  to  have 
been  born  here. 

Lo-detar. — Pastureless  :  town  in  Gilead  on 
east  of  Jordan,  the  home  of  Machir,  the  pro- 
tector of  Mephibosheth  and  the  hospitable 
helper  of  David  (2  Sam.  9.4,  17.27). 

Log. — The  smallest  of  the  Hebrew  liquid 
measures,  about  two-thirds  of  a  pint  (Lev.  14.10, 
12,  15,  21,  24). 

Logos. — The  Greek  term  imperfectly  rendered 
by  "  Word "  in  the  prologue  to  St.  John's 
Gospel  (John  1.1,14).  Imperfectly,  because 
logos,  especially  in  its  philosophical  use,  which 
is  here  in  question,  stands  also  for  reason,  of 
which  a  word  is  the  expression  and  medium 
of  communication.  "  The  term  Logos,  signifying 
as  it  does,  on  the  one  hand,  partly  thought  and 
partly  will,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  also  the 
expression  of  thought  in  a  sentence  and  the 
expression  of  will  in  a  law,  has  no  single  equiva- 
lent in  modern  language "  (Hatch).  It  was 
the  purpose  of  St.  John  (shared,  as  will  be 
seen,  by  St.  Paul)  to  set  the  Christian  revelation 
in  its  relation  to  current  philosophical  question- 
ings, Greek  and  Jewish,  and  to  find  in  Christ 
their  meaning  and  their  answer.  The  several 
streams  of  thought  which  meet  in  the  Logos- 
doctrine  of  the  N.T.  must  first,  therefore,  be 
briefly  traced. 

1.  The  Logos  in  Philosophical  Speculation. — 
The  idea  belongs  to  the  attempt  to  think  out 
the  relation  in  which  God  stands  to  the  world. 
If,  as  by  the  Stoics,  He  be  identified  with  it, 
the  world  is  yet  not  dead  and  formless  matter. 
It  is  instinct  with  reason :  God  is  immanent  in 
it,  expressing  Himself  in  all  its  forms  and  forces, 
from  lowest  to  highest,  from  the  force  of  co- 
hesion, which  holds  together  the  particles  of  a 
stone,  to  the  supreme  manifestation  of  His 


LOIS] 


294 


[LOOKING-GLASS 


nature  in  the  soul  of  roan.  The  one  Divine 
Logos  or  active  reason  which  animates  and 
directs  the  whole  separates  into  many  Logoi 
(plural),  conceived  as  seeds,  which  develop  each 
into  its  own  product  of  some  law  or  form  of 
nature.  In  Platonism  God  was  regarded  as 
apart  from  the  world,  shaping  it  by  reason 
under  impulse  of  His  goodness  and  power. 
Each  class  of  material  things  embodies  and  is 
produced  by  an  idea  in  the  Divine  mind : 
these  ideas,  or  Logoi,  go  forth  from  Him  as  the 
varied  creative  forces  by  which  inert  matter  is 
moulded  into  the  types  which  make  up  the 
world  of  things  and  minds. 

But  the  more  immediate  ancestry  of  the 
N.T.  Logos  is  probably  to  be  found  in  Philo, 
the  Jewish  philosopher  of  Alexandria  (c.  30  B.C.- 
50  A.I>.).  In  him  the  streams  of  Greek  and 
Judaistic  thought  meet  and  expand  into  a 
Logos-doctrine  of  wonderful  fulness  and  variety. 
God  did  indeed  create  the  universe,  and  through 
all  its  parts  His  reason  is  revealed.  But  God 
is  in  Himself  pure  Being,  eternal  and  incom- 
prehensible, to  whom  no  contact  with  matter  is 
possible,  lest  He  be  defiled.  Hence  He  acts 
through  the  Logos,  His  reason  or  creative 
energy,  conceived  as  a  being  intermediate 
between  God  arid  the  world,  His  reason  or  will 
personified,  though  not  in  the  full  sense  per- 
sonalised. Subordinate  to  the  Logos  are  a 
host  of  other  forces,  the  angels  of  the  O.T.  and 
of  popular  mythology,  who  carry  out  God's 
will  upon  the  world.  Of  these  the  Logos  is  the 
"  charioteer,"  whom  they  must  obey,  but  God, 
as  master  of  the  chariot,  prescribes  to  the  Logos 
the  course  which  is  to  be  taken.  Further,  the 
Logos  is  the  representative  of  the  world  before 
God,  its  high  priest  and  intercessor. 

The  main  functions  of  the  Logos,  then, 
appear  as  creation,  revelation,  and  mediation. 
In  all  these  ways  God  acts  through  the  Logos. 
An  analogy  to  this  conception  has  been  found 
in  certain  O.T.  expressions  (e.g.  Ps.  33.6, 
107.20,  147.15,  18,  148.8 :  cf.  "  the  word  of  the 
Lord  came,"  "  the  word  which  Isaiah  saw  "  : 
also  "  the  angel  of  the  Lord,"  "  the  angel  of 
the  covenant "),  and  in  phrases  occurring  in 
Rabbinic  commentary  on  Genesis :  "  they 
heard  the  voice  of  the  word  of  the  Lord  God 
walking  in  the  garden,"  "  He  made  a  covenant 
between  Abram  and  His  word,"  etc.  And  in 
the  Wisdom  literature  of  the  O.T.  and  Apocrypha 
we  have  a  poetical  personification  of  Wisdom 
akin  to  the  metaphysical  conception  of  Philo 
that  the  Logos  dwelt  with  God  as  His  "  wisdom  " 
(e.g.  Prov.  8).  But  this  usage  cannot  be  re- 
garded as  the  main  source  of  St.  John's  Logos- 
doctrine  :  even  as  a  contributory  rill  it  had  first 
been  absorbed  into  Philo's  thought.  It  is  the 
philosophical  doctrine  of  Philo  which  St.  John 
adopts  and  transfigures.  So  does  St.  Paul, 
in  more  polemic  vein,  vindicating  against  its 
teaching  of  angelic  mediators  of  God,  whether 
in  creation  or  redemption,  the  sole  sufficiency 
and  supremacy  of  Jesus  Christ. 

2.  The  Logos  in  the  N.T.— The  term  is  con- 


fined to  John  1.1, 14  (the  passage  concerning 
the  "  three  heavenly  witnesses,"  1  John  5.7,  is 
undoubtedly  an  interpolation),  and  perhaps 
Rev.  19.13.  This  Logos  was  with  God,  the 
medium  of  creation  and  revelation  (John  1-13)  : 
in  these  leading  thoughts,  as  «ell  as  in  some 
isolated  expressions,  St.  John  is  plainly  within 
the  circle  of  Phi  Ionic  ideas.  But  the  differences 
are  more  significant  than  the  resemblances. 
The  stress  shifts  from  Logos  as  Reason  to 
Logos  as  Word :  this  creative  and  revealing 
Word  is  a  person,  not  only  in  the  beginning 
with  God,  but  Himself  God.  At  one  daring 
stroke  the  gulf  between  God  and  man,  im- 
passable to  philosophy,  is  bridged  by  faith  : 
"  The  Word  became  flesh,  and  dwelt  among  us." 
And  for  climax  this  Divine,  creative,  revealing, 
redemptive  Word  is  identified  with  the  man 
Jesus,  who  was  also  the  Christ,  the  Messiah  of 
Jewish  hope  (ver.  17).  The  mould  of  Philo's 
philosophical  speculation  is  used,  and  broken 
in  the  use  :  it  appears  no  more  throughout 
the  Gospel,  for  St.  John  has  to  tell  not  of  the 
nature  and  functions  of  a  vague  philosophical 
abstraction,  but  of  the  earthly  ministry  of  the 
incarnate  Son  of  God.  "  The  influence  of 
Philonian  ideas  on  John  cannot  be  denied,  but 
John,  for  all  that,  does  not  borrow  the  ideas  of 
Philo.  He  thinks  Christian  ideas  analogous 
to  those  of  Philo,  which  Philo  helps  him  to 
conceive  "  (Loisy). 

The  Logos-doctrine  (though  not  the  term) 
appears  also  in  St.  Paul,  both  incidentally  (e.g. 
1  Cor.  8.6;  Phil.  2.6),  and  specifically  in 
Col.  1.15-17.  In  ver.  16  the  controversial 
note  is  struck  which  echoes  throughout  the 
epistle.  The  Colossian  heresy  inculcated  be- 
lief in  and  worship  of  angelic  powers,  mediating 
between  God  and  man,  a  feature  common 
to  Alexandrian  and  Jewish  thought.  Such 
belief  is  treason  to  Christ.  Whatever  super- 
natural powers  there  may  be,  called  by  whatever 
name,  they  were  created  in  Christ,  through 
Christ,  unto  Christ  (1.16).  He  is  their  head 
(2.10),  and  to  worship  them  (2.18)  is  to  forsake 
Him  through  whom  alone  God  reconciles  all 
things  to  Himself  (1.19-23,  2.8-15). 

Finally,  the  writer  to  the  Hebrews  introduces 
his  theme  of  the  completeness  and  finality 
of  God's  revelation  in  Christ  by  basing  these 
upon  His  nature  and  functions  as  Son.  Through 
Him  God  made  the  world  :  He  is  the  "  efiul- 
gence  "  of  God's  glory,  the  "  very  image  "  of 
God's  substance,  "  upholding  all  things  by  the 
word  of  His  power  "  (Heb.  1.2,  3).  The  terms 
are  those  applied  by  Philo  to  the  Logos,  but 
the  stress  is  upon  Personality,  Incarnation, 
Atonement.  All  partial  and  imperfect  thought 
of  the  ways  of  God  with  men,  whether 
attained  by  Hebrew  prophet  or  by  Greek 
philosopher,  has  pointed  forward  to  this  great 
and  final  reality,  that  "  God  hath,  at  the  end  of 
these  days,  spoken  unto  us  in  His  Son." 

Lo'is. — The  grandmother  of  Timothy,  com- 
mended by  Paul  for  her  faith  (2  Tim.  1.5). 

Looking-glass    (R.V.   Mirror).— A  plate    of 


LOBD] 


295 


[LOTS,  CASTING 


polished  metal,  producing  a  reflection  of  objects, 
but  much  less  perfect  than  our  modern  looking- 
glass  (Job  37.18  ;  1  Cor.  13.12  ;  Jas.  1.23). 

Lord.— The  use  of  LORD  in  the  O.T.  to 
express  JEHOVAH  is  stated  sufficiently  under 
the  latter  word,  and  as  a  rendering  of  ddon  it 
calls  for  no  remark.  In  Josh.  13.3,  and  fre- 
quently in  Judges  and  Samuel,  it  represents 
a  seren,  a  native  title  of  rulers  among  the 
Philistines,  but  nothing  is  known  of  their 
powers. 

The  use  of  Lord  (Kurios)  in  the  N.T.  is 
interesting,  though  often  ambiguous.  In 
quotations  from  the  O.T.  it  generally  represents 
Jehovah,  and  elsewhere  this  meaning  is  also 
plain  (e.g.  Matt.  1.20).  But,  apart  from  such 
quotations,  there  are  often  doubts  whether  it 
is  intended  to  refer  to  God  as  such  (certainly 
Mlc.  5.19),  or  to  the  Saviour,  as  our  Lord  and 
Master. 

In  the  latter  case  there  are  examples  of  its 
usage  passing  through  all  gradations,  acknow- 
ledging Him  as  Lord  and  Master  in  the  highest 
sense  (Matt.  15.22,  28.6,  and  generally  in  the 
epistles;  cf.  1  Cor.  12.3),  or  as  an  honoured 
teacher  (Matt.  8.21,  21.3),  or  even  only  as 
one  worthy  to  be  addressed  with  respect,  as  we 
should  say  "  sir  "  (Matt.  8.6). 

It  should  be  observed  that  kurios,  as  the 
Greek  equivalent  for  the  Latin  dominus,  was 
the  recognised  title  of  the  Roman  Emperor 
throughout  the  eastern  lands  bordering  on 
the  Mediterranean.  Hence  the  common  as- 
cription of  the  title  to  the  Saviour  by  Christians 
would  serve  to  emphasise,  to  their  own  minds, 
as  well  as  to  those  of  their  neighbours,  the 
existence  of  an  empire  greater  than  even  that 
of  Caesar.  In  fact,  the  contrast  between  the 
supreme  ruler  of  the  Roman  world,  and  Him 
who  is  Lord  of  all,  seems  to  underlie  much  of 
the  teachings  of  the  N.T. 

Lord  is  used  five  times  in  the  A.V.  (Lie.  2.29, 
Acts  4.24,  2  Pet.  2.1,  Jude  4,  Rev.  6.10),  as  a 
translation  of  despotes  (the  original  of  our 
English  "  despot "),  which  means  "  master,  " 
and  suggests,  when  used  of  men,  the  irresponsi- 
bility attached  to  absolute  ownership  in  the 
ancient  world.  [SLAVERY.] 

Lord  o!  Hosts. — It  is  important  to  remember 
that  the  word  Lord  here  represents  the  word 
Jehovah,  the  Hebrew  title  being  Jehovah 
Sabaoth,  which  seems  to  have  been  shortened 
from  the  earlier  form,  Jehovah,  God  of  Sabaoth 
(Amos  3.13).  The  word  Hosts  (Sabaoth)  may 
represent  the  heavenly  bodies  (cf.  Deut.  4.19), 
or  the  angelic  beings  (1  K.  22.19),  or  an  earthly 
army  (cf.  1  Sam.  17.45).  Originally,  one  may 
suppose,  an  earthly  army  suggested  an  heavenly, 
but  it  may  be  questioned  whether  in  Israel  the 
heavenly  reference  is  not  the  earlier  of  the  two, 
before  Israel  had  any  army  at  all;  for  in 
Babylonian  Sin,  the  moon-god,  was  called  "  the 
Prince  of  the  Gods,"  and  Nebo  "  the  marshaller 
of  the  hosts  of  heaven  and  earth."  The  phrase 
is  seldom  found  elsewhere  than  in  the  words  or 
the  writings  of  prophets,  men  who,  for  the  most 


part,  took  a  wider  view  of  the  all-sovereign 
powers  of  the  Lord  than  priests  or  rulers. 

Lord's  Day. — The  title  is  found  only  in  Rev. 
1.10.  Whilst  the  balance  of  Christian  opinion 
is  strongly  m  favour  of  a  reference  here  to  the 
Christian  weekly  day  of  rest  and  worship,  some 
have  thought  that  it  means  the  great  "  day  of 
the  Lord."  "  The  first  day  of  the  week  "  is 
repeatedly  referred  to  (Lk.  24.1  ;  John  20.1, 19; 
1  Cor.  16.2,  etc.),  and  the  phrase  "  the  Lord's 
Day  "  marks  the  transition  to  a  usage  which, 
from  Ignatius  onwards,  appears  to  be  the 
recognised  title  of  the  Christian  festival. 
"  Sunday  "  was  the  heathen  name  for  the  first 
day  of  the  week,  recognised  by  Justin  Martyr, 
who,  in  his  Apology  (about  150  A.D.),  describes 
the  assembly  of  Christians  "  on  the  day  called 
Sunday,"  with  the  religious  services  they  held. 
It  is  found  also  in  an  edict  of  the  Emperor 
Constantino  (321  A.D.).  Both  names,  the  Lord's 
Day  and  Sunday,  are  found  in  an  edict  of 
Gratian  (386*A.D.).  The  keeping  of  the  first 
day  of  the  week  as  the  Lord's  day  is  indicated 
in  1  Cor.  16.2  (and  see  Acts  20.6, 7).  The 
day  so  kept  was  regarded  as  the  commemoration 
of  our  Lord's  resurrection. 

Lord's  Prayer. — The  name  early  given  to 
the  petitions  taught  by  our  Lord  to  His 
disciples  in  answer  to  their  request  (Lk.  11.2-4). 
It  was  afterwards  incorporated  in  the  Sermon  on 
the  Mount  (Matt.  6.9-13 ).  Though  a  parallel  for 
every  clause  may  be  found  in  Jewish  writings, 
it  is  absolutely  unique. 

Lord's  Supper. — [SUPPER,  THE  LORD'S.] 

Lord's  Table.— (1  Cor.  10.21).  [ALTAB,  SCPPEK, 
THE  LORD'S.] 

Lo-ruha'mah. — Not  pitied  :  a  symbolic  name 
given  to  Hosea's  daughter,  indicating  God's 
rejection  of  Israel  (Has.  1.6). 

Lot. — The  nephew  of  Abraham.  He  accom- 
panied his  uncle  from  Ur  of  the  Chaldees  to 
Canaan,  thence  to  Egypt  and  back  again  to 
Canaan.  A  quarrel  between  their  servants  led  to 
a  friendly  separation.  Lot  settled  in  the  plain 
wherein  Sodom  and  Gomorrha  were  situated, 
and  when  these  were  overwhelmed  by  fire  from 
heaven,  Lot,  though  escaping  with  his  life,  lost 
all  his  earthly  possessions.  He  was  the  father 
of  Moab  and  Ammon.  His  characteristic  was 
weakness.  Lot  is  thrice  in  one  discourse  referred 
to  by  our  Lord  (Lk.  17.28,29,32),  and  his 
deliverance  is  commented  on  in  2  Pet.  2.7. 
[LOT'S  WIFE.] 

Lot's  Wife. — In  the  escape  from  Sodom  the 
wife  of  Lot "  looked  back  .  .  .  and  .  .  .  became 
a  pillar  of  salt "  (Gen.  19.26).  The  expression 
probably  signifies  that  a  bituminous  mass,  which 
overwhelmed  the  woman,  fixed  her  to  the  place 
where  it  fell  upon  her,  and  raised  a  mound 
over  her  (Gen.  19.26).  Her  fate  is  referred  to 
by  our  Lord  (Lk.  17.32). 

Lo'tan. — (?)A  covering  :  the  eldest  son  of  Seir 
the  Horite,  and  a  "  duke  "  or  chief  of  his  tribe 
in  the  land  of  Edom  (Gen.  36.20,  22,  29  ;  1  Ch. 
1.38,  39). 

Lots,  Casting.— A  method  of  determining    a 


LOVE-FEAST] 


296    [LUKE,  GOSPEL  ACCORDING  TO 


choice  frequently  appearing  in  Holy  Scripture. 
In  the  O.T.  its  use  in  some  cases  was  divinely 
appointed,  e.g.  in  the  choice  of  the  scapegoat 
(Lev.  16.8),  and  in  the  division  of  the  Promised 
Land  (Num.  26.55;  Josh.  14.2).  At  the 
crucifixion  our  Lord's  garments  were  divided 
by  lot  amongst  the  soldiers  (Ps.  22.18;  Matt. 
27.35).  Matthias  was  chosen  by  lot  to  fill  the 
place  of  Judas  Iscariot  amongst  the  apostles 
Acts  1.26).  [PURIM.] 

Love -Feast  (Agape). —  Members  of  the 
Apostolic  Church  met  at  fixed  times  for  a 
common  meal,  at  which  all  partook  as  brethren 
(Acts  2.46).  These  gatherings  were  closely  con- 
nected with  the  Lord's  Supper  (1  Cor.  11.20  ff.), 
and  so  occasioned  the  more  distress  when  misused 
by  false  professors  of  the  faith  (2  Pet.  2.13; 
Jude  12).  With  the  growth  of  the  Church 
social  distinctions  reasserted  themselves,  and 
the  love-feasts  fell  into  discredit. 

Low  Country. — This  was  the  shephelah  or 
rising  ground  between  the  plain  on  the  seacoast 
and  the  hill  country  of  Judah  and  Ephraim. 

Lu'bim. — Libyans :  the  inhabitants  of  the  coast 
of  North  Africa  extending  from  the  west  of  Egypt 
as  far  perhaps  as  the  pillars  of  Hercules  (2  Ch. 
12.3, 16.8 ;  Nah.  3.9).  They  are  often  mentioned 
on  the  Egyptian  monuments. 

Lu'cas.— [LUKE.] 

Lucifer  (R.V.  Daystar).— The  word  rendered 
Lucifer  in  /sat.  14.12  is  an  epithet  applied  to 
the  king  of  Babylon,  who  fell  from  his  state  of 
glory  and  elevation.  Babylon  is  used  in  the 
Apocalypse  as  a  type  of  the  empire  and  the 
ultimate  fate  of  the  Evil  One,  and  hence  the 
use  of  Lucifer  as  a  name  for  Satan  in  his  fall 
from  heaven. 

Lucius. — 1.  A  kinsman  (i.e.  fellow- Jew)  of 
Paul  (Rom.  16.21).  2.  Lucius  of  Cyrene,  the 
capital  of  a  great  colony  in  North  Africa,  remark- 
able for  the  number  of  its  Jewish  inhabitants. 
Lucius  was  one  of  the  prophets  and  teachers 
of  the  Church  at  Antioch  (Acts  13.1). 

Lud. — 1.  A  son  of  Shem,  from  whom  the 
Lydians  of  Asia  Minor  are  supposed  to  bo 
descended  (Gen.  10.22).  2.  Apparently  the 
same  as  Ludim  (Ezek.  27.10,  30.5). 

Ludim. — Apparently  a  tribe  in  the  west  of 
Egypt  used  as  mercenaries ;  said  (Gen.  10.13) 
to  be  descended  from  Mizraim. 

Luhith. — A  city  of  Moab,  which  seems  to 
have  been  approached  by  an  "  ascent  "  (Isai. 
15.5  ;  Jer.  48.5  R.V.). 

Luke. — Luke — the  companion  of  Paul,  and, 
according  to  the  almost  unanimous  belief  of 
the  ancient  Church,  the  author  of  the  Gospel 
according  to  St.  Luke  arid  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles — is  only  thrice  mentioned  by  name  in 
the  N.T.  (Col.  4.14  ;  2  Tim.  4.11 ;  Philem.  24). 
Of  his  life  little  is  known.  Some  have  con- 
jectured that  he  was  one  of  the  Seventy  dis- 
ciples sent  out  by  our  Lord  (Lk.  10.1) ;  others 
that  he  was  one  of  the  Greeks  who  wished  to 
see  Him  (John  12.20);  whilst,  from  overlooking 
the  fact  that  Luke  is  an  abbreviation  of  Lucanus, 
an  endeavour  has  been  made  to  identify  Luke 


with  Lucius  of  Cyrene  (Acts  13.1).  Two  of 
the  Fathers  say  that  he  was  a  Syrian  from 
Antioch.  Apparently  he  was  not  of  Jewish 
birth  (Col.  4.11, 14).  He  was  by  occupation 
a  physician  (Col.  4.14).  He  was  not  himself 
an  "  eye-witness  .  .  .  from  the  beginning " 
of  the  Gospel  events  (Lk.  1.2),  though  this  does 
not  exclude  the  possibility  of  his  having  been 
amongst  the  followers  of  our  Lord.  Much, 
however,  may  be  inferred  from  the  use  of  the 
first  person  in  the  language  of  the  Acts.  Luke 
appears  to  have  joined  Paul  at  Troas  (Acts  16.10), 
to  have  passed  over  with  him  into  Macedonia, 
and  journeyed  with  him  as  far  as  Philippi, 
with  which  he  may  have  been  connected,  and 
where  he  for  the  time  probably  remained 
(Acts  17.1).  Some  seven  years  later,  when 
Paul  visited  Philippi  on  his  way  to  Jerusalem, 
Luke  again  joined  him  (Acts  20.5).  If  Luke 
was  "  the  brother"  of  2  Cor.  8.18,  the  interval 
would  seem  to  have  been  filled  by  an  active 
ministry.  With  Paul,  Luke  went  on  to  Jeru- 
salem (Acts  21.18),  and  with  Paul  he  journeyed 
to  Rome  (Acts  27.1).  There  he  was  with  the 
apostle  during  his  first  imprisonment  (Col.  4.14  : 
Philem.  24),  and  there  he  was  also  during  the 
second  imprisonment,  just  before  the  apostle's 
end  (2  Tim.  4.11 ).  Christian  tradition  represents 
him  as  preaching  the  Gospel  in  Southern 
Europe,  and  as  meeting  a  martyr's  death  in 
Greece.  [LUKE,  GOSPEL  ACCORDING  TO.] 

Luke,  The  Gospel  according  to.— The  author- 
ship of  this  book  is  by  the  unanimous  voice 
of  antiquity,  from  Irenaeus  (c.  180  A.D.)  on- 
wards, ascribed  to  Luke,  the  physician.  Allu- 
sions to  it  are  by  some  detected  as  early  as 
Clement  of  Rome  (95  A.D.).  That  the  author 
of  the  Gospel  was  also  the  author  of  the 
Acts  is  almost  universally  agreed.  [ACTS  OF 
THE  APOSTLES.]  The  date  of  the  book  is  un- 
certain. Comparison  with  Matthew  and  Mark 
suggests  that  it  is  the  latest  of  the  synoptic 
gospels,  and  so  may  have  been  written  after 
70  A.D.  But  it  has  been  thought  that  the 
two  years  of  Paul's  imprisonment  at  Jerusalem 
and  Caesarea  may  have  provided  the.  oppor- 
tunity for  such  a  work,  and  that  it  might  thus 
have  been  written  as  early  as  60  A.D.  The 
style  of  the  author  is  that  of  a  man  of  education 
skilled  in  composition.  The  contents  may  be 
summarised  thus: — 

Preface  (1.1-4). 

The  birth  and  early  life  of  Jesus  (1.5,  2). 

His  baptism,  genealogy,  and  temptation 
(3.1-4.13). 

His  ministry  in  Galilee  (4.14-9.50). 

His  progress  from  Galilee,  through  Samaria, 
Persea,  and  Judypa,  ending  with  His  arrival 
in  Jerusalem  (9.51-19.27). 

His  entrance  to  the  Holy  City  ;  and  all  that 
followed,  down  to  His  crucifixion  (19.28-23). 

His  resurrection  and  its  results  (2-1). 

The  characteristics  of  the  book  exhibit  it  as 
a  gospel  neither  specially  for  Jews  nor  specially 
for  Gentiles,  but  for  all  the  world  ;  the  gospel 
of  a  free  and  universally  offered  salvation. 


LUNATIC] 


297 


[LYSTRA 


The  incidents  and  teaching  peculiar  to  this 
gospel  are  many  and  significant.  They  in- 
clude : — 

1.  The  narrative  of  the  events  preceding  and 
accompanying   the   birth   of   Jesus ;     including 
the  birth  of  John  the   Baptist,  and  the  great 
Christian    hymns,    known    as    the    Magnificat 
(1.46-55),   the  Benedictus  (1.68-79),   the  Gloria 
in    Excelsis    (2.14),    and    the    Nunc    Dimittis 
(2.29-32) :    the  human  genealogy  (3.23-38). 

2.  The  childhood  of  Jesus  :   the  only  incident 
that   breaks   the   "Thirty   Years   of   Silence" 
(2.41-52). 

3.  Many    discourses    and    sayings    of    Jesus, 
with    the    accompanying    incidents,    as    those 
connected  with  the  feast  in  the  house  of  Simon 
the  Pharisee  (7),  but  especially  those  contained 
in   the   great   section   extending  from   9.51  to 
18.14.     [Some  of  the  sayings  included  in  this 
section   are   given   by   Matthew   and   Mark   in 
different    connexions,    and   were    perhaps    the 
repetition  by  our  Lord  of  His  earlier  utterances.] 
Among    the    incidents    which    are    absolutely 
peculiar  to  Luke  are  our  Lord's  rejection  by 
the  Samaritans  (9),  the  Mission  of  the  Seventy 
(10),  discourses  concerning  discipleship  (14.25-35 ; 
17.1-10),  and  the  visit  to  Zacchaeus  (19),  with 
several  parables. 

4.  The  following  parables  :  The  Two  Debtors 
(7) ;  the  Good  Samaritan  (10) ;   the  Importunate 
Friend  (11);    the  Rich  Fool  (12);    the  Barren 
Fig  Tree  (13) ;   the  Lost  Silver  and  the  Prodigal 
Son    (15) ;     the     Unrighteous    Steward ;      the 
Rich  Man  and  Lazarus  (16) ;    the  Unrighteous 
Judge;    the  Pharisee  and  Publican  (18);    the 
Pounds  (19).     [PARABLES.] 

5.  The  miracles  recorded  only  in  this  Gospel, 
are    the    Miraculous    Draught    of    Fishes    (5) ; 
the    Raising    of    the    Widow's    Son    (7) ;     the 
Woman  with  a  Spirit  of  Infirmity  (13);    the 
Man    with    a    Dropsy    (14) ;     the    Ten    Lepers 
(17) ;  the  Healing  of  Malchus  (22).     [MIRACLES.] 

6.  In  regard  to  the  events  connected  with 
the  death  and  resurrection  of  our  Lord,  Luke 
is  the  only  evangelist  who  records  His  prayer 
for  His  murderers  (23.34),  and  the  incident  of 
the    penitent    robber    (39-43).     The    walk    to 
Emmaus,    and    the    Ascension    (24),    although 
noticed  in  the  summary  at  the  end  of  Mark, 
are  otherwise  peculiar  to  Luke. 

It  will  be  noted  also  that  more  than  in  any 
other  gospel  is  the  dignity  of  womanhood 
recognised,  as  not  only  in  Luke's  delineation 
of  the  mother  of  our  Lord,  but  in  the  oft- 
recurring  references  to  women,  in  Christ's 
relation  to  them,  and  theirs  to  Him  (Lk.  1,  2, 
7.11-17,  8.1-3,  48,  10.38-42,  13.16,  23.28,  etc.). 

Further,  in  no  other  gospel  is  the  author  so 
careful  to  draw  out  the  attitude  of  our  Lord 


towards  the  poor  and  needy  and  despised 
(2.24,  6.20-25,  8.2,  3,  12.16-21,  14.12-15,  16.13, 
19-25,  etc.). 

Lunatic.— i.e.  moonstruck  (Matt.  4.24,  17.15). 
In  both  cases  R.V.  translates  "  epileptic." 

Luz.— 1.  A  Canaanite  city,  near  Bethel 
(Gen.  28.19,  35.6,  48.3;  Josh.  16.2,  18.13; 
Judg.  1.23).  2.  A  town  built  in  the  land  of 
the  Hittites  when  the  other  Luz  was  taken  by 
the  Israelites  (Judg.  1.26). 

Lycaonia. — A  district  of  Asia  Minor,  north- 
west of  Cilicia,  inhabited  in  apostolic  days  by 
an  imperfectly  civilised  race ;  chief  scene  of 
Paul's  labours  during  his  first  missionary  tour 
(Acts  14  ;  2  Tim.  3.11) ;  and  also  traversed  by 
him  on  his  second  and  third  journeys  (Acts 
16.1-8,  18.23,  19.1). 

Lycia. — A  small  district  in  south  of  Asia 
Minor,  visited  by  Paul  on  returning  from  his 
third  missionary  tour  (Patara) ;  and  on  his 
way  to  Italy  (Myra)  (Acts  21.1,  27.5). 

Ly'dda.— (Acts  9.32,  35,  38).    [LOD.] 

Ly'dia.— I-  (Ezek.  30.5).  [LUDIM.]  2.  A 
woman  of  Thyatira,  a  seller  of  purple,  and 
a  worshipper  of  God  [PROSELYTE],  who  at 
Philippi  was  converted,  and  with  her  house- 
hold baptized  under  the  ministry  of  Paul  (Acts 
16.14,  40).  Possibly  this  was  only  her  business- 
name  ("the  Lydian"),  her  real  name  being 
unknown.  [MACEDONIA.] 

Lysa'nias. — Tetrarch  of  Abilene,  a  small 
province  in  Lebanon  (Lk.  3.1).  He  is  otherwise 
unknown.  Josephus  mentions  a  king  (not 
tetrarch)  of  the  same  name  over  Ituraea  who 
was  killed  in  36  B.C.,  but  it  is  hypercritical  to 
assume  that  the  Evangelist  confused  the  two. 

Lysias. — Claudius  Lysias,  chief  captain  of 
the  Roman  garrison  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  23.26, 
24.7,  22). 

Lystra. — A  city  of  Lycaonia,  within  the 
Roman  province  of  Galatia,  at  which  Paul 
and  Barnabas  in  the  space  of  a  few  hours 
were  first  hailed  as  gods  and  then  stoned  by 
the  people.  A  temple  of  Zeus  stood  outside 
the  gate  of  the  city  (Acts  14.13).  According 
to  a  legend  which  was  current  in  the  city, 
Jupiter  and  Mercury,  in  human  shape,  had  in 
times  past  visited  the  city.  The  rude  in- 
habitants thought  that  they  were  receiving  the 
same  honour  a  second  time.  A  Church  was 
afterwards  founded  at  Lystra.  Timothy,  who 
was  a  native  of  this  place,  witnessed,  or  at  least 
had  intimate  knowledge  of,  the  persecutions 
which  Paul  underwent  on  his  first  visit  (Acts 
14.6-20  ;  2  Tim.  3.10  ff.).  When  Paul  paid 
his  second  visit  Timothy  was  already  a  Christian 
(Acts  16.1-3 ;  2  Tim.  3.10, 11).  Lystra  has 
been  identified  with  the  ruins  near  the  village 
of  Khatyn  Serai. 


MAACAH,  MAACHAHJ 


298 


[MACHBANAI 


M 


Maa'cah,  Maa'chah.  —  Oppression  :  1.  The 
daughter  of  Nahor,  Abraham's  brother,  by  his 
concubine,  Reumah  (Gen.  22.24).  2.  One  of 
David's  wives,  and  mother  of  Absalom  (2  Sam. 
3.3;  1  Ch.  3.2).  3.  A  petty  kingdom,  at 
the  foot  of  Hermon,  on  the  borders  of  Bashan, 
allotted  to  Manasseh,  who  did  not  exterminate 
the  inhabitants  (Deut.  3.14 ;  Josh.  12.5, 13.11, 13). 
It  joined  the  Ammonites  against  David  (2  Sam. 
10.6,  8  ;  1  Ch.  10.6,  7) ;  the  same  as  Beth- 
maachah  (2  5am.  20.14,  15).  4.  The  father  of 
Achish,  who  was  king  of  Gath  at  the  beginning 
of  Solomon's  reign  (1  K.  2.39).  [MAOCH.]  5. 
The  wife  of  Rehoboam  and  mother  of  Abijah, 
kings  of  Judah  (1  K.  ]5.2  ;  2  Ch.  11.20).  During 
the  reign  of  her  grandson  Asa  she  occupied  the 
influential  position  of  "  King's  Mother,"  and 
led  the  people  away  into  idolatry  (1  K.  15.13  ; 
2  Ch.  15.16).  She  was  removed  from  power 
when  Asa  undertook  his  religious  reformation. 
6.  The  concubine  of  Caleb,  son  of  Hezron 
(1  Ch.  2.48).  7.  A  woman  of  Benjamin, 
married  to  Machir,  son  of  Manasseh  (1  Ch. 
7.15,16).  8.  The  wife  of  Jeliiel,  father  or 
founder  of  Gibeon,  from  whom  was  descended 
the  family  of  Saul  (1  Ch.  8.29,  9.35).  9.  The 
father  of  Hanan,  one  of  David's  warriors 
(1  Ch.  11.43).  10.  The  father  of  Shephatiah, 
who  ruled  the  Simeonites  in  David's  time  (1  Ch. 
27.16). 

Maacha'thi,  Maachathites.— The  inhabitants 
of  Maachah.  [MAACAH  3.] 

Maa'dai. — One  who  had  married  a  foreign 
wife  (Ezra  10.34). 

Maadi'ah. — A  priest  who  returned  from 
Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  12.5  ;  in  ver.  17, 
Moadiah). 

Ma'ai.— One  of  the  priests  who  took  part 
in  the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  12.36). 

Maa'leh-Acrabtim  (R.V.  Ascent  of  Akrabbim). 
— Ascent  of  scorpions  (Josh.  15.3) :  a  steep  pass 
between  the  south  end  of  the  Dead  Sea  and 
the  Desert  of  Zin.  It  was  the  beginning  of  the 
ascent  to  the  mountains  of  Edom,  forming  one 
of  the  south  boundaries  of  the  Promised  Land, 
and  of  Judah,  as  well  as  a  boundary  of  the  land 
of  the  Amorites  (Num.  34.4;  Josh.  15.3; 
Judg.  1.36).  [AKRABBIM.] 

Maa'rath. — A  town  in  the  mountains  of 
Judah,  north  of  Hebron  (Josh.  15.59). 

Maareh-Geba.  —  Judg.  20.33  (A.V.  "the 
meadows  of  Geba,"  or  Gibeah,  see  ver.  10). 
Perhaps  the  text  should  be  emended  and  be 
"  to  the  west  of  Geba." 

Maasai.— [MAASIAI.] 

Maasei'ah. —  Work  of  Jah:  1.  A  Levite  who 
took  part  in  the  ceremonies  which  accompanied 
the  removal  of  the  Ark  from  the  house  of 
Obed-edom  (1  Ch.  15.18,  20).  2.  One  of  the 
captains  who  assisted  in  setting  Joash  on  the 
throne  of  Judah  (2  Ch.  23.1).  3.  An  officer 
of  king  Uzziah  (2  Ch.  26.11).  4.  A  son  of  Ahaz, 


king  of  Judah  ;  killed  by  Zichri,  the  Ephraimite, 
in  the  invasion  of  Judah  by  Pekah,  king  of 
Israel  (2  Ch.  28.7).  5.  The  governor  of  Jerusa- 
lem in  Josiah's  reign,  who  superintended  the 
restoration  of  the  Temple  (2  Ch.  34.8).  6.  The 
name  of  various  persons  who  had  married 
foreign  wives  (Ezra  10.18,21,22,30).  7.  The 
father  of  Azariah,  who  repaired  part  of  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  3.23).  8.  A  priest 
who  stood  beside  Ezra  while  he  read  the  law 
(Neh.  8.4).  9.  A  priest  who  explained  the 
law  read  by  Ezra  (Neh.  8.7).  10.  One  who 
sealed  the  covenant  made  by  Nehemiah  (Neh. 
10.25).  11.  A  descendant  of  Pharez  (son  of 
Judah),  dwelling  in  Jerusalem  after  the 
Captivity  (Neh.  11.5).  12.  A  Benjamite  whose 
descendants  dwelt  in  Jerusalem  after  the 
Captivity  (Neh.  11.7).  13.  A  priest  who  assisted 
at  the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  12.41,  42).  14.  A  priest  whose  son  was 
sent  by  king  Zedekiah  to  inquire  of  the  Lord 
(Jer.  21.1,  29.25,  37.3).  15.  The  father  of  a 
false  prophet  during  the  Babylonian  Captivity 
(Jer.  29.21).  16.  The  grandfather  of  Baruch, 
Jeremiah's  amanuensis  and  messenger  (Jer. 
32.12,  51.59,  R.V.  Mahseiah).  17.  An  officer 
of  the  Temple  in  Jehoiakim's  reign  (Jer.  35.4). 

Maasi'ai  (R.V.  Maasai).—  Work  of  Jah:  a 
priest  whose  family  dwelt  in  Jerusalem  after  the 
Captivity  (1  Ch.  9.12). 

Ma'ath.— An  ancestor  of  Jesus  (Lk.  3.26). 

Ma'az. — The  son  of  Ram,  the  eldest  son  of 
Jerahmeel,  great-grandson  of  Judah  (1  Ch. 
2.27). 

Maazi'ah. — Jah  is  a  refuge :  a  priest  of  the 
twenty-fourth  course  in  the  days  of  David  (1  Ch. 
24.18).  Priests  of  the  same  family  sealed  the 
covenant  made  by  Nehemiah  (Neh.  10.8). 

Macedo'nia. —  A  Roman  province  extending 
from  the  ^gean  to  the  Adriatic,  having  Illy- 
ricum  on  the  north-west  and  Achaia  on  the 
south.  It  was  the  first  country  in  Europe 
which  received  the  Gospel,  and  was  very 
intimately  associated  with  the  ministry  of  Paul. 
His  work  there  was  "  in  the  beginning  of  the 
Gospel"  (Phil.  4.15).  To  Macedonia  he  was 
summoned  by  a  vision  (Acts  16.9  ff.), 
and  he  afterwards  revisited  its  Churches 
(Acts  19.21,  20.1-3;  1  Cor.  16.5;  2  Cor.  1.16). 
Notable  helpers  of  the  apostle  were  Mace- 
donians —  Gaius  and  Aristarchus  (Acts 
19.29),  Secundus  and  Sopater  (Acts  20.4), 
Epaphroditus  (Phil.  2.25).  The  Macedonian 
Christians  were  eminent  for  piety  and  strength 
of  character  (Acts  17.11 ;  Phil.  4.10-19 ;  1  Thtss. 
2.8,17-20,  3.10).  In  Macedonia,  too,  the 
women  converts  took  a  conspicuous  place  in  the 
life  of  the  Church  of  Christ.  The  first  convert 
was  a  woman  (Acts  16.14),  and  women  were 
active  C  urch  workers  (Phil.  4.2,3).  [LYDIA.] 

Machba'nai  (R.V.  Machbannai).— A  Gadit* 
warrior  who  joined  David  in  Ziklag  (1  Ch. 
12.13). 


MACHBENAH] 


299 


[MAGOG 


Machbe'nah  (Tl.V.  Machbena).— A  descendant 
of  Caleb  (1  Ch.  2.49). 

Ma'chi.— A  Gadite,  the  father  of  Geuel. 
The  latter  was  sent  by  Moses  to  spy  out  the 
land  (Num.  13.15). 

Ma'cbir. — (?)  Salesman:  1.  The  eldest  son  of 
Manasseh,  and  therefore  the  grandson  of  Joseph. 
A  large  part  of  Canaan  on  the  east  of  Jordan 
was  subdued  by  the  descendants  of  Machir 
(Gen.  50.23;  Num.  26.29,  32.39;  Dent.  3.15; 
Josh.  17.1 ;  1  Ch.  2.21,  23).  2.  The  son  of 
Ammiel.  He  resided  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Jordan,  and  sheltered  Mephibosheth,  the  son  of 
Jonathan,  after  the  downfall  of  Saul's  dynasty 
(2  Sam.  9.4,  5).  Some  years  later,  David,  driven 
from  his  throne  by  the  rebellion  of  Absalom,  also 
found  an  asylum  with  Machir  (2  Sam.  17.27-29). 

Machirites. — Descendants  of  Machir  1  (Num. 
26.29). 

Machnade'bai. — A  Hebrew  who  had  married 
a  foreign  wife  (Ezra  10.40). 

Machpe'lah. — The  field  and  cave  at  Hebron, 
purchased  by  Abraham,  in  which  were  placed 
the  remains  of  Abraham,  Sarah,  Isaac,  Rebekah, 
Leah,  and  Jacob.  The  site  is  now  covered  by 
a  mosque,  one  of  the  four  sanctuaries  of  the 
Mohammedan  world  (Gen.  23.17-20,  25.9, 
49.30,  50.13). 

Ma'dai.— The  third  son  of  Japheth  (Gen.  10.2). 
The  same  word  is  rendered  "  Medes  "  in  2  K. 
17.6  and  other  passages. 

Ma'dian.— (A.V.  Acts  7.29).    [MIDIAN.] 

Madman 'nah. — Heap :  a  town  in  the  south  of 
Judah  (Josh.  15.31),  founded  by  a  son  of  Caleb 
(1  Ch.  2.49). 

Madmen. — Dungheap :  a  town  of  Moab 
(Jer.  48.2). 

Madme'nah. — Dunghill :  a  town  in  the  lull 
country  of  Benjamin  (Isai.  10.31). 

Madness.— The  epithet  "  mad "  is  applied 
in  Holy  Scripture  to  (1 )  one  deprived  of  reason 
(Acts  26.24 ;  1  Cor.  14.23) ;  (2)  one  whose  reason 
is  depraved  and  overruled  by  his  passions 
(Acts  26.11);  (3)  one  whose  mind  is  perplexed 
and  bewildered,  so  disturbed  that  he  acts  in 
an  uncertain,  extravagant,  irregular  manner 
(Deut.  28.34;  Eccles.  7.7);  (4)  one  infatuated  by 
the  vehemence  of  his  desires  after  idols,  vanities, 
folly,  deceit,  or  falsehood  (Jer.  50.38  ;  Has.  9.7). 
In  the  East  madmen  are  looked  upon  with  a 
kind  of  reverence,  as  possessed  of  a  sort  of 
sacred  character.  An  illustration  of  this  is  the 
treatment  of  David  when  he  feigned  madness 
at  the  court  of  Achish  (1  Sam.  21.13-15). 

Ma 'don. — Strife  :  a  Canaanitish  town  taken 
by  Joshua  (Josh.  11.1,  12.19). 

Maga'dan.— R.V.  reading  in  Matt.  15.39, 
where  A.V.  has  Magdala. 

Magbish. — A  place  mentioned  in  Ezra  2.30. 

Magda'la.— A  town  on  the  edge  of  the  Sea 
of  Galilee,  3  miles  north  of  Tiberias,  named 
only  in  A.V.  of  Matt.  15.39  (R.V.  Magadan  ; 
Mk.  8.10  has  Dalmanutha).  It  was  the  residence 
of  the  Mary  called  from  it  Mary  Magdalene. 
It  is  identified  with  the  modern  village  of  El- 
Mejdel. 


Magdalene. — Of  Magdala,  as  a  place  of  birth 
or  residence.     [MARY  2.] 

Magdi'el. — God  is  renowned :  a  duke  or  ruler 
of  Edom  (Gen.  36.43  ;  1  Ch.  1.54). 

Magi.— The  word  Rab-mag  in  Jer.  39.3,13 
signifies  "  chief  of  the  Magi,"  who  were  originally 
a  religious  caste  among  the  Persians,  worshipping 
God  under  the  form  of  fire.  Their  presence 
among  the  Chaldaeans  of  Nebuchadnezzar's 
court  led  to  a  corruption  of  their  original  faith, 
and  their  operations  seemed  mainly  confined  to 
astrology,  divination,  and  the  interpretation 
of  dreams.  The  relations  of  Daniel  with  the 
Magi  are  detailed  in  his  prophecy.  He  was 
the  head  of  the  Magi  in  Babylon  (Dan.  5.11). 
In  the  days  preceding  the  N.T.  history  the  name 
"  Magi  "  had  become  associated  with  trickery 
of  various  sorts.  Swarms  of  impostors  bearing 
the  name  were  to  be  met  with  in  every  part  of 
the  Roman  Empire.  Magus,  is  the  epithet  of 
Simon,  the  trickster  described  in  Acts  8.9.  The 
word,  however,  has  an  honourable  significance 
as  applied  to  the  "  wise  men  from  the  East  "  who 
came  to  seek  the  infant  Saviour  (Matt.  2).  It 
is  rendered  "  sorcerer  "  in  Acts  13.6,  8.  [MEDES.] 
Magic. — The  use  of  means  to  influence  spirits 
assumed  to  have  control  over  men  and  circum- 
stances. Magic  was  practised  in  Egypt  (Ex.  7  and 
8)  and  in  the  East  generally.  The  Hebrews  were 
therefore  in  contact  with  the  resort  to  magic, 
and  were  by  the  Mosaic  law  forbidden  to  use  it 
(Lev.  19.31,  20.6  ;  Deut.  18.9-14).  Resort  to  it 
is  traceable  in  the  incident  of  the  mandrakes 
found  by  Reuben  (Gen.  30.14);  in  Jacob's 
use  of  the  peeled  rods  (Gen.  30.37) ;  and  in 
the  use  of  teraphim  (Gen.  31.19 ;  Judg.  17.5 ; 
1  Sam.  19.13;  Zech.  10.2;  but  cf.  Hos.  3.4). 
In  the  visit  of  Saul  to  the  witch  of  Endor  (1  Sam. 
28)  there  is  a  resort  to  magic,  with  a  result 
surprising  to  the  woman.  In  the  N.T.  the 
"  vain  repetitions  "  of  "  the  heathen  "  (Matt. 
6.7)  may  have  referred  to  the  belief  in  the 
efficacy  of  prayers  or  ascriptions  repeated  so 
many  times  (cf.  1  K.  18.26).  In  the  Acts 
two  persons  are  named  as  practising  magic — 
Simon  (8.9)  and  Elymas  (13.8);  and  the 
"curious  arts"  renounced  at  Ephesus  (19.19) 
were,  no  doubt,  those  of  magic.  Early  Christian 
writers  assumed  a  relation  between  the  pro- 
fessor of  magic  and  evil  spirits ;  whilst  be- 
lieving that  these  spirits  could  be  controlled 
by  the  word  of  a  true  believer  speaking  in  the 
name  of  Christ.  The  Council  of  Ancyra  (315  A.D.) 
was  the  first  to  legislate  against  magic.  [EN- 
CHANTMENT.] 

Ma'gog. — 1.  The  second  son  of  Japheth 
(Gen.  10.2;  1  Ch.  1.5).  2.  The  descendants 
of  Magog  and  their  land :  whether  Scythia, 
the  country  between  the  Black  Sea  and  the 
Caspian,  or  in  Asia  Minor,  is  uncertain.  Ezekiel 
employs  them  as  a  symbol  of  earthly  violence 
overthrown  by  the  power  of  God  (Ezek.  38.2, 
39.6).  The  imagery  of  Ezekiel  is  used  in  the 
Apocalypse  to  describe  the  final  struggle 
between  Christ  and  Antichrist  (Rev.  20.8). 
[Goo.] 


MAGOR-MISSABIB] 


300 


[MALACHI,  BOOK  OF 


Ma'gor-MissaTrib. — Terror  on  every  side  (R.V. 
marg.) :  the  name  given  by  Jeremiah  to  Pashur, 
the  priest,  when  the  latter  put  him  into  the 
stocks  for  prophesying  against  the  idolatry  of 
Jerusalem  (Jer.  20.3). 

Magpi'ash. — A  person  or  family  signing  the 
covenant  (Neh.  10.20). 

Mahalah.— [MAHLAH.] 

Mahalale'el  (R.V.  Mahalalel).— Praise  of  God: 

1.  The  son  of  Cainan  (R.V.  Kenan)  and  fourth 
in  descent  from  Adam  (Gen.  5.12-17  ;  1  Ch.  1.2). 

2.  One  whose  descendants  dwelt  in  Jerusalem 
after  the  Captivity  (Neh.  11.4). 

Maha'lath.  —  Sickness:  1.  A  daughter  of 
Lshmael  and  one  of  Esau's  wives  (Gen.  28.9). 
2.  A  granddaughter  of  David  and  one  of 
Rehoboam's  wives  (2  Ch.  11.18). 

Maha'lath-leannoth.— Words  occurring  in  the 
titles  of  Ps.  53,  88  respectively,  prefaced  by 
"set  to"  (see  R.V.  and  marg.).  Possibly 
Mahalath  ("  sickness ")  is  the  name  of  some 
plaintive  melody  befitting  the  sadness  of  the 
words.  But  the  phrases  are  of  doubtful  inter- 
pretation. 

Maha'lL— [MAHLI.] 

Mahana'im. — Two  camps  or  hosts :  a  town 
east  of  the  Jordan,  south  of  the  Jabbok,  where 
Jacob  was  met  by  the  angels  of  God  (Gen.  32.2). 
It  lay  on  the  south  boundary  of  Bashan,  on 
the  frontier  of  Gad  and  Manasseh.  It  was 
allotted  to  Gad  and  given  to  the  Merarites 
(Josh.  13.26,30,  21.38;  1  Ch.  6.80).  There 
Ishbosheth  was  crowned  after  the  death  of 
Saul,  and  there  David  found  refuge  in  his 
flight  from  Absalom  (2  Sam.  2.8, 12,  29,  17.24, 
27,  19.32  ;  1  K.  2.8).  It  was  one  of  Solomon's 
commissariat  districts  (1  K.  4.14).  Mahanaim 
has  been  identified  with  the  modern  village 
of  Mahne",  but  this  is  uncertain. 

Maha'neh-dan. — Camp  of  Dan :  a  fortified 
camp  of  Danites  in  their  contests  with  the 
Pliilistines,  where  the  600  gathered  before 
setting  out  on  their  expedition  against  Laish, 
and  where  Samson  passed  his  boyhood  (Judg. 
13.25,  18.12). 

Maha'rai. — One  of  David's  warriors  (2  Sam. 
23.28  ;  1  Ch.  11.30,  27.13). 

Ma'hath. — Dissolution :  1.  A  descendant  of 
Kohath,  the  son  of  Levi  (1  Ch.  6.35;  2  Ch. 
29.12).  2.  A  Levite,  overseer  of  the  dedicated 
things  in  Hezekiah's  reign  (2  Ch.  31.13). 

Maha'vite,  The. — A  designation  of  Eliel,  one 
of  David's  warriors  (1  Ch.  11.46). 

Mahazi'oth. — Visions :  one  of  the  sons  of 
Heman,  set  over  the  service  of  song  in  David's 
reign  (1  Ch.  25.4,  30). 

Ma 'her  -  Sha'lal  -  Hash  -  Baz. — The  symbolical 
name  given  to  a  son  of  Isaiah,  meaning  "  spoil 
speedeth,  prey  hasteth " ;  implying  that 
Damascus  and  Samaria  were  soon  to  be  ravaged 
by  the  king  of  Assyria  (Isai.  8.1,  3). 

Mah'lah. — Sickness :  the  eldest  daughter  of 
Zelophehad,  descended  from  Manasseh,  and 
allowed  a  portion  in  the  land  because  her 
father  left  no  male  issue  (Num.  26.33,  27.1, 36.11 ; 
Josh.  17.3). 


Mah'li. —  Weak:  1.  A  son  of  Merari,  son  oi 
Levi  (Ex.  6.19  ;  Num.  3.20  ;  1  Ch.  6.19  ;  Ezra 
8.18).  2.  A  son  of  Mushi,  the  son  of  Merari 
(1  Ch.  6.47,  23.23,  24.30). 

Mahlites.— The  descendants  of  Mahli  1 
(Num.  3.33,  26.58). 

Mah'lon. — Sickly :  the  son  of  Naomi  and 
first  husband  of  Ruth  (Ruth  1.2,  5,  4.9,  10). 
[CHTLION.] 

Mah'ol. — Dance  :  the  father  of  certain  men 
renowned  for  wisdom  in  Solomon's  time  (1  K. 
4.31). 

Mahseiah.— [MAASEIAH  16.] 

Mataz. — A  part  of  one  of  Solomon's  com- 
missariat districts,  probably  in  Dan  (1  K.  4.9). 

Makhe'loth.— The  twenty-first  station  of 
Israel  from  Egypt  (Num.  33.25,  26). 

Makke'dah. — A  town  on  a  hill,  2  miles  south- 
east of  Ekron.  Five  kings  were  here  taken 
in  a  cave.  It  was  stormed  by  Joshua  and 
allotted  to  Judah  (Josh.  10.10-29,  15.41). 

Mak'tesh. — Mortar :  a  place  in  Jerusalem, 
the  quarter  of  the  merchants  (Zeph.  1.11). 

Ma'lachi. — My  messenger :  the  name  or  the 
title  of  the  author  of  the  last  book  in  the  O.T. 
Canon  (Mai.  1.1).  If  Malachi  were  the  prophet's 
name,  it  may  have  been  an  abbreviation  of 
Malachiah.  Jewish  opinion  for  some  time 
after  our  Lord,  the  Early  Church  Fathers,  and 
most  expositors  prefer,  however,  to  regard 
Malachi  not  as  a  proper  name  but  as  a  title. 
Thus  the  LXX  in  Mai.  1.1  reads  "  by  the  hand 
of  His  messenger "  ;  and  the  R.V.  marg.  has 
"  my  messenger."  Jerome  refers  to  a  Hebrew 
view  that  this  "  messenger "  was  Ezra  the 
scribe.  Nothing  is  definitely  known  as  to  the 
personality  of  the  writer,  beyond  what  may  be 
gathered  from  his  work.  [MALACHI,  BOOK  OP.] 

Malachi,  Book  of.— The  last  book  in  the 
division  of  the  O.T.  known  as  the  Minor  Prophets. 
For  the  authorship  of  the  book  see  MALACHI. 
Its  date,  must  be  inferred  from  its  contents  ;  but 
whilst  some  have  placed  it  before  the  arrival  of 
Ezra,  others  refer  it  to  the  period  during  which 
Nehemiah  was  absent  at  the  Persian  court. 
The  style  of  the  \vriter  is  vigorous,  concise,  and 
clear.  A  deep  earnestness  marks  all  his 
utterances.  Characteristic  is  the  use  the 
prophet  makes  of  objections  which  may  have 
been  urged  first  when  his  messages  were 
orally  delivered  (see  1.2,  2.17,  3.8, 13, 14).  The 
contents  of  the  book  may  be  summarised  as 
follows : — 

I.  Profanity  in  Divine  service  (chap.  1),  especi- 
ally disgraceful  on  two  accounts  :  its  ingratitude 
for  Jehovah's  favours  shown  to  Israel,  in  con- 
trast with  Edom  (1.2-5),  and  its  contrast  with 
purer  worship  outside  the  Holy  Land  (1.10, 11), 
which  may  describe  the  actual  practice  of  the 
Dispersion    at    the    time,   or   foreshadow    the 
universal  worship  of   the  Church  :    "  in  every 
place    incense    is    offered     unto    My    name," 
anticipating  our  Lord's  great  declaration  (John 
4.21). 

II.  Priestly    unfaithfulness    (2.1-9).     If    the 
people  impiously  brought  mean  and  blemished 


MALCHAM] 


301 


[MAN  OF  SIN 


offerings  to  the  altar,  the  priests,  by  their 
corrupt  teachings  and  respect  of  persons,  were 
guiltier  still. 

III.  Ungodly  marriages  (2.10-16).     The  great 
purpose    of    God    in    the   marriage    institution, 
to  raise   up  a  holy  seed,  was   transgressed  by 
these  alliances ;   and  the  divorces  to  which  they 
led  were  the  source  of   bitter  domestic  sorrow, 
and   of    weeping   which   covered   the    altar  of 
Jehovah  with  tears  (2.13). 

IV.  Such  sins  would  bring  down    judgment 
(2.17-3.6).     Jehovah's  messenger  would  come  to 
prepare   His   way :     the    Lord    Himself    would 
appear  in  His  Temple  to  judge  and  to  purify. 

V.  The  sin  of  the  people  in  withholding  their 
gifts  from    God   is   again  set  forth ;  with  the 
promise  that  faithfulness  in  this  matter  would  be 
followed  by  temporal  blessing  :  and  the  question 
of  ungodly  scoffers,  whether  religion  was  pro- 
fitable, would  be  set  at  rest.     In  contrast  with 
these  scoffers  is  set  the  example  of  the  faithful 
(3.7-18). 

VI.  The    prophet  closes   the   book   with   an 
assurance  of  approaching  salvation,  predicts  the 
rising  of  the  Sun  of  Righteousness,  and  enjoins 
until  that  day  the  observance  of  the  Law.    To 
confirm  it,  and  to  prepare  the  way  for  judg- 
ment, a  second  Elijah  would  appear  (4). 

The  N.T.  references  to  Malachi  are  interesting. 
The  choice  of  Israel  in  preference  to  Edom  (1.2) 
is  used  to  illustrate  Divine  election  (Rom.  9.13). 
The  "  messenger  of  God  "  (3.1)  and  "  Elijah  the 
prophet "  (4.5,  6)  are  identified  with  John  the 
Baptist  (Matt.  11.10, 14, 17.11 ;  Mk.  1.2, 9.11, 12  ; 
Lk.  1.17, 76,  7.27).  The  image  of  the  rising  Sun 
of  Righteousness  (4.2)  has  its  parallel  in  "  the 
Dayspring  from  on  high "  (Lk.  1.78 ;  cl.  John 
1.4,  8.12,  9.5,  12.46). 

Mal'cham  (R.V.  Malcam).— 1.  Son  of  Shahar- 
aim,  a  Benjamite  (1  Ch.  8.9).  2.  The  god  of  the 
Ammonites,  also  called  Molech  and  Milcom 
(Zeph.  1.5).  The  form  Malcam  means  in  Hebrew 
"  their  king,"  and  so  in  R.V.  marg.  In  Jer. 
49.1,  3,  R.V.  also  gives  Malcam  in  text,  "  their 
king  "  in  marg.  ;  in  2  Sam.  12.30,  R.V.  marg. 
has  Malcam  as  an  alternative  for  "  their  king  " 
of  the  text.  [MOLECH.] 

Malchi'ah,  Malchi'jah.— Jah  is  king:  1..A 
Gershonite,  ancestor  of  Asaph,  who  was  a  leader 
of  the  singing  in  David's  reign  (1  Ch.  6.40). 
2.  The  head  of  a  family  of  priests  when  the 
charges  of  the  sanctuary  were  assigned  by  lot 
(1  Ch.  24.9).  3,  4,  5.  Persons  who  had  married 
foreign  wives  during  or  after  the  Captivity,  and 
put  them  away  at  the  command  of  Ezra  (Ezra 
10.25,  31 ;  Neh.  3.11).  6, 7.  Persons  who  assisted 
in  repairing  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  after  the 
Captivity  (Neh.  3. 14, 31).  8.  One  of  the  priests 
who  stood  at  the  left  hand  of  Ezra  \\  hen  he  read 
the  Law  to  the  people  in  the  street  before  the 
water-gate  (Neh.  8.4).  9.  A  priest  who  sealed 
the  covenant  (Neh.  10.3).  10.  A  priest  who  took 
part  in  the  dedicating  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  12.42).  11.  The  father  of  Pashur.  Pashur 
was  sent  by  king  Zedekiah  to  Jeremiah  to  con- 
sult the  Lord.  Jeremiah  was  subsequently 


cast  into  Pashur's  dungeon  or  cistern  (1  Ch.  9.12 ; 
Neh.  11.12  ;  Jer.  21.1,  38.1,  6). 

Malchi'el. — God  is  king :  grandson  of  Asher, 
whose  genealogy  is  noted  in  Gen.  46.17 ;  Num. 
26.45  ;  1  Ch.  7.31. 

Malchi'eKtes,  The. —  The  descendants  of 
Malchiel  (Num.  26.45). 

Malchi'jah. — [MALCHIAH.] 

Malchi'ram. — My  king  is  exalted :  one  of  the 
sons  of  Jeconiah,  or  Jehoiachin,  king  of  Judah 
(1  Ch.  3.18) 

Malchi-shu'a. — One  of  the  sons  of  King  Saul 
(1  Ch.  8.33,  9.39).  He  and  his  two  brothers  fell 
at  the  battle  of  Gilboa  (1  Sam.  14.49,  31.2,  A.V. 
Melchi-shua). 

Malchus. — The  high-priest's  servant  whose 
ear  Peter  cut  off  at  Gethsemane.  His  name 
is  given  by  John  only  ( John  18.10,  26  ;  cf.  Matt. 
20.51 ;  Mk.  14.47  ;  Lk.  22.50). 

Malele'el  (R.V.  Mahala'leel).-(I&.  3.37). 
[MAHALALEEL.] 

Mallo'thi.— One  of  the  sons  of  Heman  (1  Ch. 
25.4, 26). 

Mallows.— Only  in  Job  30.4,  where  R.V.  has 
"  salt-wort,"  a  plant  eaten  by  the  very  poor 
in  Palestine. 

Mal'luch. — 1.  A  Merarite  whose  descendant 
Ethan  was  set  over  the  service  of  song  by 
David  (1  Ch.  6.44).  2,  3.  Persons  who  had 
married  foreign  wives  (Ezra  10.29,32).  4,  5. 
The  name  of  two  persons  who,  with  Nehemiah, 
sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  10.4,27,  12.2;  the 
former  of  these  is  perhaps  the  Malluchi  (A.V. 
Melicu)  of  12.14). 

Malobath'ron. — In  Cant.  2.17  R.V.  marg., 
where  A.V.  and  R.V.  read  Bether  (which  see). 
It  is  a  spice  tree,  a  kind  of  cassia,  which  grows 
in  China,  but  not  wild  in  Palestine. 

Mam'mon. — An  Aramaic  word  used  in  Matt. 
6.24;  Lk.  16.9, 11, 13  as  a  personification  of  riches. 
Its  original  meaning  may  be  "hidden  (treasure)." 

Mamre. — The  word  occurs  in  three  con- 
texts: — (1)  The  name  of  an  Amorite,  brother 
of  Eshcol  and  Amer,  who  entered  into  alliance 
with  Abraham  (Gen.  14.13,  24).  (2)  The  place 
where  Abraham  dwelt :  R.V.  "  by  the  vales 
(marg.  terebinths)  of  Mamre  "  ;  A.V.,  wrongly, 
"in  the  plain"  (Gen.  13.18,  18.1).  In  the 
former  passage  these  trees  are  said  to  be  "  in 
Hebron."  See  also  35.27.  (3)  In  connexion 
with  Machpelah,  the  burying-place  purchased 
by  Abraham.  This  was  "  before  Marnre " 
(23.17, 19— identified  with  Hebron,  ver.  19— 
25.9,  49.30,  50.13). 

Man. — The  chief  words  rendered  "  man  "  in 
the  O.T.  are:— (1)  Adam  (Gen.  1.26,  etc.),  a 
term  for  mankind  collectively  and  in  distinc- 
tion from  God.  (2)  Ish  (Gen.  2.24,  etc.),  a 
male.  (3)  Enosh  (Gen.  6.4,  etc.),  the  biman 
race  as  mortal  beings.  (4)  Geber  (Er.  10.11, 
etc.),  man  in  his  strength.  In  the  N.T.  the 
chief  words  are  (1)  Aner  (Lk.  1.27,  etc.),  man 
in  age  and  sex  ;  (2)  Anthropos  (Matt.  4.4,  etc.), 
man  as  opposed  to  beast. 

Man  of  Sin.— Only  in  2  Thess.  2.3.  [ANTI- 
CHRIST.] 


MAN,  SON  OF] 


302 


[MANNA 


Man,  Son  oL— [Sox  OP  MAN.] 

Mana'en. — Comforter  :  an  early  associate  or 
foster-brother  of  Herod  Antipas,  mentioned  as 
one  of  the  five  Christian  prophets  or  teachers 
in  the  Church  at  Antioch  (Acts  13.1). 

Mana'hath. — Resting-place  :  1.  A  descendant 
of  Seir,  the  Horite  (Gen.  36.23  ;  1  Ch.  1.40). 
2.  A  city  in  Benjamin,  over  against  Gibeah 
(1  Ch.  8.6). 

Mana'hethites,  The.— The  families  of  Shobal 
and  of  Salma,  two  sons  of  Caleb  (1  Ch.  2.52,  54). 
In  ver.  52  R.V.  "half  of  the  Menuhoth," 
ver.  54  "  half  of  the  Manahathites."  Probably 
we  should  read  "  Manahathites  "  in  both  verses, 
and  suppose  that  the  town  Manahath  was 
peopled  by  two  separate  families  of  the  Edomite 
clan  Caleb. 

Manas'seh. — Causing  forgetfulness  :  1.  The 
elder  son  of  Joseph  (Gen.  41.51).  Joseph 
brought  his  two  sons  to  his  dying  father  Jacob, 
that  he  might  bless  them.  Jacob  adopted 
them,  although  the  birthright  was  given  to  the 
younger,  Ephraim  (Gen.  48.1-22).  The  tribe 
of  Manasseh  came  out  of  Egypt  in  number 
32,200  men,  upwards  of  twenty  years  old, 
under  the  leadership  of  Gamaliel,  son  of  Pedah- 
zur  (Num.  2.20,  21).  This  tribe  was  divided 
in  the  Promised  Land.  One  half -tribe  of 
Manasseh  settled  on  the  east  of  the  Jordan 
and  possessed  the  country  of  Bashan,  from 
the  river  Jabbok  northwards ;  and  the  other 
half-tribe  of  Manasseh  settled  on  the  west  of 
Jordan  and  possessed  the  country  between 
Ephraim  on  the  south  and  Issachar  on  the 
north  (Josh.  16.17).  Gideon  and  Jephthah  were 
Manassites.  The  half-tribe  on  the  east  of 
Jordan  joined  Reuben  and  Gad  in  sending 
120,000  men  fully  armed  to  the  coronation  of 
David  at  Hebron  (1  Ch.  12.37).  But  prosperity 
led  them  into  idolatry,  which  brought  its 
punishment  in  their  captivity  by  Pul  and 
Tilgath-Pilneser  (1  Ch.  5.23-26).  Members  of 
the  tribe  of  Manasseh  played  a  good  part 
in  various  religious  reforms  (2  Ch.  15.9,  30.1, 
31.1,  34.6). 

2.  The  fifteenth  king  of  Judah.  The  son  of 
Hezekiah,  Manasseh  was  twelve  years  old  when 
he  began  a  reign  which  lasted  fifty-five  years. 
He  worshipped  the  idols  of  Canaan ;  rebuilt 
the  high  places  that  his  father  had  destroyed  ; 
set  up  altars  to  Baal ;  and  made  Asheroth. 
[GROVE.]  He  raised  altars  to  the  whole  host 
of  heaven  in  the  courts  of  God's  house ;  made 
his  son  pass  through  the  fire  in  honour  of 
Moloch ;  was  addicted  to  magic,  divinations, 
auguries,  and  other  superstitions ;  set  up  an 
idol  in  the  house  of  God ;  and,  finally,  he 
involved  bis  people  in  all  the  abominations  of 
the  idolatrous  nations  to  such  a  degree  that 
Israel  committed  more  wickedness  than  the 
Canaanites  whom  the  Lord  had  driven  out 
before  them.  To  all  these  crimes  Manasseh 
added  cruelty,  and  he  shed  rivers  of  innocent 
blood  in  Jerusalem.  Chronicles  adds  that  for 
these  sins  God  punished  him  by  captivity 
at  Babylon,  where  he  bumbled  himself  before 


God.  Being  restored  to  Jerusalem,  he  set  up 
again  the  worship  of  the  Lord  and  destroyed 
all  the  symbols  of  idolatrous  worship  except 
the  high  places.  He  caused  Jerusalem  to  be 
fortified,  and  he  put  garrisons  in  all  the  strong 
places  of  Judah.  Manasseh  died  at  Jerusalem, 
and  was  buried  in  the  garden  of  his  house 
(2  K.  21 ;  2  Ch.  33;  Jer.  15.4).  The  Prayer  of 
Manasses  contained  in  the  Apocrypha  is  doubt- 
less a  late  composition 

3,  4.  Persons  who  in  the  days  of  Ezra  had 
married  foreign  wives  (Ezra  10.30,  33). 

5.  In  Judg.  18.30  the  first  priest  of  the 
idolatrous  shrine  set  up  by  the  tribe  of  Dan 
is  named  as  "  Jonathan,  the  son  of  Gershom, 
the  son  of  Manasseh  "  (A.V. ;  R.V.  Moses,  marg. 
Manasseh).  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
true  reading  is  Moses.  In  the  traditional  Hebrew 
text  the  letter  n  (sufficient,  as  only  the  con- 
sonants were  written,  to  change  the  one  name 
into  the  other)  is  written  above  the  line,  and 
is  a  device  to  defend  the  fame  of  Moses. 
It  may  also  suggest  that  such  idolatry  was 
more  natural  to  a  descendant  of  the  idolatrous 
king  Manasseh  than  to  "  the  son  of  Gershom, 
the  son  of  Moses." 

Manas'ses.— Greek  form  of  Manasseh— the 
king  (Matt.  1.10),  the  tribe  (Rev.  7.6);  (R.V. 
Manasseh). 

Manas 'sites,  The. — Members  of  the  tribe  of 
Manasseh  (Dent.  4.43  ;  Judg.  12.4 ;  2  K.  10.33). 

Mandrakes  (R.V.  Love  Apples).— Only  in 
Gen.  30.14-16;  Cant.  7.13.  The  mandrake  is 
a  near  relative  of  the  nightshades,  the  "  apple 
of  Sodom  "  and  the  potato  plant.  It  is  found 
throughout  the  valleys  and  plains  of  Palestine, 
both  west  and  east  of  the  Jordan,  and  is  reputed 
by  the  Arabs  to  possess  medicinal  virtues.  It 
grows  low  like  lettuce,  to  which  its  leaves  bear 
a  strong  resemblance,  except  that  they  have  a 
dark  green  colour.  The  flowers  are  purple. 
The  fruit,  when  ripe,  in  the  beginning  of  May, 
is  of  the  size  and  colour  of  a  small  apple,  exceed- 
ingly ruddy,  and  of  a  strong  odour.  It  is 
generally  valued  by  the  inhabitants  as  exhilar- 
ating their  spirits.  The  curiously  forked  shape 
of  the  root  easily  suggests  a  representation  of  the 
human  form.  Magical  virtues  were  popularly 
attributed  to  the  plant. 

Maneh.— Only  in  Ezek.  45.12.  Elsewhere 
the  Hebrew  word  is  rendered  "  pound,"  R.V. 
having  "  Heb.  maneh "  in  the  margin  (1  K. 
10.17,  etc.).  [WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES.] 

Manna. — The  word  is  by  some  said  to  be 
derived  from  the  surprised  question,  "  What 
is  it  ?  "  (Ex.  16.15,  marg.,  where  R.V.  marg.  has, 
"  It  is  manna,  Heb.  Man  hu  ").  The  gift  of  manna 
as  food  for  Israel  in  the  wilderness  and  the 
conditions  attending  its  use  are  described  in 
Ex.  16.14-36  ;  Num.  11.6-9.  A  pot  of  manna 
was  laid  up  in  the  ark  as  a  memorial  (Ex.  16.33  ; 
Heb.  9.4).  The  provision  of  manna  is  also 
alluded  to  in  Deut.  8.3,  16 ;  Josh.  5.12 ;  Neh. 
9.20;  Ps.  78.24;  John  6.31,49,58).  In  Rev. 
2.17  "  the  hidden  manna  "  is  opposed  to  the 
idol-offerings.  Manna  has  been  identified  with 


MANOAH] 


303 


[MARK 


the  exudation  of  a  tree  still  found  in  the  Sinaitic 
peninsula,  and  with  other  substances  including 
lichen,  which  has  been  carried  many  miles  by 
the  wind.  But  no  single  product  fulfils  all  the 
conditions  of  the  Bible  narrative.  The  manna 
of  modern  use  is  the  dried  juice  of  the  ash,  arid  is 
made  in  South  Europe. 

Mano'ah. — Rest :  the  father  of  Samson,  whose 
birth  was  announced  to  him  and  to  his  wife 
by  "the  angel  of  the  Lord"  (Judg.  13.3-23). 
Manoah  and  his  wife  sought  to  dissuade  Samson 
from  marrying  a  Philistine  woman  (Judg. 
14.2-4).  Samson  was  buried  in  "the  burying- 
place  of  Manoah  his  father  "  (Judg.  16.31). 

Manslayer. — The  children  of  Israel  were 
commanded  to  appoint  six  cities  of  refuge, 
three  on  each  side  of  the  Jordan,  that  any  one 
who  killed  a  person  might  flee  thither  from 
the  avenger  of  blood  ;  but  if  the  act  was  com- 
mitted with  design,  the  murderer  was  to  be  given 
up  to  the  avenger,  even  though  he  had  fled  to 
the  altar  of  God  (Ex.  21.14 ;  Num.  35 ;  1  K. 
2.29-34).  At  the  death  of  the  high-priest  the 
manslayer  might  with  impunity  quit  the  city  of 
refuge.  [REFUGE,  CITIES  OF.] 

Mantelet.— Nah.  2.5  R.V.,  where  A.V.  has 
Defence.  Apparently  a  shelter  run  forward  by 
the  assailants  in  a  siege. 

Mantle. — The  mantle  with  which  Jael  covered 
Sisera  (Judg.  4.18)  was  a  plaid  or  shawl  or 
blanket  such  as  is  still  commonly  used  by  Arabs 
in  making  up  beds  in  a  tent.  The  mantle  which 
Samuel  wore  when  summoned  from  the  dead 
by  the  witch  of  Endor,  and  by  which  Saul 
identified  him,  was  the  official  priestly  tunic  or 
robe  (1  Sam.  28.14).  The  mantle  of  Elijah  was 
the  cape  or  wrapper  for  his  shoulders  which, 
with  a  strip  of  skin  or  leather  round  his  loins, 
formed  all  his  clothing  (1  K.  19.13, 19 ;  2  K. 
2.8, 13, 14). 

Ma'och.— The  father  of  Achish,  king  of 
Gath.  David  fled  to  Achish  when  persecuted 
by  Saul  (1  Sam.  27.2) ;  identical  with  MAACAH  4. 

Ma'on. — Habitation :  a  town  on  a  hill  sur- 
rounded by  waste  pasture  ground  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Judab,  about  2  miles  from  Kurmul 
(Carmel),  and  7  miles  south  of  Hebron.  There 
David  hid  himself  from  Saul ;  and  there  Nabal 
fed  his  flocks  (Josh.  15.55 ;  1  Sam.  23.24,  25, 
25.2  ;  1  Ch.  2.45).  [MEHUNIM.] 

Ma'onites,  The. — A  tribe  near  Amalek, 
mentioned  among  the  early  oppressors  of  Israel 
(Judg.  10.12,  see  R.V.  marg.).  [MEHUNIM.] 

Ma'ra. — Bitter  :  the  name  assumed  by  Naomi, 
after  the  loss  of  her  husband  and  sons,  instead 
of  her  former  one,  which  signified  "  pleasant " 
(Ruth  1.20). 

Ma'rah. — Bitterness  :  a  well  of  brackish  water 
in  the  wilderness  of  Shur,  three  days'  journey 
by  Israel  from  the  border  of  the  Red  Sea.  Its 
waters  were  made  palatable  by  Moses  casting 
a  tree  therein  (Ex.  15.22-25  ;  Num.  33.8). 

Mara'lah. — A  landmark  on  the  boundary  of 
Zebulun  (Josh.  19.11). 

Marana'tha. — An  Aramaic  expression  used 
by  St.  Paul  (1  Cor.  16.22).  The  A.V.  adopts 


(without  marginal  explanation)  an  ancient  and 
widespread  interpretation  which  linked  the  two 
words  "  anathema  maranatha  "  into  a  double 
curse.  This  has  no  justification,  and  is  now 
universally  abandoned.  The  R.V.  renders 
"  let  him  be  anathema.  Maran  atha,"  with 
marg.  "That  is,  Our  Lord  cometh."  This 
would  make  the  phrase  the  Aramaic  expression 
of  the  early  Christian  watchword  occurring  again 
in  its  Greek  form  at  Phil.  4.5,  "  The  Lord  is  at 
hand."  Some  scholars,  however,  divide  the 
the  word  into  marana  tha,  "  Our  Lord,  come  "  ; 
cf.  Rev.  22.20,  "  Come,  Lord  Jesus,"  and  this 
view  is  perhaps  gaining  ground.  [ANATHEMA.] 

Marcus. — [MARK.] 

Mare'shah. — Chief  town :  1.  Now  Merash, 
on  the  border  of  the  Philistine  plain ;  a  town 
in  the  lowland  of  Judah,  commanding  one  of  the 
passes  to  the  hills,  fortified  by  Rehoboam 
(Josh.  15.44 ;  2  Ch.  11.8) ;  the  limit  of  invasion 
by  Terah  the  Cushite  (2  Ch.  14.9,  10) ;  the 
birthplace  of  Eliezer  the  prophet  (2  Ch.  20.37) ; 
the  subject  of  prophetic  denunciation  with  word- 
play on  the  name  (Mic.  1.15).  2.  The  "father 
of  Hebron,"  which  perhaps  means  that  Hebron 
was  colonised  from  Mareshah  1  (1  Ch.  2.42). 
3.  The  "  son  "  of  Laadah,  who  perhaps  founded 
Mareshah  1  (1  Ch.  4.21). 

Marish.  —  (Ezek.  47.11).  Old  English  for 
"  marsh." 

Mark. — The  Evangelist,  a  Jew  who  had 
taken  a  Roman  name,  identified  with  "  John, 
whose  surname  was  Mark "  (Acts  12.12,  25), 
the  cousin  of  Barnabas  (Col.  4.10),  and  son  of 
Mary,  who  resided  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  12.12). 
Mark  himself  was  probably  converted  to 
the  faith  of  Christ  by  the  ministry  of  Peter 
(1  Pel.  5.13),  who  was  accustomed  to  frequent 
his  mother's  house  (Acts  12.12).  He  accom- 
panied Paul  and  Barnabas  to  Antioch  from 
Jerusalem  (Acts  12.25),  and  set  out  with  them 
upon  a  missionary  journey ;  but  left  them 
before  its  completion  (Acts  13.5, 13).  In 
consequence  of  this,  Paul  refused  to  take  him 
on  another  tour,  about  six  years  afterwards : 
and  Mark  then  accompanied  Barnabas  on  his 
voyage  to  Cyprus  ( Acts  15.38,  39).  He  became, 
however,  again  an  attendant  of  Paul,  when  a 
prisoner  at  Rome  ;  and  is  mentioned  in  a  manner 
which  shows  that  he  had  regained  his  place  in 
the  apostle's  esteem  (Col.  4.10 ;  2  Tim.  4.11 ; 
Philem.  24).  Early  Christian  writers  assert 
that  he  attended  Peter  during  a  considerable 
portion  of  his  ministry,  enjoying  his  intimate 
friendship,  and  acting  as  his  "  interpreter  "  or 
secretary ;  and  that  he  afterwards  laboured 
and  suffered  martyrdom  in  Egypt. 

Some  interesting  conjectures  are  associated 
with  Mark.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the 
house  of  Acts  12.12  was  the  house  where  (in  the 
lifetime  of  Mark's  father)  the  Last  Supper  was 
eaten  (Mk.  14.14);  that  the  Garden  of  Geth- 
semane  belonged  to  it ;  and  that  Mark  himself 
was  the  "man"  of  Mk.  14.13  and  the  "young 
man"  of  the  incident  related  only  in  his  Gospel 
(Mk.  14.51,52).  [JOHN  2.1  x 


MARK,  GOSPEL  ACCORDING  TO]    304 


[MARRIAGE 


Mark,  the  Gospel  according  to.— The  author- 
ship of  this  Gospel  is  ascribed  to  John  Mark. 
[MARK.]  One  of  the  oldest  of  Christian  tra- 
ditions associates  its  sources  with  Peter,  indeed, 
Justin  Martyr  (100-120  A.D.)  quotes  the  Gospel 
as  the  "  Memoirs  of  Peter."  Certain  character- 
istics of  the  Gospel  (see  below)  support  such  an 
origin.  Christian  tradition  is  not  less  strong 
in  naming  Rome  as  the  place  of  its  composition. 
Its  date  is  said  by  Irenoeus  to  be  subsequent  to 
the  deaths  of  Peter  and  Paul.  But  from  the 
absence  of  reference  to  the  capture  of  Jerusalem 
(70  A.D.),  it  seems  necessary  to  place  it  not 
later  than  that  year,  and  so  between  63  and 
70  A.D. 

The  contents  of  this  Gospel  may  be  divided 
thus  :— 

I.  A     brief     introduction,     describing     the 
preaching  of  our  Lord's  forerunner,   and  His 
own  baptism  and  temptation  (1.1-13). 

II.  The  leading  events  Of  our  Lord's  public 
life   and    ministry   in    Galilee,    occupying    the 
larger  portion  of  the  book  (1.14-9.50). 

III.  A  short  account  of  our  Lord's  journey 
to  Jerusalem  (10) ;    His  entrance  into  the  city, 
and  some  events  which  occurred  there,  chiefly  His 
sufferings,  death,  and  resurrection  (11.1-16.8). 

IV.  A   section   (16.9-20)    which     has    been 
challenged  as  not  forming  a  part  of  the  original 
Gospel  (see  below). 

From  internal  evidence  the  Gospel  was 
written  mainly  for  Gentile  readers.  Thus — 
Words  not  understood  by  Gentiles  are  ex- 
plained (3.17,  5.41,  7.11  and  34,  10.46,  14.36, 
15.34) ;  Jewish  customs  are  explained  (7.3, 4, 
14.12,  15.42);  the  references  to  the  O.T. 
are  few ;  Latin  forms,  not  used  in  the  other 
Gospels,  appear  (6.27,  7.4, 12.42,  15.39,  44,  45). 

The  relation  of  Mark  to  the  other  Synoptic 
Gospels  has  been  the  subject  of  much  inquiry. 
Almost  the  whole  of  Mark  is  found  in  Matthew 
or  Luke,  or  in  both  of  them.  Hence  the  inference 
that  Matthew  and  Luke  had  access  to  a  narrative 
which  was  either  the  present  Mark  or  a  simpler 
form  of  it.  An  alternative  explanation,  that 
Mark  borrowed  from  Matthew  and  Luke,  is 
excluded  by  a  comparison  of  the  three  narra- 
tives. There  are  thus  in  Mark  few  passages 
which  have  no  parallels  in  Matthew  or  Luke. 
Those  peculiar  to  Mark  are  : — 

Miracles  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  man  (7.31- 
37),  the  blind  man  at  Bethsaida  (8.22-26); 
the  parable  of  the  seed  growing  secretly 
(4.26-29) ;  the  incident  of  the  young  man  in 
the  linen  cloth  at  the  arrest  of  our  Lord 
(14.51, 52),  the  appearance  and  charge  after 
the  Resurrection  (16.14-18) ;  and  the  explana- 
tion of  Jewish  customs  of  purification  (7.2-4). 

The  omissions  of  this  Gospel  are  as  noteworthy 
as  its  contents.  It  does  not  present  our  Lord's 
relation  to  the  Jewish  people  or  the  Mosaic 
economy ;  its  references  to  the  prophetic 
writings,  and  to  the  O.T.  Scriptures  generally, 
nre  but  few,  being,  in  most  cases,  citations  by 
our  Lord  Himself  or  other  speakers,  not  by 
the  evangelist ;  the  only  exception  being  in 


1.2,  3.  (The  quotation,  15.28,  is  omitted  by 
the  best  authorities.)  It  does  not  (like  Matthew) 
aim  at  combating  Jewish  prejudices;  and  it 
takes  for  granted,  rather  than  fully  displays  (as 
does  that  of  Luke),  the  adaptation  of  the 
Gospel  to  the  world.  It  contains  comparatively 
little  of  our  Lord's  teaching ;  and  what  it  does 
give,  it  relates  with  much  brevity. 

Amongst  other  characteristics  of  this  Gospel 
it  will  be  noted  that,  unlike  the  others,  it  ex- 
hibits no  predominant  theological  purpose ; 
it  is  simply  a  chronicle,  dwelling  particularly 
on  our  Lord's  wonderful  deeds.  The  life  which 
it  portrays  is  crowded  with  action,  indicative  at 
once  of  unlimited  power,  unwearied  energy, 
and  inexhaustible  grace.  The  author's  associa- 
tion with  Peter  will  account  for  the  constant 
vivid  and  circumstantial  touches  in  the  narrative. 
The  very  Aramaic  words  employed  by  our 
Lord  are  in  several  instances  given,  as  Boanerges, 
Talitha  cumi,  Ephphatha,  Corban,  Abba.  The 
various  emotions  of  the  personages  in  the 
narrative  are  strikingly  indicated :  see,  e.g., 
3.34,  8.12,  10.14,21,32,  16.5,6.  Time  and 
place  are  carefully  particularised.  Whilst  Mark 
gives  certain  passages  referring  to  Peter  which 
are  omitted  by  the  other  evangelists  (1.36, 
11.21,  13.3,  16.7),  he  omits  references  to  Peter 
which  are  equally  important  (cf.,  e.g.,  7.17 
with  Matt.  15.15,  and  8.29,30  with  Matt. 
16.17-19). 

The  last  twelve  verses  of  the  Gospel  have  been 
the  subject  of  much  controversy.  In  the  R.V. 
they  are  printed  after  a  space,  with  the 
following  marginal  note :  "  The  two  oldest 
Greek  manuscripts,  and  some  other  authorities, 
omit  from  ver.  9  to  the  end.  Some  other 
authorities  have  adifferent  ending  to  the  Gospel." 
It  has  been  suggested  that  they  were  added  by 
Aristion,  who  is  mentioned  by  Papias  as  one  of 
the  disciples  of  the  Lord.  Their  style  is  quite 
different  from  that  of  the  rest  of  the  Gospel. 

Ma 'roth. — Bitterness:  a  town  in  the  lowland 
of  Judah  (Mic.  1.12,  where  the  word-play 
should  be  noted). 

Marriage. — The  institution  of  marriage  is,  in 
Holy  Scripture,  dated  from  the  creation  (Gen. 
2.23,  24),  and  is  so  described  by  our  Lord  (Matt. 
19.4,  5).  The  earliest  O.T.  records  of  marriages 
show  that  the  union  was  arranged  for  by 
the  parents  (Gen.  21.21  ;  24),  though  the 
consent  of  the  contracting  parties  was  some- 
times asked  (Gen.  24.58).  On  betrothal,  pur- 
chase-money or  dowry  was  paid  (Gen.  24.53, 
34.12) ;  the  bride  also  received  presents  (Gen. 
24.53).  The  payment  was  in  some  cases  made 
by  service  rendered  (Gen.  29.18,  27,  28  ;  Josh. 
15.16).  The  marriage  was  accompanied  by 
feasting  (Gen.  29.22 ;  Judg.  14.10,  12).  The 
bridegroom  was  for  a  year  freed  from  the 
summons  to  war  or  "  any  business  "  (Deut.  24.5  ; 
cf.  Lk.  14.20). 

Whilst  by  the  law  marriage  within  certain 
degrees  of  affinity  was  prohibited  (Lev.  18.6-18, 
20.11,  12,  17,  19-21 ;  Deut.  22.30,  27.20,  22,  23), 
there  are  instances  of  marriage  between  near 


MARRIAGE  CEREMONIES] 


305 


[MARRIAGE  CEREMONIES 


relatives  (Gen.  24.4,  29.19).  The  marriage  to 
the  sister  of  a  wife  still  living  was  forbidden 
(Lev.  18.18).  The  marriage  with  the  widow  of 
a  dead  brother  (Gen.  38.8,  11  ;  cf.  Matt.  22.24) 
was  enjoined  for  a  particular  purpose.  At 
first,  marriage  unions  were  formed  as  far  as 
possible  within  the  same  family  (cf.  Gen.  29.19 
with  Gen.  27.43,  28.5).  Later,  marriage  with 
Canaanitish  women  or  other  pagans  was 
forbidden  (Deut.  7.1-4).  Exception  would  ap- 
pear to  have  been  made  in  favour  of  Edomites 
and  Egyptians  (Deut.  23.7,  8).  Marriage  with 
a  woman  taken  captive  in  war  was  also  allowed 
(Deut.  21.10-14).  Joseph  (Qen.  41.45)  and 
Moses  (Ex.  2.21  ;  Num.  12.1)  married  outside 
the  race.  So,  later  on,  did  David  (2  Sam.  3.3), 
Solomon  (1  K.  11.1),  Ahab  (1  K.  16.31),  and 
Manasseh  (1  Ch.  7.14).  For  difficulties  occasioned 
by  marriages  with  heathen  women  see 
Ezra  9  and~10;  Neh.  13.23.  The  marriage  of 
the  high-priest  (Lev.  21.13,  14),  the  priests 
(Lev.  21.7),  and  an  heiress  (Num.  36.5-9),  and  a 
divorced  woman  (Deut.  24.1-4)  were  restricted 
by  ordinances. 

In  the  N.T.  our  Lord  refers  to  marriage  as 
divinely  instituted,  and  indissoluble,  and  to 
divorce  as  a  concession  due  to  "  hardness  of 
heart  "  (Matt.  5.31,  32,  19.9  ;  Mk.  10.2-9).  He 
was  Himself  present  at  the  marriage  at  Cana, 
and  wrought  at  it  His  first  miracle  (John  2.1-11). 
As  against  ascetics  who  preached  the  necessity 
of  celibacy  (1  Tim.  4.3),  marriage  is  declared 
"honourable"  (Heb.  13.4).  Much  of  Paul's 
language  as  to  marriage  and  celibacy  must  be 
read  with  due  regard  to  the  circumstances  of 
the  times  and  the  expectation  of  an  early 
Second  Coming  (1  Cor.  7).  Members  of  the 
Christian  Church  are  warned  to  marry  within 
it  (1  Cor.  7.39  ;  2  Cor.  6.14).  The  case  of  the 
married  couple,  one  of  whom  becomes  a  Christian 
whilst  the  other  does  not,  is  dealt  with  in  1  Cor. 
7.12-16.  The  general  relations  and  duties  of 
husband  and  wife  are  set  forth  in  1  Cor.  11.3, 
8-12,  14.35 ;  Eph.  5.22-33 ;  Col.  3.18,  19  ; 
1  Tim.  2.11-15;  1  Pet.  3.1-7.  [ADULTERY, 
POLYGAMY,  and  the  next  article.] 

Marriage  Ceremonies. — A  knowledge  of  the 
ceremonies  attending  weddings  in  the  East  is 
essential  to  the  understanding  of  several 
passages  of  Scripture.  Betrothals  take  place 
with  much  feasting  and  hilarity,  and  then  the 
young  couple  are  permitted  to  talk  to  each 
other  and  so  become  better  acquainted.  But 
for  a  few  days  before  the  marriage  they  both 
shut  themselves  up  in  their  respective  homes, 
when  the  bride  and  bridegroom  receive  visits 
from  parties  of  their  friends.  The  companions  of 
the  bridegroom  are  expressly  mentioned  in  the 
history  of  Samson  ;  also  the  companions  of  the 
bride  (Judg.  14.10-18  ;  Ps.  45.9,  14,  15).  The 
friends  and  companions  of  the  bride  sang  the 
Epithalamium,  or  wedding  song,  at  the  door  of 
the  bride  the  evening  before  the  wedding.  The 
wedding-guests  from  either  side  were  "  the 
children  of  the  bride-chamber "  (Matt.  9.15), 
a  fact  which  casts  light  upon  the  words  of  our 
20 


Lord,  "  Can  the  children  of  the  bride-chamber 
fast  while  the  bridegroom  is  with  them  ?  "  The 
bridegroom  sets  out  to  claim  his  bride  late  in 
the  evening,  accompanied  by  a  procession  of 
friends  (Matt.  22.1-10,  25.1-10  ;  Lk.  14.8)  bearing 
torches  and  lamps,  and  generally  preceded  by  a 
band  of  musicians.  No  one  can  join  the  throng 
without  bearing  some  kind  of  light.  The  lights 
carried  in  the  processions  are  called  mesh-als. 
Linen  rags  or  tow  are  tightly  forced  together,  and 
put  into  frames  of  metal,  at  the  top  of  a  long  pole. 
At  other  times  the  lamps  or  torches  are  held  in 
one  hand,  while  in  the  other  is  a  bottle  of  oil ;  and 
the  bearers  take  care  to  pour  out  of  the  latter, 
from  time  to  time,  upon  the  linen,  to  keep  up 
the  flame,  which  would  otherwise  go  out 
(Matt.  25.1-8).  An  Eastern  traveller,  describing 
a  bridegroom's  procession  which  he  witnessed, 
says  that  "  when  the  company  arrived  at  the 
entrance  of  the  street  where  the  bride  resided, 
we  heard  the  sound  of  many  female  voices,  and 
observed  by  the  light  of  the  torches  a  company 
of  veiled  bride's-maids,  waiting  on  the  balcony, 
to  give  notice  of  the  coming  of  the  bridegroom. 
When  they  caught  sight  of  the  approaching 
procession,  they  ran  back  into  the  house, 
making  it  resound  with  the  cry,  '  Halil,  halil, 
halil !  '  and  music,  both  vocal  and  instrumental, 
commenced  within.  Thus  the  bridegroom 
entered  in." 

After  the  ceremony  and  benediction  the 
bride  and  bridegroom  are  conducted  with  great 
pomp  to  their  new  home.  The  procession  re- 
sembles in  all  essential  respects  that  of  the 
bridegroom  coming  to  claim  his  bride.  A 
traveller  thus  graphically  describes  the  home- 
coming :  — 

"  After  waiting  two  or  three  hours,  at  length, 
near  midnight,  the  coming  of  the  bride  and 
bridegroom  was  announced  in  the  very  words 
of  Scripture,  '  Behold,  the  bridegroom  cometh : 
go  ye  out  to  meet  him.'  All  the  persons  em- 
ployed now  lighted  their  lamps,  and  ran  with 
them  in  their  hands  to  fill  up  their  stations 
in  the  procession ;  some  of  them  had  lost 
their  lights  and  were  unprepared,  but  it  was 
too  late  then  to  get  more.  The  cavalcade  moved 
forward  and  entered  the  dwelling,  the  courtyard 
of  which  was  splendidly  illuminated  and  covered 
with  an  awning.  There  were  a  great  number 
of  guests,  all  dressed  in  their  best. 

"  The  bridegroom  was  carried  in,  and  after 
remaining  with  the  guests  in  the  open  a  short 
while  he  entered  the  house,  when  the  door 
was  immediately  shut  and  a  guard  placed 
before  it.  I  and  others  expostulated  with  the 
doorkeepers,  but  in  vain. 

"  Never  was  I  so  struck  with  our  Lord's 
beautiful  parable  as  at  this  moment,  '  And  the 
door  was  shut.'  " 

"The  parable  of  the  'wedding  garment'  is 
founded  on  the  fact  that  it  was  usual  for  per- 
sons to  appear  at  marriage  feasts  in  a  sump- 
tuous dress.  There  was  a  wardrobe  from 
which  every  one  not  duly  provided  with  a  wed- 
ding garment  might  be  supplied.  Where  the 


MARSENA] 


306 


[MARY 


marriage  was  in  the  higher  ranks  each  guest 
received  a  magnificent  vestment.  They  were 
hung  in  a  chamber  through  which  the  guests 
passed,  and  each  robed  himself  in  honour  of  his 
entertainer  before  entering  the  banqueting 
hall.  It  is  still  the  custom  in  the  East  that 
when  a  rich  man  makes  a  feast  he  provides 
each  guest  with  a  sort  of  pelisse,  which  he 
throws  over  his  other  apparel." 

Mar'sena. — One  of  the  seven  princes  of  Media 
and  Persia  who  saw  the  king's  face  at  pleasure 
(Esth.  1.14). 

Marshal.— In  Judg.  5.14  (R.V.)  this  is  prob- 
ably the  officer  who  with  his  staff  of  office  was 
next  to  the  general.  In  the  R.V.  of  Jer.  51.27  ; 
Nah.  3.17,  it  represents  an  Assyrian  word  either 
of  similar  import  or  perhaps  meaning  a  troop,  or 
a  scribe  (R.V.  marg.). 

Mars'  Hill.— [AREOPAGUS.] 

Mar'tha. — Lady  :  the  sister  of  Lazarus  and 
Mary,  and  mistress  of  the  house  where  our 
Saviour  was  entertained,  in  the  village  of 
Bethany.  Martha  is  always  named  before 
Mary,  probably  because  she  was  the  elder 
sister  (Lk.  10 ;  John  11).  She  was  of  a  bustling, 
anxious  temperament,  the  excess  of  which, 
on  one  occasion,  our  Lord  rebuked. 

Mary.— 1.  The  mother  of  our  Lord.  Shortly 
before  the  date  appointed  for  her  marriage  to 
Joseph,  the  angel  Gabriel  appeared  to  her 
and  announced  that  by  a  miracle  of  divine 
power  she  would  become  the  mother  of  the 
Messiah  (Lie.  1.26-56,  2.1-52 ;  cf.  Matt.  1,  2). 
The  only  incidents  during  the  public  ministry 
of  Jesus  in  which  Mary  appears  are  the  marriage 
at  Cana  of  Galilee  (John  2.1-11),  and  her 
attempt  with  the  brothers  at  Nazareth  to  restrain 
one  who  they  thought  must  be  beside  himself 
(Mk.  3.21, 31-35,  and  parallels).  According 
to  the  Fourth  Gospel  she  followed  our  Saviour 
to  Calvary,  and  stood  by  the  cross.  Jesus,  see- 
ing His  mother  and  the  disciple  whom  He  loved 
standing  by,  said  to  His  mother,  "  Woman, 
behold  thy  son !  "  and  to  the  disciple,  "  Behold, 
thy  mother  !  "  And  from  that  hour  the  disciple 
took  her  unto  his  own  home.  The  Synoptics  have 
no  mention  of  her  in  connexion  with  the  Cruci- 
fixion, but  we  learn  from  Luke  that  she  was  one  of 
the  company  of  disciples  in  the  upper  room  after 
the  Ascension  (Acts  1.14).  Beyond  that,  nothing 
is  really  known  of  her.  There  is  no  trace  of 
Mariolatry  in  the  N.T. 

2.  Mary  Magdalene :  so  called  from  Magdala, 
a  town  of  Galilee,  of  which  she  was  a  native  or 
where  she  had  resided  during  the  early  part 
of  her  life.  Out  of  her  Jesus  had  cast  seven 
devils  (Mk.  16.9  ;  Lk.  8.2).  She  attended  Him  in 
the  last  journey  He  made  from  Galilee  to  Jeru- 
salem and  was  witness  of  the  Crucifixion  (Malt. 
27.56;  Mk.  15.40  ;  Lk.  23.49  ;  John  19.25)  and 
of  the  burial  (Matt.  27.61 ;  Mk.  15.47 ;  Lk.  23.55). 
She  then  returned  to  Jerusalem  to  buy  and  prepare 
with  others  certain  perfumes,  that  she  might 
embalm  the  body  after  the  Sabbath  was  over. 
All  the  Sabbath  day  she  remained  in  the  city  ; 
and  the  next  day,  early  in  the  morning, 


went  to  the  sepulchre,  to  find  it  empty  and 
receive  the  angelic  tidings  that  "  He  is  risen  " 
(Matt.  28.1-10;  Mk.  16.1-8  [10-11];  Lk. 
24.1-10;  John  20.1,2:  cf.  John  20.11-18). 
The  first  mention  of  "  Mary  that  was  called 
Magdalene,  from  whom  seven  devils  had  gone 
out"  (Lk.  8.2),  follows  immediately  upon  the 
story  of  the  woman  who  was  a  "  sinner " 
(Lk.  7.36-50).  There  is,  however,  apart  from 
this  mere  proximity  of  reference,  no  reason 
whatever  for  identifying  the  two,  and  the 
modern  connotation  of  the  term  "  Magdalen  " 
is  based  upon  a  tradition  of  no  value.  Nor  is 
"  Mary  of  Bethany  "  who,  according  to  John  12.3, 
anointed  the  feet  of  Jesus  "  six  days  before 
the  Passover"  to  be  identified  with  the  hypo- 
thetical Mary  of  the  different  incident  of  Lk.  7. 

3.  From  the  first  three  Gospels  we  learn  that 
among    the    women   who    had   followed   Jesus 
from  Galilee   and  were  present  at  the  Cruci- 
fixion was  a  "  Mary  the  mother  of    James   the 
less   (Mk.)   and   Joses"    (Matt.   27.56;     Mk. 
15.40;     Lk.     24.10).      In    the     corresponding 
passage  of  the  Fourth  Gospel  (John  19.25)  it 
is   almost    certainly    this   same   Mary    who    is 
called    "  Mary    of    Clopas "     (A.V.     wrongly, 
Cleophas),    i.e.     probably    the    wife    (possibly 
daughter)  of  Clopas.     Several  interesting  ques- 
tions   here    arise.     (1)  Is    Clopas    the    same 
name   as   Alphaeus?     [ALPH^EUS,  CLOPAS.]     If 
so,  it  becomes  possible  that  "  James  the  less  " 
is  the  apostle  "  James  the  (son)  of  Alphaeus  " 
(Matt.  10.3;    Mk.  3.18;    Lk.  6.15;    Acts  1.13). 
(2)  According  to  John  there  stood  by  the  cross 
of  Jesus  "  His  mother,  and  His  mother's  sister, 
Mary  the  wife  of  Clopas,  and  Mary  Magdalene  " 
(19.25).     Four    women    or    three  ?     The    text 
is  ambiguous,  and   leaves  it   at   least   possible 
that  one  of  three  is  "  His  mother's  sister,  Mary 
the  wife  of  Clopas."     (3)  If  these  suppositions 
hold  good,  then  Mary  the  mother  of  Jesus  had 
a  sister,  also  called  Mary,  wife  of  Alphaeus  and 
mother  of  James  the  Apostle  and  Joses,  who 
were  therefore  cousins  of  Jesus.     But  a  James 
and  a  Joses  are  to  be   found  among  the  four 
brethren  of  Jesus  (Matt.  13.55  ;    Mk.  6.3  ;    Gal. 
1.19 ;    Jude  1).     May  it  not    be,    then,    that 
in  all  references  to  the  "  brethren  of  the  Lord," 
brother  is  loosely  used  for  cousin,  His  "  brethren  " 
being  in  reality  sons  of  His  mother's  sister  Mary 
and   Alphseus?     Into   this  theory  (propounded 
c.  383  A.D.  by  Jerome)  and  its  later  develop- 
ments we  need  not  here  enter.     It  is  evidently 
founded  upon  a  complex  of  doubtful  identifica- 
tions,   and   involves   the    twin   improbabilities 
that  two  sisters  should    bear  the  same  name, 
and  that  the  term  "  brother "  should  in  this 
connexion  be  persistently  used  for  "  cousin." 

4.  Mary    the    sister    of    Martha.     The    only 
Synoptic  reference  is  in  Lk.  10.38-42,  where  it 
appears  that  Martha  was  a  householder  in  an 
unnamed  village.     Her  sister  Mary  "also  (i.e. 
apparently    as   well   as   taking    her  due   share 
in  the  hospitable  preparations)  sat  at  the  Lord's 
feet    and  heard  His    word,"    leaving    Martha, 
distracted  about  much  serving,  to  serve  alone. 


MASCHIL] 


307 


[MATTHEW 


Martha's  complaint  and  our  Lord's  rejoinder 
are  too  familiar  to  need  repetition. 

It  is  the  Fourth  Gospel  which  places  this 
home  in  Bethany,  adds  Lazarus  to  it,  and  shows 
us  all  three  members  of  the  household  as  loved 
friends  of  Jesus.  The  parts  played  by  Martha 
and  Mary  in  the  story  of  the  death  and  raising 
of  Lazarus  (John  11.1-46)  are  in  striking  accord 
with  the  character-sketch  of  Lk.  10.  John 
also  ascribes  to  this  Mary  the  anointing  at 
Bethany  of  Matt.  26;  Mk.  14,  altering 
the  date  of  the  incident  and  varying  in  other 
details  from  the  Synoptics.  He  evidently 
intends  to  represent  the  act  as  an  impulse 
of  gratitude  for  the  return  of  her  brother 
Lazarus  from  the  grave  (John  11.2,  12.1,  2  :  cf. 
Tennyson  In  Memoriam,  Canto  xxxii.). 

5.  The    mother   of    John   Mark,     and    aunt 
of  Barnabas  (Col.  4.10),  who  had  a  house  in 
Jerusalem.     After  the  imprisonment  of   Peter, 
the  faithful  assembled  in  this  house,  and  were 
praying   there  when    Peter,  delivered    by  the 
ministry  of  an  angel,  knocked  at  the  door  of  the 
house  (Acts  12.12). 

6.  A  Roman  Christian  greeted  by  Paul  as 
having    toiled    hard    for    the    Roman    Church 
(Rom.  16.6  R.V.). 

Mas'chiL — A  word  descriptive  of  thirteen 
Psalms,  occurring  in  the  title  (Ps.  32,  42,  44,  45, 
52-55,  74,  78,  88,  89,  142).  The  corresponding 
verb  is  found  in  Ps.  32.8,  "  I  will  instruct  thee," 
and  the  form  maschil  in  Ps.  47.7,  "  With  under- 
standing," R.V.  marg.,  "  In  a  skilful  psalm." 
Hence  as  a  title  the  word  perhaps  means,  "  a 
skilful,  cunning  psalm,"  one  with  unusual 
setting  of  special  delicacy ;  or  possibly  "  an 
instructive,  didactic  psalm,"  of  the  nature  of 
a  public  homily. 

Mash. — Son  of  Aram  and  great-grandson  of 
Noah  (Gen.  10.23).  Professor  Sayce,  who 
interprets  the  tenth  chapter  of  Genesis  as 
geographical  rather  than  ethnological  (see  The 
Races  of  the  O.T.),  says  that  "  in  the  Assyrian 
inscriptions  the  country  of  Mas  or  Mash  is 
frequently  referred  to.  It  was  the  northern 
part  of  Arabia,  occupying  not  only  Arabia  Petrcea 
but  also  the  Nejd  to  the  south."  Sayce  tells 
us  that  his  conquests  had  extended  throughout 
the  whole  land  of  Mas  "  as  far  as  the  river  of 
Egypt,"  and  Assur-bani-pal  found  himself 
compelled  to  traverse  its  waterless  wastes  in 
his  march  against  the  Nabatheans.  In  1  Ch. 
1.17  the  name  appears  as  Meshech. 

Ma'shaL— (1  Ch.  6.74).    [MISHAL.] 

MasreTfah. — Plantation  of  vines  :  an  Edomite 
town  (Gen.  36.36 ;  1  Ch.  1.47). 

Mas'sa. — Burden :  a  son  of  Ishmael  (Gen. 
25.14;  1  Ch.  1.30).  It  is  probable  that  Massa, 
as  the  name  of  a  country,  should  have  place  in 
Prov.  30.1,  31.1  (see  R.V.  marg.). 

Mas'sah. — Temptation :  a  place  in  the  wilder- 
ness, near  Rephidim,  where  the  people  mur- 
mured for  want  of  water  (Ex.  17.7 ;  Deut.  6.16, 
9.22,33.8;  also  Ps.  95.8  R.V. ).  [MEKIBAH.] 

Mathu'sala.— (Lk.  3.37).     [METHUSALEH.] 

Mat 'red.— Mother    of     Mehetabel,     wife     of 


Hadar,  last  of  the  old  kings  of  Edom  (Gen.  36.39  ; 

1  Ch.  1.50). 

Mat'ri. — A  Benjamite  family  from  which 
king  Saul  came  (1  Sam.  10.21  ;  R.V.  "  the 
Matrites  "). 

Mat  'tan.— Gift :  1.  A  priest  of  Baal  in  the  days 
of  Athaliah.  He  was  slain  before  his  altar  in 
the  idol  temple  at  Jerusalem  (2  K.  11.18 ; 

2  Ch.    23.17).     2.  The    father    of    Shephatiah 
(Jer.  38.1). 

Matta'nah. — Gift:  the  site  of  an  Israelite 
encampment,  south-east  of  the  Dead  Sea  (Num. 
21.18, 19). 

Mattani'ah.— Gift  of  Jah:  1.  Uncle  of 
Jehoiachin,  made  king  of  Judah  instead  of  his 
nephew  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  changed  his 
name  to  Zedekiah  (2  K.  24.17 ;  cf.  2  Ch.  36.10-13). 
2.  A  descendant  of  Asaph,  who  took  part  in  the 
musical  ceremonies  at  the  dedication  of  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem  (1  Ch.  9.15;  Neh.  11.17, 
12.25,35).  3.  A  son  of  Heman  the  singer 
(1  Ch.  25.4,16).  4.  A  descendant  of  Asaph. 
He  helped  to  cleanse  the  Temple  in  the  days  of 
King  Hezekiah  (2  Ch.  29.13).  5.  The  name  of 
four  persons  who,  at  the  bidding  of  Ezra,  pub 
away  their  foreign  wives  (Ezra  10.26,  27,  30,  37). 
6.  A  Levite  whose  descendant  Hanan  was  one 
of  the  treasurers  appointed  by  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  13.13). 

Matta'tha. — Gift:  an  ancestor  of  our  Lord 
(Lk.  3.31). 

Matta'thah  (R.V.  Mattattah).— One  who,  at 
the  instigation  of  Ezra,  put  away  his  foreign 
wife  (Ezra  10.33). 

Mattathi'as.— The  name  of  two  ancestors  of 
our  Lord  (Lk.  3.25,  26). 

Mattena'i.— Gift  of  Jah  :  1.  The  name  of  two 
who,  in  the  time  of  Ezra,  had  married  foreign 
wives  (Ezra  10.33, 37).  2.  A  priest  of  the 
family  of  Joiarib  (Neh.  12.19). 

Mat'than. — Grandfather  of  Joseph,  the  hus- 
band of  Mary  (Matt.  1.15) ;  probably  the  same 
as  Matthat  (Lk.  3.24). 

Mat'that. — The  name  of  two  persons  in  the 
genealogy  of  Jesus  (Lk.  3.24,  29).  [MATTHAN.] 

Matthew. — The  apostle  who,  from  a  com- 
parison of  Matt.  9.9;  Mk.  2.14;  and  Lk. 
5.17-28,  is  identified  with  Levi,  the  son  of 
Alphaeus.  Moreover,  the  name  of  Matthew 
appears  in  all  four  lists  of  the  apostles  (Matt.  10  ; 
Mk.  3;  Lk.  6;  Acts  1),  and  that  of  Levi  in 
none.  Matthew  was  a  publican,  or  receiver 
of  customs  in  the  dominion  of  Herod  Anti- 
pas  at  Capernaum,  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee. 
In  this  city  our  Lord  dwelt  after  leaving 
Nazareth ;  and  here  Matthew  had  probably 
seen  His  miracles  and  heard  His  discourses. 
He  may  thus  have  been  prepared  to  obey  the 
call  of  Jesus  ;  for,  when  s?ated  in  his  booth 
by  the  roadside,  he  left  all  to  follow  Him 
(Matt.  9.9).  He  afterwards  showed  his  attach- 
ment to  his  Master,  and  his  interest  in  the 
welfare  of  his  former  associates,  by  inviting  a 
large  number  of  publicans  to  a  feast,  at  which 
they  miijht  hear  the  Divine  Teacher.  He  was 
chosen  by  our  Lord  to  be  one  of  the  twelve 


MATTHEW,  THE  GOSPEL] 


308 


[MATTHEW,  THE  GOSPEL 


apostles  (10.3),  and  was  with  the  company  in 
the  upper  room  after  the  Ascension  (Acts  1.13). 
The  humility  of  Matthew  is  perhaps  shown  in 
the  Gospel  which  bears  his  name.  In  enumerat- 
ing the  apostles,  he  styles  himself  "  Matthew 
the  publican "  (10.3) ;  not  suppressing  his 
former  employment.  And  it  is  Luke's  account, 
not  his  own,  from  which  we  learn  that  he  "  left 
all  "  to  follow  Jesus,  and  that  he  "  made  a  great 
feast  for  Him  in  his  own  house "  (cf. 
9.9,  10  with  Lk.  5.27-29).  Eusebius  (Hist.  Ecc. 
iii.  24)  says  that  Matthew,  after  preaching 
to  his  own  countrymen,  went  to  other  nations. 
Socrates  (Ilist.  Ecc.  i.  19)  names  Ethiopia 
as  the  scene  of  such  labours.  Most  of  the 
early  writers  say  that  he  died  a  martyr's  death. 

Matthew,  the  Gospel  according  to.— The 
authorship  of  this  Gospel  is  by  the  uniform 
belief  of  the  Christian  Church  ascribed  to 
Matthew  the  Apostle.  [MATTHEW.]  The  date 
of  the  book  can  only  be  fixed  approximately. 
While  later  than  Mark,  it  may  be  inferred  from 
MaU.  24.15  compared  with  Lk.  21.20  (note  the 
vagueness  and  the  solemn  warning,  "  Let  him 
that  readeth  understand  ")  that  the  crisis  had 
not  yet  arrived.  Moreover,  such  passages  as 
MaU.  4.5,  5.35,  22.7,  23.2-34,  24.2, 15,  27.53, 
with  their  allusions  to  the  Holy  City,  Holy 
Place,  and  City  of  the  Great  King,  seem  to 
imply  that  the  Gospel  was  written  some  time 
before  the  tragic  end  of  the  war  in  70  A.D. 

What  were  the  sources  of  the  narrative  ?  As 
Matthew  was  an  apostle,  the  knowledge  of  our 
Lord's  ministry  would  have  been  his  own.  But 
a  comparison  of  the  three  Synoptic  Gospels 
suggests  that  the  writer  was  indebted  to  two 
other  works.  One  of  these  was  the  Gospel 
according  to  St.  Mark  ;  the  other,  the  use  of 
which  by  St.  Luke  seems  also  to  be  apparent, 
is  commonly  spoken  of  as  the  Logia.  This  name 
is  derived  from  a  statement  of  Papias  (early  in 
the  second  century)  that  Matthew  composed 
the  Logia  in  the  Hebrew  tongue.  The 
term  "  logia,"  oracles,  better  fits  a  collection  of 
discourses  with  their  settings  than  a  complete 
and  connected  biography ;  and  as  there  are 
[see  below]  insuperable  objections  to  regarding 
the  first  Gospel  as  it  stands  as  a  translation  of 
an  Aramaic  original,  this  Logia  (in  a  Greek 
translation)  is  identified  as  the  second  main 
source  of  the  Synoptic  Gospels.  If  this  be  so, 
then  the  two  sources  both  embody  the  testimony 
of  eye-witnesses — in  the  case  of  Mark,  the  testi- 
mony of  Peter  ;  in  the  case  of  the  Logia,  that  of 
Matthew.  By  recent  scholars  this  second  source 
is  commonly  designated  "  Q." 

In  what  language  was  the  Gospel  written? 
From  the  statement  of  Papias,  quoted  above, 
an  Aramaic  original  has  been  assumed,  of  which 
the  present  Gospel  is  only  a  Greek  translation. 
But,  at  the  time  when  Matthew  wrote,  though 
Hebrew  was  preferred  by  the  Jews,  Greek  was 
rapidly  superseding  it  even  in  Palestine,  and 
was  understood  by  the  mass  of  the  people. 
Greek,  too,  was  the  more  suitable  for  a  book 
of  permanent  and  universal  interest ;  and  was 


accordingly  used  by  James  and  by  the  author 
of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  though  they 
wrote  to  the  Jews.  The  Greek  of  Matthew  bears 
all  the  marks  of  being  an  original  composition  ; 
and  the  bulk  of  the  quotations  from  the  O.T.  are 
from  the  LXX,  and  not  from  the  Hebrew. 

The  contents  of  the  book  show  some  changes 
from  the  order  found  in  Mark.  Briefly  sum- 
marised the  subjects  are :  1.1-2.23,  the  birth 
and  infancy  of  Jesus ;  3.1-4.11,  the  preparation 
for  the  Ministry;  4.12-18.35,  the  ministry  in 
Galilee ;  19.1-20.34,  Peraa,  and  the  journey  to 
Jerusalem;  21.1-25.46,  the  teaching  in  Jeru- 
salem; 26.1-28.20,  the  Passion  and  the  Re- 
surrection. 

The  chief  sections  peculiar  to  this  Gospel  are 
the  following : — 

1.  The  royal  genealogy,  and  the  history  of  our 
Lord's   infant   days   in    Bethlehem,    with    the 
flight  into  Egypt  (1,  2). 

2.  Discourses : — Parts  of  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount    (5-7),    and   of    the    woes   against    the 
Pharisees  (23) ;    words  respecting  His  Church 
(16.17-19,  18.15-20). 

3.  Parables  .-—The  Tares  ;    the  Hidden  Trea- 
sure ;    the  Pearl  of  Price  ;   the  Draw-net  (13) ; 
the  Unmerciful  Debtor  (18) ;    the  Labourers  in 
the  Vineyard  (20);    the  Two  Sons  (21);    the 
Wedding  Garment  (22) ;   the  Ten  Virgins  ;   and 
the  Talents ;    with  the  description  of  the  Last 
Judgment  (25). 

4.  Miracles : — The  healing  of  two  blind  men 
and  casting  out  of  a  dumb  spirit  (9) ;    Peter's 
walking  on  the  sea  (14) ;   the  stater  in  the  fish's 
mouth  (17) ;    the  earthquake  and  the  rising  of 
the  saints  (27). 

5.  Incidents     connected     with     the     Trial, 
Crucifixion,    and    Resurrection : — The    end    of 
Judas ;    the  dream  of  Pilate's  wife  ;    the  watch 
at  the  grave  (27) ;   appearance  at  the  sepulchre 
to  the  women  ;    and  on  the  Galilean  mountain 
to  the  disciples  (28). 

For  whom  was  the  Gospel  written  ?  Apparently 
for  Jewish  readers.  It  bears  marks  throughout 
of  having  been  written  by  a  Christian  Hebrew 
familiar  with  the  sacred  writings  of  his  nation 
and  deeply  imbued  with  their  spirit.  His 
chief  object  in  writing  the  life  of  Jesus  appears 
to  have  been,  to  show  that  the  despised  Teacher 
of  Nazareth  is  really  the  promised  KINO  OF 
ISRAEL.  He  finds  the  heir  to  David's  throne 
in  a  workshop  in  a  Galilean  village  ;  and  sees 
in  Joseph's  adopted  child  the  "  Immanuel  "  of 
Isaiah.  He  records  the  dangers  and  deliver- 
ances of  the  infancy  of  Jesus  from  the  jealousy 
of  a  rival ;  and  observes  in  them  the  fulfilment 
of  that  "  which  was  spoken  by  the  prophets." 
The  teachings  of  Jesus  are  here  presented  as  the 
completion  of  the  ancient  law  by  the  King  of 
[srael ;  and  His  labours  and  miracles,  and  all 
the  circumstances  of  His  sufferings  and  death, 
are  the  accomplishment  of  prophecies  as  to  the 
Son  of  David.  Of  our  Lord's  predictions,  those 
are  here  preserved  which  relate  either  to  the 
persecution  of  His  disciples  by  the  Jews,  or  to 
I  the  overthrow  of  the  Jewish  state,  which  the 


MATTHIAS] 


309 


[MEALS 


ancient  prophets  had  connected  with  the 
establishment  of  the  spiritual  kingdom  of  Israel 
(cf.  24  with  /sat.  66).  This  Gospel  exhibits 
more  fully  than  any  other  the  connexion 
between  the  O.T.  and  the  N.T.,  the  applications 
being  often  most  striking  and  suggestive. 

Matthi'as. — A  disciple  surnamed  Justus,  chosen 
by  lot  to  succeed  Judas  Iscariot  as  an  apostle 
(Acts  1.23,  26). 

Mattithi'ah.— Gift  of  Jah:  1.  A  Korahite  who 
had  the  charge  of  "  things  made  in  the  pans  " 
(1  Ch.  9.31).  2.  A  Levite,  ringer  and  gate- 
keeper in  the  days  of  David  (1  Ch.  15.18,  21, 
16.5).  3.  The  son  of  Jeduthun,  in  the  days  of 
David  (1  Ch.  25.3,  21).  4.  A  member  of  the 
family  of  Nebo  who  had  married  a  foreign  wife 
(Ezra  10.43).  5.  A  prince,  priest,  or  Levite 
who  stood  beside  Ezra  when  he  read  the  Law 
to  the  people  (Neh.  8.4). 

Mattock. — (1  Sam.  13.20, 21,  where,  however, 
the  text  is  uncertain,  and  Isai.  7.25).  Both  the 
pickaxe  and  the  hoe  are  used  in  Palestine,  and 
we  are  not  sure  which  is  meant. 

MauL — (Prov.  25.18).  A  club  such  as  is  used 
by  shepherds.  When  studded  with  nails  it  is 
a  very  formidable  weapon,  and  the  R.V.  marg. 
of  Jer.  51.20  may  be  right  in  reading  "  maul " 
instead  of  "battleaxe." 

Maz'zaroth.—  The  signs  of  the  Zodiac 
(Job  38.32). 

Meadow. — The  word  so  rendered  in  A.V.  of 
Gen.  41.2,  18  means  some  kind  of  reed  or  water 
plant  (R.V.  reed-grass).  In  Judg.  20.33  for 
"  the  meadows  of  Gibeah  "  we  should  probably 
read,  "  the  cave  of  Gibeah."  Meadows  can  never 
have  existed  round  Gibeah,  yet  Gibeah  (and 
not  Geba,  as  R.V.)  is  clearly  intended. 

Me 'ah. — Hundred  :  a  tower  near  the  sheep - 
gate  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  3.1,  12.39;  R.V. 
Hammeah,  rnarg.  The  hundred). 

Meal-offering. — [MEAT-OFFERING.] 

Meals. — The  terms  rendered  "  dine "  and 
"dinner"  in  Gen.  43.16  and  Prov.  15.17  are 
quite  general,  and  should  be  translated  "  eat " 
and  "  portion  of  food."  Dinner  in  Lk.  14.12 
should  be  "  breakfast,"  and  supper  in  John  21.12 
should  be  "dinner."  The  Egyptians  had  their 
principal  meal  at  noon  (Gen.  43.16) ;  labourers 
took  a  light  meal  at  that  time  (Ruth  2.14) ;  and 
occasionally  that  early  hour  was  devoted  to 
excess  and  revelling  (1  K.  20.16).  The  Jews 
followed  the  custom  that  prevails  among  the 
Bedouins,  and  made  their  principal  meal  after 
sunset  (Gen.  19.1-3  ;  Ex.  16.12, 18.12, 14  ;  Ruth 
3.7).  In  N.T.  times  breakfast  took  place  in  the 
morning  (John  21.4,  12),  on  ordinary  days  not 
before  nine  o'clock,  which  was  the  first  hour  of 
prayer  (Acts  2.15),  and  on  the  Sabbath  not 
before  noon,  when  the  service  of  the  Synagogue 
was  completed. 

The  old  Hebrews  sat  at  meals  (Gen.  27.19; 
Judg.  19.6  ;  1  Sam.  20.5,  24  ;  1  K.  13.20) ;  as 
luxury  increased  the  practice  of  sitting  \vas 
exchanged  for  that  of  reclining ;  Ezekiel 
inveighs  against  one  who  sat  "  on  a  stately  bed, 
with  a  table  prepared  before  it  "  (Ezek.  23.41). 


In  the  time  of  our  Lord  reclining  was  the  universal 
custom.  As  a  rule  only  three  persons  reclined 
on  each  couch,  but  occasionally  four  or  even 
five.  The  couches  were  provided  with  cushions, 
on  which  the  left  elbow  rested,  while  the  right 
arm  remained  free.  Each  guest  on  the  same 
couch  overlapped  his  neighbour,  as  it  were, 
and  rested  his  head  near  the  breast  of  the  one 
who  lay  behind  him ;  he  was  then  said  to 
"  recline  in  the  bosom  "  of  his  neighbour  (John 
13.23).  The  close  proximity  into  which  persons 
were  thus  brought  rendered  it  more  than 
usually  agreeable  that  friend  should  be  next  to 
friend,  and  it  gave  the  opportunity  of  making 
confidential  communications  (John  13.25,  21.20, 
where  R.V.  correctly  "  leaned  back  on  Jesus' 
breast").  The  ordinary  arrangement  of  the 
couches  was  in  three  sides  of  a  square,  the  fourth 
being  left  open  for  the  servants  to  bring  up  the 
dishes.  The  first  couch  on  the  right  hand  of  the 
servants  as  they  entered  the  room  was  regarded 
as  "  the  highest  couch,"  the  place  of  the  greatest 
honour,  and  "  the  lowest  couch  "  was  of  course 
that  on  the  left,  directly  opposite  to  "  the 
highest  couch."  No  consideration  of  physical 
elevation  is  involved  in  the  words  "  high  "  and 
"  low "  as  used  here.  The  three  guests  on 
each  couch  were  denominated  highest,  middle, 
and  lowest — the  terms  being  suggested  by  the 
circumstance  of  the  guest  who  reclined  on 
another's  bosom  always  appearing  to  be  below 
him.  The  "uppermost  room"  which  the 
Pharisees  so  much  coveted  (Matt.  23.6)  was 
the  "  highest "  seat  in  the  "  highest "  couch. 

The  cases  of  Ruth  amid  the  reapers  (Ruth  2.14), 
of  Elkanah  with  his  wives  (1  Sam.  1.4),  of  Job's 
sons  and  daughters  (Job  1.4),  show  that  women 
took  their  meals  with  men.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  customs  of  the  harem  date  from 
the  time  of  Mahomet.  At  the  same  time,  as  the 
duty  of  attending  upon  the  guests  devolved 
upon  the  women  (Lk.  10.40),  they  probably  took 
a  somewhat  irregular  and  briefer  repast. 

Before  meals  the  guests  washed  their  hands  ; 
for  no  knives  and  forks  were  used,  and  they  all 
ate  out  of  the  same  dish.  We  have  but  one 
instance  of  grace  before  food  in  the  O.T.  (1  Sam. 
9.13),  but  it  is  several  times  stated  in  the  N.T. 
that  it  was  pronounced  by  our  Lord  Himself 
(Matt.  15.36;  Lk.  9.16  ;  Joftn6.ll).  Generally 
there  was  a  single  dish  into  which  each  guest 
dipped  his  hand  (Matt.  26.23) ;  occasionally 
separate  portions  were  served  out  to  each 
(Gen.  43.34;  Ruth  2.14;  1  Sam.  1.4).  A 
piece  of  bread  was  held  between  the  thumb  and 
two  fingers  of  the  right  hand,  and  was  dipped 
either  into  a  bowl  of  melted  grease  (in  which 
case  it  was  termed  "  a  sop,"  John  13.26),  or  into 
the  dish  of  meat  whence  a  piece  was  conveyed 
to  the  mouth  between  the  layers  of  bread.  It 
was  esteemed  an  act  of  politeness  to  hand  over 
a  delicate  morsel  to  a  friend  (John  13.26).  At 
the  conclusion  of  the  meal  grace  was  again  said, 
in  conformity  with  Deut.  8.10,  and  the  hands 
were  again  washed. 

On  the  occasion  of  feasts  or  special  occasions 


MEAEAH] 


310 


[MEDIA 


more  ceremony  was  used.  The  visitors  were 
received  with  a  kiss  (Lk.  7.45) ;  water  was 
produced  for  them  to  wash  their  feet  with 
(Lk.  7.44) ;  the  head,  the  beard,  the  feet,  and 
sometimes  the  clothes,  were  perfumed  with 
ointment  (Ps.  23.5;  Amos  6.6;  Lk.  7.38; 
John  12.3) ;  on  special  occasions  robes  were 
provided  (Matt.  22.11);  and  the  head  was 
decorated  with  wreaths  (Isai.  28.1 ).  The  regula- 
tion of  the  feast  was  under  the  superintendence 
of  a  special  person,  the  "  governor  of  the  feast  " 
(John  2.8),  who  tasted  the  food  and  the  liquors 
before  they  were  placed  on  the  table.  The 
places  of  the  guests  were  settled  according  to 
their  respective  rank  (Gen.  43.33  ;  1  Sam.  9.22; 
Mk.  12.39;  Lk.  14.8;  John  13.23);  portions  of 
food  were  placed  before  each  (1  Sam.  1.4 ;  2  Sam. 
6.19;  1  Ch.  16.3),  the  most  honoured  guests 
receiving  either  larger  (Gen.  43.34)  or  more 
choice  (1  Sam.  9.24)  portions  than  the  others. 

Mea'rah. — Cave  :  a  place  in  north  of  Palestine 
unconquered  at  the  death  of  Joshua  (Josh  13.4). 
It  has  been  identified  with  a  village  called 
el-Mugh  Eiriyeh  in  the  mountains  of  Naphtali, 
some  10  miles  west  of  the  northern  extremity  of 
the  Sea  of  Galilee. 

Measures. — [WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES.] 

Meat.— The  word  as  used  in  the  A.V.  means 
food  in  general,  rarely  animal  food. 

Meat-offering.— The  law  or  ceremonial  of  the 
"  meat-offering "  is  described  in  Lev.  2  and 
6.14-23 :  the  R.V.  adopts  the  more  appropriate 
rendering  "  meal-offering "  (lit.  "  gift  ").  It 
was  to  be  composed  of  fine  flour,  seasoned  with 
salt,  and  mixed  with  oil  and  frankincense,  but 
without  leaven  ;  and  it  was  generally  accom- 
panied by  a  drink-offering  of  wine.  A  portion  of 
it,  including  all  the  frankincense,  was  to  be 
burnt  on  the  altar  as  "  a  memorial  "  ;  the  rest 
belonged  to  the  priest ;  but  the  meat-offerings 
offered  by  the  priests  themselves  were  to  be 
wholly  burnt.  It  recognised  the  sovereignty 
and  bounty  of  God  by  dedicating  to  Him  the  best 
of  His  gifts ;  the  flour,  as  the  main  support  of 
life  ;  oil,  as  the  symbol  of  richness ;  and  wine, 
as  the  symbol  of  vigour  and  refreshment  (Ps. 
104.15).  The  absence  of  leaven  and  the  presence 
of  salt  signified  purity ;  the  frankincense 
hallowed  the  gift  of  God's  special  service.  The 
"  meat-offering  "  was  a  part  of  various  other 
ceremonies,  some  of  them  of  yet  deeper  import 
(Ex.  29.1,  2,  40,  41 ;  Lev.  6.20,  8.2,  14.20  ; 
Num.  6.15,  8.8,  28.9, 10, 11-14,  20,  28,  29.3-16). 

Mebun/nai. — One  of  David's  warriors  (2  Sam. 
23.27).  Elsewhere  he  is  called  Sibbechai 
(2  Sam.  21.18 ;  1  Ch.  20.4),  or  Sibbecai  (1  Ch. 
11.29,  27.11). 

Meche'rathite,  The.— A  native  or  inhabitant 
of  a  place  called  Mecherah  Hepher;  one  of 
David's  thirty-seven  warriors  (1  Ch.  11.36).  He 
appears  as  "  the  Maachathite  "  in  2  Sam.  23.34. 

Me'dad. — Live  :  an  elder  on  whom  the  Spirit 
fell  when  remaining  in  the  camp  with  Eldad 
(Num.  11.26,  27).  [ELDAD,  ELDEBS.] 

Me'dan. — A  son  of  Abraham  and  Keturah 
(Gen.  25.2;  1  Ch.  1.32). 


MedeT)a. —  Waters  of  quiet:  a  city  of  Moab, 
about  4  miles  south-east  of  Hoshbon,  allotted 
to  Reuben  (Num.  21.30  ;  Josh.  13.9,  16  ;  Isai. 
15.2) ;  recovered  by  the  Ammonites,  but  taken 
again  by  Joab  (1  Ch.  19.7). 

Medes. — The  people  inhabiting  Media,  the 
country  to  the  north-west  of  Persia  proper, 
south  and  south-west  of  the  Caspian,  east  of 
Armenia  and  Assyria,  west  and  north-west  of 
the  great  salt  desert  of  Iram.  [MEDIA.]  Here 
we  are  concerned  with  them  only  so  far  as  they 
touch  the  Bible  narrative.  We  first  hear  of 
certain  "  cities  of  the  Medes "  in  which  the 
captive  Israelites  were  placed  by  the  king  of 
Assyria  on  the  destruction  of  Samaria  (2  K. 
17.6,  18.11).  This  implies  the  subjection  of 
Media  to  Assyria  at  the  time  of  Shalmaneser 
or  of  Sargon,  his  successor.  Soon  afterwards 
Isaiah  prophesies  the  part  which  the  Medes 
[in  conjunction  with  the  Persians,  as  it  happened] 
were  to  take  in  the  destruction  of  Babylon 
(Isai.  13.17,  21.2) ;  which  is  again  still  more 
distinctly  declared  by  Jeremiah  (Jer.  51.11,  28), 
in  whose  day  Media  was  independent  (Jer.  25.25). 
Daniel  records  the  Medo-Persian  conquest  of 
Babylon  (Dan.  5.28,  31),  giving  an  account  of 
the  reign  of  "  Darius  the  Mede "  [DARIUS], 
whom  Cyrus  placed  in  Babylon  as  his  viceroy. 
The  capture  of  Babylon  broke  up  the  Babylonian 
empire  and  gave  Cyrus  the  whole  country  be- 
tween the  Euphrates  and  the  Mediterranean, 
including  the  much  coveted  possession  of 
Palestine.  Among  the  first-fruits  of  this  great 
victory  was  the  edict  of  restoration  (Ezra  1.1-4), 
and  numbers  of  the  Jews  re-entered  the  land 
of  their  fathers,  to  occupy  it  as  a  Persian 
colony.  The  successors  of  Cyrus  at  the  head 
of  the  Medo-Persian  empire  were  Cambyses  n., 
Smerdis,  Darius,  and  then  Xerxes  (the  Ahasuerus 
of  Esther).  Xerxes  "  reigned  from  India  even 
unto  Ethiopia,  over  a  hundred  and  seven  and 
twenty  provinces"  (Esth.  1.1).  The  high  rank 
of  Media  under  the  Persian  kings,  yet  at  the 
same  time  its  subordinate  position,  are  marked 
by  the  frequent  combination  of  the  two  names 
in  phrases  of  honour,  the  precedency  being 
assigned  to  the  Persians  (Esth.  1.3,  14, 18,  19). 
The  peculiar  characteristic  of  the  original  religion 
of  the  Medes  was  the  belief  in  two  great,  almost 
equally  potent,  spirits  of  good  and  evil,  called 
Ormazd  and  Ahriman  respectively.  These 
personalities  had  existed,  and  had  waged  war 
with  one  another,  from  all  eternity,  the  advantage 
on  the  whole  being  to  the  Prince  of  Light. 
The  Medes  also  worshipped  the  sun  and  moon 
and  the  elements  of  fire,  water,  air,  and  earth. 
The  popular  religion  of  later  times  was  Magism. 
[MAGI.]  They  were  a  brave  and  warlike  race, 
excellent  riders,  and  remarkably  skilful  with 
the  bow. 

Media.— By  the  Greeks  and  Romans  this 
country  was  divided  into  Media  Atropatene 
and  Media  Magna.  The  former  corresponded 
roughly  to  the  province  of  Azerbijan  in  modern 
Persia.  The  country,  though  elevated,  is 
fairly  fertile,  well  watered  in  most  places,  and 


MEDIAN] 


311 


[MELECH 


favourable  to  agriculture  ;  its  climate  is  temper- 
ate, though  occasionally  severe  in  winter ;  it 
produces  rice,  corn  of  all  kinds,  wine,  silk,  white 
wax,  and  all  manner  of  delicious  fruits.  Tabriz, 
its  modern  capital,  forms  the  summer  residence 
of  the  Persian  kings,  and  is  a  beautiful  place, 
situated  in  a  forest  of  orchards.  Media  Magna 
contained  the  modern  provinces  of  Ardelan 
and  Irak  Ajimi,  with  a  great  part  of  Kurdistan 
and  Luristan.  Ardelan,  Kurdistan,  and  Luristan 
are  fertile  and  lovely  ;  whereas  the  greater  part 
of  Irak  Ajimi  is  bare,  arid,  rocky,  and  sandy, 
supporting  with  difficulty  a  sparse  and  wretched 
population.  Each  of  the  two  districts  from 
very  early  times  had  its  own  capital,  in  both 
cases  called  Ecbatana ;  the  northern  capital 
is  the  modern  Takht-i-Suleiman,  the  southern 
capital  is  Harnadan. 

Median  (R.V.  Mede).— A  native  of  Media 
(Dan.  5.31). 

Mediator.  —  One  standing  in  the  middle, 
between  two  parties,  with  the  view  of  recon- 
ciling them.  The  law  is  said  to  have  been 
"  ordained  by  angels  in  the  hand  of  a  mediator," 
Moses  (Gal  3.19);  and  our  Lord  is  "the 
mediator  of  a  better  covenant,"  the  "  new 
covenant"  (Heb.'S.Q,  9.15,  12.24),  and  the  "one 
mediator  between  God  and  man"  (1  Tim.  2.5). 
[ATONEMENT.] 

Medicine  and  Surgery.— The  services  of 
mid  wives  are  referred  to  in  Gen.  35.17,  38.28  ; 
Ex.  1.15-21.  Physicians  are  referred  to  as 
embalmers  (Gen.  50.2) ;  and  as  consulted  by 
King  Asa  (2  Ck.  16.12).  Job  refers  to  his 
friends  as  "  physicians  of  no  value  "  (Job  13.4). 
The  use  of  medicine  is  referred  to  in  Prov.  17.22  ; 
Jer.  30.13,  46.11  ;  Ezek.  47.12  ;  of  balsams  and 
plasters  in  2  K.  20.7;  Isai.  1.6;  Jer.  8.22. 
The  treatment  of  wounds  is  also  referred  to 
(Isai.  1.6),  of  a  fracture  (Ezek.  30.21),  and  of 
the  newborn  infant  (Ezek.  16.4). 

In  leprosy  the  priest  examined  the  case,  and 
certified  the  cure  (Lev.  13). 

In  the  N.T.  the  familiarity  of  the  physician's 
office  is  clear  from  the  proverb  quoted  (Lk. 
4.23 ;  and  cf.  Mk.  5.26).  Luke  is  called  by 
Paul  "the  beloved  physician"  (Col.  4.14),  and 
his  writings  suggest  in  many  details  familiarity 
with  the  healing  art. 

Megid'do  (or  Megid'don,  Zech.  12.11).— An 
old  Canaanitish  town  within  the  territory  of 
Issachar,  but  assigned  to  Manasseh,  who  did 
not  expel  the  Canaanites  (Josh.  12.21,  17.11-13  ; 
Judg.  1.27,  28  ;  1  Ch.  7.29).  It  was  the  scene 
of  the  defeat  of  Sisera  by  Barak  (Judg.  5.19) 
and  of  Josiah  by  Pharaoh-necho  (2  K.  23.29,  30  ; 
2  Ch.  35.22) ;  hence  suggestive  of  dire  conflict 
and  trouble  (Zech.  12.11 ;  Rev.  16.16).  It  was 
in  one  of  Solomon's  commissariat  districts  (1  K. 
4.12,  9.15) ;  and  death-place  of  Ahaziah  (2  K. 
9.27).  Megiddo  is  the  modern  el-Lejjun,  15  miles 
from  Nazareth,  and  on  the  caravan  route  from 
Egypt  to  Damascus.  Huge  mounds  still  exist 
there,  marking  the  site  of  the  former  fortresses. 

Mehetabe'el  (R.V.  Mehetabel).— (Neh.  6.10). 
[MEHETABEL  2.] 


Mehetatel. — God  is  doing  good  :  1.  Wife  of 
Hadad  or  Hadar,  the  eighth  and  last-mentioned 
king  of  Edom,  who  had  Pai  or  Pau  for  his 
birthplace  or  chief  city,  before  royalty  was 
established  among  the  Israelites  (Gen.  36.39  ; 

1  Ch.    1.50).      2.  A    person    whose    grandson, 
Shemaiah,  was  hired  by  Sanballat  and  Tobiah 
to  intimidate  Nehemiah  (Neh.  6.10). 

Mehi'da. — A  family  of  Nethinirn,  the  descend- 
ants of  Mehida,  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.52  ;  Neh.  7.54). 

Me'hir.— A  Judahite,  son  of  Chelub  (1  Ch. 
4.11). 

Mehola'thite,  The.— A  man  of  Mehola ;  the 
term  applied  to  Adriel,  son  of  Barzillai,  to  whom 
Saul's  daughter  Merab  was  married  (1  Sam. 
18.19). 

Menuja'el. — Smitten  of  God  :  a  great-grand- 
son of  Cain  ( Gen.  4.18). 

Mehu/man. — One  of  the  seven  chamberlains 
that  served  in  the  presence  of  Ahasuerus,  king 
of  Persia  (Esth.  1.10). 

Menu/nun,  Meunim. — A  people  against  whom 
King  Uzziah  waged  a  successful  war  (2  Ch.  26.7). 
The  name  in  the  original  seems  to  be  the  plural 
of  Maon  (which  see).  They  inhabited  the 
country  on  the  east  side  of  the  great  range  of 
Seir,  the  modern  esh-Sherah,  which  forms  the 
east  side  of  the  Wady  el-Arabah,  where  at  the 
present  day  there  is  still  a  town  of  the  same 
name.  They  are  mentioned  in  Ezra  2.50 ; 
Neh.  7.52 ;  also  1  Ch.  4.41  R.V.,  and  perhaps 

2  Ch.  20.1  (see  R.V.  marg.). 

Mejar'kon. — Yellow  water :  a  town  of  Dan 
(Josh.  19.46). 

Meko'nah  (R.V.  Meconah).— A  town  ol 
Judah  reoccupied  after  the  return  from  cap- 
tivity (Neh.  11.28). 

Melati'ah. — Jah  delivers  :  a  Gibeonite,  who 
helped  in  rebuilding  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  under 
Nehemiah  (Neh.  3.7). 

Mel'chi.— The  name  of  two  ancestors  of  Jesus 
(Lk.  3.24,  28). 

Melchi'ah. — A  priest,  the  father  of  Pashur 
(Jer.  21.1  A.V.).  [MALCHIAH  11.] 

Melchi'sedec. — [MELCHIZEDEK.] 

Melchishu'a.— [MALCHISHUA.] 

Melchi'zedek.— King  of  Salem  and  priest  of 
the  Most  High  God,  who  met  Abram  after  his 
return  from  the  slaughter  of  Chedorlaomer, 
brought  out  bread  and  wine,  blessed  him,  and 
received  tithes  from  him  (Gen.  14.17-20).  In 
one  of  the  Messianic  psalms  (Ps.  110.4),  our  Lord 
is  described  as  a  priest  for  ever  "  after  the  order 
of  Melchizedek."  This  point  is  wrought  out 
very  fully  in  Heb.  5,  6,  7,  where  the  relation 
between  Melchizedek  and  Christ  as  type  and 
antitype  is  made  to  consist  in  the  following 
particulars:  each  is  a  priest,  (1)  not  of  the 
Levitical  order,  (2)  superior  to  Abraham,  (3) 
whose  beginning  and  end  are  unknown,  (4)  who 
is  not  only  a  priest,  but  also  a  king  of  righteous- 
ness and  peace. 

Mele'a. — An  ancestor  of  Jesus  (Lk.  3.31). 

Melech.— King :  a  descendant  of  King  Saul 
(1  Ch.  8.35,  9.41). 


MELICU] 


312 


[MEPHIBOSHETH 


Meli'cu.— [MALLTJCH  4.] 

Mel'ita.— Now  Malta;  the  island  in  the 
Mediterranean  on  the  south  of  Sicily  on  which 
Paul  was  shipwrecked  (Acts  28.1).  At  that 
time  it  was  a  dependency  of  the  Roman  province 
of  Sicily.  Melita,  from  its  position  in  the 
Mediterranean,  and  the  excellence  of  its  harbours, 
has  always  Been  important  both  in  commerce 
and  in  war.  It  was  famous  for  its  honey  and 
fruits,  for  its  cotton  fabrics,  for  building  stone, 
and  for  a  well-known  breed  of  dogs.  No 
difficulty  as  to  the  identity  of  Melita  with  the 
modern  Malta  arises  from  the  reference  to 
Adria  in  Acts  27.27  ;  for  Adria,  in  the  language 
of  the  period,  denoted  not  the  Adriatic  or  Gulf 
of  Venice,  but  the  open  sea  between  Crete  and 
Sicily. 

Melons.—"  We  remember,"  said  the  Israelites, 
in  the  wilderness,  "  the  melons  which  we  did 
eat  in  Egypt "  (Num.  11.5).  The  term  probably 
includes  the  Flesh- melon  (Cucumis  melo)  of  our 
hot-beds  and  the  Water-melon  (Cucurbita  cit- 
rullus).  The  latter  is  extensively  grown  in 
Egypt  during  the  rise  of  the  Nile,  attaining 
a  very  large  size,  one  fruit  yielding  several 
pounds'  weight  of  juice.  A  medicinal  oil  is 
extracted  from  the  seeds ;  indeed,  the  melon 
serves  the  poorer  classes  with  meat,  drink, 
and  medicine.  The  melon  grows  exuberantly 
in  some  parts  of  the  coast  plain  of  Palestine. 

Melzar.— In  Dan.  1.11, 16  the  A.V.  treats 
this  word  as  a  proper  name.  R.V.  regards  it 
as  an  official  title,  and  renders  it  "  the  steward." 

Mem'phis  (in  Heb.  Moph,  Hos.  9.6,  elsewhere 
Noph), — The  good  abode  :  the  chief  city  of  Lower 
Egypt  before  the  founding  of  Alexandria. 
Its  ruins  are  vast,  and  suggest  great  splendour. 
The  overthrow  of  Memphis  was  repeatedly 
predicted  by  the  Hebrew  prophets  (Isai.  19.13  ; 
Jer.  2.16,  46.14,  19  ;  Ezek.  30.13,  16  ;  Hos.  9.6). 
The  prophecies  were  fulfilled  in  the  invasion 
of  Egypt  by  the  Persian  king  Cambyses.  So 
complete  was  the  ruin  of  Memphis  that  its 
very  site  was  lost,  and  only  recently  discovered. 
The  insignificant  village  of  Meet  Raheeneh  occu- 
pies nearly  the  centre  of  the  ancient  capital, 
some  10  miles  south  of  modern  Cairo,  on  the 
west  side  of  the  Nile.  [NOPH.] 

Memu'can. — One  of  the  seven  princes  of  Persia 
who  formed  the  Council  of  State  in  the  reign  of 
Ahasuerus.  He  pronounced  for  the  disgrace 
of  Queen  Vashti,  "  and  the  king  did  according 
to  the  word  of  Memucan  "  (Esth.  1.14, 16,  21). 

MenaTiem. — Comforter :  the  son  of  Gadi, 
who  slew  the  usurper  Shallum  and  seized  the 
vacant  throne  of  Israel  (2  K.  15.14-22).  His 
capture  of  the  town  of  Tiphsah  was  marked 
by  an  act  of  ferocious  barbarity.  The  most 
remarkable  event  of  his  reign  was  the  first 
appearance  of  a  hostile  force  of  Assyrians  on  the 
north-east  frontier  of  Israel.  On  this  occasion, 
however,  they  were  bought  off.  Menahem  was 
an  idolater. 

Me'nan  (R.V.  Menna).— An  ancestor  of  Jesus 
(Lk.  3.31). 

Mene',  mene',  telsel,  uphar'sin.— The  Aramaic 


words  written  on  the  wall  during  Belshazzar's 
feast,  terrifying  the  king,  baffling  his  wise  men, 
interpreted  by  Daniel  (Dan.  5).  Aramaic 
would  be  readily  understood  in  Babylon  :  we 
may  suppose  the  perplexity  of  the  wise  men 
due  in  part  to  something  unfamiliar  in  the 
characters,  and  in  part  to  the  mysterious  brevity 
of  the  message.  In  the  word  upharsin  the 
w  =  and;  in  the  interpretation,  for  the  plural 
pharsin  the  singular  peres  is  substituted  as  more 
readily  suggesting,  by  a  grim  word-play,  the 
Persians  already  at  the  gates.  The  exact 
signification  of  the  several  words  is  much  con- 
troverted, and  cannot  here  be  discussed  (see 
R.V.  marg.,  vers.  25-28). 

Meni.— Where,  in  Isai.  65.11,  the  A.V.  reads 
"  furnish  the  drink  offering  unto  that  number  " 
(marg.  or,  "  Meni "),  the  R.V.  has  "  fill  up 
mingled  wine  unto  Destiny "  (marg.  "  Heb. 
Meni ").  Meni  was  no  doubt  a  Babylonian 
god,  the  personification  of  Destiny.  [GAD.] 

Menna.— [MEN  AN.] 

Meo'nenim,  The  Plain  of.— Where  A.V.  has 
"  the  plain  of  Meonenim  "  (Judg.  9.37)  R.V. 
reads  "  the  oak  of  Meonenim,"  marg.  "  that 
is,  the  augurs'  oak  or  terebinth."  The  reference 
is  to  some  sacred  tree  near  Shechem  connected 
with  the  practice  of  divination. 

Meono'thai. — A  son  of  Othniel,  the  younger 
brother  of  Caleb  (1  Ch.  4.14). 

Mepha'ath. — Beauty  :  an  Amorite  town  in  the 
Mishor,  allotted  to  Reuben,  given  to  the  Merar- 
ites,  subsequently  recovered  by  the  Moabites 
(Josh.  13.18,  21.37;  1  Ch.  6.79;  Jer.  48.21). 

Mephibo'sheth. — 1.  Saul's  son  by  Rizpah 
(2  Sam.  21.8).  Handed  over  by  David  to  the 
Gibeonites,  he  was,  with  six  others,  crucified  or 
impaled,  in  sacrifice  to  Jehovah,  with  the  idea 
of  averting  a  famine  from  which  the  country 
was  suffering.  After  hanging  five  months, 
protected  by  Rizpah  from  bird  and  beast,  the 
bodies  were  interred,  with  those  of  Saul  and 
Jonathan,  in  the  ancestral  cave  of  Kish  at 
Zelah.  2.  The  son  of  Jonathan,  and  therefore 
grandson  of  Saul,  originally  called  Merib-baal  (cf. 
Ishbosheth).  He  was  five  years  old  when  his 
father  was  killed.  His  nurse,  on  hearing  the  news, 
hastened  away  with  her  charge,  but  in  her  panic 
she  stumbled,  and  the  result  was  an  accident 
which  deprived  Mephibosheth  for  life  of  the 
use  of  both  feet  (2  Sam.  4.4).  Mephibosheth 
was  carried  with  the  rest  of  his  family  beyond 
the  Jordan  to  the  mountains  of  Gilead,  where 
he  found  a  refuge  in  the  house  of  Machir,  a 
powerful  Gadite  or  Manassite  sheikh  at  Lo- 
debar.  Years  after,  David,  for  the  love  he 
bore  to  Jonathan,  sought  out  Mephibosheth 
and  caused  Him  and  his  infant  son  Micha  to 
be  brought  to  Jerusalem.  Mephibosheth  was 
treated  with  marked  tenderness  and  kindness 
by  the  king,  and  from  that  time  resided  in  the 
capital.  About  seventeen  years  later  David  had 
to  flee  Jerusalem  on  account  of  the  rebellion  of 
Absalom.  There  are  two  accounts  of  Mephibo- 
sheth's  behaviour  at  this  juncture,  one  given 
by  himself  (2  Sam.  19.24-30)  and  the  othez 


MEEAB] 


313 


[MEKOZ 


tfiven  by  Ziba,  his  slave  (2  Sam.  16.1-4).  The 
latter,  which  represents  Mephibosheth  as  guilty 
of  base  ingratitude  and  treachery,  David  chose 
to  believe,  recalling  half  the  possessions  he 
had  bestowed  upon  Mephibosheth  and  giving 
them  to  Ziba.  [ISHBOSHETH,  MERIB-BAAL.] 

Me'rab. — Increase :  the  elder  daughter  of 
King  Saul,  promised  to  David,  but  given  to 
Adriel  the  Melolathite  (1  Sam.  14.49,  17.25, 
18.17,  19).  She  bore  five  sons,  who  were  given 
up  to  the  Gibeonites  by  David,  and  by  them 
crucified,  or  impaled,  on  the  sacred  hill  of 
Gibeah  (2  Sam.  21.8,  where  Michal  is  clearly  a 
mistake  for  Merab  ;  see  R.V.  marg.). 

Merai'ah. — A  priest  in  Jerusalem  in  the  days 
of  Joiakim,  one  of  the  family  of  Seraiah  (Neh. 
12.12). 

Merai'otli. — 1.  A  descendant  of  Eleazar  the 
son  of  Aaron,  and  head  of  a  priestly  house. 
Among  his  illustrious  descendants  were  Zadok 
and  Ezra  (1  Ch.  6.6,  7,  52  ;  Ezra  7.3).  2.  An- 
other priest  of  the  same  line  (1  Ch.  9.11  ;  Neh. 
11.11).  3.  A  priest  at  the  close  of  the  exile 
(Neh.  12.15).  He  is  elsewhere  called  Meremoth 
(Neh.  12.3). 

Mera'ri,  Merarites. — Merari  was  the  third  son 
of  Levi  and  head  of  the  Merarites,  the  third 
great  division  of  the  Levites  (Gen.  46.11). 
At  the  census  in  the  wilderness  the  Merarites 
numbered  6200,  from  a  month  old  and  upwards  ; 
those  from  thirty  years  old  to  fifty  were  3200 
(1  Ch.  6.19, 47).  Particulars  of  their  duties 
with  reference  to  the  Tabernacle  will  be  found 
in  Num.  3.20,  33-37,  4.29-33,  42-45,  7.8,  10.17). 
Joshua  assigned  them  twelve  cities,  of  which 
one  was  Ramoth-Gilead,  a  city  of  refuge  (Josh. 
21.7,  34-40). 

Meratha'im.— Double  rebellion  (as  in  R.V. 
marg.) :  a  symbolic  name  for  Babylon,  with 
reference  to  the  double  captivity  of  the  Israelites 
there  (Jer.  50.21). 

Mercurius  (R.V.  Mercury).— The  people  of 
Lystra  "  called  Barnabas,  Jupiter ;  and  Paul, 
Mercurius "  (Acts  14.12).  This  action  was 
doubtless  traceable  to  the  fact  that  a  visit  of 
Jupiter  and  Mercury  hi  human  form  to  this 
district  occurs  in  their  folklore  (see  Ovid,  M eta- 
morph.,  viii.  620-724). 

Mercy-seat.— The  A.V.  and  R.V.  both  use 
this  as  a  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Kapporeth, 
the  R.V.  having  also  in  the  marg.  the  words 
"  or,  covering."  It  has  been  much  disputed 
whether  Kapporeth  means  a  lid  or  cover,  a  seat 
or  throne  of  mercy,  or  a  propitiation.  The 
object  described  (Ex.  25.17-22,  and  cf.  37.6-9) 
was  a  rectangular  plate  of  gold,  placed  on  the 
ark  of  the  covenant,  and  having  on  it  at 
each  end  a  golden  cherub.  On  the  Day  of 
Atonement  it  was  sprinkled  with  the  blood  of 
the  sin  offerings  (Lev.  16.14,  15).  From  above 
the  mercy-seat  Jehovah  promised  to  meet  and 
commune  with  His  people  (Ex.  25.22 ;  cf. 
Num.  7.89).  The  Greek  word  used  in  the  LXX 
and  the  N.T.  is  literally  "  the  propitiatory " 
(cf.  Rom.  3.25,  where  it  is  translated  "  a  pro- 
pitiation "). 


Me'r£(L  —  Rebellious :  a  son  of  Ezra,  a 
descendant  of  Judah,  through  Caleb,  son  of 
Jephunneh  (1  Ch.  4.17,  18). 

Mere'moth. — 1.  A  priest  appointed  to  weigh 
and  register  the  gold  and  silver  vessels  belonging 
to  the  Temple  which  Ezra  had  brought  from 
Babylon.  He  took  an  active  part  hi  the  rebuild- 
ing of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  under  Nehemiah 
(Ezra  8.33;  Neh.  3.4,21).  2.  One  who  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  at  the  bidding  of  Ezra 
(Ezra  10.36).  3.  A  priest  who,  with  Nehemiah, 
sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  10.5,  12.3 ;  see 
MERAIOTH  3). 

Me'res. — One-  of  the  seven  counsellors  of 
Ahasuerus,  king  of  Persia,  "  wise  men  which 
knew  the  times  "  (Esth.  1.14). 

Meritah. — Strife :  a  name  given  to  the 
waters  miraculously  supplied  at  Kadesh  (which 
see)  because  Israel  strove  with  the  Lord  and  with 
Moses  (Num.  20.1-13,  24  ;  see  vers.  3  (R.V.)  and 
13).  The  "  waters  of  Meribah"  are  referred  to 
again  in  Num.  27.14;  Deut.  32.51,  33.8; 
Ps.  81.7;  see  also  R.V.  of  Ps.  95.8,  106.32; 
Ezek.  47.19,  48.28.  A  very  similar  incident  is 
related  at  an  earlier  stage  of  the  wanderings, 
at  Rephidim  near  Horeb,  when  the  name  of 
the  place  was  called  "  Massah "  (temptation), 
and  also,  according  to  Ex.  17.7,  "  Meribah." 
If  the  two  occurrences  are  to  be  kept  distinct 
(see  Deut.  33.8  ;  Ps.  95.8),  it  would  seem  better 
to  regard  the  application  of  the  second  name 
"  Meribah "  to  the  earlier  incident  as  an 
intrusion.  [MASSAH.] 

Merib-ba'aL— Later  called  Mephibosheth,  the 
son  of  Jonathan  and  grandson  of  King  Saul 
(1  Ch.  8.34,  9.40).  [MEPHIBOSHETH.] 

Mer'odach.— One  of  the  principal  gods 
worshipped  by  the  Babylonians  (Jer.  50.2). 

[BEI,] 

Mer'odach-Bal'adaiL— The  king  of  Babylon 
in  the  days  of  Hezekiah  (Isai.  39.1 ;  in  2  A'. 
20.12  wrongly  called  Berodach-Baladan).  He 
resisted  the  growing  power  of  the  Assyrian 
monarchs,  and  strove  to  maintain  the  inde- 
pendence of  his  country.  The  chief  object  of 
the  visit  of  his  ambassadors  to  Hezekiah  was 
doubtless  to  form  a  league  between  Babylonia, 
Judaea,  and  Egypt  against  Assyria.  Sargon, 
however,  drove  him  from  his  throne.  For  seven 
years  he  was  an  exile,  and  then  was  restored 
only  to  be  finally  overthrown  by  Sennacherib 
after  a  second  period  of  dominion  lasting  half  a 
year  (702  B.C.). 

Me'rom,  Waters  of.— Height :  the  place  near 
which  Joshua  fought  his  third  and  last  battle 
with  the  Canaanites  (Josh.  11.5,  7) ;  probably 
to  be  identified  with  Baheiret  El-Huleh,  a 
triangular  lake  through  which  the  Jordan  flows. 

Mero'nothite,  The. — A  native  or  inhabitant 
of  Meronoth  (but  the  name  of  the  town  is  not 
found) ;  a  title  applied  to  Jehdeiah,  who  had 
the  charge  of  the  royal  asses  of  King  David 
(1  Ch.  27.30),  and  to  Jadon,  one  of  those  who 
assisted  In  the  repair  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
after  the  return  from  the  Captivity  (Neh.  3.7). 

Me'roz.— A  locality  the  inhabitants  of  which 


MESHA] 


314 


[MESOPOTAMIA 


arc,  in  the  song  of  Deborah,  cursed  by  the  angel 
of  the  Lord  because  they  "  came  not  to  the 
help  of  the  Lord  "  (Judg.  5.23)  when  Sisera  was 
overthrown  ;  possibly  El-Murussus,  some  four 
miles  north-west  of  Bethshan,  commanding  the 
pass  from  the  plain  of  Jezreel  to  the  Jordan. 

Me'sha. — A  locality  named  as  the  western, 
or  northern,  limit  of  the  Joktanites  in  south 
Arabia  (Gen.  10.30). 

Me'sha. — 1.  The  king  of  Moab  in  the  reigns 
of  Ahab,  and  his  sons,  Ahaziah  and  Jehoram, 
kings  of  Israel  (2  K.  3.4).  Mesha  was  subject 
to  Ahab,  paying  him  a  tribute  of  "  a  hundred 
thousand  lambs,  and  a  hundred  thousand 
rams,  with  the  wool."  On  the  fall  of  Ahab  at 
Ramoth-gilead,  Mesha  threw  off  the  yoke. 
When  Jehoram  became  king  of  Israel  he  united 
with  Jehoshaphat,  king  of  Judah,  and  the 
king  of  Edom  in  an  expedition  against  the 
Moabites,  who  were  completely  defeated. 
Mesha  in  his  extremity  offered  his  first-born  son, 
his  successor  in  the  kingdom,  as  a  burnt-offering 
to  Chemosh,  the  ruthless  fire-god  of  Moab,  with 
the  result  that  the  three  armies,  horrified  at 
the  deed,  withdrew  to  their  own  land.  In  1868 
there  was  discovered  amid  the  ruins  of  Dibon 
a  large  fragment  of  a  stone  monument  erected 
by  Mesha  (c.  850  B.C.),  inscribed  with  a  record 
of  his  victories  over  Israel.  This,  restored  by 
the  addition  of  other  fragments,  is  now  in  the 
Louvre  at  Paris  ;  and  a  facsimile  is  in  the  British 
Museum.  It  is  known  as  the  Moabite  Stone. 
2.  The  eldest  son  of  Caleb  (1  Ch.  2.42).  3.  A 
Benjamite  (1  Ch.  8.9). 

Me'shach. — The  Babylonian  name  given  to 
Mishael,  one  of  Daniel's  three  companions 
(Dan.  1.7,  2.49,  3.12-30.  The  meaning  is 
uncertain. 

Me'shech  (A.V.  Me'sech  in  Ps.  120.5).— 
Mesech  and  Tubal,  sons  of  Japheth  (Gen.  10.2), 
are  almost  always  coupled  in  the  O.T.  Their 
descendants  appear  in  Assyrian  inscriptions 
under  the  names  of  Muska  and  Tubla.  They 
were  known  to  classical  geographers  as  Moschi 
and  Tibareni.  In  classical  days,  however,  their 
scats  were  farther  to  the  north  than  they  had 
been  in  the  age  of  the  Assyrian  monuments. 
In  the  time  of  Sargon  and  Sennacherib  their 
territories  still  extended  as  far  south  as  Cilicia 
and  the  north  half  of  Komagene.  Later  they 
were  forced  to  retreat  north  towards  the  Black 
Sea,  and  it  was  in  this  region  of  Asia  Minor  that 
Xenophon  and  his  Greek  troops  found  the 
remnants  of  the  race.  The  modern  Georgians 
belong  to  the  race  of  Meshech  and  Tubal 
(1  Ch.  1.5, 17  ;  Ps.  120.5  ;  Ezek.  27.13,  32.26, 
38.2,  3).  For  Mesech  in  1  Ch.  1.17  see  MASH. 

Meshelemi'ah. — Jah  recompenses :  a  Korahite, 
who  with  his  seven  sons  and  his  brethren  were 
porters  or  gate-keepers  of  the  Tabernacle  in 
the  reign  of  David  (1  Ch.  9.21,  26.1,  2,  9).  Else- 
where the  name  is  given  as  Shelemiah  (1  Ch. 
26.14),  Shallum  (1  Ch.  9.19),  and  Meshullam 
(Neh.  12.25). 

Meshe'zabeel,  Meshe'zabeL— God  is  deliverer: 
1.  One  whose  descendant,  Meshullam,  helped  to 


repair  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  3.4).  2.  A 
person,  or  family,  who  with  Nehemiah  sealed 
the  covenant  (Neh.  10.21,  11.24).  Perhaps  in 
each  case  the  reference  is  to  the  same  family 
name. 

Meshille'mith. — A  priest  whose  descendants 
dwelt  in  Jerusalem  (1  Ch.  9.12).  In  Neh.  11.13 
he  is  called  Meshillemoth. 

Meshille'moth. — 1.  An  Ephraimite  whose  son 
Berechiah  opposed  making  slaves  of  the  Jewish 
captives  (2  Ch.  28.12).  2.  The  same  as  Meshil- 
lemith. 

Meshul'lam. — Friend :  1.  The  ancestor  of 
Shaphan,  a  scribe  in  the  days  of  King  Josiah 
(2  K.  22.3).  2.  The  son  of  'Zerubbabel  (1  Ch. 
3.19).  3.  The  head  of  a  Gadite  family  (1  Ch. 
5.13).  4.  A  Benjamite  (1  Ch.  8.17).  5.  A 
Benjamite,  whose  son  Sallu  was  one  of  the  chiefs 
of  the  tribe  settling  at  Jerusalem  after  the 
return  from  Babylon  (1  Ch.  9.7 ;  Neh.  11.7). 
6.  A  Benjamite  who  lived  at  Jerusalem  after  the 
Captivity  (1  Ch.  9.8).  7.  An  Aaronite  of  the 
family  of  Zadok,  whose  descendants  dwelt  in 
Jerusalem  (1  Ch.  9.11;  Neh.  11.11).  8.  A 
priest,  ancestor  of  a  family  that  dwelt  in 
Jerusalem  (1  Ch.  9.12).  9.  A  Kohathite,  or 
family  of  Kohathite  Levites,  in  the  reign  of 
Josiah,  who  were  among  the  overseers  of  the 
work  of  restoration  of  the  Temple  (2  Ch.  34.12). 
10.  A  leader  who  returned  with  Ezra  from  Baby- 
lon. He  helped  to  gather  together  the  Levites 
to  join  the  caravan  about  to  return  to  Jerusalem 
(Ezra  8.16).  11.  A  leader  in  the  time  of  Ezra 
who  assisted  Jonathan  and  Jahaziah  in  abolish- 
ing the  marriages  which  some  of  the  people  had 
contracted  with  foreign  wives  (Ezra  10.15). 
12.  One  of  those  who  put  away  a  foreign  wife 
(Ezra  10.29).  13.  One  who  helped  to  rebuild 
two  portions  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh. 
3.4,  30,  6.18).  14.  A  worker  at  the  restoration 
of  the  old  gate  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  3.6).  15.  One 
of  those  who  stood  at  the  left  hand  of  Ezra  when 
he  read  the  Law  to  the  people  (Neh.  8.4).  16.  A 
priest,  or  family  of  priests,  who  sealed  the 
covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  10.7).  17.  One 
of  those  who  sealed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  10.20).  18.  A  priest  of  the  family  of  Ezra 
who  assisted  in  the  dedication  of  the  wall  of 
Jerusalem  (Neh.  12.13).  19.  A  priest  (Neh. 
12.16).  20.  A  Levite  and  gate-keeper  of  the 
Temple  after  the  Exile  (Neh.  12.25).  21.  One  of 
the  princes  of  Judah  who  were  in  the  right-hand 
company  of  those  who  marched  on  the  wall  of 
Jerusalem  at  the  dedication  (Neh.  12.33). 

Meshulle'meth. — The  wife  of  Manasseh,  king 
of  Judah  (2  K.  21.19). 

Mesobaite,  The  (R.V.  Mezobaite).— An  appella- 
tion of  Jaziel,  one  of  David's  valiant  men 
(1  Ch.  11.47). 

Mesopota'mia. — Between  the  rivers  :  the 
country  between  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris ; 
but  usually  the  west  portion  of  this  tract, 
between  the  great  bend  of  the  Euphrates  and 
the  Upper  Tigris.  It  was  the  home  of  Nahor 
and  Abraham  before  their  migration  to  the 
Promised  Land  (Gen.  11.31,  24.10 ;  Acts  7.2) ; 


MESSIAH,  MESSIAS] 


315 


,  MESSIAS 


also  of  Balaam  (Lent.  23.4) ;  of  King  Chushan- 
rishathaim  (Judg.  3.8, 10) ;  of  the  allies  of  the 
Ammonites  (1  Ch.  19.6) ;  and  of  visitors  to 
Jerusalem  on  the  Day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  2.9). 

Messiah,  Messias. — Anointed :  the  word 
appears  twice  in  the  A.V.  of  the  O.T.  (Dan. 
9.25,  26).  The  R.V.  has  (Dan.  9.25)  "  the 
anointed  one,  the  prince  "  (marg.  "  Or,  Messiah 
the  prince.  Or,  an  anointed  one,  a  prince"); 
and  (Dan.  9.26)  "  the  anointed  one."  Messias 
is  twice  found  in  the  A.V.  of  the  N.T.  (John 
1.41,  4.25),  where  R.V.  has  Messiah.  The 
word  anointed  is  applied  to  the  priests  (Lev. 
4.3,5,  6.22);  to  kings  (1  Sam.  2.10,  12.3,  etc.), 
even  to  a  pagan  in  the  case  of  Cyrus  (Isai.  45.1). 

The  promise  of  Messiah  is  commonly  held 
first  to  appear  in  Gen.  3.15.  The  Jewish  writers 
did  not,  however,  directly  interpret  this  declara- 
tion of  the  Messiah,  though  some  held  that  the 
victory  would  be  "  in  the  days  of  the  Messiah." 
To  Abraham,  the  Messiah  was  announced,  more 
or  less  clearly,  as  the  promised  Seed  (Gen.  12.3, 
18.18,  22.18) ;  to  Moses,  as  the  coming  Prophet 
(Deut.  18.15,18);  to  all  of  that  age,  as  the 
Priest ;  to  David,  he  appears,  in  addition,  as 
King.  How  far  David  himself  was  conscious 
of  the  deeper  meaning  of  the  prophecies  addressed 
to  him,  as  by  Nathan,  or  uttered  by  himself  in 
Psalms,  we  cannot  tell.  To  him,  as  to  other 
inspired  seers,  the  words  of  Peter  apply  (1  Pet. 
1.10-12).  But  from  Peter  also  we  elsewhere 
learn  that  David  knew  that  "  God  had  sworn 
with  an  oath  to  him,  that  of  the  fruit  of  his 
loins  He  would  set  One  upon  his  throne  "  (see 
II. V.,  Acts  2.30  and  marg.). 

The  Psalms,  indeed,  abound  in  references 
to  Messiah  and  His  Kingdom.  They  contain 
wonderful  foreshadowings  of  our  Lord's  history, 
His  sufferings  and  glory.  For  His  sufferings 
see  Ps.  22  ;  for  His  glory,  Ps.  2,  45,  72,  110. 
Ps.  132.11  foretells  His  connexion  with  David; 
Ps.  118.22  His  rejection  by  the  Jews;  Ps.  68.18 
His  ascension  and  the  gift  of  the  Spirit ;  Ps. 
117  the  call  of  the  Gentiles.  Nor  is  the  Messianic 
character  restricted  to  such  directly  prophetical 
Psalms.  Throughout  the  Psalter  we  find 
portrayed  a  personal  ideal,  righteous  yet  suffer- 
ing, and  through  sorrow  and  trial  attaining  to 
universal  dominion.  Of  this  ideal,  Jesus  Christ 
in  His  person  and  work  is  the  only  complete 
realisation.  Thus  in  Psalm  8  the  honour  con- 
ferred by  God  upon  humanity  is  described, 
','  Thou  hast  put  all  things  under  His  feet  "  ; 
but  the  apostolic  comment  is,  "  We  see  not  yet 
all  things  put  under  Him ;  but  we  see  Jesus," 
etc.  (Heb.  2.8,  9).  David  again  (Ps.  16) 
triumphs  in  assured  hope,  "  Thou  wilt  not  leave 
my  soul  in  Hades,  neither  wilt  Thou  suffer 
Thine  holy  One  to  see  corruption."  "  Being  a 
prophet,"  is  the  comment  of  the  Apostle  Peter, 
"  he  spake  of  the  resurrection  of  the  Christ  " 
(Acts  2.30,  31).  Once  more,  Ps.  40  gives  a 
picture  of  perfect  consecration,  fulfilled  only 
and  completely  in  Him  (Heb.  10.5-10). 

The  intimations  contained  in  the  Prophets 
are  in  harmony  with  those  found  in  the  Psalms. 


Messiah  is  to  be  King,  and  the  prophets  represent 
Him  as  possessed  of  all  the  characteristics  of 
the  most  distinguished  princes  of  the  Jewish 
theocracy.  They  more  than  once  apply  to  Him 
the  title  of  David,  who  was,  in  many  respects, 
the  ideal  of  kingly  authority  (Jer.  30.9 ;  Hos.  3.5  ; 
Acts  13.34).  They  describe  His  character  as 
Prophet  or  Priest  in  the  same  strain,  multiplying 
images  in  each  case  adapted  to  give  the  most 
exalted  ideas  of  His  office  (Zech.  6 ;  Heb.  7).  In 
the  same  way,  they  speak  of  His  kingdom,  either 
of  grace  or  glory,  as  the  highest  perfection  of 
the  Jewish  economy.  It  is  called  Jerusalem,  or 
Zion  (Isai.  60.15-20,  62.1,  6,  7  ;  Gal.  4.26-28  ; 
Heb.  12.22.  See  also  Isai.  60.6,  7,  66.23). 
To  Joel,  the  outpouring  of  the  Spirit  appears  as 
a  general  extension  of  the  three  forms  of  Divine 
revelation  which  occur  in  the  O.T.  The  idea 
that  all  nations  shall  worship  the  true  God 
is  expressed  by  the  declaration  that  they  will 
join  in  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  (Zech.  14.16). 
The  glory  of  the  Messiah's  days  is  repre- 
sented by  the  prosperous  times  of  David  and 
Solomon  (Zech.  3.10 ;  cf.  1  K.  4.25) ;  the  pre- 
valence of  peace,  by  the  union  of  Judah  and 
Israel  (Isai.  11.13;  Hos.  1.11).  In  the  same 
way,  the  enemies  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah 
are  not  only  called  by  the  names  given  to  the 
enemies  of  the  ancient  theocracy,  viz.  the 
nations  of  the  Gentiles,  but  they  often  bear  the 
name  of  some  one  people  who,  at  the  time,  were 
peculiarly  inimical  or  powerful.  In  Isai.  25  they 
are  called  by  the  name  of  Moab,  in  Isai.  63  and 
Amos  9.12  by  the  name  of  Edom,  and  in  Ezek.  38 
by  the  name  of  Magog. 

It  will  be  found,  however,  that  there  are  two 
parallel  lines  of  prophecy  pointing  to  Messiah ; 
the  one  depicting  the  ideal  King,  the  other  the 
ideal  Prophet,  the  suffering  servant  of  Jehovah. 
How  are  these  to  be  reconciled  ?  The  answer 
may  be  given  in  the  words  of  Professor  Sanday  : 
"  We  turn  the  page  which  separates  the  N.T. 
from  the  O.T.  We  look  at  the  Figure  which 
is  delineated  there,  and  we  find  in  it  a  marvellous 
meeting  of  traits  derived  from  the  most  different 
and  distant  sources,  from  Nathan,  from  Amos, 
from  First  Isaiah,  from  Second  Isaiah,  from 
Zechariah,  from  Daniel,  from  the  second  Psalm, 
from  the  twenty-second,  from  the  sixty-ninth, 
from  the  hundred  and  tenth.  And  these  traits 
do  not  meet,  as  we  might  expect  them  to  do, 
in  some  laboured  and  artificial  compound,  but 
in  the  sweet  and  gracious  figure  of  Jesus  of 
Nazareth— King,  but  not  as  men  count  kingship  ; 
crowned,  but  with  the  crown  of  thorns  ;  suffering 
for  our  redemption,  but  suffering  only  that  He 
may  reign  "  (Inspiration,  p.  404). 

But  whilst  the  person  and  work  of  our  Lord 
thus  wonderfully  fulfil  both  lines  of  prediction, 
the  thoughts  of  the  Jewish  people  at  the  time 
of  His  coming  were  fixed  only  on  the  kingly 
side  of  Messiah's  mission.  They  understood  by 
this  an  earthly  kingdom,  and  the  knowledge  of 
their  expectation  spread  beyond  the  limits 
of  Judaism.  The  apostles  themselves  were 
infected  with  this  opinion,  even  after  the 


METHEG-AMMAH] 


316 


[MICAH,  THE  BOOK  OF 


itesurrection  (Matt.  20.20,  21  ;  Lk.  24.21  ; 
Acts  1.6).  Gleams  of  a  truer  view  appear  in 
Lk.  2.30,  23.42;  John  4.25.  Our  Lord 
definitely  identified  Himself  with  the  Messiah 
(John  4.26),  and  referred  to  the  fulfilment  of  O.T. 
prophecies  in  Himself  (Matt.  26.54 ;  Mk.  9.12  ; 
Lk.  18.31-33,  22.37,  24.27;  John  5.39,46). 
His  disciples  preach  the  same  truth  (Acts 
2.16,  25,  8.28-35,  10.43,  13.23,  32-37,  26.22,  23 ; 
1  Pel.  1.11  ;  and  in  many  passages  in  St.  Paul's 
Epistles).  [JESUS  CHBIST,  KINGDOM  OF  GOD, 
SERVANT  OF  THE  LORD,  SHILOH.] 

Me'theg-Am'mah.— The  A.V.  in  2  Sam.  8.1 
takes  this  as  the  name  of  a  place  captured  by 
David  from  the  Philistines.  R.V.,  however, 
translates  the  words  as  "  the  bridle  of  the 
mother-city,"  apparently  meaning  the  authority 
of  the  metropolis. 

Methu'sael  (R.V.  Methu'shael).— Man  of  Ood : 
a  descendant  of  Cain  (Gen.  4.18). 

Methu'selah.— Son  of  Enoch  and  grandfather 
of  Noah.  He  lived  969  years  (Gen.  5.27). 

Meunim.— [MEHTJNIM.] 

Meuzal.— [UZAL.] 

Meza'hab.—  Waters  of  gold  :  the  grandfather 
of  Mehetabel,  who  was  wife  of  Hadar  or  Hadad, 
the  last-named  king  of  Edom  (Gen.  36.39 ;  1  Ch. 
1.50). 

Mezobaite. — [MESOBAITE.  ] 

Mi'amin  (R.V.  Bfijamin).— 1.  An  Israelite 
who,  at  the  bidding  of  Ezra,  put  away  his  foreign 
wife  (Ezra  10.25).  2.  The  head  of  the  sixth 
course  of  priests  in  David's  time  (1  Ch.  24.9) ; 
his  family  went  up  from  Babylon  with  Zerub- 
babel  (Neh.  12.5),  and  signed  the  covenant 
(Neh.  10.7).  In  Neh.  12.17  the  name  appears 
as  Miniamin. 

Mib'har. — One  of  David's  valiant  men  (1  Ch. 
11.88). 

Mib'sam. — Sweet  odour  :  1.  A  son  of  Ishmael 
(Gen.  25.13 ;  1  Ch.  1.29).  2.  A  Simeonite 
(1  Ch.  4.25). 

Mib'zar. — Fortified :  a  chief  of  Edom,  de- 
scended from  Esau  (Gen.  36.42  ;  1  Ch.  1.53). 

Mi'cah,  Mi'cha,  Mi'chah.— 1.  An  Ephraimite 
whose  story  is  told  in  Judg.  17  and  18.  His 
one  idea  is  to  enjoy  the  favour  of  Jehovah 
(Judg.  17.13),  yet  so  completely  ignorant  is  he 
of  the  Law  that  his  house  is  stored  with  idols, 
and  he  sets  up  an  unauthorised  priesthood, 
first  in  his  own  family  and  then  in  the  person 
of  a  Levite  not  of  the  priestly  line.  The 
narrative  also  illustrates  the  degraded  and 
demoralised  condition  into  which  some  of  the 
Levites  speedily  had  sunk.  The  Levite  of  the 
incident,  who,  after  serving  in  Micah's  idol- 
house,  became  the  first  priest  to  another  system 
of  false  worship  in  which  Jehovah  had  no  part, 
was  no  other  than  a  grandson  of  Moses,  for 
the  "  Manasseh  "  in  Judg.  18.30  is  an  alteration 
of  "Moses,"  to  shield  that  venerable  name  from 
the  discredit  which  such  a  descendant  would 
cast  upon  it.  2.  The  head  of  a  family  of  Reuben 
(1  Ch.  5.5).  3.  The  son  of  Merib-baal,  or 
Mephibosheth,  the  son  of  Jonathan  (2  Sam. 
9.12 :  1  Ch.  8.34,  35,  9.40,  41 ).  4.  The  "  Moras- 


thite  "  or  native  of  Moresheth-gath  (Mic.  1.14) — 
a  Philistine  village  about  twenty  miles  from 
Jerusalem — and  the  prophet.  Micah  seems  to 
have  been  commissioned  not  long  after  Amos, 
Hosea,  and  Isaiah  had  begun  their  ministry ; 
and  lie  includes  both  Israel  and  Judah  in  his 
reproofs  and  warnings  (1.1).  There  is  a  striking 
resemblance  between  the  predictions  of  doom 
regarding  both  Samaria  and  Jerusalem  (cf. 
1.6  with  3.12).  Greek  writers  (Epiphanius  and 
others)  say  that  he  was  slain  by  Jehoram,  son 
of  Ahab,  confounding  him  with  Micaiah  the 
son  of  Imlah  (1  K.  22.8-28).  (The  names  are 
different  forms  of  the  same  word.)  Micah 
does  not  appear  to  have  suffered  martyrdom, 
but  died  in  peace  in  the  days  of  Hezekiah. 
(See  Jer.  26.18,19,  where  it  appears  that 
Jeremiah  might  have  been  put  to  death  for 
foretelling  the  destruction  of  the  Temple,  had 
it  not  appeared  that  Micah  had  foretold  the 
same  thing  above  a  hundred  years  before.) 
5.  A  Levite  of  the  family  of  Asaph,  whose 
descendants  dwelt  in  Jerusalem  (1  Ch.  9.15  ; 
Neh.  11.17, 22).  He  is  called  Michaiah  in 
Neh.  12.35.  6.  The  eldest  son  of  Uzziel,  the 
brother  of  Amram,  and  therefore  cousin  to 
Moses  and  Aaron  (1  Ch.  23.20,  24.24,  25).  7. 
A  man  of  high  station  whose  son  Abdon  was 
sent  by  King  Josiah  to  inquire  of  the  Lord 
when  the  Book  of  the  Law  was  found  (2  Ch. 
34.20).  He  is  called  Michaiah  in  2  K.  22.12. 
8.  A  Levite,  or  family  of  Levites,  who  signed 
the  covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  10.11). 

Micah,  The  Book  oL— The  author  of  this 
book  announces  himself  as  "  Micah  the  Moras- 
thite"  [MiCAH  4],  and  gives  the  date  of  his 
prophecies  as  "  in  the  days  of  Jotham,  Ahaz, 
and  Hezekiah,  kings  of  Judah"  (1.1).  The 
statement  that  he  "  prophesied  in  the  days  of 
Hezekiah  "  (Jer.  26.18)  does  not  limit  his  work 
to  that  reign.  The  contents  of  the  book  may 
be  divided  into  four  main  sections  :  (1)  Chap.  1, 
the  Judgments  of  God  on  Israel  and  Judah  ; 
(2)  chaps.  2,  3,  proof  of  the  necessity  of  these 
Judgments;  (3)  chaps.  4,  5,  the  Promise ; 
(4)  chap.  6,  colloquy  between  Jehovah  and 
His  people ;  chap.  7,  epilogue :  the  prophet's 
lamentation  and  hope. 

Micah  foretells  in  clear  terms  the  invasion 
of  Shalmaneser  and  Sennacherib  (1.6-16) ; 
the  dispersion  of  Israel  (5.7,  8) ;  the  cessation 
of  prophecy  (3.6,  7) ;  the  utter  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  (3.12). 

Just  as  clearly  he  foretells  the  deliverance 
of  Israel  (2.12,  4.10,  5.8) ;  the  birthplace  of  the 
Messiah  (5.2) ;  the  promulgation  of  His  Gospel 
from  Mount  Zion,  and  its  results ;  and  the 
exaltation  of  His  Kingdom  over  all  nations. 

The  style  of  Micah  has  much  of  the  poetic 
beauty  of  Isaiah,  and  of  the  vigour  of  Hosea, 
but  is  occasionally  obscure,  through  his  concise- 
ness and  sudden  transitions.  He  abounds  in 
examples  of  the  play  on  words,  and  in  strik- 
ing oratorical  interrogations.  His  special  ollice, 
as  the  herald  of  coming  judgment,  causes  a 
predominant  severity  of  tone  ;  but  all  harsh- 


MICAIAH] 


317 


[MIDIAN 


ness  is  softened  into  exquisite  beauty  at  the 
close. 

The  N.T.  quotations  fromMicah  are  of  interest. 
The  birth  at  Bethlehem  of  the  coming  King 
(5.2)  appears  in  Matt.  2.6.  This  passage  is 
especially  remarkable  for  having  been  quoted 
by  the  "  chief  priests  and  scribes  "  of  Jerusalem, 
as  an  accepted  prophecy  of  the  Messiah  (cf. 
John  7.42).  There  are  also  striking  repro- 
ductions of  the  prophet's  language  (7.6)  in 
Matt.  10.35,  36;  Mk.  13.12,  and  Lk.  12.53;  also 
of  7.20  in  Lk.  1.73. 

Micaiah. —  Who  is  like  Jah?  a  prophet  who 
foretold  the  death  of  Ahab  at  Ramoth-gilead 
(1  K.  22.1-35;  2  Ch.  18).  He  was  the  son 
of  Imlah,  and  lived  about  890  B.C.  Micaiah's 
name  has  not  occurred  before,  but  Ahab's 
language  (22.8)  implies  that  he  had  previously 
received  from  him  messages  of  rebuke  and 
warning.  Some  suppose  him  to  have  been 
imprisoned  for  his  fidelity  and  boldness  on  that 
occasion  (1  K.  20.35,  42).  [MICHAIAH.] 

Mi'chaeL—  Who  is  like  God?  1.  The  father  of 
one  of  the  twelve  spies  (Num.  13.13).  2.  A 
Gadite  who  settled  in  Bashan  (1  Ch.  5.13).  3. 
A  Gadite  (1  Ch.  5.14).  4.  An  ancestor  of  Asaph 
(1  Ch.  6.40).  5.  A  chief  man  of  the  tribe  of 
Issachar  (1  Ch.  7.3).  6.  A  Benjamite  (1  Ch. 
8.16).  7.  A  Manassite  who  joined  David  in 
Ziklag  (1  Ch.  12.20).  8.  The  father,  or  ancestor 
of  Omri,  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar  in  the 
reign  of  David  (1  Ch.  27.18).  9.  A  son  of 
Jehoshaphat  who  was  murdered  by  his  brother 
Jehoram  (2  Ch.  21.2,4).  10.  The  father,  or 
ancestor,  of  Zebadiah  (Ezra  8.8).  11.  The 
angel  of  God  who  came  to  Daniel  and  is  called 
by  him  prince  of  the  people  of  Israel  (Dan.  10.13, 
21,  12.1).  Michael  is  represented  in  Rev.  12.7 
as  fighting  in  heaven  against  the  dragon,  "  that 
old  serpent  called  the  Devil  and  Satan,  which 
deceiveth  the  whole  world."  The  reference 
in  Jude  9  is  to  an  old  Jewish  legend  quoted 
from  the  apocryphal  book,  "  The  Assumption 
of  Moses,"  in  which  Michael  appears  as  con- 
tending with  Satan  for  the  body  of  Moses. 
The  Evil  One  claimed  to  possess  it  on  the 
ground  of  the  blood-guiltiness  of  the  great 
leader  of  the  deliverance  (Ex.  2.12). 

Michai'ah  (R.V.  Micaiah).— Who  is  like  Jah? 
1.  The  father  of  Achbor,  who  was  an  important 
official  under  King  Josiah  (2  K.  22.12).  He 
appears  as  Micah  in  2  Ch.  34.20.  2.  The  wifp 
of  Rehoboam  and  mother  of  Abijah  (2  Ch.  13.2). 
She  is  elsewhere  called  "  Maachah,  the  daughter 
of  Abishalom  "  (1  K.  15.2)  or  "  of  Absalom " 
(2  Ch.  11.20).  3.  A  prince  of  Judah  ordered 
by  Jehoshaphat  to  teach  the  people  (2  Ch.  17.7). 
4.  A  descendant  of  Asaph  (Neh.  12.35).  The 
name  appears  as  Micah  in  1  Ch.  9.15  and  as 
Micha  in  Neh.  11.17.  5.  One  of  the  priests 
who  blew  the  trumpets  at  the  dedication  of  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem  by  Nehemiah  (Neh.  12.41). 
6.  A  person  who  declared  the  prophecies  of 
Jeremiah  to  all  the  princes  assembled  in  King 
Zedekiah's  house  (Jer.  36.11-13).  [MICAIAH.] 

Mi'chaL— Who     it    like    God?    the   younger 


of  Saul's  two  daughters  (1  Sam.  14.49).  After 
David's  exploit  against  Goliath,  the  promised 
marriage  with  Saul's  elder  daughter,  Merab, 
did  not  take  place.  Michal  fell  in  love  with 
him,  and  Saul  promised  to  give  her  to  the 
youthful  warrior  if  he  slew  a  hundred  Philistines, 
the  king  secretly  hoping  that  David  would 
lose  his  life  in  the  endeavour  to  fulfil  the 
condition.  But  David  succeeded,  and  Michal 
became  his  wife.  By  the  employment  of  a 
clever  stratagem  she  saved  the  life  of  her 
husband  from  the  mad  fury  of  her  father 
( 1  Sam.  19.11-17).  Thereafter  she  was  separated 
from  him  for  many  years,  and  in  the  meantime 
married  Phalti  or  Phaltiel  (1  Sam.  25.44  ;  2  Sam.. 
3.14,15).  After  the  death  of  her  father  and 
brothers  she  fled  with  the  remnants  of  Saul's 
family  to  the  east  of  the  Jordan ;  but  when  David 
was  securely  established  at  Hebron  he  sent  for 
her  and  restored  her  to  her  place  as  his  wife. 
At  least  fourteen  years  had  elapsed,  but  David's 
love  had  not  grown  cold  in  the  interval.  David's 
conduct  at  the  bringing  up  of  the  Ark  from 
Kirjath-jearim  to  Hebron  disgusted  Michal, 
between  whom  and  the  king  there  was  a  final 
rupture  (2  Sam.  6.14-23).  The  one  later  mention 
of  Michal  (2  Sam.  21.8)  is  an  error  for  Merab. 

Mich'mas,  Mich'mash.— Now  Mukhms;  a 
fortress  in  Benjamin,  7  miles  north  of 
Jerusalem,  4  miles  south  of  Bethel,  on  the 
north  of  the  Wady  es-SuweinJt.  It  was  the 
scene  of  conflict  between  Saul  and  Jonathan 
and  the  Philistines  (1  Sam.  13.14).  Here 
Sennacherib  left  his  heavy  baggage  when 
advancing  on  Jerusalem  (Isai.  10.28).  Its  in- 
habitants returned  after  the  Captivity  (Ezra 
2.27;  Neh.  7.31,11.31). 

Michme'thah.— A  frontier  town  of  Ephraim 
(Josh.  16.6, 17.7). 

Mich'ri.— An  ancestor  of  Elah,  a  chief  of  the 
tribe  of  Benjamin  after  the  Captivity  (1  Ch.  9.8). 

Mich'tam. — A  term  applied  to  six  Psalms 
(16.56-60)  to  denote  their  musical  character. 
Its  significance  is  now  lost ;  possibly  it  was  a 
private  meditation  as  compared  with  Maschil, 
a  public  ministry. 

Mid'din. — A  town  of  Judah,  in  the  wilderness 
(Midbar)  (Josh.  15.61). 

Mid'ian. — A  son  of  Abraham  and  Keturah 
(Gen.  25.2 ;  1  Ch.  1.32),  the  progenitor  of  the 
Midianites,  or  Arabians,  dwelling  principally 
in  the  desert  north  of  Arabia.  Southwards  they 
extended  along  the  east  shore  of  the  Gulf  of 
Akabah ;  and  northwards  they  stretched  along 
the  east  frontier  of  Palestine.  The  descendants  of 
Hagar  and  Keturah  no  doubt  intermarried,  which 
may  account  for  the  fact  that  the  merchants  to 
whom  Joseph  was  sold  are  Ishmaelites  in  one 
place  and  Midianites  in  another  place  (Gen. 
37.25,  28).  Moses,  having  killed  an  Egyptian, 
fled  to  the  land  of  Midian,  and  married  a  daughter 
of  a  priest  of  Midian  (Ex.  2.15-21 ).  The  city  of 
Midian  was  situated  on  the  Arabian  shore  of  the 
Arabian  Gulf.  The  Midianites  fell  into  idolatry 
and  immorality,  and  their  evil  influence  upon 
the  children  of  Israel  is  illustrated  by  the 


MIDIANITES,  MIDIANITISH]         318 


[MILLO 


narrative  in  Num.  25.6-18.  An  Israelite 
brought  a  Midianitish  woman  openly  into  the 
camp,  and  both  were  slain.  While  the  Canaan  - 
itish  tribes  were  abhorred,  Midian  could  claim 
consanguinity  with  the  Israelites,  and  thus 
more  readily  seduce  them  from  their  allegiance 
to  Jehovah.  Accordingly,  by  the  express  com- 
mand of  Moses,  a  devastating  war  was  waged 
against  Midian  (Num.  31).  In  later  years 
they  recovered  from  this  blow,  and  became 
the  ruthless  oppressors  of  the  children  of 
Israel,  wasting  their  crops  even  to  Gaza  on  the 
Mediterranean  coast.  The  familiar  story  of 
this  oppression  and  the  deliverance  of  Israel  by 
the  hand  of  Gideon  is  told  in  Judg.,  chaps. 
6,  7,  and  8.  The  booty  taken  by  Moses  and 
Gideon  shows  that  the  Midianites  were  a 
wealthy  nomad  people,  living  by  plunder,  and 
delighting  in  finery. 

Midianites,  Midianitish.— [MIDIAN.] 

Mig'dal-eder.— [EDER  1'.] 

Mig'dal-eh— Tower  of  God:  now  Mujeidel, 
at  the  head  of  Wady-Kerkerah  ;  a  fortified 
frontier  town  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  19.38). 

Mig'dal-gad. — Tower  of  Gad:  now  Mejdel, 
a  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah,  2J  miles  west 
of  Ashkelon  (Josh.  15.37) ;  originally  associated 
with  the  worship  of  the  ancient  deity  Gad 
("  Fortune  "). 

Mig'doL—  Watch-tower :  1.  The  site  of  an 
Israelite  encampment  before  crossing  the  Red 
Sea  (Ex.  14.2;  Num.  33.7).  2.  A  town  on 
the  north-east  border  of  Egypt,  the  subject 
of  prophetic  denunciation  (Jer.  44.1,  46.14 ; 
Ezek.  29.10,  30.6). 

Mig'ron. — A  town  near  Gibeah,  where  Saul 
mustered  his  600  men  when  pressed  by  the 
Philistines,  and  Sennacherib  passed  on  his 
way  to  Jerusalem  (1  Sam.  14.2 ;  Isai.  10.28). 

Mija'min.— [MIAMIN.  ] 

Mik'loth. — Rods:  1.  A  Benjamite  in  Jeru- 
salem (1  Ch.  8.32,  9.37,38).  2.  The  leader 
of  the  second  division  of  David's  army  (1  Ch. 
27.4). 

Miknei'ah.  —  Jah  is  possessor :  a  Levite 
musician  (1  Ch.  15.18,  21). 

Mil'alai. — A  priest  who  took  part  in  the 
purification  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh. 
12.36). 

Mil'cah. — 1.  The  daughter  of  Haran,  and 
wife  of  her  uncle  Nahor,  Abraham's  brother, 
to  whom  she  bare  eight  children.  The  youngest, 
Bethuel,  was  the  father  of  Rebekah  (Gen.  11.29, 
22.20,  23,  24.15,  24,  47).  She  was  the  sister  of 
Lot.  2.  The  fourth  daughter  of  Zelophehad 
(Num.  26.33,  27.1,  36.11  ;  Josh.  17.3). 

Mil'com. — The  god  of  the  Ammonites  (1  K. 
11.5,33,  cf.  ver.  7 ;  2  K.  23.13);  elsewhere 
called  Molech,  Malcham,  or  Malchan.  [MOLECH.] 

Mile. — A  Roman  measure  of  length  equal 
to  1618  English  yards  (Matt.  5.41). 

Miletum. — [MILETUS.] 

Mile'tns. — A  town  of  Asia  Minor,  36  miles 
south  of  Ephesus,  whither  Paul  -  summoned 
the  elders  of  the  Ephesian  Church  (Acts  20.15, 
17;  2  Tim.  4.20,  A.V.  Miletum).  The  sea  has 


now  receded  10  miles  from  the  site  of  Miletus, 
now  called  Melas. 

Milk. — In  Bible  lands  not  only  the  milk  of 
cows,  but  also  of  sheep  (Deut.  32.14),  of  camels 
(Gen.  32.15),  and  of  goats  (Prov.  27.27)  was 
used.  In  every  case  (except  perhaps  Prov. 
30.33)  the  term  "  butter  "  refers  to  a  prepara- 
tion of  coagulated  milk.  It  was  this  that  Jael 
offered  to  Sisera  (Judg.  5.2o),  produced  from 
one  of  the  goatskin  bottles  which  are  still  used 
by  the  Bedouins.  It  is  still  offered  in  hospit- 
ality to  the  passing  stranger,  as  in  the  days  of 
Abraham  (Gen.  18.8).  The  prohibition  against 
seething  a  kid  in  its  mother's  milk  was  directed 
against  some  heathen  usage  practised  at  the 
time  of  harvest  (Ex.  23.19,  34.26  ;  Deut.  14.21). 
To  "  suck  the  milk  "  of  an  enemy's  land  was 
an  expression  betokening  its  complete  sub- 
jection (Isai.  60.16  ;  Ezek.  25.4). 

MilL — The  Eastern  mill  consists  of  two 
circular  stones,  about  50  inches  in  circum- 
ference, and  3  inches  thick,  placed  one  upon 
the  other.  In  the  centre  of  the  upper  is  a 
hole,  into  which  the  corn  is  gradually  poured, 
and  through  which  it  passes  between  the  stones, 
where  it  is  ground  to  powder.  In  this  upper 
stone  one  or  two  strong  handles  are  fixed,  by 
which  it  is  turned  round.  The  upper  surface 
of  the  lower  stone  is  slightly  convex,  fitting 
into  a  corresponding  concavity  in  the  upper 
stone.  The  work,  which  is  hard  and  performed 
daily,  is  generally  assigned  to  women,  especially 
if  they  are  female  slaves.  As  the  millstones  were 
so  necessary  in  preparing  the  daily  food  of  each 
family,  the  Israelites  were  forbidden  "  to  take 
the  (whole)  mill  or  the  upper  millstone  to 
pledge  :  for  he  taketh  a  man's  life  to  pledge  " 
(Deut.  24.6,  R.V.).  It  is  a  custom  in  the  East 
to  allow  soldiers  a  certain  quantity  of  corn,  with 
other  articles  of  provisions,  together  with 
some  pay  ;  and  it  was  the  custom  also  to  carry 
their  corn  to  the  mill  at  break  of  day.  This 
explains  —  what  otherwise  would  be  very 
puzzling — the  conduct  of  Rechab  and  Baanah, 
the  murderers  of  Ishbosheth,  in  coming  to  his 
house  "  as  though  they  would  have  fetched 
wheat "  (2  Sam.  4.5, 6).  These  two  captains 
went  to  the  palace  to  fetch  wheat  in  order  to 
distribute  it  to  the  soldiers,  that  it  might  be 
sent  to  the  mill  at  the  accustomed  hour  in  the 
morning.  Lam.  5.13  reads  in  the  R.V.,  "  The 
young  men  bare  the  mill,  and  the  children 
stumbled  under  the  wood,"  the  wood  being  the 
woodwork  or  shaft  of  the  mill  which  the 
captives  were  compelled  to  carry.  In  Matt. 
18.6,  R.V.,  "  a  great  millstone  "  is  literally  "  a 
millstone  turned  by  an  ass." 

Millet.— Millet  is  cultivated  throughout 
Eastern  lands  as  a  minor  corn-plant.  Although 
mentioned  but  once  in  Scripture  (Ezek.  4.9),  it 
was  probably  included  among  the  bread-plants 
of  the  ancient  Hebrews.  Several  species  of  it 
grow  in  Palestine. 

Millo.— (?)  Earthwork :  1.  Some  part  of  the 
fortifications  of  Jerusalem,  first  mentioned  after 
David's  capture  of  "  the  stronghold  of  Zion  "  : 


MINES,  MINING] 


319 


[MIRACLE 


perhaps  the  pushing  of  his  defences  westward, 
which  involved  the  "  filling  "  of  the  Tyropoean 
valley  to  connect  the  two  hills  on  which  the 
city  was  built  (2  Sam.  5.9  ;  1  Ck.  11.8).  Further 
works  were  carried  out  by  Solomon  (1  K.  9.15, 
24,  11.27),  and  by  Hezekiah  (2  Ch.  32.5).  2. 
Beth-Millo  (The  House  of  Millo),  (a)  the  name 
either  of  a  place  or  a  family  connected  with 
Shechem  (Judg.  9.6,  20) ;  (&)  the  place  where 
Joash  was  slain,  in  Jerusalem,  "  on  the  way  which 
goeth  down  to  Silla"  (2  K.  12.20).  Probably 
connected  with  MILLO  1. 

Mines,  Mining.  —  The  well-known  passage, 
Job  28.1-11,  shows  that  the  processes  of  smelting 
and  refining  metals  were  familiar  to  Bible  people 
from  very  early  times.  Copper  mines  in  the 
peninsula  of  Sinai  were  worked  by  a  colony 
consisting  for  the  most  part  of  Egyptian  convicts 
as  early  as  a  period  fixed  by  some  authorities 
at  4000  B.C.  Gold  and  silver  were  refined  by 
what  is  known  as  the  cupelling  process,  which 
consists  in  mixing  the  alloy  with  lead,  exposing 
the  whole  to  fusion  upon  a  vessel  of  bone-ashes 
or  earth,  and  blowing  upon  it  with  bellows  or 
other  blast.  To  this  process  reference  is  made 
in  Mai  3.3  :  "  He  shall  sit  as  a  refiner  and 
purifier  of  silver ;  and  He  shall  purifiy  the  sons 
of  Levi,  and  purge  them  as  gold  and  silver." 
The  hills  of  Palestine  are  rich  in  iron,  and  the 
mines  are  still  worked  there,  though  in  a  very 
simple,  rude  manner. 

Mingled  People.— The  phrase  in  Jer.  25.24, 
50.37  seems  to  signify  the  foreign  soldiers  or 
mercenary  troops  who  lived  among  the  native 
population.  Elsewhere  (in  1  K.  10.15,  R.V. ; 
Jer.  25.24;  and  Ezek.  30.5)  it  means  a  popula- 
tion of  mixed  race  or  of  many  races.  [MIXED 
MULTITUDE.] 

Min'iamin.— 1.  A  Levite  in  the  days  of 
Hezekiah  who,  with  others,  'distributed  the  free- 
will offerings  of  the  people  among  his  brethren 
(2  Ch.  31.15).  2.  The  same  as  Miamin  and 
Mijamin  (Neh.  12.17).  3.  One  of  the  priests 
who  blew  the  trumpets  at  the  dedication  of  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  12.41). 

Minister. — One  who  officiates,  waits  upon,  or 
serves  another,  thus  Joshua  is  described  as  the 
minister  of  Moses  (Ex.  24.13;  Josh.  1.1),  i.e. 
his  attendant.  The  ministers  of  Solomon 
(1  K.  10.5)  were  the  attaches  of  the  court, 
officers  of  lower  rank  than  the  servants  men- 
tioned in  the  same  verse.  The  latter  more  nearly 
correspond  with  our  "  ministers  of  the  Crown." 
The  "  minister  "  to  whom  Christ,  after  reading 
from  Isaiah  in  the  synagogue  at  Nazareth, 
handed  the  book  (Lk.  4.20),  was  an  attendant 
whose  duty  it  was  to  open  and  close  the  building, 
to  produce  and  replace  the  books  employed  in 
the  service,  and  generally  to  wait  on  the  officiat- 
ing priest  or  teacher.  The  term  is  also  applied 
to  magistrates  (Rom.  13.6) ;  to  pastors  and 
teachers  (1  Cor.  3.5);  to  angels  (Ps.  104.4; 
Heb.  1.14);  and  to  the  Son  of  man,  who  came 
into  this  world  "  not  to  be  ministered  unto, 
but  to  minister  "  (Matt.  20.28). 

Min'ni. — A  province  of  Armenia  (Jer.  51.27). 


At    the    time    mentioned    Armenia    had    been 
subdued  by  the  Median  kings. 

Min'nith. — A  place  on  the  east  of  Jordan ;  the 
limit  cf  Jephthah's  slaughter  of  the  Ammonites 
(Judg.  1 1.33).  Perhaps  the  same  place  is  referred 
to  in  the  "  wheat  of  Minnith "  which  Israel 
traded  with  Tyre  (Ezek.  27.17) ;  but  the  state- 
ment presents  difficulties.  The  ruins  of  Minyeh, 
13  miles  south-west  of  Heshbon,  may  mark  the 
site. 

Minstrel. — "  Bring  me  a  minstrel,"  says 
Elisha  (2  K.  3.15),  meaning  thereby  a  player 
upon  a  stringed  instrument  like  the  harp.  The 
power  of  music  to  withdraw  from  the  influence 
of  sense  and  outward  things,  and  so  to  prepare 
for  the  inward  vision,  is  illustrated  also  by 
1  Sam.  10.5,  6,  16.14-23.  The  minstrels  in  Matt. 
9.23  were  flute-players  employed  as  professional 
mourners. 

Mint. — Several  species  of  this  plant,  which  is 
used  as  a  condiment,  grow  in  Palestine.  The 
only  mention  in  Scripture  refers  to  the  ostenta- 
tious and  hypocritical  scrupulosity  of  the 
Pharisees  in  paying  tithe  on  every  smallest  herb 
in  their  garden  (Matt.  23.23  ;  Lk.  11.42). 

Miph'kad. — Appointed  place  :  one  of  the  gates 
of  Jerusalem  at  the  time  of  the  rebuilding  of 
the  wall  after  the  return  from  Captivity  (Neh. 
3.31). 

Miracle. — The  English  word  miracle  is 
found  in  use  as  early  as  the  year  1137.  It  is 
loosely  applied  in  the  general  sense  of  its 
Latin  derivation  to  anything  wonderful,  but 
in  the  Bible  is  used  in  the  restricted  sense  of 
"  an  act  of  God  which  visibly  deviates  from  the 
ordinary  working  of  His  power,  designed, 
while  capable  of  serving  other  uses,  to  authen- 
ticate a  divine  message "  (Cairns,  Christianity 
and  Miracles  at  the  Present  Day). 

Of  the  words  rendered  "  miracle "  in  the 
A.V.,  in  the  O.T.  the  Hebrew  Mopheth  is 
rendered  in  the  A.V.  both  "  wonder "  (Deut. 
13.1)  and  "  miracle "  (Deut.  29.3  ;  R.V. 
"  wonder ").  The  Hebrew  pele  (literally, 
"  wonder  ")  is  rendered  "  miracle  "  (Judg.  6.13) 
and  "  wonder  "  (Isai.  29.14),  and  Oth  (literally, 
"sign")  is  rendered  "sign"  (Deut.  13.1)  and 
"miracles"  (Deut.  11.3;  R.V.  "signs").  In 
the  N.T.  Dunamis  (literally,  "  power ")  is 
rendered  "  miracle "  ( Mk.  9.39,  etc. ;  R.V. 
"  mighty  works  "  ;  and  Heb.  2.4  "  miracles  "  ; 
R.V.  "  powers  ")  and  "  mighty  work  "  (Mk. 
6.5,  etc.).  Semeion  (literally,  "  sign,"  and 
frequently  so  rendered,  as  in  Mk.  8.11,  etc.) 
is  also  translated  "miracle"  (Lk.  23.8).  It  is 
the  characteristic  word  for  miracle  in  the  Fourth 
Gospel.  Our  Lord's  miracles  are  also  described 
as  ergo.  ("  works " ;  John  5.20,  7.3,  10.25, 
15.24,  etc.)  and  terata  ("  wonders  "  ;  John  4.48  ; 
Acts  2.22). 

The  main  purpose  of  miracles,  to  authenticate 
a  divine  message,  is  clearly  indicated.  The 
miracles  recorded  in  the  O.T.  must  not  be 
considered  alone,  but  as  part  of  that  history 
which  culminated  in  the  incarnation  of  Jesus 
Christ.  They  are  most  conspicuous  in  associa- 


MIRACLE] 


320 


[MIRACLE 


tion  with  the  work  of  Moses  and  Aaron,  and 
of  the  prophets,  Elijah,  Elisha,  and  Daniel. 
The  purpose  in  these  connexions  is  clearly 
stated  (e.g.  in  Ex.  3.20,  7.5, 17  ;  IK.  18.37 ; 
2  K.  5.8) ;  their  import  was  understood  and 
acknowledged  (Ex.  10.16,  17 ;  1  K.  18.39 ; 
Dan.  3.28, 29,  6.26, 27).  In  like  manner  the 
miracles  of  our  Lord  "  must  be  conceived  of  as 
congruous  to  His  Messianic  vocation,  and 
serviceable  to  the  interests  of  the  Divine 
kingdom.  None  of  the  miracles,  of  whatever 
class,  can  be  regarded  as  mere  displays  of 
power;  they  must  all  be  viewed  as  arising 
naturally  out  of  their  occasions,  and  serving 


a  useful  purpose  in  connexion  with  Christ's 
work  as  the  Herald  and  Founder  of  the  kingdom 
of  Heaven  "  (A.  B.  Bruce,  The  Miramlnus 
Element  in  the  Gospels,  p.  207).  They  are  so 
treated  by  our  Lord  Himself  (Mk.  2.10  ;  John 
5.36).  The  other  N.T.  miracles  must  be  con- 
sidered in  the  light  of  our  Lord's  commission 
to  the  apostles  (Matt.  10.8)  and  to  the  whole 
body  of  believers  (Mk.  16.17).  They  also 
are  spoken  of  in  terms  which  indicate  their 
purpose  (Acts  3.16,  5.12-14,  8.6,  7). 

The  miracles  of  our  Lord  are  in  the  following 
table  so  arranged  as  to  show  at  a  glance  the 
evidence  for  each  in  the  several  gospels  : — 


Miracles  of  Christ  in  the  several  Gospels. 


Recorded  in  the  Four  Gospels. 

Matthew 

Mark 

Luke 

John 

Feeding  the  Five  Thousand    . 

14.15-21 

6.35-44 

9.12-17 

6.5-14 

In  Three  of  the  Gospels. 

Stilling  the  Tempest      . 

8.23-27 

4.35-41 

8.22-25 

The  Demons  in  the  Swine 

8.28-34 

5.1-20 

8.26-39 

Raising  the  Daughter  of  Jairus 
Healing  the  Woman  with  Issue  of 

9.18,  19,  23-26 

5.22-24,  35-43 

8.41,  42,  49-56 

Blood       

9.20-22 

5.25-34 

8.43-48 

Healing  the  Paralytic  at  Capernaum 

9.1-8 

2.1-12 

5.17-26 

Healing  the  Leper 

8.1-4 

1.40-45 

5.12-15 

Healing  Peter's  Mother-in-law 

8.14-15 

1.29-31 

4.38,  39 

Restoring  a  Withered  Hand   . 
Healing  a  Lunatic  Child 

12.9-13 
17.14-21 

3.1-5 
9.14-29 

6.6-11 
9.37-42 

Walking  on  the  Sea 

14.22-33 

6.45-52 

6.19-21 

Healing     Blind     Bartimaeus     (and 

another)  near  Jericho 

20.29-34 

10.46-52 

18.35-43 

In  Two  Gospels. 

Healing  the  Syrophopnician  Damsel  . 
Feeding  the  Four  Thousand  . 
Withering  the  Fig-tree  . 

15.21-28 
15.32-39 
21.17-22 

7.24-30 
8.1-9 
11.12-14,  20-24 

Healing  the  Centurion's  Servant 
Demoniac  in  synagogue  cured 
Healing     a      Blind      and      Dumb 

8.5-13 

1.23-26 

7.1-10 
4.33-36 

Demoniac          .... 

12.22 

11.14 

In  One  Gospel  only. 

Two  Blind  Men  healed  . 

9.27-31 

A  Dumb  Demoniac  healed 

9.32,  33 

The  Stater  in  the  Fish's  Mouth 

17.24-27 

Healing  a  Deaf  Mute     . 

7.31-37 

Healing  a  Blind  Man  at  Bethsaida  . 

8.22-26 

Miraculous  Draught  of  Fishes 

5.1-11 

Raising  the  Widow's  Son  at  Nain   . 

7.11-16 

Healing  the    Wroman   with  an   In- 

firmity     ..... 

13.10-17 

Healing  a  Dropsical  Man 

14.1-6 

Cleansing  of  Ten  Lepers 

17.11-19 

Healing  the  Ear  of  Malchus   . 

22.49-51 

Turning  Water  into  Wine 

2.1-11 

Healing     a     Nobleman's     Son     at 

Cana         ..... 

4.46-54 

Healing  the  Impotent  Man  at  Beth- 

esda          ..... 

5.1-16 

Opening  the  Eyes  of  one  born  Blind 

9.1-8 

Raising  of  Lazarus 

11.1-46 

Miraculous     Draught      of      Fishes 

(second)   ..... 

21.1-14 

MIRIAM] 


321 


[MIZPAH,  MIZPEH 


Mir'iam. — 1.  The  sister  of  Moses  and  Aaron. 
Miriam  watched  her  infant  brother's  cradle 
in  the  Nile,  and  suggested  her  mother  as  the 
child's  nurse  (Ex.  2.4,  7).  After  the  passage  of 
the  Red  Sea  she  is  called  the  "prophetess,"  and 
led  the  triumphant  songs  of  the  women  (Ex. 
15.20,  21).  For  questioning  the  supremacy  of 
Moses  she  was  smitten  with  leprosy,  but  by 
the  intercession  of  her  brothers  with  God  was 
restored  whole  again  (Num.  12.10-15).  She 
died  towards  the  close  of  the  wanderings  in  the 
wilderness,  and  was  buried  at  Ka.desh(Num.  20.1). 

2.  A  son  or  daughter  of  Jether,  appearing   in 
the  genealogies  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  and  house 
of  Caleb  (1  C/t.  4.17). 

Mir'ma  (R.V.  Minnah).  —  A  Benjamite 
(1  Ch.  8.10). 

Mirror. — Very  rarely  made  of  glass  in  olden 
time,  and  the  Bible  references  are  doubtless  to 
metal,  which,  however  well  polished,  gave  a  very 
imperfect  reflection  (1  Cor.  13.12). 

Mis 'gab. — Lofty  rock  :  a  fortress  of  Moab 
(Jer.  48.1,  where  the  R.V.  has  "the  high 
fort"). 

Mi'shaeL—  Who  is  what  God  is?  I.  A  son  of 
Uzziel,  who  was  the  uncle  of  Moses  and  Aaron ; 
Mishael  was  therefore  their  cousin.  He  helped 
to  remove  from  the  sanctuary  the  bodies  of  Nadab 
and  Abihu,  struck  dead  for  offering  strange  fire 
(Ex.  6.22;  Lev.  10.4).  2.  One  who  stood 
beside  Ezra  when  he  read  the  Law  (Neh.  8.4). 

3.  A  companion  of  Daniel  (Dan.  1.6,  7, 11, 19, 
2.17). 

Mish'al,  Mishe'aL — A  town  of  Asher  assigned 
to  the  Gershonites  (Josh.  19.26,  A.V.  Misheal, 
21.30).  In  1  C/t.  6.74  the  name  is  given  as 
Mashal. 

Mish'am.— A  Benjamite  (1  Ch.  8.12). 

Mish'xna. — 1.  A  son  of  Ishmael  (Gen.  25.14; 
1  Ch.  1.30).  2.  A  Simeonite  (1  Ch.  4.25). 

Mishman'nah. — One  of  the  twelve  "  lion- 
faced  "  Gadites  who  joined  David  in  Ziklag 
(1  Ch.  12.10). 

Mish'raites. — A  family  of  (or  colony  from) 
Kirjath-jearirn  (1  Ch.  2.53). 

Mis'par,  Mispe'reth. — Writing  :  one  of  those 
who  returned  with  Zerubbabel  from  Babylon 
(Ezra  2.2 ;  Neh.  7.7).  [MIZPAH.] 

Mis'rephoth-ma'im.  —  Burning  •/  waters  or 
smelting  works  by  the  waters :  the  limit  of 
Joshua's  pursuit  of  the  Canaanite  kings,  re- 
maining unconquered  at  the  death  of  Joshua 
(Josh.  11.8,  13.6) ;  perhaps  the  same  as  Zare- 
phath. 

Mite. — The  smallest  Jewish  copper  coin, 
equal  to  £  the  Roman  "  quadrans "  (farthing), 
and  of  the  value  of  about  |  of  an  English 
farthing  (Mk.  12.42;  Lk.  21.2).  In  estimat- 
ing the  worth  of  "  the  widow's  mite,"  it 
should  not  be  forgotten  that  she  gave  two 
mites  when  she  could  hare  kept  back  one  for 
her  needs.  The  mite  is  mentioned  also  Lk.  12.59, 
"  Till  thou  hast  paid  the  very  last  mite  "  ( Matt. 
5.2G,  "  quadrans  "). 

Mith'cah,  Mith'kah.— Sweet  place :  the  site  of 
an  Israelite  encampment  (Num.  33.28,  29). 
21 


Mith'nite,  The.— The  designation  of  Josha- 
phat,  one  of  David's  guard  (1  Ch.  11.43). 

Mith'redath.— Given  by  Mithra,  i.e.  sun :  1. 
The  treasurer  of  Cyrus,  king  of  Persia  (Ezra  1.8). 
2.  A  Persian  officer  stationed  at  Samaria,  in  the 
reign  of  Artaxerxes.  He  joined  with  his  col- 
leagues in  prevailing  upon  the  king  to  hinder  the 
rebuilding  of  the  Temple  (Ezra  4.7). 

Mitre.— The  word  used  in  Ex.  28.4,37,39, 
29.6,  39.28,31;  Lev.  8.9,  16.4  to  describe 
the  headdress  or  cap  worn  by  the  high-priest. 
It  was  of  linen,  and  fastened  to  the  front  by  a 
band  of  blue  lace  was  a  plate  of  gold  bearing 
the  inscription,  "  Holiness  to  the  Lord."  In 
Ezek.  21.26  the  word  is  rendered  by  the  A.V. 
"diadem"  (R.V.  "mitre").  In  the  other 
passages  the  R.V.  margin  has  "  or,  turban." 

Mityle'ne.— The  capital,  now  called  Castro, 
of  the  island  of  Lesbos,  in  the  JSgean  Sea,  where 
Paul  touched  on  his  return  voyage  from  his 
third  missionary  journey  (Acts  20.14, 15).  It 
enjoyed  the  privileges  of  a  free  city. 

Mixed  Multitude.— A  "mixed  multitude" 
journeyed  with  the  Israelites  in  their  exodus  from 
Egypt  (Ex.  12.38).  The  term  includes  all  those 
who  were  not  of  pure  Israelite  blood — the  off- 
spring of  mixed  marriages,  Egyptians  them- 
selves, and  members  of  other  races  involved  in 
the  same  oppression  which  had  afflicted  the 
Israelites.  The  same  word  occurs  Neh.  13.3, 
and  in  the  passages  cited  under  MINGLED 
PEOPLE  (which  see),  but  not  in  Num.  11.4,  "  the 
mixed  multitude  that  was  among  them  fell  a 
lusting,"  where  the  term  employed  hardly  indi- 
cates the  non-Israelite  element,  but  the  baser 
sort  of  the  whole  multitude.  Tindal,  "  the 
rascall  people " ;  Coverdale,  "  comon  sorte  of 
people."  [MINGLED  PEOPLE.] 

Mi'zar.— Smmll :  the  author  of  Ps.  42  writes  of 
remembering  God  "  from  the  land  of  Jordan,  and 
the  Hermons,  from  the  hill  Mizar"  (ver.  6,  R.V.). 
He  would  seem  to  be  writing  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Hermon,  where  the  Jordan  has  its 
sources,  and  Mizar  might  be  some  lesser  spur  of 
the  Hermon  range.  R.V.  marg.  has  "  the  little 
mountain,"  and  some  have  found  in  this  an 
expression  of  affectionate  longing,  from  the 
mountain  land  of  giant  Hermon,  for  "  the  little 
mountain  "  of  Zion  with  its  Temple,  from  which 
the  Psalmist  is  a  sad  exile.  A  very  slight 
change  would  afford  the  suggestive  rendering, 
"  I  remember  thee,  thou  little  mountain,  from 
the  land  of  Jordan  and  the  Hermons." 

Miz'pah,  Miz'peh.  —  Watch  -  tower :  1.  The 
heap  of  stones  piled  up  by  Jacob  and  Laban  on 
Mount  Gilead  (Gen.  31.48,  49)  to  serve  both  as  a 
witness  of  the  covenant  then  entered  into  and 
also  as  a  landmark  of  the  boundary  between 
them.  The  spot  afterwards  became  a  sanctuary 
of  Jehovah.  Here  the  children  of  Israel,  in 
days  of  distress,  assembled  for  the  choice  of  a 
leader  (Judg.  10.17),  and  the  first  act  of  Jeph- 
thah  was  to  ge  to  "  the  Mizpah  "  and  utter  all 
his  words  "  before  Jehovah."  At  Mizpah  took 
place  the  fatal  meeting  with  his  daughter  on 
his  return  from  the  war  (Judg.  11.34).  2.  The 


MIZPAE] 


322 


[MOLID 


residence,  near  Hermon,  of  the  Hivites  who 
joined  the  northern  confederacy  against  Israel, 
headed  by  Jabin,  king  of  Hazor ;  and  the  place 
to  which  the  defeated  hosts  of  the  same  con- 
federacy were  chased  by  Joshua  (Josh.  11.3,  8). 
3.  A  city  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.38),  irothe  district  of 
the  Shefelah  on  maritime  lowland.  It  has  been 
identified  with  the  present  Tell  es-Safiyeh, 
standing  on  the  slopes  of  the  mountains  of 
Judah  and  completely  overlooking  the  maritime 
plain.  4.  A  city  of  Benjamin  (Josh.  18.26 ; 
//os.  5.1);  where  Samuel  judged  the  people, 
assembled  the  tribes,  and  chose  Saul  to  be  king 
(1  Sam.  7.5-12, 16,  10.17-25).  It  was  fortified 
by  Asa  (1  K.  15.22;  2  Ch.  16.6);  was  the  re- 
sidence of  Gedaliah,  the  Chaldean  governor,  after 
the  capture  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  scene  of  the 
murder  of  the  pilgrims  from  Samaria  (2  K.  25.23, 
25;  Jer.  40.8,  41.16).  The  city  was  reoccupied 
after  the  return  from  captivity  (Neh.  3.7, 15,  19). 
5.  A  city  of  Moab  where  the  king  of  that  nation 
was  living  when  David  committed  his  parents 
to  his  care  (1  Sam.  22.3). 
Miz'par  ( R. V.  Mis'par).— (Ezra  2.2),  [MISPAB, 

MlSPERETH.] 

Miz'peh.— [MIZPAH.] 

Mizra'im.— The  second  son  of  Ham  (Gen.  10.6, 
13;  1  Ch.  1.8,11),  and  the  Hebrew  name  of 
the  country  inhabited  by  his  descendants,  in  the 
English  Bible  always  rendered  Egypt.  The 
word  has  been  supposed  to  be  a  Hebrew  duaZform, 
"  the  two  Mazors  "  or  "  forts,"  with  some  refer- 
ence to  the  defences  of  the  two  districts  of 
Lower  (or  Northern)  Egypt  and  Upper  (or 
Southern)  Egypt,  into  which  the  country  was 
divided  from  prehistoric  times. 

Miz'zah. — A  descendant  of  Esau  and  Ishmael, 
and  one  of  the  "  dukes  "  of  Edom  (Gen.  36.13, 
17  :  1  Ch.  1.37). 

Mna'son.  — A  native  of  Cyprus,  an  early 
disciple,  at  whose  house  (either  in  Jerusalem  or 
at  some  halting-place  midway  between  Caesarea 
and  Jerusalem)  Paul  lodged  on  his  last  visit  to 
Jerusalem  (Acts  21.16). 

Mo'ab. —  Progeny  of  a  father  :  the  original 
territory  of  Moab  appears  to  have  been  divided 
into  three  portions:  (1)  The  "land  of  Moab," 
open  rolling  country  north  of  the  Arnon,  opposite 
Jericho,  reaching  to  Gilead  on  the  north  ;  before 
the  conquest  of  Canaan  by  the  Israelites,  this 
was  taken  by  the  Amorites,  then  allotted  to 
Reuben  and  Gad,  and,  on  the  fall  of  the  kingdom 
of  the  ten  tribes,  recovered  by  the  Moabites; 
hence  its  cities  are  named  by  the  prophets  as 
belonging  to  Moab  (Num.  21.13,  26;  Deut.  1.5, 
29.1,  32.49,  34.5,  6;  Isai.  15.1-5;  Jer.4S;  Ezek. 
25.8-11).  (2)  The  "field  of  Moab,"  upland 
undulating  plains,  extending  from  the  pre- 
cipitous mountains  overlooking  the  Dead  Sea 
on  the  west  to  the  Arabian  desert  on  the  east, 
from  the  deep  chasm  of  the  Arnon  on  the  north 
to  Edom  on  the  south  ;  this  the  Israelites  were 
expressly  forbidden  to  «oter,  hence  they  passed 
through  the  wilderness  (Midbar)  of  Moab  on  the 
east  (Gen.  36.35  ;  Deut.  2.8,  9  ;  Judg.  11.15,  18  ; 
Ruth;  1  Ch.  1.46).  (3)  The  " Arboth-Moab," 


the  dry,  tropical  region  in  the  Arabah  on  the 
east  of  the  Jordan  (Num.  22.1,  26.3,  63,  31.12, 
33.48-50,  35.1,  36.13;  Deut.  1.5,  29.1,  34.1,8; 
Josh.  13.32) ;  a  country  covered  with  sites  of 
towns,  and  capable  of  rich  cultivation.  It  had 
two  chief  cities,  Ar  (city)  of  Moab  and  Kir 
(fortress)  of  Moab.  Throughout  most  of  their 
history  the  Moabites  were  determined  enemies 
of  the  Israelites  (2  K.  1.1,  3.4,  5) ;  names  on 
inscriptions  coincide  with  those  of  the  Bible, 
and  show  that  Chemosh  was  the  god  of  Moab, 
and  Jehovah  the  God  of  Israel. 

Moabite,  Moabitess,  Moabitisb,— [MOAB.] 

Moabite  Stone.— [MESHA.] 

Moadiah. — [MAADIAH.] 

Mola'dah. — Birthplace :  a  town  in  south  of 
Judah,  given  to  Simeon,  reoccupied  after  the 
return  from  captivity  (Josh.  15.26,  19.2 ; 
1  Ch.  4.28  ;  Neh.  11.26).  It  is  the  modern  el- 
Milh,  about  10  miles  due  east  of  Beersheba,  and 
one  of  the  regular  stations  on  the  road  from 
Petra  to  Hebron. 

Mole. — There  is  no  "true  mole  in  Palestine. 
In  Lev.  11.30  R.V.  has  "chameleon";  see  the 
rest  of  the  verse  and  R.V.  marg.  In  Isai.  2.20 
(a  different  Hebrew  word)  the  reference  is  to 
some  burrowing  animal  which,  like  the  bat, 
haunts  ruins.  Probably  the  mole-rat  of  Palestine 
is  intended,  which  is  abundant  on  the  plains  of 
Judaea,  from  the  Dead  Sea  to  Gaza  and  about 
Becrsheba. 

Mo'lech. — King  :  called  also  Malcam  (A.V. 
Malcham),  Milcom  (which  see).  The  name  is 
really  Melech  (king) ;  by  the  change  of  vowel 
the  Hebrews  intended  to  suggest  the  word 
bosheth  "shame,"  from  motives  of  repugnance, 
seen  also  in  Ishbosheth  for  Eshbaal,  Mephibosheth 
for  Meribbaal.  The  fire-god  of  the  Ammonites,  as 
Chemosh  was  of  the  Moabites.  Human  sacrifices 
and  ordeals  of  fire  were  among  the  means 
adopted  of  propitiating  him.  The  Israelites 
were  warned  against  this  worship  by  threats 
of  the  severest  punishment.  The  offender  who 
devoted  his  offspring  to  Molech  was  to  be  put 
to  death  by  stoning  (Lev.  18.21,  20.2-5).  In 
Solomon's  old  age,  high  places  to  Molech  were 
built  on  one  of  the  summits  of  Olivet  (1  K.  11.7). 
To  make  a  son  or  daughter  "  pass  through 
the  fire  to  Molech  "  (2  K.  23.10, 13)  was  to  slay 
the  child,  and  then  offer  it  as  a  burnt-offering, 
after  the  manner  of  Mesha  (2  K.  3.27).  The 
idea  of  the  sacrifice  of  children  was  not  only 
expiatory,  but  purificatory,  by  which  the 
victims  were  supposed  to  be  purged  from  the 
dross  of  the  body,  and  thus  attain  union  with  the 
deity.  It  is  stated  that  the  image  of  Molech 
was  in  the  shape  of  a  calf,  with  hands  stretched 
forth  as  if  to  receive  something.  In  the  case 
of  a  similar  idol  in  another  land,  the  hands 
were  outstretched  towards  the  ground  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  child  when  placed  upon  them 
fell  into  a  pit  full  of  fire.  The  priests  of  Molech 
took  precedence  of  the  princes  of  the  Ammonites 
(Jer.  49.3,  R.V.).  [GEHENNA.] 

Mo'lid. — Begotten :  a  descendant  of  Judah 
(1  Ch.  2.29). 


MOLOCH] 


323 


[MOSEEA,  MOSERAH 


Moloch. — A  form  of  Molech,  derived  from 
the  Greek,  and  found  only  in  A.V.  of  Amos  5.26, 
"  the  tabernacle  of  your  Moloch,"  R.V.  "  Siccuth 
your  king,"  and  in  the  quotation  of  this 
passage  in  Acts  7 A3. 

Money. — In  the  times  before  coinage,  gold  or 
silver  was  weighed  out  in  payments  (Gen.  23.16). 
Throughout  the  history  of  Joseph  we  find 
evidence  of  the  constant  use  of  money  in  pre- 
ference to  barter.  All  the  money  of  Egypt 
and  Canaan  was  paid  for  corn,  and  then  the 
Egyptians  had  recourse  to  barter  (Gen.  47.13-26). 
At  the  time  of  the  Exodus  money  was  still 
weighed  (Ex.  30.13),  silver  being  the  metal 
mentioned ;  gold,  though  valuable,  was  not 
employed  as  money.  We  find  no  evidence  in 
the  Bible  of  the  use  of  coined  money  before  the 
time  of  Ezra.  [See  articles  under  names  of 
individual  coins.] 

Money-changers. — Every  Israelite,  whether 
rich  or  poor,  who  had  reached  or  passed  the  age 
of  twenty,  was  required  to  pay  into  the  sacred 
treasury,  whenever  the  nation  was  numbered, 
a  half -shekel  (about  Is.  3  Ad.)  as  an  offering 
to  Jehovah  (Ex.  30.13-15)."  The  tribute  must 
be  paid  in  Hebrew  money.  The  money-changers 
whom  Christ  expelled  from  the  Temple  (Matt. 
21.12;  Mk.  11.15;  John  2.15)  were  the 
dealers  who  supplied  half-shekels,  for  such  a 
premium  as  they  might  be  able  to  exact,  to  the 
Jews  from  all  parts  of  the  world  who  assembled 
at  Jerusalem  during  the  great  festivals,  and 
were  required  to  pay  their  tribute  or  ransom 
monoy  in  the  Hebrew  coin  ;  and  also  for  other 
general  purposes  of  exchange. 

Month. — From  the  time  of  the  Law  of  Moses 
the  month  among  the  Jews  was  a  lunar  one, 
the  commencement  of  which  was  decided  by 
observation  of  the  new  moon.  Abib,  the 
month  of  "  ears  of  corn,"  was  established  as  the 
first  month  of  the  year  in  commemoration  of  the 
Exodus  (Ex.  12.2);  the  Passover,  of  course,  fell 
in  this  month.  Roughly  calculated,  Abib 
answers  to  our  April.  [See  names  of  individual 
months.] 

Moon, — Moonlight  is  much  more  brilliant  in 
Eastern  countries  than  in  the  West,  and  a  great 
deal  of  travelling  is  done  by  its  light.  The 
reference  in  Ps.  121.6,  "  the  moon  shall  not  smite 
thee  by  night,"  is  to  the  injurious  elTect  which 
the  rays  of  the  moon  were  believed  to  have  upon 
the  eyes  of  those  who  slept  under  the  open 
heaven.  The  paroxysms  of  epilepsy  were 
connected  with  the  waxing  and  waning  of  the 
moon  :  this  is  referred  to  in  Matthew's  term 
"moonstruck"  (4.24,  17.15,  A.V.  "  lunatick," 
R.V.  "  epileptic  ").  The  moon  was  worshipped 
in  Egypt,  Syria,  and  Babylonia,  as,  for  example, 
at  Ur  of  the  Chaldees  and  at  Haran.  The 
earliest  reference  to  this  form  of  idolatry  is  in 
Job  31.26,  27.  See  also  the  warning  of  Moses 
(Deut.  4.19).  Manasseh  "worshipped  all  the 
host  of  heaven  "  (2  K.  21.3),  and  the  priests 
that  burned  incense  to  the  moon  were  put  down 
by  Josiah  (2  K.  23.4,  5) 

Moon,  New.— [NEW  MOON.] 


Moras'thite,  The  (It.V.  Morashtite).— A  native 
of  Moresheth,  applied  to  the  prophet  Micah 
(Jer.  26.18;  Mic.  1.1). 

Mor'decai.— The  hero  of  the  book  of  Esther 
and  the  deliverer  of  the  Jews  from  the  destruction 
plotted  against  them  by  Haman,  the  chief 
minister  of  Xerxes.  He  was  a  Benjamite,  and 
one  of  the  captivity,  residing  in  Shushan. 
When  the  decree  for  the  massacre  of  all  the  Jews 
in  the  empire  was  known,  it  was  at  Mordecai's 
earnest  advice  and  exhortation  that  Esther 
undertook  the  perilous  task  of  interceding 
with  the  king  on  their  behalf.  Mordecai  was 
himself  the  cause  of  this  decree,  by  his  refusal 
to  bow  before  Haman.  Mordecai  saved  the 
king's  life,  by  announcing  to  him  a  conspiracy 
of  two  of  the  eunuchs  to  kill  him,  just  before 
Haman  came  to  ask  permission  to  hang  Mordecai. 
The  sequel  was  that  Haman  and  his  sons  were 
hanged  upon  the  gallows  which  had  been 
prepared  for  Mordecai.  Considerable  remains 
of  the  palace  of  Ahasuerus  (Xerxes)  at  Shushan 
were  discovered  in  the  middle  of  last  century. 
[ESTHER.] 

Mo'reh. — Diviner,  soothsayer :  1.  The  terebinth 
(not  "  plain,"  as  A.V.)  of  Moreh,  near 
Shechem,  where  Abram  first  encamped  in  the 
Land  of  Promise,  close  to  the  mountains  Ebal 
and  Gerizim  (Gen.  12.6  ;  Deut.  11.30),  2.  The 
hill  of  Moreh,  at  the  foot  of  which  the  Midianites 
and  Amalekites  were  encamped  before  Gideon's 
attack  upon  them  (Judg.  7.1).  It  lay  east  of 
the  plain  of  Jezreel.  It  is  now  called  Jebel  ed- 
Duhy,  the  "  Little  Hermon"  of  modern  travellers. 

More'sheth-gath. — Possession  of  Gath :  a  town 
in  the  lowland  of  Judah,  the  birthplace  of  Micah 

(Mic.  1.14).       [MORASTHITE.] 

Mori 'ah.— Vision :  1.  The  land  in  which 
was  situated  the  mountain  on  which  Abraham 
was  to  offer  Isaac  (Gen.  22.2).  Its  situation  is 
unknown.  Possibly  it  is  Mount  Gerizim,  or  it 
may  be  identical  with  2.  2.  The  mount  on 
which  Solomon's  Temple  was  built,  the  east 
ridge  of  Jerusalem  (2  Ch.  3.1). 

Mortar.— When  the  manna  fell  the  Israelites 
ground  it  in  the  mill  or  pounded  it  in  the  mortar 
till  it  was  fit  for  use  (Num.  11.8).  So  in  the 
present  day  stone  mortars  are  used  by  the 
Arabs  to  pound  wheat.  The  mortar  of  Prov. 
27.22,  in  which  the  fool  was  to  be  brayed, 
was  one  of  a  much  larger  kind. 

Morter  (R.V.  Mortar).— The  use  of  mortar 
is  mentioned  in  Gen.  11.3 ;  Ex.  1.14 ;  Lev. 
14.42,45;  Isai.  41.25;  Nah.  3.14.  The  sub- 
stances used  for  it  included  bitumen,  common 
mud,  moistened  clay,  and  a  cement  compounded 
of  sand,  ashes,  and  lime,  sometimes  mixed  and 
sometimes  coated  with  oil,  so  as  to  form  a  surface 
almost  impervious  to  the  rigours  of  the  weather. 
Stubble  or  straw  was  added,  to  increase  the 
tenacity. 

Mose'ra,  Mose'rah,  Mose'roth.— (?)  Fetters :  the 
place  where  Aaron  died  and  was  buried,  site  of 
Israelite  encampment  near  Mount  Hor  (Num. 
33.30,31  (Moseroth);  Deut.  10.6,  A.V.  Mosera, 
R.V.  Mosrrah).* 


MOSES] 


324 


[MOURNING 


Moses. — Drawer  out  (Ex,  2.10) ;  but  more 
probably  Egyptian,  son,  child :  the  great  law- 
giver of  the  Hebrews,  the  son  of  Amram 
and  Jochebed,  and  a  member  of  the  tribe  of 
Levi.  He  was  born  just  at  the  time  when 
the  Pharaoh  of  Egypt  had  resolved  on  the 
destruction  of  every  newly-born  male  child 
among  the  Israelites  (Ex.  2.1-4,  6.20 ;  Acts 
7.20  ;  Heb.  11.23).  His  mother  placed  him  in 
an  "  ark  of  bulrushes  "  on  the  Nile.  Pharaoh's 
daughter,  who  saved  him,  gave  him  his  name 
of  Moses,  and  brought  him  up  as  an  adopted  son, 
so  that  he  was  skilled  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the 
Egyptians  (Ex.  2.5-10  ;  Acts  7.21, 22).  When 
next  mentioned  he  has  grown  to  manhood. 
Seeing  an  Israelite  suffering  the  bastinado  from 
an  Egyptian,  and  thinking  that  they  were  alone, 
he  slew  the  Egyptian  and  buried  the  corpse  in 
the  sand.  But  the  act  had  been  witnessed, 
and  when  Moses  knew  this  be  fled  into  Midi  an, 
where  he  married  Zipporah,  daughter  of  Jethro, 
chief  or  priest  of  the  Midianite  tribes,  becoming 
the  shepherd  of  his  father-in-law  (Ex.  2.11-21 ; 
Acts  7.29).  It  was  in  the  seclusion  and  sim- 
plicity of  his  shepherd-life  that  Moses  received 
his  commission  to  deliver  the  children  of  Israel. 
He  therefore  began  to  return  to  Egypt.  At  first 
he  was  accompanied  by  his  Arabian  wife  and 
her  two  infant  sons,  but  soon  they  were  sent 
back  to  remain  with  Jethro,  till  they  rejoined 
Moses  at  Rephidim,  when  he  was  at  the  head 
of  the  host  of  the  Israelites.  Soon  after 
he  had  parted  from  his  wife  and  sons  he 
met  Aaron,  who  in  subsequent  negotiations 
acted  as  spokesman  for  Moses,  because  the 
latter  was  slow  of  speech  (Ex.  4.18-31).  The 
offence  of  Moses  at  Meribah  (Num.  20.1-13, 
27.14)  was  threefold :  he  distrusted  or  disbe- 
lieved that  water  could  be  produced  from  the 
rock  merely  by  speaking  to  it ;  he  unnecessarily 
smote  the  rock  twice,  thereby  betraying  an  un- 
warrantable impatience;  he  did  not  ascribe 
the  glory  of  the  miracle  wholly  to  God,  but 
rather  to  himself  and  his  brother :  "  Must  we 
fetch  you  water  out  of  this  rock  ?  "  His  death 
at  the  age  of  120  years  took  place  after  the 
Lord  had  shown  him,  from  the  top  of  Mount 
Nebo,  in  the  Pisgah  range,  a  distant  view  of  the 
Promised  Land,  throughout  its  whole  extent. 
*'  And  He  buried  him  in  the  valley  in  the  land 
of  Moab,  over  against  Beth-peor :  but  no  man 
knoweth  of  his  sepulchre  unto  this  day  "  (Deut. 
34.6).  The  only  strong  trait  of  his  character 
that  we  can  confidently  state  is  described  in 
Num.  12.3:  "The  man  Moses  was  very  meek, 
above  all  the  men  which  were  upon  the  face  of 
the  earth."  The  word  "  meek  "  is  not  an 
adequate  translation  ;  the  ideas  conveyed  in  the 
Hebrew  word  are  rather  "  much  enduring  "  and 
"  disinterested."  He  joined  his  countrymen 
in  their  degraded  servitude  (Ex.  2.11,  5.4) ;  he 
forgot  himself,  to  avenge  their  wrongs  (Ex.  2.14) ; 
he  desired  that  his  brother  might  take  the  lead 
instead  of  himself  (Ex.  4.13) ;  he  wished  that 
all  the  nation  were  equally  gifted  with  himself 
(Num.  U.29).  When  the  oiler  was  made  that 


the  people  should  be  destroyed  and  that  he 
should  be  made  "a  great  nation"  (Ex.  32.10), 
he  prayed  that  they  might  be  forgiven — "  if  not, 
blot  me,  I  pray  Thee,  out  of  Thy  book  which 
Thou  hast  written  "  (Ex.  32.32).  [For  the  con- 
duct of  Moses  as  the  deliverer  and  lawgiver 
of  the  Israelites,  see  separate  articles,  i.e.  LAW 
OP  MOSES,  PHABAOH,  PLAGUES  OP  EGYPT,  RED 
SKA,  etc.] 

Mote. — A  bit  of  dry  substance,  as  dust 
(Matt.  7.3). 

Moth.— It  is  the  clothes-moth  which  is  re- 
ferred to  in  Scripture  (Isai.  50.9,  51.8;  Matt. 
6.19,  20;  Jas.  5.2).  In  the  East  clothing  was 
regarded  as  of  more  importance,  and  laid  by 
and  treasured  in  larger  stores,  than  in  this 
country.  And  the  substances  of  expensive 
robes  were  in  early  days  more  valuable  than  at 
present.  Gifts  of  clothing  are  frequently  re- 
ferred to  in  the  Bible,  and  are  still  prevalent 
among  Orientals.  Other  references  are  Job 
4.19,  ltf.28,  27.18;  Ps.  39.11;  Eos.  5.12. 

Mother.  —  The  word  is  sometimes  used  in 
Scripture  for  a  metropolis,  the  "  mother "  or 
capital  city  of  a  country  or  of  a  tribe,  and 
sometimes  for  a  whole  people  (2  Sam.  20.19  ; 
Isai.  50.1;  Gal  4.26;  Rev.  17.5).  A  "mother 
in  Israel,"  a  name  given  to  Deborah  (Judg.  5.7), 
signifies  a  woman  whom  God  uses  to  cherish 
or  deliver  the  people. 

Mount,  Mountain. — "  The  mountain  of  Israel " 
(Josh.  11.16)  and  the  mountain  of  Judah  (Josh. 
20.7)  mean  the  hill  country  as  opposed  to  the 
valley  and  the  plain.  Similarly  Mount  Ephraim 
is  the  mountainous  district  occupied  by  that  tribe, 
which  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  the  Mount 
Gaash,  Mount  Zemaraim,  the  hill  of  Phinehas, 
and  the  towns  of  Shechem,  Shamir,  Timnath- 
Serach  were  all  situated  upon  it  (2  Ch.  15.8). 
So  also  the  "  mountain  of  the  Amorites "  is 
apparently  the  elevated  country  east  of  the 
Dead  Sea  and  Jordan  (Deut.  1.7,19,20),  and 
"Mount  Naphtali"  the  very  elevated  and  hilly 
tract  allotted  to  that  tribe.  The  "mount  of 
the  valley"  (Josh.  13.19)  was  a  district  on  the 
east  of  Jordan,  within  the  territory  allotted 
to  Reuben,  and  containing  a  number  of  towns. 

Mourning. — A  marked  feature  of  Oriental 
mourning  is  its  studied  publicity.  Thus  Abra- 
ham, after  the  death  of  Sarah,  came,  as  it  were 
in  state,  to  mourn  and  weep  for  her  (Gen.  23.2). 
We  learn  also  of  high  places,  streets,  and  house- 
tops as  places  especially  chosen  for  mourning, 
not  only  by  Jews,  but  by  other  nations.  Among 
the  particular  methods  of  showing  grief  were 
rending  the  clothes  (Gen.  37.29,  34),  dressing  in 
sackcloth  (Gen.  37.34),  sprinkling  ashes,  dust, 
or  earth  on  the  person  (Josh.  7.6  ;  Job  2.8), 
wearing  sad-coloured  garments  (2  Sam.  14.2), 
removing  ornaments  from,  or  neglecting,  the  per- 
son (Ex.  33.4,  6  ;  2  Sam.  19.24),  plucking  out 
the  hair  of  the  head  or  beard  (Ezra  9.3),  fasting 
(1  Sam.  31.13),  lying  on  the  ground  (2  5am.  12.16), 
and  the  employment  of  hired  mourners  consist- 
ing of  women  and  flute-players  (2  Ch.  35.25  ; 
Matt.  9.23).  The  high-priests  (Ltv.  21.11)  were 


MOUSE] 


325 


[MUSIC 


forbidden  to  go  into  mourning,  even  for  a  father 
or  a  mother.  The  inferior  priests  were  limited  to 
the  cases  of  their  near  relatives  (Lev.  21.1-11). 
Mourning  entailed  ceremonial  defilement  (Num. 
19.11-16). 

Mouse. — The  mouse  was  forbidden  as  food 
(Lev.  11.29).  Mice  (field-mice)  and  emerods 
were  sent  as  a  plague  upon  the  Philistines,  to 
warn  them  to  send  back  the  ark  to  the  Israelites 
(1  Sam.  6).  The  eating  of  the  mouse  is  referred 
to  with  horror  in  /sot.  66.17.  Mice  abound  in 
Palestine. 

Mowing. — The  "  king's  mowings  "  of  Amos  7.1 
may  perhaps  refer  to  some  royal  right  of 
early  pasturage  for  the  use  of  the  caralry ;  but 
the  word  generally  means  "  fleece  "  (cf.  Ps.  72.6). 

Mo'za. — Sunrise :  1.  A  son  of  Caleb,  the 
son  of  Hezron  (1  Ch.  2.46).  2.  A  Benjamite, 
descendant  of  Saul  (1  Ch.  8.36,  37,  9.42,43). 

Mo'zah. — Spring-head :  a  town  of  Benjamin 
(Josh.  18.26).  Now  Beit  Mizzeh,  4  miles 
west  of  Jerusalem  on  the  Jaffa  road. 

Mulberry  Trees.— The  tree  of  2  Sam.  5.23, 24 
and  1  Ch.  14.14,  15  is  nob  our  mulberry,  but 
what  it  is  is  quite  uncertain.  It  may  be  the 
sycamine  tree  (Lk.  17.6),  or  the  poplar,  of 
which  four  species  grow  in  Palestine — the  black, 
white,  and  Lombardy  poplars,  well  known  in 
Europe,  and  a  species  which  fringes  the  Jordan 
and  other  rivers  of  the  country.  The  poplar  is 
naturally  responsive  to  the  action  of  the  wind, 
"  trembling,"  "  shivering,"  "  quaking,"  with 
the  slightest  breath  of  air. 

Male. — Mules  are  not  mentioned  till  the  time 
of  David,  after  the  introduction  of  horses.  Later 
they  appear  as  the  ordinary  riding  animal  of 
persons  of  rank  (1  K.  1.33,  18.5;  /sat.  66.20). 
Solomon  probably  imported  his  mules  from  Egypt, 
since  there  is  an  injunction  against  the  breeding 
of  mules  in  Lev.  19.19.  The  Phoenicians  ob- 
tained their  mules  from  Togarmah  (Armenia)  at 
the  fairs  of  Tyre  (Ezek.  27.14).  Mules  were  also 
used  occasionally  as  beasts  of  burden  (2  K.  5.17) ; 
owing  to  their  sure-footedness  they  are  invalu- 
able in  rough,  hilly  districts.  The  word  "  mules  " 
in  Esih.  8.14  should  be  translated  "  drome- 
daries," and  in  Gen.  36.24  "  hot  springs." 

Mup'pim. — A  son  of  Benjamin  (Gen.  46.21). 
In  1  Ch.  7.12, 15,  26.16  Shuppim ;  in  Num. 
26.39,  R.V.,  Shephupham;  in  1  Ch.  8.5  Shephu- 
phan. 

Murder. — Murder  was  punishable  by  death 
(Gen.  9.6 ;  Deut.  19.11,  12).  When  a  dead 
body  was  found  in  the  fields,  and  the  murderer 
was  unknown,  the  law  directed  that  the  elders  and 
judges  of  the  neighbouring  places  should  resort 
to  the  spot  (Deut.  21.1-8).  The  elders  of  the 
city  nearest  to  it  were  to  take  a  heifer  which 
had  never  yet  borne  the  yoke,  and  were  to  lead 
it  into  some  rude  and  uncultivated  place  which 
had  not  been  ploughed  or  sowed,  where  they  were 
to  cut  its  throat.  The  priests  of  the  Lord,  with 
the  elders  and  magistrates  of  the  city,  were  to 
come  near  the  dead  body,  and  washing  their 
hands  over  the  heifer  that  had  been  slain  they 
were  to  say :  "  Our  hands  have  not  shed  this 


blood,  neither  have  our  eyes  seen  it.  Forgive, 
0  LORD,  Thy  people  Israel,  \\hom  Thou  hast 
redeemed,  and  suffer  not  innocent  blood  to 
remain  in  the  midst  of  Thy  people  Israel " 
(R.V.).  The  Law  of  Moses  prohibited  com- 
pensation or  reprieve  of  the  wilful  murderer, 
or  his  protection  if  he  sought  asylum  in  a 
refuge-city,  or  even  at  the  altar  of  Jehovah, 
a  principle  which  finds  an  eminent  illus- 
tration in  the  case  of  Joab  (Ex.  21.12, 14 ; 
Lev.  24.17,21;  Num.  35.16,18,21,31;  Deut. 
19.11-13  ;  2  Sam.  3.27,  20.10;  1  K.  2.5,  6,  31). 
If  an  animal  known  to  be  vicious  caused  the 
death  of  any  one,  not  only  was  the  animal 
destroyed,  but  the  owner  also,  if  he  had  taken 
no  steps  to  restrain  it,  was  held  guilty  of  murder 
(Ex.  21.29,  31).  It  was  lawful  to  kill  a  burglar 
taken  at  night  in  the  act,  but  unlawful  to  do  so 
after  sunrise  (Ex.  22.2,  3). 

Mu'shi. — A  son  of  Merari  (Ex.  6.19 ;  Num. 
3.20  ;  1  Ch.  6.19,  47,  23.21,  23,  24.26,  30). 

Mushites.— The  family  of  Mushi  (Num.  3.33, 
26.58). 

Music. — The  invention  of  instrumental  music 
is  ascribed  to  Jubal,  the  sixth  descendant  from 
Cain  (Gen.  4.21).  There  is  a  reference  in  Gen. 
31.26,  27  to  mirth  and  songs,  with  tabret  and 
with  harp.  The  song  of  Miriam  and  the  women 
of  Israel,  on  the  banks  of  the  Red  Sea,  was 
accompanied  by  timbrels  and  dances.  Music, 
both  vocal  and  instrumental,  was  used  in  the 
religious  services  of  the  Hebrews.  It  is  certain 
from  various  references  that  the  instruments 
were  loud  and  sonorous.  As  the  public  singing 
was  performed  with  alternate  responses,  or  the 
chorus  of  all  succeeded  to  those  parts  of  the 
psalm  which  were  sung  only  by  the  appointed 
leaders,  instruments  of  this  kind  were  necessary 
to  command  and  control  the  voices  of  so  great  a 
number  as  was  usually  assembled  on  high  occasions. 
Music  was  an  essential  part  of  the  instruction 
given  in  the  schools  of  the  prophets.  At  Bethel 
(1  Sam.  10.5)  was  a  school  of  this  kind,  as  well 
as  at  Naioth  in  Ramah  (1  Sam.  19.19,20),  at 
Jericho  (2  K.  2.5,  7,  15),  and  at  Gilgal  (2  K.  4.38). 
David  gathered  round  him  "  singing  men  and 
singing  women,"  who  could  celebrate  his  victories 
and  lend  a  charm  to  his  hours  of  peace  (2  Sam. 
19.35).  Solomon  did  the  same  (Ecdes.  2.8), 
and  was  himself  no  mean  composer  (1  K.  4.32). 
The  song  service  of  the  Temple  was  provided  for 
by  the  Levites.  Of  the  38,000  who  composed 
the  tribe  in  the  reign  of  David,  4000  are  said 
to  have  been  appointed  to  praise  Jehovah  with 
the  instruments  which  David  made  (1  Ch.  23.5), 
and  for  which  he  taught  them  a  special  chant. 
The  poet-king  seems  also  to  have  organised  the 
Levitical  chorus  and  orchestra,  which  existed 
in  some  form  through  the  times  of  Solomon, 
Jehoshaphat,  and  even  at  the  laying  of  the 
foundation  of  the  second  Temple  (1  Ch.  15.16- 
24;  2  Ch.  7.6,  20.21;  Ezra  3.10,11).  The 
Hebrews  had  music  at  marriages,  birthdays, 
and  victories,  at  the  inauguration  of  their  kings, 
and  when  they  were  coming  from  afar  to  attend 
the  great  festivals  of  their  nation.  [CORNET, 


MUSTARD] 


326 


[NAAMATHITE 


CYMBAL,  FLUTE,  NEGINOTH,  ORGAN,  PIPE, 
TABRET,  TRUMPET.] 

Mustard. — The  K  ingdom  of  Heaven  is  by  our 
Lord  compared  with  the  growth  of  a  grain  of 
mustard  seed  into  "  the  greatest  among  herbs  " 
(Matt.  13.31;  Mk.  4.31;  Lk.  13.19).  There 
is  no  doubt  that  He  was  referring  to  the 
familiar  plant,  as  common  in  Palestine  as  in 
our  own  country.  The  mustard  seed  was  the 
smallest  of  those  which  the  Jews  were  accus- 
tomed to  sow  in  their  fields.  On  the  rich  plains 
of  Philistia,  wild  mustard  plants  have  been  seen 
as  tall  as  a  horse  and  his  rider.  It  would  have 
been  easy  for  the  birds  to  find  shelter  in  such 
plants. 

Muth-labT>en.  — "  For  the  chief  musician; 
set  to  Muth-labben  "  is  the  title  of  Ps.  9.  The 
significance  of  the  words  is  quite  uncertain. 

My'ra. — Now  Dembra.  City  of  Lycia,  in  Asia 
Minor,  where  Paul  was  transferred  from  the 
Adramyttian  ship,  which  had  brought  him 
from  Csesarea,  to  a  ship  of  Alexandria,  bound 
for  Italy  (Acts  27.5).  In  this  latter  vessel  he 
was  shipwrecked  on  the  coast  of  Malta. 

Myrrh. — Myrrh  is  mentioned  as  an  ingredient 
in  the  "  anointing  oil "  for  the  Tabernacle 
(Ex.  30.23) ;  it  was  presented  by  the  Magi  to  the 
infant  Saviour ;  it  was  offered  to  and  refused 
by  Him  when  on  the  cross ;  and  it  formed  part 
of  the  spices  in  which  His  body  was  laid 
(Matt.  2.11;  Mk.  15.23;  John  19.39).  The  refer- 
ences to  myrrh  in  Cant.  5.5, 13  and  in  Esth. 
2.12  imply  a  preparation  termed  "  oil  of  myrrh." 
The  rendering  "  myrrh  "  in  Gen.  37.25  and  43.11 
is  incorrect.  The  substance  mentioned  in  those 
places  as  among  the  wares  carried  by  the 
Ishmaelite  traders  through  Palestine  to  Egypt, 
and  the  gifts  sent  by  Jacob  to  Joseph,  is  a  resin 
yielded  by  a  species  of  Cistus,  found  in  Palestine, 
Cyprus,  and  other  parts  of  the  Mediterranean 


area.  It  was  formerly  much  esteemed,  but  is 
now  scarcely  used,  except  by  the  Turks,  who 
value  it  as  a  perfume  and  a  fumigator.  The 
plant  was  not  introduced  into  Egypt  until  a 
much  later  date  than  the  events  described  in 
Genesis ;  hence  the  suitability  of  the  gift  as  an 
offering  to  the  Egyptian  rulers.  As  is  well 
known,  myrrh  is  the  gum  exuded  from  wounds 
made  in  the  bark  of  a  certain  tree. 

Myrtle. — The  Jews  returned  from  exile  under 
Nehemiah  fetched  branches  of  myrtle  and 
other  trees  from  the  Mount  of  Olives  for  the 
construction  of  booths  at  the  Feast  of  Taber- 
nacles (Neh.  8.15).  Isaiah  prophesies  the 
time  when  the  myrtle  shall  be  planted  in 
the  wilderness,  and  when  it  shall  replace  the 
brier  (Isai.  41.19,  55.13).  Zechariah  in  vision 
saw  a  grove  of  myrtle  trees  in  a  dell  (Zech. 
1.8,10,11). 

My'sia. — A  north-west  district  of  Asia  Minor, 
skirted  by  Paul  on  his  second  missionary  tour 
(Acts  16.7,  8). 

Mystery.— Found  thrice  in  the  Gospels,  four 
times  in  the  Revelation,  but  twenty  times  in 
St.  Paul's  Epistles.  It  never  means  only  some- 
thing strange  and  inexplicable,  but  always  a 
secret,  revealed  or  not  revealed,  as  the  case 
may  be.  In  N.T.  times  the  heathen  world 
was  honeycombed  with  societies  that  taught 
"  mysteries,"  secrets  connected  with  religion, 
into  which  adherents  were  solemnly  initiated. 
Probably  this  fact  often  suggested  to  St. 
Paul  the  use  both  of  the  word  "mystery," 
and  even  of  some  of  the  terms  connected  with 
the  "  mysteries."  So  in  Phil.  4.12,  "  I  am  in- 
structed," A.V.,  but  in  R.V.,  "have  I  learned 
the  secret."  In  Col.  1.26  the  secret  is  the 
presence  of  Christ  in  believers.  In  Eph.  3.4-8 
it  is  the  privileges  common  to  both  Gentile  and 
Jewish  Christians. 


N 


Na'am.— Pleasantness :  a  son  of  Caleb,  son 
of  Jephunneh  (1  Ch.  4.15). 

Na'amah. — (?)  Pleasantness:  1.  A  daughter  of 
Lamech  by  his  wife  Zillah  and  sister  to  Tubal- 
cain  (Gen.  4.22).  She  is  one  of  the  four  women 
whose  names  are  preserved  in  the  records  of 
the  world  before  the  Flood.  2.  The  mother  of 
King  Rehoboam  (1  K.  14.21,  31 ;  2  Ch.  12.13) ; 
an  Ammonite,  one  of  the  foreign  women  whom 
Solomon  took  into  his  establishment.  3.  A 
town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah,  6  miles  north- 
east of  Lydda  (Josh.  15.41 ),  now  Na'aneh. 

Na'aman. — Pleasant :  1.  A  Benjamite  (Gen. 
46.21;  Num.  26.40;  1  Ch.  8.4,7).  2.  The 
commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of  Benhadad, 
king  of  Syria,  who  was  cured  of  leprosy  by 
bathing  seven  times  in  the  Jordan,  in  obedience 
to  the  command  of  Elisha,  the  prophet  (2  K.  5). 


The  prophet  declined  a  present  offered  him 
by  Naaman,  and  the  latter  begged  that  he 
might  be  permitted  to  carry  home  two  mules' 
burden  of  the  earth  of  Canaan,  assigning  as  a 
reason  for  what  seemed  a  strange  request  that 
henceforth  he  would  serve  no  god  but  Jehovah. 
It  seems  that  his  intention  was  to  build  an 
altar  with  this  earth  of  the  land  to  which  God 
vouchsafed  His  especial  presence.  Elisha  con- 
sented to  this  request.  The  reception  which 
at  a  later  date  Elisha  received  at  Damascus 
showed  that  the  fame  of  "  the  man  of  God  "  and 
of  the  mighty  Jehovah  in  Whose  name  he 
wrought  was  not  forgotten  in  the  city  of  Naaman 
(2  K.  8.7-9).  The  case  of  Naaman  is  mentioned 
by  our  Lord  as  an  instance  of  mercy  extended 
to  one  who  was  not  an  Israelite  (Lk.  4.27). 
Naam'athite. — Zophar,  the  Naamathite,  was 


NAAMITES] 


327 


[NAHOR 


one  of  Job's  friends  (Job  2.11,  11.1,  20.1, 
42.9). 

Na'amites.  —  The  family  descended  from 
Naaman  1,  the  grandson  of  Benjamin  (Num. 
26.40). 

Na'arah.— (?)  Damsel :  the  second  wife  of 
Ashur,  a  descendant  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  4.5,  6). 
[NAARATH.] 

Na'arai. — (?)  Lad  of  Jehovah:  one  of  David's 
valiant  men  (1  Ch.  11.37) ;  called  Paarai  in 
2  S<im.  23.35. 

Na'aran. — A  town  at  the  east  limit  of  Ephraim 
(1  Ch.  7.28) ;  perhaps  the  same  as  Naarath. 

Na'arath  (R.V.  Na'arah).  —  Some  point 
on  the  boundary  between  Ephraim  and 
Manasseh  (Josh.  16.7);  perhaps  the  same  as 
Naaran. 

Na'ashon.— [NAHSHON.] 

Na'asson.— [NAHSHON.] 

Nabal. — Senseless,  or,  perhaps,  reckless :  "  a 
man  in  Maon,  whose  possessions  [marg., 
business]  were  in  Carmel  "  (1  Sam.  25.2).  He 
was  rich  in  flocks  and  herds ;  but,  when  David 
in  his  wanderings  sought  provisions  from 
Nabal,  in  return  for  protection  given  to  his 
shepherds,  Nabal  refused  in  terms  of  insult 
(1  Sam.  25.10,21).  Abigail,  the  handsome 
wife  of  Nabal,  hearing  of  the  danger  Nabal 
ran  from  the  resentment  of  David,  herself 
carried  provisions  to  David,  whilst  Nabal  was 
occupied  in  a  drunken  orgy.  On  hearing 
what  had  happened  Nabal's  "  heart  died  within 
him,"  and  ten  days  later  he  died  (1  Sam.  25.38). 
Abigail  became  the  wife  of  David  (1  Sam. 
25.39-42). 

NaT)Oth.— An  Israelite  of  the  city  of  Jezreel, 
who  lived  under  Ahab,  king  of  the  ten  tribes, 
and  had  a  fine  vineyard  near  the  king's  palace. 
Ahab  coveted  his  property ;  but  Naboth, 
according  to  law  (Lev.  25.23,  24),  refused  to  sell 
it.  Through  the  arts  of  Jezebel,  Naboth  was 
stoned  te  death  on  a  false  charge,  and  his  vine- 
yard seized  by  the  king  (1  K.  21.1-16).  Elijah 
conveyed  to  the  king  the  assurance  that  this  sin 
would  bring  a  terrible  retribution  (1  K.  21.17-24), 
which  was  fulfilled  (2  K.  9). 

Na'chon  (R.V.  Nacon).— Established :  it  was 
at  "  Nachon's  threshing-floor  "  that  the  Ark  had 
arrived  on  its  progress  from  Kirjath-jearim  to 
Jerusalem,  when  Uzzah  lost  his  life  in  his  too 
hasty  zeal  for  its  safety  (2  Sam.  6.6).  The 
name  is  given  as  Chidon  [which  see]  in  1  Ch.  13.9. 
[PEEEZ-UZZAH.] 

Na'chor  (R.V.  Nahor).— 1.  The  brother  of 
Abraham  (Josh.  24.2).  2.  An  ancestor  of  Jesus 
(Lk.  3.34). 

Na'dab. — Liberal :  1.  A  son  of  Aaron  who 
with  his  brother  Abihu  was  destroyed  by  fire 
from  God  for  presuming  to  offer  incense  to  Him 
with  strange  fire,  instead  of  that  from  His 
altar  (Lev.  10.1,  2).  From  the  injunction  given 
in  Lev.  10.9,  immediately  after  their  death,  it 
has  been  inferred  that  the  brothers  were  in- 
toxicated when  they  committed  the  offence. 
2.  A  king  of  Israel,  son  of  Jeroboam  I.,  who 
was  slain  by  Baasha  (1  K.  15.25,  31).  Ahijah's 


prophecy  (1  K.  14.10)  was  literally  fulfilled  by 
the  murderer,  who  proceeded  to  destroy  the 
whole  house  of  Jeroboam.  3.  A  son  of  Shammai, 
of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  2.28).  4.  A 
Benjamite  of  the  kindred  of  King  Saul  (1  £h. 
8.30,  9.36). 

Nag'ge  (R.V.  Naggai).— An  ancestor  of  our 
Lord  (Lk.  3.25). 

Naha'lal,  Nahal'lal,  or  Naha'loL  — A  town 
of  Zebulun,  in  the  plain  of  Jezreel,  just  under 
the  Nazareth  hill,  assigned  to  the  Merarites 
(Josh.  19.15,  21.35;  Judg.  1.30).  It  has  been 
identified  with  the  modern  village  of  Malul,  4 
miles  west  of  Nazareth. 

Nahali'eL— Valley  of  God:  the  site  of  an 
Israelite  encampment,  north  of  the  Arnon 
(Num.  21.19). 

Na'ham.— Consolation :  Ezra's  brother-in-law 
(1  Ch.  4.19). 

Nahama'ni.  —  Compassionate  :  a  chief  man 
among  those  who  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel  and  Jeshua  (Neh.  7.7). 

Na'harai.  —  (?)  Snorting  one:  the  armour- 
bearer  of  Joab.  He  was  a  native  of  Beeroth 
(2  Sam.  23.37 ;  1  Ch.  11.39). 

Na'hash. — (?)  Serpent,  or,  diviner :  1.  A  king  of 
the  Ammonites  who,  besieging  Jabesh-Gilcad, 
offered  the  inhabitants,  on  condition  of  sur- 
render either  the  loss  of  their  right  eye  or 
slavery.  King  Saul  came  to  their  rescue,  and 
utterly  defeated  Nahash  (1  Sam.  11.1-11).  It 
was  this  king  or  his  son  who  rendered  David 
some  great  service  (2  Sam.  10.2),  no  doubt 
during  his  wanderings  as  a  victim  of  Saul. 
2.  Amasa,  the  commander-in-chief  of  Absalom's 
army,  was  the  grandson  of  Nahash  (2  Sam. 
17.25).  3.  See  IR-NAHASH. 

NaTiath. — Descent :  1.  A  grandson  of  Esau, 
and  one  of  the  "  dukes"  or  rulers  of  Edom  (Gen. 
36.13).  2.  An  ancestor  of  Samuel  the  prophet 
(1  Ch.  6.26).  He  appears  te  be  also  called 
Toah  (1  Ch.  6.34)  »r  Tohu  (1  Sam.  1.1).  3.  A 
Levite,  overseer  of  the  offerings  in  the  days  of 
Hezekiah  (2  Ch.  31.13). 

Nah'bi. — (?)  Hidden  by  Jehovah:  one  of  the 
twelve  sent  by  Moses  to  spy  out  the  land  (Num. 
13.14). 

Na'hor. — 1.  The  grandfather  of  Abraham 
(Gen.  11.22-25).  In  the  genealogy  of  our  Lord 
the  name  is  given  as  Nachor  (Lk.  3.34,  A.V.). 
2.  The  brother  of  Abraham  (Gen.  11.26,27). 
When  Abraham  and  Lot  migrated  to  Canaan, 
Nahor  remained  behind  in  the  land  of  his 
birth,  on  the  east  side  of  the  Euphrates. 
Abraham's  son,  Isaac,  married  Rebekah,  a 
granddaughter  of  Nahor;  Laban,  the  brother 
of  Rebekah  and  the  father  of  Leah  and  Rachel, 
the  wives  of  Jacob,  was  a  grandson  of  Nahor. 
The  plural  form  of  the  Hebrew  verb  in  Gen. 
31.53  suggests  that "  the  God  of  Nahor"  was  re- 
garded as  distinct  from  "  the  God  of  Abraham." 
If  so,  he  may  have  been  one  of  the  other 
"  gods "  which  before  the  call  of  Abraham 
were  worshipped  by  the  family  of  Terah  ;  whose 
images  were  in  Rachel's  possession  during  the 
conference  on  Gilead  (Gen.  31.19,30-35);  and 


NAHSHON,  NAASHON] 


328 


[NAPHTALI 


which  had  to  be  discarded  before  Jacob  could 
go  into  the  presence  of  the  "  God  of  Bethel  " 
(Gen.  35.2).  The  name  is  given  as  Nachor  in 
the  A.V.  of  Josh.  24.2. 

Nah'shon,  Na'ashon.— (?)  Serpent,  or,  diviner : 
a  prince  of  Judah  at  the  time  of  the  first 
numbering  in  the  wilderness  (Ex.  6.23  ;  Num. 
1.7).  His  sister,  Elisheba,  was  wife  to  Aaron, 
and  his  son,  Salmon,  was  husband  to  Rahab 
after  the  taking  of  Jericho.  Nahshon,  in  the 
form  of  Naasson,  is  mentioned  in  the  genealogy 
of  our  Lord  (Matt.  1.4  ;  Lk.  3.32). 

Nahum. — Comforter  :  1.  A  name  occurring  in 
the  O.T.  once  only,  at  the  opening  of  "  The 
book  of  the  vision  of  Nahum  the  Elkoshite" 
(Nah.  1.1).  Elkosh  is  unidentified,  but 
Jerome  speaks  of  it  as  a  little  village  in  Galilee. 
2.  See  NAUM.  [NAHUM,  BOOK  OF.] 

Nahum,  Book  of. — All  that  is  known  as  to 
the  authorship  of  this  book  is  contained  in  its 
opening  verse  (Nah.  1.1).  The  date  of  the 
prophecy  it  contains  may  be  inferred  from  the 
nature  of  the  message.  A  period  in  the  reign 
of  Hezekiah,  after  the  carrying  away  of  the 
ten  tribes  and  between  the  two  invasions  by 
Sennacherib,  meets  the  conditions  set  forth. 
Thebes,  "  populous  No "  (R.V.  No-amon), 
had  been  taken  and  sacked  (Nah.  3.8-10)  by 
Asurbanipal  (664  B.C.).  The  prophet  foretells 
the  fate  of  Nineveh  from  that  of  Thebes. 

Nineveh,  at  the  time  when  this  prophecy  of 
its  destruction  was  uttered,  was  a  city  of  vast 
extent  and  population,  and  the  centre  of  the 
principal  commerce  of  the  world.  Its  wealth, 
however,  was  not  altogether  derived  from  trade. 
It  was  a  "  bloody  city,"  "  full  of  lies  and 
robbery"  (3.1).  It  plundered  the  neighbouring 
nations ;  and  is  compared  to  a  family  of  lions, 
which  "  fill  their  holes  with  prey  and  their  dens 
with  ravin"  (2.11,12).  It  was  also  strongly 
fortified  ;  its  colossal  walls,  a  hundred  feet  high, 
with  their  fifteen  hundred  towers,  bidding 
defiance  to  all  enemies.  The  doom  which  Jonah 
had  pronounced  had  been  delayed  by  the 
repentance  of  the  people.  But  their  repeated 
and  aggravated  sins  brought  upon  them  an 
irrevocable  sentence ;  and  so  totally  was  the 
city  destroyed,  that  in  the  second  century  after 
Christ  not  a  vestige  remained  of  it ;  and  its 
very  site  was  long  a  matter  of  doubt  and  un- 
certainty. 

The  contents  of  the  book  are  presented  in  the 
form  of  a  single  poem.  It  opens  with  a  solemn 
description  of  the  attributes  and  operations  of 
Jehovah  (1.2-8).  Then  follows  (1.9-14)  an 
address  to  the  Assyrians,  describing  their  per- 
plexity and  overthrow,  vers.  12  and  13  being 
thrown  in  parenthetically,  to  console  the 
Israelites  with  promises  of  future  rest  and  relief 
from  oppression.  Chap.  2  depicts  the  siege 
and  capture  of  Nineveh,  and  the  consternation 
of  the  inhabitants.  Chap.  3  describes  the  utter 
ruin  of  the  city,  and  the  various  causes  contri- 
buting to  it.  The  example  of  No-amon  (or 
Thebes),  a  great  and  strong  city  of  Egypt, 
which  fell  under  the  judgment  of  God,  is  intro- 


duced (3.8-10)  to  illustrate  the  similar  punish- 
ment coming  on  the  Assyrians. 

Nain. — Pleasantness  :  now  Nein,  a  town  on 
the  north  slope  of  Little  Hermon  (ed-Duhy). 
Here  our  Lord  raited  the  widow's  son  (Lk. 
7.11). 

Nai'oth. — (?)  Habitations  :  a  place  near  Ram  ah, 
where  Samuel  and  David  took  refuge  together 
from  Saul  (1  Sam.  19.18-23,  20.1).  It  was  the 
seat  of  a  school  or  college  of  the  prophets  over 
which  Samuel  presided. 

Name. — Amongst  the  Hebrews  the  name 
of  a  child  was  sometimes  given  at  birth  (Gen. 
3  \18),  or  at  circumcision  (Lk.  1.59),  one  or 
other  of  the  parents  making  the  choice  (Gen. 
30.24;  Ex.  2.22;  Lk.  1.59-63).  The  name 
given  sometimes  bore  reference  to  circum- 
stances connected  with  the  child's  birth  or 
future,  as  in  the  case  of  Isaac  (Gen.  21.3,  6), 
Moses  (Ex.  2.10),  Beriah  (1  Ch.  7.23).  This 
was  especially  so  in  the  case  of  names  composed 
of  complete  sentences,  as  Maher-shalal-bash- 
baz  (Isai.  8.3).  Names  of  persons  were  some- 
times found  to  have  suggested  their  characters, 
as  in  the  case  of  Jacob  (Gen.  27.36)  and  Nabal 
(1  Sam.  25.25).  Names  were  changed  or  added 
to  under  varying  circumstances,  as  in  the  case 
of  Abram  to  Abraham  (Gen.  17.5),  Gideon  to 
Jerubbaal  (Judg.  6.32),  Daniel  to  Belteshazzar 
(Dan.  1.7),  Simon  Peter  (Matt.  16.18).  Further, 
it  must  be  remembered  that  to  the  ancient 
mind  the  name  not  only  summed  up  a  man's 
history,  but  represented  his  personality,  with 
which  it  was  almost  identified.  Hence  "  in  My 
name"  suggests  actual  incorporation  with  the 
Divine  Speaker. 

Places  were  sometimes  named  from  events 
associated  with  them,  as  Babel  (Gen.  11.9), 
Jehovah-jireh  (Gen.  22.14),  Marah  (Ex.  15.23), 
Perez-Uzzah  (2  Sam.  6.8),  Aceldama  (Acts  1.19). 
[For  the  name  of  God,  see  JEHOVAH,  LORD.] 
Na'omi.— Pleasant :  wife  of  Elimelech  and 
mother-in-law  of  Ruth.  She  migrated  with  her 
family  from  Judaea  to  Moab,  and  on  her  hus- 
band's death  returned.  Her  character  is  very 
beautifully  indicated  in  the  Book  of  Ruth  (which 
see). 

Na'phath-dor.— R.V.  marg.  in  Josh.  12.23; 
1  K.  4.11.  It  may  mean  "  the  region  (or  height) 
of  Dor  "  (which  see). 

Na'phish,  Ne'phish.  —  Numerous  :  the  last 
but  one  of  the  sons  of  Ishmael  (Gen.  25.15  ; 
1  Ch.  1.31,  5.19).  His  descendants  seem  to  be 
called  the  children  of  Nephusim  (R.V.  Nephisim) 
in  Eera  2.50,  and  of  Nepblshesim  (R.V.  Ne- 
phushesim)  in  Neh.  7.52. 

Na'photh-dor.— R.V.  marg.  in  Josh.  11.2, 
apparently  the  plural  of  Naphath-dor. 

Naph'tali.— My  wrestling:  1.  The  sixth  son 
of  Jacob  and  son  of  Bilhah  (Gen.  30.8).  At 
the  Exodus  the  tribe  of  Naphtali  made  up 
53,400  men  able  to  bear  arms  (Num.  1.43,  2.30). 
Under  Barak,  the  Naphtalites  and  the  Zebu- 
lunites  fought  with  distinguished  bravery  against 
the  army  of  Jabin  the  younger;  and  at  the 
desire  of  Gideon  they  pursued  the  Midianite* 


NAPHTALI,  MOUNT] 


329 


[NAZARETH 


(Judg.  4.10,  5.18,  7.23).  A  thousand  other 
captains,  with  37,000  of  their  troops,  assisted  at 
David's  coronation  (1  Ch.  12.34, 40).  Instigated 
by  Asa,  Benhadad,  king  of  Syria,  ravaged  the 
land  of  Naphtali.  It.  also  suffered  in  after  in- 
vasions by  the  Syrians  (1  K.  15.20).  Many,  if 
not  most,  of  the  Naphtalites  were  carried 
captire  by  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  Assyria  (2  K. 
15.29).  Josiah  purged  their  country  from  idols 
(2  Ch.  34.6).  Our  Lord  and  His  disciples 
preached  frequently  in  the  land  of  Naphtali 
(Isai.  9.1;  Matt.  4.13,15).  2.  The  portion 
of  Canaan  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Naphtali, 
a  long,  narrow  strip  of  territory  bordering 
the  west  side  of  the  Sea  of  Gennesaret,  and 
extending  far  north,  on  the  west  of  the 
Jordan,  up  to  Lebanon.  In  the  time  of  our 
Lord  the  land  of  Naphtali  was  included  in 
Galilee.  Under  this  designation  it  was  destined 
to  become  in  every  way  far  more  important 
than  it  had  ever  been  before.  For  it  was  the 
cradle  of  the  Christian  faith,  the  native  place 
of  most  of  the  apostles,  and  the  home  of  Jesus 
Christ.  It  also  became  populous  and  prosperous 
to  a  degree  far  beyond  anything  of  which  wo 
have  indication  in  the  O.T. 

Naph'tali,  Mount. — A  mountainous  district 
which  formed  a  great  part  of  the  inheritance 
of  Naphtali  (Josh.  20.7),  answering  to  "Mount 
Ephraim  "  in  the  centre  and  "  Mount  Judah  " 
in  the  south  of  Palestine. 

Naph  tuhim. — A  people  mentioned  in  Gen. 
10.13  and  1  Ch.  1.11  as  among  the  descendants 
of  Noah.  They  are  identified  by  Prof.  Sayce 
with  the  Memphites,  the  people  of  Memphis,  in 
Egypt,  the  city  of  the  god  Ptah. 

Narcissus. — Probably  a  famous  freedman  at 
Rome  who  was  killed  about  55  A.D.,  his  slaves 
remaining  a  distinct  part  of  Nero's  household 
for  some  years.  Among  them  were  some 
Christians,  who  are  greeted  by  St.  Paul  in  his 
Epistle  to  the  Roman  Church  (Rom.  16.11). 

Nard.— [SPIKENARD.] 

Na'than. — Giver :  1.  A  prophet  in  the  reigns 
of  David  and  Solomon.  He  dissuaded  the 
form«r  from  the  building  of  the  Temple  on  the 
ground  that  the  time  was  not  yet  come.  The 
best  remembered  incident  of  his  life  is  his  rebuke 
of  David  for  his  sin  with  Bathsheba,  on  which 
occasion  he  used  the  famous  parable  of  the 
rich  man  an  1  the  poor  man's  ewe  lamb  (2  Sam. 
12.1-12).  Nathan's  influence  and  advocacy 
secured  the  succession  of  Solomon  to  the  throne 
(1  K.  1.8-45).  2.  A  son  of  David  by  Bathsheba, 
and  therefore  own  brother  to  Solomon  (1  Ch.  3.5). 
He  was  an  ancestor  of  Joseph,  the  husband  of 
the  Virgin  Mary  (Lk.  3.31).  On  the  failure  of 
Solomon's  line  in  Jehoiachia  or  Jeconiah,  who 
died  without  issue,  Salathiel  of  Nathan's  house 
became  heir  to  David's  throne,  and  would  thus 
be  entered  in  the  genealogical  tables  as  "  son 
of  J«ooniah."  3.  The  father  of  Igal,  one  of 
David's  valiant  men  (2  5am.  23.36).  4.  A  lead- 
ing member  of  Ezra's  second  expedition  from 
Babylon.  He  was  dispatched  from  the  encamp- 
ment at  the  river  Ahava  to  the  colony  of  Jews 


at  Casiphia,  to  obtain  thence  some  Levites 
and  Nethinim  for  the  Temple  service  (Ezra 
8.16).  5.  Persons  of  the  name  of  Nathan 
are  also  mentioned  in  1  K.  4.5  ;  1  Ch.  2.36, 
11.38;  Eera  10.39;  Zech.  12.12. 

Natha'naeL — Gift  of  God  :  a  disciple  of  Christ, 
"  an  Israelite  indeed,  in  whom  is  no  guile," 
the  manner  of  whose  conversion  is  related  in 
John  1.45-51.  He  was  a  native  of  Cana  of 
Galilee.  Nathanael  was  one  of  the  small  com- 
pany of  disciples  to  whom  Jesus  showed  Him- 
self at  the  Sea  of  Tiberias  after  His  resurrection 
(John  21.2).  He  is  probably  the  same  as 
Bartholomew  (which  see). 

Na'than-melech. — The  king  is  giver :  a  eunuch 
or  chamberlain  of  King  Josiah  (2  K.  23.11). 

Na'um,  Nahum. — Comfort :  an  ancestor  of 
Jesus  (Lk.  3.25). 

Nave  (1  K.  7.33).— "  Central  block  of  wheel 
holding  axle  and  spokes,  hub"  (Oxford  Diet.). 
But  in  R.V.  felloe,  or  outer  circle  of  wheel. 

Nazare'ne. — An  inhabitant  of  Nazareth,  a 
term  frequently  applied  to  our  Lord,  probably 
at  times  in  scorn,  but  afterwards  adopted  and 
gloried  in  by  the  disciples.  All  the  inhabitants 
of  Galilee,  in  which  Nazareth  was  situated, 
were  regarded  with  contempt  by  the  people  of 
Judaea  because  of  the  alleged  uncouthness  of 
their  manners  and  dialect.  The  special  oppro- 
brium attached  to  Nazareth,  referred  to  by  a 
man  who  was  himself  a  Galilean  (John  1.46), 
may  have  been  due  to  an  evil  reputation 
for  irreligion  or  laxity  of  morals.  The  literal 
transcription  of  the  Hebrew  word  for  Nazarene 
is  Netser,  signifying  a  shoot  or  sprout,  and 
identical  with  the  word  used  in  Isai.  11.1  : 
"  And  there  shall  come  forth  a  rod  (shoot  or 
sprout)  out  of  the  stern  of  Jesse."  So  that 
whenever  men  spoke  of  Jesus  as  the  Nazarene, 
they  were,  wittingly  or  unwittingly,  pronouncing 
one  of  the  names  of  the  predicted  Messiah.  Hence 
the  allusion  in  Matt.  2.23.  The  term  Nazarenes 
is  applied  to  the  followers  of  Jesus  by  way 
of  contempt  ,  in  Acts  24.5.  The  name  still 
exists  in  Arabic  as  the  ordinary  designation  of 
Christians. 

Na'zareth.— Now  En-Nasirah.  A  town  shut  in 
by  round-topped  hills,  now  rocky  and  barren, 
which  form  the  south  ridges  of  Lebanon,  just 
before  they  sink  down  into  the  plain  of  Es- 
draelon.  It  was  the  home  of  Joseph  and  Mary,  the 
scene  of  the  Annunciation,  the  home  of  our  Lord 
for  twenty -eight  years,  and  the  scene  of  His  teach- 
ing (Matt.  2.23,  4.13 ;  Mk.  1.9 ;  Lk.  1.26, 27, 56, 
2.4, 16-30,  39,  51 ;  John  1.45).  The  Galileans, 
and  the  people  of  Nazareth  in  particular,  were 
held  in  contempt  by  the  inhabitants  of  Judaea. 
[NAZARENE.]  The  "  Fountain  of  the  Virgin  " 
is  shown  as  the  place  where,  according  to  tra- 
dition, the  mother  of  Jesus  received  the  angel's 
salutation  (Lk.  1.28).  Certainly,  during  her 
life  at  Nazareth  Mary  must  often  have  gone  to 
this  fountain  for  water,  and  it  is  not  pre- 
sumptuous to  conjecture  that  frequently  she 
was  accompanied  by  her  young  Son.  There  is 
a  remarkable  precipice,  almost  perpendicular, 


NAZARITE] 


330 


[NEBUCHADNEZZAR 


and  40  or  50  feet  high,  which  is  doubtless 
the  identical  one  over  wkich  His  infuriated 
townsmen  attempted  to  hurl  Jesus  (Lk.  4.29). 
The  view  from  the  summit  of  Neby  Ismail,  one 
of  the  hills  behind  the  town,  is  very  beautiful. 
It  should  be  noticed  that  although  the  village 
was  itself  retired,  it  lay  quite  close  to  one  of 
the  larger  roads,  which  in  those  days  were  filled 
with  traffic. 

Na'zarite. — One  separated  and  consecrated: 
properly  Nazirite,  for  the  word  is  quite  distinct 
from  Nazareth.  A  person  of  either  sex  who 
under  the  Law  of  Moses  engaged  by  a  vow  to 
abstain  from  wine  and  all  intoxicating  liquors, 
to  let  the  hair  grow,  not  to  enter  any  house 
polluted  by  having  a  dead  body  in  it,  not  to  be 
present  at  any  funeral.  If  by  accident  any  ene 
should  die  in  the  presence  of  a  Nazirite,  the  latter 
recommenced  the  whole  of  his  consecration  of 
Naziriteship.  The  vow  was  generally  for  a 
stated  period,  but  sometimes  for  a  lifetime. 
Perpetual  Nazirites,  as  Samuel,  Samson,  and 
John  the  Baptist,  were  consecrated  to  this 
condition  by  their  parents,  and  continued  all 
their  lives  under  their  vow,  drinking  no  wine 
and  allowing  the  hair  to  grow.  Those  who 
made  a  vow  of  Naziriteship  out  of  Palestine, 
and  could  not  come  to  the  Temple  when  their 
vow  was  expired,  contented  themselves  with 
observing  the  abstinence  required  by  the  Law, 
cutting  off  their  hair  in  the  place  where  they 
were ;  the  offerings  and  sacrifices,  prescribed 
by  Moses,  to  be  made  at  the  Temple,  by  them- 
selves or  by  others  for  them,  they  deferred  till 
a  convenient  opportunity.  Hence  it  was  that 
Paul,  being  at  Corinth,  and  having  made  what 
seems  to  have  been  at  least  a  modified  form 
of  the  Nazirite  vow,  had  his  hair  cut  off  at 
Cenchrese,  a  port  of  Corinth,  and  deferred  the  rest 
of  his  vow  until  he  came  to  Jerusalem  (Num. 
6.1-21 ;  Acts  18.18,  21.23,  24).  The  consecra- 
tion of  the  Nazirite  bore  a  striking  resemblance 
to  that  of  the  high-priest  (Lev.  21.10-12).  The 
Nazirite  vow  was  intended  to  cultivate,  and 
bear  witness  to,  the  sovereignty  of  the  will 
over  the  lower  tendencies  of  human  nature,  to 
signify  a  sacrifice  of  the  person  to  God. 

Ne'ah.— A  to\vn  of  Zebulun  (Josh.  19.13); 
site  unknown. 

Nea'polis. — New  town :  now  Kavalla,  a  city 
of  Macedonia ;  the  seaport  of  Philippi,  12 
miles  distant ;  where  Paul  first  landed  in 
Europe  (Acts  16.11). 

Neari'ah.— 1.  A  descendant  of  David  (1  Ch. 
3.22,  23).  2.  A  Simeonite  captain  who  smote 
the  remnant  of  the  Amalekites  in  Mount  Seir 
(1  Ch.  4.42). 

NeT>ai,  Notai.  —  (?) \Fruit  of  Jehnvah:  a 
person  or  family  that  with  Nehemiah  sealed  the 
covenant  (Neh.  10.19). 

Nebai'oth,  Neba'joth.  —  The  eldest  son  of 
Ishmael  and  his  descendants,  the  Nabatheans 
(Gen.  25.13  ;  Isai.  60.7),  whose  territory,  accord- 
ing to  Josephus,  embraced  the  country  from  the 
Euphrates  to  the  Red  Sea — that  is,  Petroea 
and  all  the  desert  east  of  it.  Their  habits  were 


pastoral,  they  dwelt  in  tents,  and  conducted  the 
trade  of  the  desert ;  in  the  Red  Sea,  however, 
some  of  them  took  to  piracy. 

NebaJ'lat. — Now  Beit  Ncbala,  6  miles  north- 
east of  Lydda ;  a  town  of  Benjamin,  occupied 
after  the  return  from  captivity  (Neh.  11.34). 

Ne'bat.— (?)Look:  the  father  of  King  Jero- 
boam (1  K.  11.26). 

NeT)0.— (?)  Herald:  1.  A  well-known  deity  of 
the  Babylonians  and  the  Assyrians  (Isai.  46.1), 
supposed  to  preside  over  learning  and  letters. 
His  general  character  corresponds  with  that  of 
Mercury  in  the  Latin  mythology.  The  name 
forms  part  of  the  words  Nebuchadnezzar  and 
Nebuzaradan.  Nebuchadnezzar  completely  re- 
built his  temple  at  Borsippa.  2.  A  town  east 
of  Jordan  taken  and  rebuilt  by  Reuben ;  after- 
wards recovered  by  the  Moabites  (Num.  32.3, 
38  ;  1  Ch.  5.8 ;  Isai.  15.2  ;  Jer.  48.1,  22).  3.  A 
mountain  now  called  Jebel  Neba,  the  highest 
summit  of  the  mountain  range  of  Pisgah,  in  the 
land  of  Moab,  facing  Jericho,  whence  Moses  took 
his  first  and  last  view  of  the  Promised  Land 
(Deut.  32.49,  34.1).  4.  A  town  of  Benjamin  or 
Judah  whose  inhabitants  returned  from  the 
Captivity.  It  is  perhaps  the  same  as  Nob  (Ezra 
2.29 ;  Neh.  7.33).  5.  The  ancestor  of  certain 
Jews  who  had  married  foreign  wives  during  or 
after  the  Captivity  (Ezra  10.43).  But  perhaps 
this  is  a  place-name,  and  should  be  identified 
with  the  preceding. 

Nebuchadnez'zar,  or,  more  properly,  Nebu- 
chadrez'zar. — Nebo,  protect  the  boundary  !  son 
and  successor  of  Nabopolassar,  the  founder  of 
the  Babylonian  empire  (605-562  B.C.).  He  was 
sent  by  his  father  at  the  head  of  an  army  to 
punish  Pharaoh-necho,  king  of  Egypt.  This 
prince  had  recently  invaded  Syria,  defeated 
Josiah,  king  of  Judah,  at  Megiddo,  and  re- 
duced the  whole  tract,  from  Egypt  to  Carche- 
mish  on  the  upper  Euphrates,  which  in  the 
partition  of  the  Assyrian  territories  on  the 
destruction  of  Nineveh  had  been  assigned  to 
Babylon  (2  K.  23.29,30).  Nebuchadnezzar 
defeated  Necho  in  a  great  battle  at  Carchemish, 
605  B.C.  (Jer.  46.2-12),  recovered  Ccele-Syria, 
Phoenicia,  and  Palestine,  took  Jerusalem 
(Dan.  1.1,2),  and  was  pressing  forward  to 
Egypt  when,  news  of  his  father's  death  reaching 
him,  he,  accompanied  only  by  his  light  troops, 
hurried  back  to  Babylon.  It  was  at  this  time 
that  Daniel  and  his  companions  were  brought  to 
Babylon,  where  they  soon  grew  into  importance 
under  the  favour  of  Nebuchadnezzar  (Dan. 
1.3-20). 

Jehoiakim,  who  had  been  retained  on  the 
throne  of  Judah  as  a  vassal  king,  after  three  years 
rebelled  against  Nebuchadnezzar  (2  K.  24). 
The  king  of  Babylon  proceeded  a  second  time 
against  Jerusalem,  which  submitted  without 
a  struggle  (Jer.  22.18, 19).  Jehoiakim  was  put 
to  death ;  his  son,  Jehoiachin,  set  up  in  his 
stead,  showed  signs  of  disaffection  within 
three  months ;  and  Nebuchadnezzar  for  the 
third  time  came  up  against  the  city,  deposed 
the  young  prince,  whom  he  carried  of!  to  Babylon 


NEBUSHASBAN] 


331 


[NEHEMIAH 


(and  kept  in  prison  for  thirty-six  years),  to- 
gether with  a  large  portion  of  the  population, 
and  the  chief  of  the  Temple  treasures,  which  he 
set  up  in  the  Temple  of  Bel-Merodach.  Zede- 
kiah,  son  of  King  Josiah  and  uncle  of  Jehoiachin, 
who  was  now  made  vassal  king,  entered  into 
a  treaty  with  the  ruler  of  Egypt,  in  spite  of  the 
warning  of  Jeremiah  (Ezek.  17.15),  and  renounced 
his  allegiance  to  the  king  of  Babylon.  Nebu- 
chadnezzar after  eighteen  months'  siege  again 
captured  Jerusalem  (586  B.C.);  the  sons  of 
Zedekiah  were  executed  in  the  sight  of  their 
father ;  then  Zedekiah's  eyes  were  put  out, 
and  he  was  carried  off  to  Babylon,  there  to 
languish  until  the  clo^e  of  his  life  (2  K.  24.8, 
25.21).  It  ought  to  be  noted  that  the  prophet 
Jeremiah  (Jer.  32.4,5,  34.3)  had  foretold  the 
deportation  of  Zedekiah  to  Babylon,  while 
Ezekiel  (Ezek.  12.13)  predicted  that  he  should 
not  sec  tlie  city.  Both  prophecies  were  literally 
fulfilled,  Zedekiah,  as  we  have  said,  being 
cruelly  blinded  before  he  was  carried  thither. 
Gedaliah,  a  Jew,  was  appointed  Governor 
of  Jerusalem,  but  shortly  afterwards  he  was 
murdered,  and  the  rest  of  the  Jews  either  fled 
to  Egypt  or  were  carried  to  Babylon.  The 
conquest  of  Jerusalem  was  rapidly  followed 
by  the  fall  of  Tyre  and  the  complete  submission 
of  Phoenicia,  586  B.C.  (Ezek.  26  and  28) ;  after 
which  the  Babylonians  carried  their  arms 
into  Egypt  and  inflicted  severe  injuries  on 
that  country,  582  B.C.  (Jer.  46.13-26;  Ezek. 
29.2-20). 

Nebuchadnezzar's  boast,  "  Is  not  this  great 
Babylon  which  I  have  built  ?  "  (Dan.  4.30) 
was  founded  upon  his  truly  amazing  achieve- 
ments in  the  construction  of  public  works. 
These  comprised  more  than  twenty  temples, 
with  strengthened  fortifications,  the  excava- 
tion of  canals,  the  construction  of  quays, 
reservoirs,  and  aqueducts,  vast  embankments 
by  the  river,  and  celebrated  gardens.  All 
through  Babylonia  the  discovery  of  bricks 
stamped  with  Nebuchadnezzar's  name  attests 
his  enterprise  as  well  as  his  opulence  and  taste. 
The  excavations  in  Babylon  during  the  last 
few  years,  especially  the  winter  of  1908-9, 
have  laid  bare  much  of  Nebuchadnezzar's 
palace,  the  magnitude  of  which  has  not  been 
exaggerated.  One  of  the  outer  walls,  for  ex- 
ample, is  more  than  24  yards  thick. 

One  of  the  best  remembered  incidents  in  the 
life  of  Nebuchadnezzar  is  the  setting  up  of  the 
great  image  in  the  plain  of  Dura,  the  re- 
fusal of  Shadrach,  Meshach,  and  Abednego  to 
worship  it,  their  casting  into  the  fiery  furnace 
and  their  miraculous  preservation  there  from  all 
harm  (Dan.  3).  Towards  the  close  of  his  reign, 
as  a  punishment  for  his  pride  and  vanity, 
Nebuchadnezzar  was  afflicted  with  that  strange 
form  of  madness  which  the  Greeks  called 
lycanthropy,  wherein  the  sufferer  imagines 
himself  a  beast,  and,  quitting  the  haunts  of  men, 
insists  on  leading  the  life  of  a  beast  (Dan.  4.33). 
The  first  use  that  he  made  of  his  restored  reason 
was  to  acknowledge  the  justice  of  the  Almighty 


Ruler  of  men,  and  offer  a  song  of  praise  for 
the  mercy  vouchsafed  him.  He  died  at  an 
advanced  age,  having  reigned  forty-three  years. 
The  appearance  of  a  sort  ef  monotheism  (Dan. 
1.2,  4.24,32,34,37)  mixed  with  polytheism 
(Dan.  2.47,  3.12, 18,  29,  4.9)  in  the  Scriptural 
notices  of  Nebuchadnezzar  is  explained  by  his 
almost  exclusive  devotion  to  one  god  of  his 
country,  Merodach.  He  seems  at  some  times 
to  have  identified  Merodach  with  the  God  of  the 
Jews  (Dan.  4) ;  at  others  to  have  regarded 
Jehovah  as  one  of  the  local  and  inferior  deities 
(Dan.  3)  over  whom  Merodach  ruled. 

Nebush'asban,  Nebushaz'ban. — Nebo  delivers 
me:  one  of  the  officers  of  Nebuchadnezzar  at 
the  time  of  the  capture  of  Jerusalem.  He  was 
Rab-saris,  i.e.  chief  of  the  eunuchs,  or,  rather, 
chief  captain  (Jer.  39.13). 

Nebuzar'adan. — Nebo  hath  given  seed :  the 
high  officer  (captain  of  the  guard)  to  whom 
Nebuchadnezzar  committed  the  work  of  com- 
pleting the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  the 
pacification  of  Judsea  (Jer.  39.9-18,  40.1-6). 
His  conduct  to  Jeremiah  was  marked  by  wisdom 
and  kindness.  He  conducted  the  chief  people 
of  Jerusalem  to  his  master  at  Riblah  in  Syria 
(2  K.  25.18-20).  Five  years  later  Nebuzaradan 
again  passed  through  the  country,  and  carried 
off  745  more  captives  (Jer.  52.30). 

Ne'cho,  Ne'co. — The  personal  name  of  the 
Pharaoh  of  Egypt  who  fought  against  Nabo- 
polessar  in  the  days  of  King  Josiah,  and  after 
making  Eliakim  (or  Jehoiakim)  king  carried  off 
Jehoahaz,  his  brother,  to  Egypt  (2  Ch.  35.20, 
22,  36.4).  For  his  defeat  at  Carchemish,  see 
NEBUCHADNEZZAR. 

Necromancer.— [MAGIC.] 

Nedabi'ah. — Jehovah  gives  freely :  son  of 
Jeconiah,  or  Jehoiachin,  king  of  Judah 
(1  Ch.  3.18). 

Needle. — The  eye  of  a  needle  represents  the 
smallest  possible  opening.  Hence  our  Lord's 
use  of  the  very  hyperbolical  phrase  in  Malt. 
19.24  and  the  parallel  passages.  It  is  quite 
a  mistake  to  think  our  Lord  referred  to  a  small 
gate. 

Negeb.  — [  PALESTINE.  ] 

Negi'nah,  Negi'noth.— A  general  term  denot- 
ing all  stringed  instruments  (R.V.)  whatsoever, 
whether  played  with  the  hand,  like  the  harp 
and  guitar,  or  with  a  plectrum.  The  word  is 
found  in  the  titles  of  Ps.  4,  6,  54,  55,  61,  67,  76. 

Nehe'lamite,  The. — The  designation  of  She- 
maiah,  a  presumptuous  person  and  a  false 
prophet,  whom  God  reproved  by  the  mouth  of 
Jeremiah  (Jer.  29.24,  31,  32). 

Nehemi'ah. — Whom  Jehovah  comforts:  1.  The 
son  of  Hac(h)aliah,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and 
probably  of  the  house  of  David. 

Nothing  is  known  of  Nehemiah  except  what 
we  find  in  his  book.  He  makes  his  first  appear- 
ance at  Shushan,  the  principal  palace  of  the 
Persian  kings,  where  he  is  the  cupbearer  of 
Artaxerxes  Longimanus  (445  B.C.).  A  kinsman, 
Hanani,  had  headed  a  deputation  of  Jews  from 
Judxa,  and  had  given  him  an  account  of  the 


NEHEMIAH,  BOOK  OP] 


332 


[NEHUSHTAN 


deplorable  condition  of  his  countrymen  who 
had  been  allowed  to  return  to  Jerusalem. 
Nehemiah  w»*  greatly  distressed,  and  for  four 
months  besought  God's  blessing  upon  a  plan  that 
had  occurred  to  him,  viz.  to  go  in  person  to 
Jerusalem,  to  see  what  could  be  done  to  better  the 
miserable  conditions  of  its  inhabitants  (Neh.  1,  2). 
His  office  of  cupbearer  was  an  important  and 
lucrative  one,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  Nehe- 
miah was  a  wealthy  man  ;  for,  when  the  king 
consented  to  his  mission,  and  sent  his  favourite 
away  as  governor  of  Judaea,  Nehemiah  refused 
the  salary  of  his  office  because  of  the  poverty 
of  the  people. 

Nehemiah's  first  step  upon  reaching  the  city  of 
his  fathers  was  privately  to  examine  the  ruined 
defences,  and  plan  for  the  rebuilding  of  its 
walls,  a  defensive  measure  rendered  necessary 
by  the  disturbed  condition  of  the  neighbouring 
provinces.  For  under  the  rule  of  the  Persians 
one  province  was  frequently  at  war  with  another, 
little  heed  being  taken  of  such  disturbances 
by  the  central  government,  so  long  as  tribute 
and  taxes  did  not  suffer.  Such  was  Nehemiah's 
enthusiasm  that  he  induced  practically  the 
whole  of  the  people  to  bend  their  energies  to 
rebuilding  the  walls.  It  was  a  great  task,  but 
accomplished  in  two  months,  in  spite  of  the 
open  and  secret  opposition  of  the  rulers  of 
the  province  of  Samaria.  [SANBALLAT.]  The 
machinations  of  Sanballat  and  Tobiah  so  far 
succeeded  that  Nehemiah  was  recalled  to  the 
Persian  court  (or  else  his  leave  had  expired) 
(2.6,  13.6).  At  the  end  of  seven  years,  how- 
ever, the  interval  between  chapters  6  and  7, 
Nehemiah  was  back  again  in  Jerusalem,  repair- 
ing the  Temple  and  dedicating  the  walls.  On 
this  second  visit  he  provided  gates,  ordering 
their  times  of  opening  and  closing.  But  a  more 
important  affair  was  the  filling  of  the  nearly 
empty  and  desolate  city  with  a  new  population. 
This  he  accomplished  by  withdrawing  one  family 
in  ten  from  the  surrounding  country.  He  also 
took  a  census  of  the  people,  whom  he  caused 
to  be  made  acquainted  with  the  Law  [EZRA], 
and  collected  large  funds  for  the  repair  of  the 
Temple  and  the  sust  enance  of  its  services  (chaps. 
7  and  8).  He  stopped  the  exactions  of  the 
nobles,  the  usury  of  the  wealthy,  and  the  sell- 
ing many  of  his  poor  countrymen  into  slavery 
(chap.  5) ;  he  bound  the  people  by  a  solemn 
covenant  (chap.  9) ;  insisted  upon. the  sanctity  of 
the  Temple  being  preserved,  and  ejected  Tobias 
from  one  of  its  chambers,  which  Eleashib  had 
permitted  him  to  occupy.  He  also  removed 
from  service  in  the  Temple  priests  who  had  con- 
tracted marriages  with  heathen  women.  His 
last  recorded  public  act  was  his  strong  and 
resolute  effort  to  restore  the  Sabbath  to  the 
people  as  a  holy  day  and  a  day  of  rest  (13.15-20). 
[NEHEMIAH,  BOOK  OF.] 

2.  One  who  returned  from  Babylon  to  Jeru- 
salem with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.2;  Neh.  7.7). 
3.  The  son  of  Azbuk,  a  helper  in  rebuilding  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  3.16). 

Nehemiah,  Book  ot— In  the  canon  of    the 


Hebrew  Scriptures  this  book  formed  one  with 
that  of  Ezra.  When  early  Christian  writers 
divided  the  work,  they  spoke  of  Ezra  and  Nehe- 
miah as  the  First  and  Second  Books  of  Ezra. 
These  titles  were  used  in  the  first  English  ver- 
sions. The  Book  of  Nehemiah  includes  sections 
the  author  of  which  was  Nehemiah  himself 
(Neh.  1-7.73,  12.27-43,  13.4-31).  The  narrator 
speaks  in  the  first  person,  uses  some  character- 
istic phrases  (such  as  "  my  God  "  and  "  God  of 
heaven  "),  and  writes  in  a  style  more  vigorous 
than  that  of  Ezra.  Nehemiah,  or  the  compiler  of 
the  work,  incorporated  other  material,  such  as 
the  list*  of  those  who  built  the  wall  (Neh.  3), 
of  the  Jews  who  returned  with  Zerubbabel 
(Neh.  7.6-73),  and  those  who  sealed  the  covenant 
(Neh.  10.1-27),  of  dwellers  in  the  cities  (Neh. 
11.3-36),  and  of  priests  and  Levites  (Neh. 
12.1-26).  Either  the  compiler  or  the  editor  added 
the  section  Neh.  12.44-13.3.  The  latest  date 
assigned  to  the  book  is  suggested  by  the  refer- 
ence in  12.22  to  "  Darius  the  Persian,"  identified 
with  Darius  Codomannus  (336-331  B.C.).  If 
Nehemiah  was  himself  thf>  compiler  of  all,  as 
he  was  the  writer  of  the  memoirs ;  or  if,  as 
others  contend,  the  compiler  was  Ezra,  the 
later  date  would  only  apply  to  the  section  in 
which  it  occurs.  The  contents  of  the  book  are 
summarised  in  the  account  of  Nehemiah  (which 
see).  The  Books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  appear 
to  be  closely  related  to  the  Chronicles,  both  in 
regard  to  their  historical  treatment,  style,  and 
phraseology. 

The  personal  interest  of  the  book  is  great. 
Nehemiah  presents  a  noble  example  of  true 
patriotism,  founded  on  the  fear  of  God  (5.15), 
and  seeking  the  religious  welfare  of  the  state. 
His  respect  for  the  Divine  Law,  his  reverence 
for  the  Sabbath  (13.18),  his  devout  acknowledg- 
ment of  God  in  all  things  (1.11,  2.18),  his  practi- 
cal perception  of  God's  character  (4.14,  9.6-33), 
his  union  of  watchfulness  and  prayer  (4-9),  his 
humility  in  ascribing  all  good  in  himself  to  the 
grace  of  God  (2.12,  7.5),  are  all  highly  commend- 
able. Few  books  of  the  Bible,  indeed,  contain 
a  richer  illustration  of  true  religion  taught  by 
example. 

Nehi'loth.— This  is  thought  to  be  a  general 
term  for  perforated  wind  instruments  of  all 
kinds,  such  as  flutes  and  the  like.  It  occurs 
only  in  the  title  of  Ps.  5. 

NeTium. — Comfort :  one  of  those  who  returned 
from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  7.7).  In 
Ezra  2.2  he  is  called  Rehum. 

Nehush'ta. — Perhaps  connected  in  meaning 
with  the  following  word.  The  daughter  of  Elna- 
than  of  Jerusalem,  wife  of  King  Jehoiakim,  and 
mother  of  King  Jehoiachin  (2  K.  24.8). 

Nehush'tan.— A  brazen  thing,  or,  perhaps, 
serpent :  the  contemptuous  epithet  applied 
by  King  Hezekiah  to  the  brazen  serpent  made 
by  Moses  in  the  wilderness,  when  it  had  become 
an  object  of  worship  (2  K.  18.4).  The  memorial 
of  the  people's  deliverance  had,  in  the  lapse  of 
years,  acquired  a  superstitious  sanctity  which 
gave  rise  to  idolatrous  reverence.  The  people 


NEIEL] 


333 


[NETHINIM 


had  fallen  into  the  habit  of  burning  incense  to 
it  (2  K.  18.4). 

Nei'eL — A  boundary  town  of  Asher  (Josh. 
19.27). 

Ne'keb. — Cavern  or  pass  :  a  border  town  of 
Naphtali  (Josh.  19.33). 

Neko'da. — Herdsmen :  1.  A  person  whose 
descendants  returned  from  exile  with  Zerub- 
babel  (Ezra  2.48;  Neh.  7.50).  2.  Another, 
whose  descendants  were  unable  to  prove  their 
descent  from  Israel  (Ezra  2.60  ;  Neh.  7.62). 

Nemu'eL — Perhaps  1  and  2  are  the  same 
person.  1.  The  brother  of  Dathan  and  Abiram 
(Num.  26.9).  2.  The  eldest  son  of  Simeon  (Num. 
26.12 ;  1  Ch.  4.24),  from  whom  were  descended 
the  family  of  the  Nemuelites.  In  Gen.  46.10 
and  Ex.  6.15  he  is  called  Jemuel. 

Nemu'elites,  The.  —  The  descendants  of 
Nemuel,  the  first-born  of  Simeon  (Num.  26.12). 

Ne'pheg.— 1.  A  grandson  of  Kohath  (Ex.  6.21). 
2.  A  son  of  David  born  to  him  in  Jerusalem 
(2  Sam.  5.15 ;  1  Ch.  3.7,  14.6). 

Nephew.— Old  English  for  "grandchild" 
(Judg.  12.14;  1  Tim.  5.4),  or  "descendant" 
(Job  18.19  ;  Isai.  14.22). 

Nephilim. — The  R.V.  translation  of  giants  in 
Gen.  6.4;  Num.  13.33.  In  the  former  passage 
they  seem  to  represent  the  heroes,  or  demigods, 
of  the  heathen,  offspring  of  angelic  and  human 
parents;  in  the  latter,  perhaps  a  wider  use  of 
the  term,  expressive  only  of  unusual  size. 

Ne'phish.— [NAPHISH.] 

Nephi'shesim(ll.V.Nephushesim).— [NAPHISH.] 

Neph'thalim. — The  form  of  Naphtali  in  the 
A.V.  of  the  N.T.  (Matt.  4.13,  15 ;  Rev.  7.6). 

Nephto'ah. — Opening :  now  'Ain  'Atan. 
Spring  2£  miles  from  Jerusalem,  south  of  Bethle- 
hem, lying  north  of  the  road  to  Kirjath-jearim, 
on  the  boundary  between  Judah  and  Benjamin 
(Josh.  15.9,  18.15). 

Nephm'snn  (R.V.  Nephisim).— [NAPHISM.] 

Ner. — Light :  grandfather  of  King  Saul  and 
father  of  Abner,  who  was  thus  uncle  of  Saul 
as  well  as  his  chief  captain  (1  Sam.  14.50 ; 
2  Sam.  2.8  ;  1  K.  2.5  ;  1  Ch.  8.33).  The  family 
seat  of  Ner  was  at  Gibeon,  in  Benjamin  (1  Ch. 
9.35). 

Ne'reus.— A  Christian  at  Rome,  saluted  by 
Paul  (Rom.  16.15). 

Ner'gaL— Th«  god  of  war,  disease,  and  death 
in  the  Assyria*  and  Babylonian  mythology. 
The  men  of  Cutha,  placed  in  the  cities  of  Sam- 
aria by  the  king  of  Assyria,  worshipped  Nergal 
(2  K.  17.30)  under  the  symbol  of  "  the  man-lion.*' 
Cutha  or  Tiggaba,  specially  dedicated  to  Nergal, 
is  in  Arabian  tradition  the  city  par  excellence  of 
Nimrod,  and  fr«m  that  circumstance  it  has  been 
conjectured  that  Nergal  may  represent  the 
deified  Nimrod,  "  the  mighty  hunter  before  the 
Lord."  Sennacherib  built  a  temple  to  Nergal 
in  th«  city  of  Tarbisu,  near  Nineveh. 

Ner'gal-shar'eEer.--  Nergal,  defend  the  king! 
a  prince  of  Babylon,  bearing  the  title  Rab- 
mag,  i.e.  chief  soothsayer,  who  accompanied 
Nebuchadnezzar  on  his  last  expedition  against 
Jerusalem,  and  by  command  of  bis  master 


released  Jeremiah  from  prison  (Jer.  39.3,13). 
We  know  from  the  monuments  that  sub- 
sequently he  was  the  monarch  called  Nerig- 
lissar  or  Neriglissoor,  who  was  married  to  a 
daughter  of  the  king  of  Babylon,  murdered 
Evil-Merodach,  the  son  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  and 
succeeded  him  upon  the  throne.  A  palace 
built  by  Neriglissar  has  been  discovered  at 
Babylon.  In  Jer.  39.3  the  first  occurrence  of 
the  name  is  probably  due  to  a  copyist's  error. 

Ne'ri. — An  ancestor  of  Joseph  (Lk.  3.27). 

1'eri'ah. —  Jehovah  is  light:  father  of 
Baruch,  the  amanuensis  and  messenger  of  Jere- 
miah (Jer.  32.12)  and  of  Scraiah  (Jer.  51.59). 

Net. — The  Egyptians  made  their  nets  of 
flax-string,  using  a  netting  needle  of  wood ; 
and  as  the  nets  of  Egypt  were  well  known  to 
the  early  Jews  (Isai.  19.8),  the  form  and  material 
may  have  been  the  same  in  both  countries. 
The  nets  used  for  birds  in  Egypt  were  of 
two  kinds,  clap-nets  and  traps.  [FOWLER.]  The 
net  is  employed  as  an  image  of  the  subtle 
derices  of  the  enemies  of  God  on  one  hand 
(Ps.  9.15,  25.15,  31.4)  and  of  the  inevitable 
vengeance  of  God  on  the  other  hand  (Lam. 
1.13;  Ezek.  12.13;  Hos.  7.12).  It  is  also  used 
of  the  open  cord-like  work  of  the  capital  of  a 
pillar  (1  K.  7.17). 

Netha'neel,  Nethan'eL— God  gives:  1.  The 
representative  of  Issachar  among  those  whom 
Moses  sent  to  spy  out  the  land  of  Canaan  (Num. 
1.8,  2.5,  7.18,  23, 10.15).  2.  A  brother  of  David 
(1  Ch.  2.14).  3.  A  priest  who  helped  to  bring 
up  the  Ark  from  the  house  of  Obed-edom  (1  Ch. 
15.24).  4  A  Levite  (1  Ch.  24.6).  5.  A  son  of 
Obed-edom,  and  the  doorkeeper  of  the  Ark  (1  Ch. 
26.4).  6.  One  of  the  princes  of  Judah,  whom 
Jehoshaphat  sent  to  teach  in  the  cities  of  his 
kingdom  (2  Ch.  17.7).  7.  A  chief  of  the  Levites 
in  the  reign  of  Josiah,  who  took  part  in  the 
solemn  passover  kept  by  that  king  (2  Ch.  35.9). 
8.  One  who  returned  from  captivity  with  Ezra 
and  had  taken  a  foreign  wife  (Ezra  10.22).  9.  A 
priest  (Neh.  12.21).  10.  A  Levite  who  took 
part  in  the  musical  services  at  the  dedication 
of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  under  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah  (Neh.  12.36). 

Nethani'ah.— Jehovah  gives:  1.  The  father 
of  Ishmael,  who  slew  Gedaliah,  whom  Nebuchad- 
nezzar had  left  governor  in  the  land  (2  K.  25.23, 
25;  Jer.  40.8,14,15,  41.1-18).  2.  A  chief 
singer  in  the  Temple  choir  in  the  days  of  David 
(1  Ch.  25.2, 12).  3.  A  Leyite  whom  Jehoshaphat 
sent  to  teach  the  law  of  Jehovah  in  the  cities 
of  Judah  (2  Ch.  17.8).  4.  Father  of  Jehudi 
(Jer.  36.14). 

Nethi'nim. — Given,  dedicated:  persons  dedi- 
cated to  the  service  »f  the  Tabernacle  and  the 
Temple,  to  perform  the  most  laborious  offices, 
as  carrying  of  wood  and  water.  At  first  Midianites 
were  destined  to  this  station  (Num.  31.30,  47) ; 
then  GibeoniUfi  (J»sh.  9.27) ;  afterwards  it  fell 
to  the  Canaantt«s.  They  were  made  to  conform 
to  the  religion  of  their  conquerors.  In  later 
times  slaves  were  devoted  by  David,  Solomon, 
and  other  princes  to  the  service  of  the  Temple  N 


NETOPHAH] 


334        [NEW  TESTAMENT,  TEXT  OF 


(Ezra  2.58,  8.20).  The  Nethinim  were  carried 
into  captivity  with  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  great 
numbers  were  placed  not  far  from  the  Caspian 
Sea,  whence  Ezra  brought  220  of  them  into 
Judzea  (Ezra  8.17).  Those  who  followed 
Zerubbabel  made  up  392  (Nek.  3.26).  The 
Nethinim  up  to  this  time  had  been  a  servile 
and  subject  caste ;  but  owing  to  the  great 
demand  after  the  Exile  for  such  services  as  they 
rendered,  and  the  small  supply  of  Nethinim 
to  meet  the  demand,  they  rose  into  considerably 
enhanced  consideration.  Like  the  priests  and 
Levites  they  were  exempted  from  taxation  by 
the  Persian  satraps  (Ezra  7.24).  They  were 
under  the  control  of  a  chief  of  their  own  body 
(Ezra  2.43;  Neh.  7.46).  They  took  an  active 
part  in  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  3.26), 
and  the  tower  of  Ophel,  convenient  from  its 
proximity  to  the  Temple,  was  assigned  to  some 
of  them  as  a  residence  (Neh.  11.21),  while  others 
dwelt  with  the  Levites  in  their  cities  (Ezra  2.70). 
They  took  their  place  in  the  chronicles  of  the 
time  as  next  in  order  to  the  Levites  (1  Ch.  9.2). 

Neto'phah. — Dripping  :  perhaps  referring 
to  balsam  trees.  A  town  of  Judah,  near 
Bethlehem.  From  the  use  of  the  word  and  its 
derivative,  Netophathite,  we  see  that  it  was  the 
residence  of  two  of  David's  guard,  of  one  of  the 
captains  who  resorted  to  Gedaliah,  of  Levites, 
and  of  singers  who  returned  from  Captivity 
(2  Sam.  23.28,  29  ;  2  K.  25.23 ;  1  Ch.  9.16, 
11.20,  27.13, 15  ;  Ezra  2.22  ;  Neh.  7.26,  12.28  ; 
Jer.  40.8). 

Netopha'thi,  Netophathite.  —  Inhabitant  of 
Netophah.  [NETOPHAH.] 

Nettle. — A  plant  associated  with  thorns  and 
brambles  as  an  inhabitant  of  waste  and  neglected 
spots.  The  outcasts  of  Job's  days  "  were 
gathered  together  under  nettles "  (Job  30.7), 
and  such  weeds  grow  to  a  height  of  six  feet 
near  the  Dead  Sea.  Solomon  noticed  the  garden 
of  the  slothful,  "  it  was  all  grown  over  with 
thorns,  and  nettles  had  covered  the  face  thereof  " 
(Prov.  24.31).  Four  species  of  nettle  occur  in 
Palestine,  including  the  small,  the  Roman,  and 
the  common  stinging  nettle  of  the  British  Isles. 

New  Moon. — The  first  day  of  the  lunar 
month  was  observed  as  a  holy  day  (Num. 
28.11-15).  Trade  and  handicraft-work  were 
stopped  (Amos  8.5),  and  the  Temple  was  opened 
for  public  worship  (Isai.  66.23 ;  Ezek.  46.3). 
That  it  was  an  occasion  for  state-banquets  may 
be  inferred  from  David's  regarding  himself  as 
specially  bound  to  sit  at  the  king's  table  at 
the  new  moon  (1  Sam.  20.5-24).  We  do  not 
know  how  the  commencement  of  the  month 
was  ascertained  in  the  early  times,  but  at  the 
later  period  it  was  the  custom  that  on  the 
30th  day  of  the  month  watchmen  were  placed 
on  commanding  heights  round  Jerusalem  to 
watch  the  sky.  As  soon  as  any  one  of  them 
detected  the  moon  he  hastened  to  a  house  in 
the  city,  which  was  kept  for  the  purpose,  and 
was  there  examined  by  the  President  of  the 
Sanhedrin.  If  the  testimony  of  this  witness 
was  accepted,  the  President  rose  up  and  formally 


announced  that  the  day  was  consecrated. 
The  information  was  spread  throughout  the 
land  by  beacon  fires.  When  the  moon  was 
not  visible  on  account  of  clouds,  the  month 
was  considered  to  commence  on  the  morning  of 
the  day  which  followed  the  30lh. 

New  Testament,  Text  of.— The  differences 
between  the  two  great  English  versions  of  the 
N.T.— the  A.V.  of  1611  and  the  R.V.  of  1881— 
are  (1)  differences  in  translation  of  the  same 
Greek  text  and  (2)  differences  in  the  text  trans- 
lated. It  is  with  the  latter  that  this  brief  Article 
is  concerned.  In  the  Rules  originally  laid  down 
for  the  guidance  of  the  Revisers  it  was  stipu- 
lated, "  That  the  Text  to  be  adopted  be  that 
for  which  the  evidence  is  decidedly  preponder- 
ating ;  and  that  when  the  Text  so  adopted 
differs  from  that  from  which  the  Authorised 
Version  was  made,  the  alteration  be  indicated 
in  the  margin."  This  care  for  a  time-honoured 
but  uncritical  text  of  the  Greek  Testament 
was  further  emphasised  by  the  rule  that  every 
departure  from  it  must  be  agreed  to  by  a  two- 
thirds  majority.  But  even  so  it  soon  became 
evident  that  the  most  capacious  margin  would 
not  suffice  to  advise  the  English  reader  of  the 
changes  found  necessary :  these  were  ulti- 
mately printed  "  in  connexion  with  complete 
Greek  texts  of  the  N.T.,  "  the  margin  of  the 
English  R.V.  being  reserved  for  cases  of  doubt,  in 
which  a  reading  not  adopted  in  the  text  can 
claim  more  or  less  support  from  "  ancient 
authorities."  Further,  the  rule  already 
quoted,  while  containing  an  implicit  reference 
to  a  standard  printed  text  (virtually  that  of 
Robert  Stephens,  1550),  requires  that  the 
"  evidence  "  is  to  be  followed  when  "  decidedly 
preponderating."  This  was  interpreted  by  the 
Revisers  as  "an  instruction  to  follow  the 
authority  of  documentary  evidence  without 
deference  to  any  printed  text  of  modern  tunes, 
and  therefore  to  employ  the  best  resources  of 
criticism  for  estimating  the  value  of  evidence." 
In  view  of  this  immense  but  inevitable  extension 
of  their  proper  task  of  "  a  revision  of  the 
Authorised  Version,"  it  is  no  wonder  that  they 
add  (in  the  Preface  to  the  R.V.),  "Textual 
Criticism,  as  applied  to  the  Greek  N.T.,  forms 
a  special  study  of  much  intricacy  and  difficulty, 
and  even  now  leaves  room  for  considerable 
variety  of  opinion  among  competent  critics." 

But  the  result  of  nearly  thirty  years'  joint 
labour  in  this  field  by  two  members  of  the 
Company  of  Revisers  was  available  to  lighten 
the  task,  if  not  the  responsibility.  Each  Re- 
viser was  furnished  with  advance  sheets  of 
the  Greek  Testament  of  Drs.  Westcott  and 
Hort,  afterwards  published,  with  Dr.  Hort's 
elaborate  Introduction,  within  a  few  months  of 
the  R.V.  itself.  The  intrinsic  merits  of  this 
critical  text,  explained  and  defended  by  its 
authors,  so  far  prevailed  that  to  a  very  large 
extent  the  R.V.  is  a  translation  of  WH,  though 
many  of  their  more  important  variants  from 
the  traditional  text  appear  only  as  alternative 
readings  in  the  R.V.  margin. 


NEW  TESTAMENT,  TEXT  OF]        335       [NEW  TESTAMENT,  TEXT  OF 


The  fact,  thus  brought  home  to  the  reader 
of  the  English  N.T.,  of  divergencies  in  the 
underlying  Greek  text,  suggests  an  inquiry 
into  the  history  of  the  text.  What  are  the 
documentary  sources,  and  how  may  these  be  so 
compared  that  corrupt  readings  may  be  elimin- 
ated and  the  true  text  recovered  ?  Only  tho 
briefest  survey  can  be  here  attempted. 

1.  THE  MATEBIALS  OF  TEXTUAL  CRITICISM. 

(a)  Greek  Manuscripts. — The  primary  evidence 
for  the  text  of  the  N.T.  writings  is  contained  in  the 
MSS.  by  which  those  writings  were  transmitted 
during  the  period  between  the  Apostolic  auto- 
graphs and  the  first  printed  Greek  Testament 
(1514  :  see  below).  These  MSS.  fall  into  two 
classes,  according  to  the  character  of  the  hand- 
writing. Prior  to  the  ninth  century  they  were 
written  in  capitals  (Uncials  or  Majuscula) ; 
later,  the  running  hand  of  commercial  or  ordinary 
correspondence  was  adopted  for  literary  use 
(Cursives  or  Minuscula).  The  older,  or  Uncial 
MSS.,  are,  for  convenience,  designated  by  the 
capital  letters  of  the  English,  Greek,  and  Hebrew 
Alphabets ;  the  later  and  more  numerous 
Cursives  by  the  Arabic  numerals.  Thus  A 
is  the  Codex  Alexandrinus  (codex  =  MS.)  of 
Cent,  v.,  British  Museum ;  B  is  the  Codex 
Vaticanus,  Cent,  iv.,  Vatican  Library  ;  tt 
(Heb.  Aleph)  is  the  Codex  Sinaiticus,  Cent,  iv., 
St.  Petersburg  ;  D  (Gospels  and  Acts  only)  is 
the  Codex  Bezae,  Cent,  vi.,  Cambridge ;  Da 
(St.  Paul's  Epistles)  is  the  Codex  Claromontanus, 
Cent,  vi.,  Paris,  and  so  on.  The  Cursive  MSS. 
of  various  parts  of  the  N.T.  are  similarly  known 
as  1,  2,  3,  etc. 

This  system  of  notation  for  the  Greek  MSS. 
was,  of  necessity,  gradually  developed  as  fresh 
material  was  discovered  and  incorporated,  and 
came  to  be  in  many  respects  inconvenient  and 
anomalous.  It  has  recently  been  revised  by 
Dr.  Gregory  of  Leipzig  (1908)  in  consultation 
with  N.T.  scholars  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
and  may  conveniently  be  studied  in  Professor 
Alexander  Souter's  edition  of  the  Greek  Testa- 
ment (see  below). 

As  the  old  system,  thus  revised,  seems  likely 
to  be  generally  adopted,  a  brief  reference  will 
suffice  to  an  entirely  new  notation  devised  by 
Professor  H.  von  Soden  (also  given  in  Professor 
Souter's  list  of  the  Greek  MSS.).  Ignoring 
the  distinction  between  Uncials  and  Cursives,  he 
assigns  to  each  MS.  a  number,  which  serves  not 
only  to  identify  it,  but  to  indicate  its  approxi- 
mate date  and,  in  part,  its  contents,  whether  the 
whole  N.T.,  the  Gospels,  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul, 
the  Acts  and  the  Catholic  Epistles,  the  Apoca- 
lypse, or  various  combinations  of  the  books. 
And  as  the  MSS.  broadly  fall  into  three  classes 
according  as  they  are  MSS.  of  the  whole  N.T.,  of 
the  Gospels,  or  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles,  he  prefixes 
to  each  number  the  initial  letter  of  the  Greek 
word  for  Testament  (5),  Gospel  (e),  or  Apostle 
(a).  Thus,  to  instance  the  Uncials  named 
above,  A  becomes  8  4,  B— II,  K— 5  2,  D— 5  5, 
D2— a  1026.  For  further  details  the  student 
must  be  referred  to  recent  works  on  Textual 


Criticism  (especially  by  Kenyon,  Souter,  and 
Lake). 

These  MSS.  of  the  Greek  Testament  are  found 
to  fall  into  a  few  well-defined  groups,  repre- 
senting different  lines  of  transmission  of  the 
text.  There  is  a  certain  presumption  in  favour 
of  the  more  ancient,  but  this  is  qualified  by  the 
fact  that  the  earliest  surviving  MS.  is  not  earlier 
than  the  fourth  century,  when  the  text  had 
already  suffered  the  corruptions  incident  to  a 
long  period  of  transmission. 

(b)  Versions. — The  gap  between  the  earliest 
MSS.  and  the  autographs  may  be  in  some 
measure  bridged  by  the  earlier  evidence  of  the 
ancient  Versions  of  the  N.T.  For  already  in  the 
second  century  the  N.T.  writings  had  been 
translated  into  Syriac  (the  vernacular  of 
Palestine  and  adjacent  regions),  and  into  Latin 
for  the  Christians  of  Carthage  and  the  West ; 
a  little  later,  Egypt  had  these  Scriptures  in  her 
own  dialects.  The  extant  MSS.  (of  course 
themselves  of  later  date)  of  these  versions  or 
portions  of  them  enable  us  to  reconstruct  in  a 
measure  the  Greek  text  of  the  second  or  third 
century  on  which  they  are  based,  and  thus  afford 
indirect  evidence  of  considerably  earlier  date 
than  the  direct  evidence  contained  in  our 
earliest  Greek  MSS.  In  the  larger  variants 
the  evidence  of  the  Versions  assumes  great 
importance  :  they  tell  us  decisively,  for  example, 
whether  the  current  Greek  texts  of  the  time 
contained  the  last  twelve  verses  of  St.  Mark, 
or  St.  John  7.53-8.11,  or  the  baptismal  formula 
of  Acts  8.37.  But  in  lesser  variations  a  trans- 
lation cannot  always  indicate  with  precision 
the  underlying  original.  Moreover,  the  versions 
have,  like  the  MSS.  of  the  Greek  itsalf,  suffered 
corruption  in  the  process  of  transmission : 
the  true  text  of  the  version  itself  has  to  be 
recovered  from  evidence,  often  fragmentary 
and  obscure,  before  the  version  can  be  used 
with  confidence.  The  more  important  Versions 
available  for  Textual  Criticism  are  the  following : — 

(1)  Latin.—  The  Old  Latin  (the  MSS.  of  which 
are   indicated   by  small  letters,   a,   b,   c,  etc.) 
and  the  extant  MSS.  of  the  Vulgate  or  Jerome's 
revision  of  the  Old  Latin,  completed  in  386. 

(2)  Syriac. — The    great    majority    of    Syriac 
MSS.  of  the  N.T.  contain  a  text  known  as  the 
Peshitto  (simple)  Version,  of  which  the  HarJclean 
is  a  later  revision.     But  an  earlier  translation 
of  the  Gospels  into  Syriac  survives  in  two  MSS., 
one   of   fragments  only,  published   in  1858  by 
Dr.  Cureton  (the  Curetonian  Syriac),  and  one, 
fairly    complete,    discovered    by    Mrs.    Lewis 
in  the  monastery  of   St.   Catherine  on  Mount 
Sinai  in  1892  (the  Sinaitic  Syriac).     Both  these 
MSS.   are  of  the  fifth  century.     Whether  the 
Syriac  text  underlying  the  gospel  harmony  of 
Tatian    (the    Diatessaron,  made   in   the   second 
century,    extant    only    in    Armenian,    Arabic, 
and     Latin    translations)    is    directly    related 
to  the  Old  Syriac,  either  as  using  it  or  used 
by  it,  or  whether  it  represents  an  independent 
translation  from  the  Greek,  is  still  matter  of 
discussion. 


NEW  TESTAMENT,  TEXT  OF]       336        [NEW  TESTAMENT,  TEXT  OF 


(3)  Egyptian. — The  various  dialects  of  Egypt 
are  represented  by  MSS.,  many  fragmentary 
only,  in  the  Bohairic  (sometimes  called  Coptic 
or  Memphitic),  current  in  Lower  or  Northern 
Egypt  and  the  Sahidic  (or  Thebaic)  of  Upper 
Egypt.  For  a  long  time  the  Sahidic  version 
was  only  known  by  fragments,  but  of  late  years 
materials  have  so  accumulated  as  to  enable  the 
Rev.  G.  W.  Homer  to  follow  up  his  edition  of  the 
Bohairic  N.T.  (vols.  1  and  2, 1898  ;  vols.  3  and  4, 
1905)  by  one  of  the  Sahidic  (vols.  1-3  containing 
the  Gospels,  1911).  Still  more  recently  (1912) 
there  were  discovered  in  Egypt,  and  acquired  by 
Mr.  J.  Pierpont  Morgan,  complete  MSS.  in  this 
dialect  of  St.  Matthew,  St.  Mark,  and  St.  John  : 
of  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  and  of  the  Catholic 
Epistles  (except  St.  James  and  St.  Jude). 

Later  Versions  are  the  Armenian,  the  Ethiopic, 
and  the  Gothic. 

(c)  Patristic  Citations. — The  writings  of  the 
Church  Fathers  of  the  second,  third,  and  fourth 
centuries  abound  in  quotations  from  the  N.T. 
books.  It  is  possible,  therefore,  to  determine 
the  type  of  Greek  text  current  at  the  time  and 
place  of  each,  directly  in  the  case  of  Greek 
Fathers,  indirectly  in  the  case  of  Fathers  of  the 
Latin  or  Syriac  Church.  The  special  contri- 
bution of  this  evidence  to  the  method  of  Textual 
Criticism  will  be  noted  below.  Meanwhile 
two  obvious  considerations  point  to  caution 
in  its  use:  (1)  As  MSS.  of  the  N.T.  were  scarce, 
bulky,  and  wholly  without  guides  to  "  chapter 
and  verse,"  quotation  was  generally  made  from 
memory.  (2)  The  MSS.  of  Patristic  writings 
have,  of  course,  been  subject  to  the  errors 
incident  to  transmission  by  successire  copying. 
Especially  in  the  case  of  Scripture  quotations 
would  a  scribe  be  likely  to  alter  an  unfamiliar 
form  to  the  text  current  where  the  copy  was 
made. 

2.  THE  METHODS  OP  TEXTUAL  CRITICISM. 

(1)  Internal  Evidence. — Given  two  variant  read- 
ings (e.g.  Lk.  2.14,  "  peace  on  earth,  among  men 
goodwill,"  "  peace  on  earth  among  men  of 
goodwill,"  where  the  difference  of  a  single 
letter  in  th«  Greek  word  for  "  goodwill " 
radically  alters  both  the  rhythm  and  the  meaning 
of  the  angels'  song),  the  short  and  easy  method 
is  to  appeal  to  intrinsic  probability.  Which  of 
the  two,  having  regard  to  the  sense  and  to  the 
general  usage  of  the  author,  do  we  think  more 
likely  to  be  original  ?  If  in  making  our  choice 
we  can  further  show  how  the  alternative  read- 
ing may  hare  arisen  through  some  observed 
tendency  of  the  copyists  to  error,  intentional 
or  unintentional,  our  appeal  to  intrinsic  proba- 
bility is  reinforced  by  transcriptional  probability, 
and  a  fair  measure  of  certainty  may  often  be 
attained.  The  errors  of  the  scribes  have  been 
noted  and  classified :  rough  generalisations 
upon  the  observed  facts  constitute  such  well- 
known  Canons  of  Criticism  as  "  The  more 
difficult  reading  is  to  be  preferred,"  or  "  The 
shorter  reading  is  to  be  preferred." 

But  such  a  method  is  too  subjective  to  be 
reliable ;  it  increases  in  difficulty  when  the 


variants  are  more  than  two,  or  are  not  sharply 
distinguished  in  point  of  intrinsic  fitness. 
Moreover,  each  reading  is  attested  by  its  own 
array  of  witnesses,  and  to  choose  on  internal 
grounds  alone  would  be  to  dismiss  the  witnesses 
unheard. 

(2)  External  Evidence. — It  is  obvious  that 
the  witnesses  to  a  reading  (whether  Greek 
MSS.,  Versions,  or  Patristic  citations)  must  not 
be  counted,  but  weighed.  Mere  numbers  of 
attesting  documents  go  for  nothing  ;  they  may 
be  only  the  numerous  descendants  of  a  corrupt 
parent-document.  The  age  of  a  document 
does  count  for  something,  but  for  the  reason 
noted  above  mere  age  is  not  decisive  ;  and  the 
oldest  witnesses  may  and  do  disagree.  The 
problem  is  to  weigh  the  witnesses  according  to 
the  age  and  intrinsic  g«odness  of  the  text  which 
they  contain,  a  difficult  and,  indeed,  impossible 
task,  had  we  to  deal  with  the  multitude  of 
witnesses  singly.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  they  are 
found  to  fall  into  a  few  well-defined  groups/  the 
members  of  each  holding  together,  with  more  or 
less  consistency,  in  support  of  the  same  variants. 
And  since  identity  of  readings  means  identity 
of  origin,  the  existence  of  these  groups  points 
to  different  lines  of  transmission,  deflecting,  all 
but  one,  from  the  archetype.  To  determine 
these  lines  and  to  choose  between  them  is  to 
apply  the  genealogical  method,  and  so  to  get 
surely  upon  the  track  of  the  true  text.  The 
classic  exposition  of  this  method  is  contained 
in  Dr.  Hort's  Introduction  already  referred  to  ; 
its  results  in  the  determination  of  the  critical 
text  of  WH  may  be  briefly  summarised — 

(i)  The  Received  or  Traditional  Text, 
dominant  in  printed  editions  of  the  Greek 
Testament  from  1514  to  1831,  and  even  later— 
the  only  text  issued  by  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  till  1904— has  the  support  of  the 
immense  majority  of  Greek  MSS.  (the  later 
uncials  and  the  cursires).  In  estimating  its 
claim  to  originality  it  is  a  rital  question  to  ask, 
How  early  do  its  characteristic  readings  appear 
in  Patristic  citations  ?  Dr.  Hort's  decisive 
answer — and  this  is  the  pivot  of  his  whole 
argument — is,  Not  before  the  writings  of 
Chrysostom  and  his  contemporaries,  in  the 
second  half  of  the  fourth  century.  Earlier 
Fathers  use  other  types  of  text,  and  the 
conclusion  is  reached,  supported  by  other 
considerations,  that  the  text  which  became 
dominant  from  350  onwards  is  not  original  but 
secondary,  arising  probably  from  authoritative 
revision  of  the  then  current  conflicting  texts, 
carried  out  in  some  Greek-speaking  centre  of  the 
Syrian  Church  (for  the  attesting  Fathers  are 
mainly  of  Antioch  in  Syria)  between  250  and 
350  A.D.  This  late  or  revised  text  is  styled 
"Syrian"  from  its  birthplace,  and  it  follows  that 
the  documents  attesting  it  are  to  be  set  aside  in 
favour  of  those  containing  one  or  other  of  the 
"  pre-Syritm"  texts.  If  this  argument  is  sound, 
the  great  mass  of  witnesses  are  at  once  put  out 
of  court,  and  the  "  received  text "  is  hopelessly 
discredited. 


NEW  TESTAMENT,  TEXT  OF]        337        [NEW  TESTAMENT,  TEXT  OF 


(ii)  Further,  the  "  pre-Syrian  "  texts  fall  under 
two  distinct  types,  one  found  in  some  bilingual 
MSS.  (Greek  and  Latin),  evidently  made  for 
the  Church  in  the  West,  and  also  underlying 
other  Latin  Versions :  hence  called  Western, 
although  citations  prore  that  the  same  type 
was  early  current  in  the  East  also.  For  reasons 
given,  this  "  Western  "  text  is  also  pronounced 
suspect,  and  the  true  text  is  to  be  sought  in 
documents  which  are  at  once  "  pro-Syrian " 
and  "  non- Western."  Some  of  these,  again, 
agreeing  with  citations  by  Fathers  of  Alexandria, 
are  thought  to  show  traces  of  revision  by  the 
refined  scholarship  of  the  schools  of  Alexandria, 
and  we  are  left  finally  dependent  upon  a  small 
company  of  witnesses  who  hare  escaped 
corruption,  whether  Syrian,  Western,  «r  Alex- 
andrian, and  who  therefore  merit  the  term 
"  neutral."  These  prove  to  be,  in  the  main,  our 
two  oldest  MSS.,  the  Vatican  and  the  Sinaitic 
(B  and  x),  supported  by  the  Bohairic  Version 
of  Lower  Egypt  and  by  quotations  in  Origen. 
Virtually  the  text  adopted  by  WH  and,  sub- 
stantially, by  the  R.V..  is  that  of  x  B,  or,  if 
these  differ,  that  of  B,  even  when  confronted  by 
a  host  of  contrary  witnesses.  In  tabular  form 
the  classification  and  elimination  of  the  evidence 
is  as  follows  : — 

Existing  texts  (MSS.,  Versions,  Fathers)  are — 


Syrian 

\ 
pre-Syrian 

Western         Non-1 

SVeste 
I 

I  I 

Alexandrian    NEUTRAL 

It  should  be  added  that  in  its  main  features 
the  theory  and  consequent  text  of  WH  have 
weathered  the  criticism  of  the  thirty  years  since 
publication,  with  some  reservation  as  to  the 
claims  of  Western  witnesses  to  be  heard.  At 
any  rate,  the  power  of  the  "  received  text  "  is 
finally  broken,  and  a  "  critical  text,"  not  greatly 
differing  from  that  of  WH,  is  firmly  established. 

It  should  be  added  that  von  Soden,  whose 
new  notation  for  the  MSS.  has  been  already 
mentioned,  has  long  been  engaged  upon  a  fresh 
investigation  of  the  textual  evidence,  with 
results  which  partly  confirm  and  partly  diverge 
from  those  reached  by  WH.  As  worked  out  for 
the  Gospels  his  theory  is  briefly  as  follows : — 

The  existing  MSS.  fall  into  three  main  groups, 
each,  he  believes,  due  to  a  recension  or  revision. 
To  these  he  gives  the  symbols  K,  H,  I,  the 
initial  letters  of  the  Greek  words  for  common, 
Hesychius,  and  Jerusalem.  The  K  group 
roughly  corresponds  to  the  Syrian  of  WH  :  it 
is  the  "  common  "  text  of  the  great  bulk  of 
extant  MSS.,  and  (as  suggested  by  WH)  is  to 
be  connected  with  the  name  of  Lucian  of 
Antioch  (t  312),  who  is  known  to  have  carried 
out  a  critical  revision  of  the  text  of  the  LXX. 

Group    H    represents    a    revision   of   earlier 

22 


texts  current  in  Egypt,  identified  by  von 
Soden  with  the  revision  of  Hesychius  of  Alex- 
andria, several  times  referred  to  by  Jerome. 
This  group  is  virtually  the  Neutral  and  Alex- 
andrian of  WH.  Between  these  von  Soden 
does  not  discriminate,  and  another  important 
point  of  divergence  from  WH  is  that  B  and  N 
lose  their  neutral  character  and  B  its  pre- 
dominance ;  both  are  simply  outstanding 
representatives  of  a  revised,  and  therefore 
secondary,  text. 

Group  I  contains,  in  the  main,  the  authorities 
designated  by  WH  as  Western.  But  instead 
of  dismissing  these  witnesses  as  corrupt,  von 
Soden  extracts  from  them  a  common  original 
I,  which  represents  an  even  purer  text  than  H ; 
it  is  the  text  used  by  Eusebius  of  Caesarea  and 
Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  and  was  probably  published 
in  Palestine. 

Behind  these  three  types  of  text — K,  H,  and  I 
— there  lies  the  common  original  from  which 
they  hare  severally  diverged,  designated  by  von 
Soden  I  —  H  —  K.  This  can  be  reconstructed 
and  traced  back  to  Origen  (t  248).  The  crucial 
test  remains  of  comparing  this  early  text,  so  re- 
covered, with  that  underlying  the  still  earlier 
Old  Syriac  and  Old  Latin  Versions,  and  with 
the  quotations  of  the  Early  Fathers.  The  com- 
parison reveals  many  variations,  which,  with 
their  sinister  influence  on  the  I,  H,  and  K  types 
of  text,  von  Soden  attributes  to  Tatian  in  the 
compilation  of  the  Greek  text  of  his  Diatessaron. 
If  we  can  get  rid  of  the  variations  introduced 
by  him  into  the  I  —  H  —  K  text,  we  recover  the 
Greek  Gospels  as  they  were  read  about  the 
middle  of  the  second  century.  The  broad  out- 
lines of  this  new  history  of  the  text,  its  elabora- 
tion in  infinite  detail  for  the  Gospels,  and  its 
application  to  the  rest  of  the  N.T.,  still  await 
the  searching  scrutiny  of  scholarship. 

3.  SOME  PRINTED  EDITIONS  OP  THE  GREEK 
TESTAMENT. 

The  first  printed  G.T.  (1514)  was  that  con- 
tained in  the  great  Complutensian  Polyglot :  in 
publication  this  was  anticipated  by  the  edition 
hastily  prepared  by  Erasmus  and  issued  in 
1516.  No  ancient  authorities  were  used,  the 
text  being  in  general  that  contained  in  MSS. 
from  the  tenth  century  and  onward.  Yet  to 
this  uncritical  text  subsequent  editors  adhered, 
even  while  accumulating  variants  from  earlier 
authorities  and,  in  their  margins,  adopting  other 
readings.  In  large  measure  this  permanence 
was  secured  through  the  successive  editions  of 
Robert  Stephens,  Beza,  and  the  Elzevirs. 
Stephens'  folio  edition  of  1550  became  the 
standard  text  for  England,  those  of  the  brothers 
Elzevir  1624  and  1633,  based  on  Stephens  and 
Beza  (1565),  the  standard  for  the  Continent. 
In  the  preface  to  the  1633  Elzevir  the  reader  is 
assured  that  he  now  possesses  "  the  text  re- 
ceived by  all  "  :  hence  the  unhappy  phrase, 
"  The  Received  Text  "  (Tcxtus  Receptus,  con- 
veniently referred  to  as  TR).  In  the  later 
editions  of  Walton  (1657),  John  Mill  (1707), 
Bengel  (1734),  and  pre-eminently  of  Griesbach 


NEW  YEAR] 


338 


[NIGHT-HAWK 


(1774-1806),  we  have  steady  advance  both  in  the 
gathering  of  fresh  materials  and  in  the  develop- 
ment of  critical  principles.  Not  till  1831, 
however,  was  the  inevitable  step  taken  of 
ignoring  the  TR  and  relying  directly  and  solely 
on  ancient  authority.  This  pioneer  of  modern 
critical  editions  was  due  to  Karl  Lachmann, 
and  was  followed  by  the  Greek  Testament 
of  Tregelles  (1857-1879)  and  by  the  successive 
editions  of  Tischendorf  (1841-1872),  whose 
final  or  eighth  edition  is  still  invaluable  for 
its  full  digest  of  variant  readings,  with  the 
attesting  authorities.  On  a  much  smaller  scale, 
but  with  many  additions  from  more  recent 
knowledge,  is  the  edition  of  the  Revisers'  Greek 
Text  by  Professor  Alexander  Souter  (Oxford, 
1910).  This  small  volume  for  the  first  time 
makes  accessible  to  the  ordinary  student  of  the 
Greek  Testament  the  actual  evidence  (MSS., 
Versions,  and  Fathers)  for  the  more  important 
variants.  It  is  prefaced  by  a  full  list  (with  dates) 
of  the  authorities  cited — Uncials  and  Cursives 
(according  to  Gregory's  notation  and  that  of  von 
Soden),  Versions,  and  Fathers.  When  the  student 
has  mastered  the  symbols  employed  to  effect  a 
miracle  of  condensation,  he  will  find  this  edition 
invaluable.  The  Greek  Testament  and  Intro- 
el  uction  of  Westcott  and  Hort  (1881)  have 
already  been  noticed :  later  workers  in  the 
same  field  are  Bernhard  Weiss  and  von  Soden. 

Convenient  "  resultant "  Greek  Texts  (i.e. 
texts  following  the  majority  of  selected  critical 
editions)  have  been  issued  by  Dr.  Richard 
Weymouth  and  by  Professor  Nestle.  The  last 
named  prepared  for  the  Centenary  of  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society  (1904)  a  critical  text 
based  on  the  ag"eement  of  two  at  least  of  three 
authorities,  Tischendorf,  WH,  and  Bernhard 
Weiss.  The  edition  with  "  apparatus "  gives 
readings  from  the  TR  and  the  Greek  underlying 
the  RV. 

The  story  has  been  but  briefly  sketched.  Its 
fuller  details  only  deepen  grateful  sense  of  the 
quiet  ways  of  God's  providence  in  preserving 
through  the  centuries  these  records  of  Christ 
and  His  Apostles,  in  documents  far  more 
numerous  than  those  extant  of  any  other  ancient 
book  ;  and  of  the  debt  due  to  the  persistent  and 
often  thankless  toil  of  many  workers  which 
has  secured  for  us  the  priceless  heritage  of  our 
N.T.  The  variants  are  very  numerous,  far  more 
than  the  30,000  reckoned  by  Bentley  (1720). 
But  we  may  still  say  with  him,  "  Even  put 
them  into  the  hands  of  a  knave  or  a  fool,  and 
yet  with  the  most  sinistrous  and  absurd  choice 
he  shall  not  extinguish  the  light  of  any  one 
chapter,  nor  so  disguise  Christianity  but  that 
every  feature  of  it  will  still  be  the  same  " ;  or, 
with  the  late  Bishop  Westcott,  "  Like  the  spots 
upon  the  surface  of  the  sun  they  neither  mar 
the  symmetry  nor  impair  the  glory  of  the  great 
source  of  our  Life  and  Light." 

New  Year. — The  new  moon  of  the  seventh 
month  (Tisri,  or  October)  commenced  the  civil 
year,  and  was  celebrated  as  the  Feast  of  Trumpets, 
the  Jewish  "NPTT  Year's  Dnv"  (7>".  23.23-25). 


It  was  "  a  solemn  rest,"  in  anticipation  of  the 
Day  of  Atonement  nine  days  afterwards.  The 
special  New  Year's  service  and  offerings  are 
described  in  Num.  29.1-6.  [YEAR.] 

Nezi'ah. — One  of  the  Nethinim  whose  descend- 
ants returned  from  exile  with  Zerubbabel 
(Ezra  2.54  ;  Neh.  7.56). 

Ne'zrib.— Pillar  :  now  Beit  Nusib.  A  town  in 
the  lowland  of  Judah,  really  off  the  plain  (Josh. 
15.43). 

Nib'haz. — A  deity  of  the  Avvites,  introduced 
by  them  into  Samaria  in  the  time  of  Shalmancser 
(2  K.  17.31) ;  otherwise  unknown. 

Nib'shan. — Town  of  southern  Judah,  probably 
near  the  Dead  Sea  ( Josh.  15.62). 

Nica'nor.  —  Conqueror :  one  of  the  "  seven 
deacons"  (Acts  6.5);  otherwise  unknown. 

Nicode'mus. — A  Pharisee,  and  a  member  of  the 
Sanhedrin  (John  3.1),  who  was  at  first  a  secret 
disciple  of  the  Lord.  Afterwards  he  defended 
Him  against  the  chief  priests  and  Pharisees 
(John  7.50,  51),  and  finally  he  avowed  himself 
a  believer,  when  he  came  with  Joseph  of 
Arimathea  to  pay  the  last  duties  to  the  body  of 
Christ,  which  they  took  down  from  the  cross, 
embalmed,  and  laid  in  the  sepulchre  (John 
19.39,  40). 

Nicola'itanes  (R.  V.  Nicolaitans ).  —  "  Those 
that  hold  the  doctrine  of  the  Nicolaitanes  "  are 
reprobated  in  Rev.  2.6, 15  in  close  proximity 
with  "  those  that  hold  the  doctrine  of  Balaam." 
It  is  believed  that  the  misdeeds  of  these  sects 
were  practically  identical,  and  what  the  character 
of  the  latter  was  may  be  gathered  from  2  Pet. 
2.10-22  and  Jude  4-19.  They  did  not  abstain 
from  "  meats  offered  to  idols  "  and  from  "  forni- 
cation "  (Acts  15.20,  29).  Those  were  allied  evils, 
for  idolatrous  feasts  were  often  the  occasion 
of  gross  indecency.  To  hate  such  deeds  was  a 
sign  of  life  in  a  Church  that  otherwise  was  weak 
and  faithless  (Rev.  2.6).  To  tolerate  them  was 
well-nigh  to  forfeit  the  glory  of  having  been 
faithful  under  persecution  (Rev.  2.14, 15). 

Nicolas. — Conqueror  of  the  people :  a  native 
of  Antioch,  one  of  the  "  seven  deacons " 
(Acts  6.5).  Some  writers  think  that  he  fell 
away  and  was  the  leader  of  the  Nicolaitans, 
but  there  is  nothing  but  the  similarity  of  the 
name  to  suggest  this. 

Nico'polis. — City  of  victory :  a  town  where 
Paul  intended  to  winter  (Tit.  3.12).  There 
was  a  city  of  the  name  in  Thrace,  in  Cilicia,  and 
in  Epirus,  and  it  is  not  certain  which  is  referred 
to  in  the  passage.  The  probability  is  that  it 
was  Nicopolis  in  Epirus,  a  city  built  by  Augustus 
in  memory  of  the  battle  of  Actium,  and  on  the 
ground  which  his  army  occupied  before  the 
engagement.  It  was  conveniently  situated  for 
journeys  in  the  eastern  parts  of  Achaia  and 
Macedonia,  and  also  to  the  northwards. 

Ni'ger. —  Black:  the  surname  of  Simeon,  a 
teacher  and  prophet  in  the  Church  at  Antioch 
(Acts  13.1). 

Night-hawk.— Probably  intended  in  the  A.V. 
and  R.V.  to  mean  the  goat-sucker  or  night-jar. 
It  is  a  bird  forbidden  as  food  in  Lev.  ]].](}  and 


NIGHT-MONSTER] 


339 


[NINEVEH 


Deut.  14.15.  But  the  meaning  of  the  Hebrew 
word  is  uncertain.  It  may  be  a  kind  of  owl. 
There  are  five  common  sorts  of  owls  in  Palestine. 

Night-monster. — [LILITH.] 

Nile. — The  word  Nile  nowhere  occurs  in 
Scripture,  but  the  references  to  that  river  are 
many.  The  word  rendered  Sihor  or  Shihor  in 
Josh.  13.3 1  ICh.  13.5;  Isai.23.3-  and  Jer.  2.18 
signifies  the  Nile.  "  The  rivers  of  Ethiopia  " 
(Isai.  18.1)  mean  the  confluents  or  tributaries 
of  the  Nile.  [EGYPT.] 

Nun/rah. — Perhaps  Tell  Nimrin,  on  the  east  of 
Jordan  nearly  opposite  Jericho  (Num.  32.3)  ; 
the  same  as  Beth-nirnrah,  a  fenced  city  of 
Gad  in  the  valley  on  east  of  Jordan  (Josh.  13.27). 

Nim'rim. — A  stream  or  brook  within  the 
country  of  Moab  mentioned  in  the  denunciations 
of  Isaiah  (Isai.  15.6)  and  Jeremiah  (48.34) ; 
now  Wady  Numere  at  the  south-east  end  of  the 
Dead  Sea. 

Nim'rod. — Son  of  Gush,  apparently  the  son  of 
Ham,  the  son  of  Noah.  It  is  thought  that 
this  Gush  should  be  pronounced  Cash,  and 
represents,  not  the  Gush  of  Ethiopia  but  the 
Kashite  dynasty  of  Babylon.  He  is  described 
as  "  a  mighty  hunter  before  the  Lord  "  (Gen. 
10.9).  The  title  "  hunter"  may  be  understood 
literally  of  hunting  wild  beasts,  or  as  indicat- 
ing a  leader  of  forays  against  the  surrounding 
nations.  Probably  "  before  the  Lord "  had 
originally  a  theological  reference,  to  the  effect 
that  the  supreme  Deity  took  interest  in  his 
prowess.  Nimrod  established  an  empire  in 
Shinar  (Babylonia),  the  chief  towns  being 
Babel,  Erech,  Accad,  and  Calneh,  subse- 
quently extending  this  empire  northwards  along 
the  course  of  the  Tigris  over  Assyria,  where 
he  founded  a  second  group  of  capitals,  Nineveh, 
Rehoboth,  Calah,  and  Resen.  The  name  of 
Nimrod  occurs  only  once  more  in  the  O.T. : 
in  Mic.  5.6  "the  land  of  Asshur"  (Assyria) 
and  "  the  land  of  Nimrod "  are  placed  in 
parallelism  one  to  the  other.  The  tradition 
of  Nimrod  is  still  strong  among  the  modern 
Arabs,  who  ascribe  to  him  all  the  great  public 
works  of  antiquity.  There  is  some  reason  for 
thinking  that  the  word  is  a  corrupt  form  of 
Merodach,  but  many  think  that  the  description 
suits  the  hero  Gilgamesh,  who  was  partly  human 
and  partly  divine. 

Nim'shi.— The  grandfather  of  Jehu  (1  K. 
19.16  ;  2  K.  9.2, 14,  20  ;  2  Ch.  22.7). 

Ni'neveh. — The  capital  of  the  Assyrian  Empire 
built  by  Nimrod  (Gen.  10.11).  It  is  mentioned 
in  the  time  of  Hammurabi  as  a  seat  of  the 
worship  of  Istar.  In  2  K.  19.36  and  Isai. 
37.37  the  city  is  first  distinctly  mentioned  as 
the  residence  of  the  monarch  of  Assyria.  Sen- 
nacherib rebuilt  it,  and  was  slain  there  when 
worshipping  in  the  temple  of  Nisroch,  his  god. 
The  library  stored  there  by  Assurbanipal  has 
been  the  great  source  of  our  knowledge 
of  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  affairs.  In  the 
days  of  the  prophet  Jonah  it  was  "  a  great 
city,  an  exceeding  great  city,  of  three  days' 
journey"  (Jon..  1.2,  3,3),  perhaps  in  circuit. 


It  is  estimated  that  the  population  numbered 
600,000  souls.  We  are  not  to  imagine 
that  all  the  space  within  its  mighty  walls 
was  built  upon  ;  it  contained  great  parks  and 
extensive  fields,  and  detached  houses  and 
buildings,  like  Babylon.  The  threatened  over- 
throw of  Nineveh  within  three  days  was,  by 
the  general  repentance  and  humiliation  of  the 
inhabitants,  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest, 
suspended  for  nearly  200  years  until  "their 
iniquity  came  to  the  full " ;  and  then  the 
prophecy  was  literally  accomplished  by  the 
combined  Medes  and  Babylonians  (606  B.C.). 
The  Greek  and  Roman  writers  tell  us  that 
the  last  king,  whom  they  call  Sardanapalus, 
had  been  encouraged  to  hold  out  in  consequence 
of  an  ancient  prophecy  that  Nineveh  should 
never  be  taken  by  assault  till  the  river  became 
its  enemy  ;  but  a  sudden  inundation  which  threw 
down  twenty  stadia  of  the  wall  in  length  con- 
vinced him  that  the  oracle  was  accomplished, 
and  he  thereupon  destroyed  himself,  together 
with  his  treasures.  The  enemy,  entering  by  the 
breach,  sacked  and  razed  the  city.  The  prophet 
Nahum  foretold  the  destruction  of  Nineveh: 
"  The  gates  of  the  river  shall  be  opened,  and  the 
palace  shall  be  dissolved.  Nineveh  of  old,  like 
a  pool  of  water,  with  an  overflowing  flood  he 
will  make  an  utter  end  of  the  place  thereof " 
(Neh.  1.8, 9,  2.6).  The  historian  Diodorus 
describes  the  facts  by  which  the  other  pre- 
dictions of  the  prophet  were  as  literally  fulfilled. 
He  relates  that  the  king  of  Assyria,  elated  with 
his  victories,  and  ignorant  of  the  revolt  of  the 
Bactrians,  had  appointed  a  time  of  festivity, 
and  supplied  his  soldiers  with  abundance  of 
wine.  The  commander  of  the  invaders,  informed 
of  this  state  of  things  by  deserters  from  the 
Assyrian  army,  as  soon  as  possible  led  bis  men 
to  the  attack,  defeated  and  routed  the  enemy. 
Thus  the  words  of  the  prophet  were  verified: 
"  While  they  be  folden  together  as  thorns,  and 
while  they  are  drunken  as  drunkards,  they  shall 
be  devoured  as  stubble  fully  dry  "  (Nah.  1.10). 
The  prophet  promised  much  spoil  to  the  enemy, 
"  Take  ye  the  spoil  of  silver,  take  the  spoil 
of  gold  :  for  there  is  none  end  of  the  store, 
the  glory  of  all  pleasant  furniture"  (Nah.  2.9). 
And  the  historian  affirms  that  many  talents 
of  gold  and  silver,  preserved  from  the  fire,  were 
carried  to  'Ecbatana.  According  to  Nah.  3.15 
the  city  was  not  only  to  be  destroyed  by  an 
overwhelming  flood,  but  the  fire  also  was  to 
devour  it;  and,  as  Diodorus  relates,  partly  by 
water,  partly  by  fire,  it  was  destroyed.  The 
utter  and  perpetual  destruction  and  desolation 
of  Nineveh  were  foretold:  "The  Lord  will 
make  an  utter  end  of  the  place  thereof.  Afflic- 
tion shall  not  rise  up  the  second  time.  She 
is  empty,  void,  and  waste  "  (Nah.  1.8,  9,  2.10, 
3.17-19).  The  most  vivid  picture  of  its  ruined 
and  deserted  condition  is  that  given  by 
Zephaniah :  "  He  will  make  Nineveh  a  desola- 
tion, and  dry  like  a  wilderness.  And  flocks 
shall  lie  down  in  the  midst  of  her,  all  the  beasts 
pf  the  nations :  both  the  cormorant  and  the 


NINEVITES] 


340 


[NON-CANONICAL  BOOKS 


bittern  shall  lodge  in  the  upper  lintels  of  it ; 
their  voice  shall  sing  in  the  windows ;  desolation 
shall  be  in  the  thresholds  ;  for  He  shall  uncover 
the  cedar  work.  .  .  .  How  is  she  become  a 
desolation,  a  place  for  beasts  to  lie  down  in  ! 
every  one  that  passeth  by  her  shall  hiss,  and 
wag  his  hand"  (Zeph.  2.13-15).  The  canals 
which  once  fertilised  the  soil  are  now  dry. 
Except  when  the  earth  is  green  after  the  period- 
ical rains,  the  site  of  the  city,  as  well  as  the 
surrounding  country,  is  an  arid  yellow  waste. 
Flocks  of  sheep  and  herds  of  camels  may  be  seen 
seeking  scanty  pasture  amongst  the  mounds. 
The  croak  of  the  cormorant  and  the  bittern 
is  heard  from  unwholesome  swamp  and  reedy 
stream.  In  the  deserted  halls  of  her  palaces 
the  hyena,  the  wolf,  the  fox,  and  the  jackal  now 
lie  down.  [NAHTTM,  BOOK  OP.] 

Ni'nevites. — The  inhabitants  of  Nineveh  (Lk. 
11.30). 

Ni'san. — The  first  month  of  the  sacred  year 
(called  Abib  in  the  books  of  Moses),  beginning 
with  the  new  moon  at  the  end  of  March,  when 
the  Babylonian  year  also  began.  It  is  the 
name  of  the  Babylonian  god  of  spring  (Neh. 
2.1  ;  Esth.  3.7).  [Too;,  YEAH.] 

Nis'roch. — The  name  of  an  idol  of  Nineveh, 
in  whose  temple  Sennacherib  was  worshipping, 
when  assassinated  by  his  sons,  Adrammelech 
and  Sharezer  (2  K.  19.37;  /sat.  37.38).  As 
no  such  name  is  mentioned  in  the  cuneiform 
inscriptions,  it  is  thought  to  be  a  corrupt  form  of 
Nusku,  a  god  of  the  sun. 

Nitre. — With  the  ancients  nitre  was  carbonate 
of  soda,  a  mineral  alkali,  found  in  a  natural 
state  in  Egypt  (Pro*.  25.20  ;  Jer.  2.22).  In  the 
former  passage  he  that  singeth  songs  to  a  heavy 
heart  is  compared  to  "  vinegar  upon  nitre." 
Vinegar,  or  any  acid,  applied  to  nitre  makes 
it  emit  a  disagreeable  odour,  and  destroys 
its  qualities.  The  figure  is  meant  to  indicate 
strongly  the  incongruity  and  unsuitableness 
of  the  two  things — singing  songs  to  a  heavy 
heart. 

No,  No-amon. — City,  CityofAmon :  an  Egyptian 
deity.  Thebes,  the  chief  city  of  Upper  Egypt ; 
the  only  one  built  on  both  sides  of  the  Nile. 
It  excelled  all  others  in  extent  and  in  the 
magnificence  of  its  temples.  Thebes  was  sacked 
and  destroyed  by  Assurbanipal  in  664  B.C. 
(Jer.  46.25;  £*dk.  30.14-16;  Nah.  3.8).  [NAHUM, 
BOOK  OP.] 

Noadi'ah.  —  Meeting  with  Jehovah  :  I.  A 
Levite  who  weighed  the  vessels  of  gold  and 
silver  belonging  to  the  Temple  which  were 
brought  back  from  Babylon  by  Ezra  (Ezra  8.33). 
2.  A  prophetess  who  tried  to  intimidate  Nehe- 
rniah  while  rebuilding  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  6.14). 

Noah. — Best  :  1.  The  son  of  Lamech  and 
grandson  of  Methuselah  (Gen.  5.26-29).  From 
his  uprightness  of  character  (Gen.  6.8, 9 ; 
Ezek.  14.14,  20)  he  found  favour  in  the  sight 
of  God.  When  the  wickedness  of  man  led  to 
the  flood  (Gen.  6.5-7),  Noah  was  forewarned 
and  directed  to  build  an  ark  for  the  safety 


of  himself  and  his  house  (Gen.  6.14-22).  Noah, 
with  his  wife,  sons,  and  daughters-in-law,  entered 
the  ark,  which  floated  on  the  waters  for  1",0 
days  before  resting  on  Ararat  (Gen.  1  and  8).  On 
leaving  the  ark,  Noah  built  an  altar,  offered 
sacrifice  to  God,  was  blessed  by  Him,  and  given 
an  assurance  that  no  flood  would  again  cover 
the  earth  (Gen.  8.21-9.17).  Thereafter  Noah 
"  began  to  be  a  husbandman,  .  .  .  planted  a 
vineyard,  .  .  .  drank  of  the  wine,  and  was 
drunken"  (Gen.  9.20,21).  The  conduct  of 
Ham  on  this  occasion  contrasted  unfavourably 
with  that  of  Shem  and  Japheth ;  with  the  result 
that  Ham  was  solemnly  cursed,  whilst  his 
brothers  were  blessed  (Gen.  9.22-27).  The 
prophecy  was  amply  fulfilled  in  the  history 
of  their  descendants.  Noah  "  lived  after  the 
flood  three  hundred  and  fifty  years,  .  .  .  and 
he  died  "  (Gen.  9.28,  29).  The  witness  of  Noah 
is  referred  to  by  our  Lord  (Matt.  24.37, 38 ; 
Lk.  17.26,  27),  by  St.  Peter  (1  Pet.  3.20;  2  Pet. 
2.5),  and  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (11.7). 

2.  A  daughter  of  Zelophehad  of  Manasseh 
(Num.  26.33,  27.1,  36.11  ;  Josh.  17.3). 

No-amon.— [No.] 

Nob. — A  city  of  the  priests,  whither  David 
fled  from  Saul  ;  in  consequence  whereof  the 
inhabitants  were  massacred  by  order  of  Saul 
(1  -Sam.  21.1,  22.9-19);  a  halting-place  of  the 
Assyrian  army  (Isai.  10.32).  It  was  re- 
occupied  after  the  return  from  Captivity  (Neh. 
11.32).  [NEBO  4.] 

No 'bah. — Meaning  unknown,  perhaps  Barker  : 
1.  A  Manassite  warrior  (Num.  32.42),  who, 
during  the  conquest  of  the  territory  on  the  east 
of  Jordan,  captured  the  town  of  Kenath  and 
the  villages  or  hamlets  dependent  upon  it, 
and  gave  them  his  own  name.  2.  A  place 
mentioned  in  Gideon's  pursuit  of  the  Midiariites 
(Judg.  8.11).  Its  connexion  with  1  is  only  con- 
jectural, as  also  its  identification  with  Kanawat, 
south-east  of  the  Lejah,  about  20  miles  north 
of  Busrah. 

Nobai.— [NEBAI.] 

Nod.  —  Wandering :  the  country  to  which 
Cain  fled  after  the  murder  of  Abel  (Gen.  4.16) ; 
quite  unidentified. 

No'dab. — The  name  of  an  Arab  tribe  mentioned 
only  in  1  Ch.  5.19. 

No'e  (R.V.  Noah).  —  The  form  used  in 
Matt.  24.37,  38  ;  Lk.  3.36, 17.26,  27  for  No.u*. 

No'gah.— Shining  :  a  son  bora  to  David  after 
he  became  king  (1  Ch.  3.7, 14.6). 

NoTiah.  —  Rest:  fourth  son  of  Benjamin 
(1  Ch.  8.2). 

Non  (R.V.  Nun).— The  father  of  Joshua 
(1  Ch.  7.27).  [NUN.] 

Non-canonical  Books,  or  Apocrypha.— 1.  The 
word  Apocrypha  means  "  hidden,"  and  the  term 
was,  in  all  probability,  originally  applied  by 
certain  sects  to  books  of  their  own  which  wero 
kept  for  their  onm  use.  It  thus  meant  "  secret." 
Some  writers,  indeed,  hav«  suggested  that  the 
word  was  applied  to  those  books  whirh  were 
placed  in  the  cupboard,  or  chamber,  in  the 
synagogue,  called  "Geni»a"  ("hidden").  But 


NON-CANONICAL  BOOKS] 


341 


[NON-CANONICAL  BOOKS 


those  were  always  canonical  books,  kept  there 
because  they  were  worn  out  or  damaged,  where- 
as the  term  Apocrypha  is  restricted  to  non- 
canonical  books.  A  later  application  of  the 
word,  especially  in  its  adjective  "  apocryphal," 
is  to  works  of  spurious  authorship. 

2.  The  Apocrypha  of  the  O.T.— No  part  of 
this  was  ever  in  the  Hebrew  Canon,  but  all  its 
books  were  more  or  less  accepted  by  Greek- 
reading  Jews  of  Alexandria  and  elsewhere,  and 
a  few  are  quoted  in  the  Talmud.  All  but 
2  Esdras,  Ecclesiasticus,  Judith,  Tobit,  1  Mac- 
cabees were  originally  written  in  Greek.  Its 
contents  vary  in  different  collections.  As  given 
in  the  Authorised  and  Revised  Versions,  they 
are  :  1st  (3rd)  Book  of  Esdras,  a  history  from 
the  time  of  Josiah  to  that  of  Ezra,  mostly 
taken  from  Chronicles,  Ezra,  Nehemiah  ;  written 
perhaps  in  the  first  century  B.C.  2nd  (4th) 
Book  of  Esdras,  visions  and  prophecies,  especi- 
ally apocalyptic,  given  to  Bsdras  (Ezra);  of 
about  the  end  of  the  first  century  A.D.  Tobit, 
legendary,  interesting  for  its  use  of  the  old- 
time  story  of  Ahikar ;  about  the  beginning 
of  the  second  century  B.C.  Judith,  a  legendary 
account  of  the  deliverance  of  the  Jews  from 
I-Iolo femes,  a  Persian  general,  by  the  courage 
of  the  heroine  ;  written  about  the  middle  of  the 
second  century  B.C.  Esther,  additional  chapters 
to  the  canonical  work  ;  perhaps  of  the  second 
century  B.C.  The  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  some- 
thing in  the  style  of  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  and 
valuable  for  its  contrast  of  true  wisdom  with 
heathenism ;  between  50  B.C.  and  10  A.D.  Ecclesi- 
asticus,  or  The  Wisdom  of  Jesus,  Son  of  Sirach, 
a  collection  of  sensible  and  prudent  sayings,  in 
form  much  like  the  Book  of  Proverbs.  It  was 
written  originally  in  Hebrew  about  180-175  B.C. 
(most  of  the  Hebrew  having  been  discovered  in 
1896-1900),  and  translated  into  Greek  soon 
after  132  B.C.  [ECCLESIASTICUS.]  Baruch,  a  pre- 
tended prophecy  made  by  him  in  Babylon,  with 
a  Letter  to  Baruch  by  Jeremiah  ;  probably  of  the 
second  century  B.C.  Additions  to  the  History 
of  Daniel,  namely,  (a)  The  Song  of  the  Three 
Children  (Benedicite,  with  an  introduction)  ; 
(b)  The  Story  of  Susannah,  portraying  Daniel 
as  the  just  judge  ;  (c)  Bel  and  the  Dragon,  in 
which  Daniel  shows  up  the  folly  of  heathenism. 
There  is  little  to  determine  the  date  of  these 
additions.  The  Prayer  of  Manasses,  king  of 
Judah,  in  his  captivity  in  Babylon  ;  the  date 
is  unknown.  The  First  Book  of  the  Maccabees, 
giving  a  history  of  the  Maccabean  revolt,  167  B.C. 
onwards,  written  about  80  B.C.  The  Second 
Book  of  the  Maccabees,  similar  matter,  but  more 
legendary  and  homiletic ;  somewhat  later. 
There  are  also,  but  not  in  the  English  Versions, 
a  so-called  Third  Book  of  the  Maccabees,  which 
is  apparently  a  fictitious  history  of  the  period 
217  B.C.,  dealing  with  the  relation  of  the 
Egyptian  king,  Ptolemy  IT.,  to  the  Jews  of 
Palestine  and  Alexandria.  Date  uncertain, 
but  before  70  A.D.  A  so-called  Fourth  Book  of 
the  Maccabees,  which  is  a  homiletic  essay,  by 
an  Alexandrian  Jew  acquainted  with  Stoicism, 


on  the  matter  contained  in  2  Mace. ;  perhaps  of 
the  first  century  A.D.  Although  the  Apocrypha 
was  included  in  the  Septuagint  Version,  yet 
there  is  no  certain  quotation  made  from  it  in 
the  N.T.  The  Fathers,  indeed,  individually 
often  quoted  it  as  Scripture,  but  when  pressed 
they  distinguished  it  from  the  canonical  books. 
Jerome  in  particular,  in  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century,  made  a  very  clear  distinction.  For 
in  defending  himself  for  limiting  his  Latin 
translation  to  the  books  of  the  Hebrew  canon, 
he  says  :  "  Whatever  book  is  beyond  these  must 
be  reckoned  among  the  Apocrypha."  Augustine 
(354-430  A.D.),  on  the  contrary,  who  knew  no 
Hebrew,  included  the  Apocrypha  with  the 
Canonical,  as  against  heretical,  books.  Un- 
fortunately, the  views  of  the  latter  father  pre- 
vailed, and  the  Apocrypha  remained  in  the 
official  "  Vulgate "  of  the  Roman  Church. 
The  Council  of  Trent,  1546,  accepted  "  all  the 
books  .  .  .  with  equal  feeling  and  reverence," 
and  anathematised  such  persons  as  did  not. 
The  English  Church  at  the  Reformation,  in  its 
thirty-nine  Articles  (1563  and  1571),  definitely 
followed  Jerome,  by  rejecting  the  Apocrypha 
as  Holy  Scripture,  valuing  it  only  "  for  ex- 
ample of  life  and  instruction  of  manners." 

3.  The  Pseudepigraphic  Books. — No  article  on 
the  Apocrypha  can  wholly  omit  these,  for  every 
year    their  importance   is  being  more   under- 
stood.   They  are  called  Pseudepigraphic  because 
they  profess  to  have  been  written  by  Old  Testa- 
ment  saints.     They  are    largely   Apocalyptic ; 
and  represent  hopes  and  expectations  which  did 
much  to  mould  early  Christianity.    Among  them 
may  be  mentioned    The   (Ethiopian)   Book   of 
Enoch,  which  is  quoted  in  Jude  14.     It  is  of 
various   dates,   ranging   through   the   last   two 
centuries     before     the     Christian     era.       The 
(Slavonic)   Secrets   of   Enoch,   by   an   orthodox 
Hellenistic  Jew  in    the    first   half  of  the  first 
century  A.D.    The  Book  of  Jubilees,  or  the  Little 
Genesis,  dealing  with  the  details  of  Genesis  in 
a   fanciful  and   legendary   form,   written  by  a 
Pharisee    between    135     and    105    B.C.       The 
Testaments  of  the  Twelve  Patriarchs.     In  these 
there  is   a   high   standard  of  ethical  teaching. 
Its  original  Hebrew  is   thought  to  have  been 
composed  in  109-107  B.C.,  and  the  Greek  trans- 
lation, in  which  it  has  come  down  to  us,  before 
50  A.D.      The  Sibylline  Oracles,  Books  in.-v., 
poetical   descriptions  of   the   past  and    future 
condition    of    the    Jews ;     the    oldest    portion 
is  placed  about  140  B.C.  ;    part   is   as  late  as 
80  A.D.     The  Psalms  of  Solomon,  between  70 
and  40  B.C.     The  Odes  of  Solomon,  c.  100  A.P., 
are  probably  Christian.     The  Syriac  Apocalypse 
of  Baruch  (2  Baruch),  60-100  A.D.     The  Greek 
Apocalypse  of  Baruch  (3  Baruch),  the  second 
century  A.D.   The  Assumption  of  Moses,  7-30  A.D. 
The  Ascension  of  Isaiah,  first  to  second  century 
A.D.      See    further    Charles,     Apocrypha    and 
Pseudepigrapha  of  the  O.T.,  1913. 

4.  The      N.T.      Apocrypha.  —  Under      this 
name  are  sometimes  collected  various  Christian 
writings  of  early  date,  which  claim  either  to 


NOPH] 


342 


[NYMPHAS 


give  fresh  information  about  our  Lord  and 
His  Apostles,  or  fresh  instruction  about  the 
nature  of  Christianity  in  the  name  of  early 
Christians.  Of  the  Apocryphal  Gospels  may 
be  mentioned  :  The  Gospel  according  to  the 
Hebrews  (fragments,  second  century),  the  Gospel 
according  to  St.  James,  dealing  with  the  birth 
of  Mary  and  of  our  Lord  (second  century), 
the  Acts  of  Pilate ;  of  the  Acts,  those  of 
Paul  and  Thecla  (second  century)  and  of 
Peter  (third  century)  ;  of  Epistles,  that  of 
Barnabas  (end  of  first  century) ;  of  Apoca- 
lypses, that  of  Peter  (second  century). 
Although  occasionally  a  non-canonical  book 
is  found  appended  to  a  manuscript  of  the 
New  Testament,  this  is  so  rare  that  we  may 
say  that  virtually  there  has  never  been  a 
serious  question  of  including  any  of  these 
books  in  the  Canon. 

Noph. — More  accurately  Moph,  as,  indeed,  the 
Hebrew  reads  in  Eos.  9.6.  Same  as  MEMPHIS 
(Isai.  19.13;  Jer.  2.16,44.1,46.14,19;  Ezek. 
30.13,  16).  The  reference  in  Hos.  9.6  ("  Memphis 
shall  bury  them ")  is  to  the  great  Necropolis 
of  the  city;  for  its  burial-ground,  stretching 
for  20  miles  along  the  edge  of  the  Libyan  desert, 
greatly  exceeds  that  of  any  other  Egyptian  town. 
[NAHUM,  BOOK  OF.] 

No'phah. — A  town  of  Moab  (Num.  21.30). 
Nose-jewel.— This  ornament  was  one  of  the 
presents  which  the  servant  of  Abraham  gave 
to  Rebecca,  in  the  name  of  his  master :  "  I 
put."  said  he,  "  the  ear-ring  upon  her  face,"  or, 
better  (R.V.),  "  I  put  the  ring  upon  her  nose" 
(Gen.  24.47).  It  is  the  custom  in  many  parts 
of  the  East  even  in  the  present  day  for  women 
to  wear  rings  in  their  noses,  usually  in  the  right 
nostril,  which  is  bored  low  down  in  the  middle. 
These  rings  are  of  gold,  and  have  commonly  two 
pearls  and  one  ruby  between  them,  placed  in 
the  ring. 

Numbers,  Book  of.— For  the  critical  questions 
affecting  this  book,  see  PENTATEUCH.  The 
title  of  the  book  is  derived  from  the  two  number- 
ings  of  Israel :  the  former  in  the  second  year 
of  their  journey  (1-4),  the  latter  on  the  borders 
of  Canaan,  thirty-eight  years  afterwards  (26). 
The  contents,  in  addition  to  these  subjects,  include 
the  record  of  various  laws  and  observances 
(5-10.10),  as  well  as  several  striking  incidents, 
such  as  the  appointment  of  seventy  elders  (11) ; 
and  the  expedition  of  the  Spies  and  its  conse- 
quences (13,  14).  The  journey  is  now  pro- 
longed. There  follows  the  rebellion  of  Korah, 
with  subsequent  enactments  respecting  the 
priesthood  (16-19).  The  end  of  the  march 
through  the  wilderness  is  then  recorded,  with 
the  incidents  of  the  Smitten  Rock  and  the 
Brazen  Serpent,  and  the  visit  and  prophecies 
of  Balaam  (20-24).  The  murmurings  and 
punishments  of  the  people  occupy  a  large  part 
of  the  book,  which  concludes  with  the  conquest 


of  Midian  (31),  the  partition  of  the  territory 
east  of  Jordan  (32),  a  recapitulation  of  the 
stations  in  the  wilderness  (33),  a  statement 
of  the  boundaries  of  the  Promised  Land  (34), 
and  enactments  in  regard  to  the  Cities  of  Refuge 
(35)  and  to  the  marriage  of  heiresses  (36). 

Numbers,  apart  from  its  historical  importance, 
is  peculiarly  valuable  for  its  presentation  of 
the  care  of  Jehovah  for  His  people,  His  justice, 
and  His  mercy.  The  character  of  Moses  is 
also  strikingly  set  forth  alike  in  regard  to  its 
weakness  and  its  strength.  The  N.T.  references 
to  personages  and  incidents  in  Numbers  include  : 
The  Nazirites  (Num.  6;  Lk.  1.15;  Acts  18.18, 
21.26);  the  Passover  (Num.  9;  John  19.36; 
1  Cor.  5.7);  the  Manna  (Num.  11.4-9;  John 
6.31-35,  41-58;  Rev.  2.17);  the  faithfulness 
of  Moses  (Num.  12.7 ;  Heb.  3.5,  6) ;  the  slain 
in  the  Wilderness  (Num.  14.16;  1  Cor.  10.5; 
Heb.  3.8;  Jude  5);  the  sin  of  Korah  (Num. 
16;  Jude  11);  Aaron's  rod  (Num.  17.8;  Heb. 
9.4) ;  the  ordinance  of  the  red  heifer  (Num.  19  ; 
Heb.  9.13);  Balaam  (Num.  22.5,  31.16;  2  Pet. 
2.15 ;  Jude  11 ;  Eev.  2.14) ;  lign-aloes  (Num. 
24.6).  The  comparison  "  to  sheep  having  no 
shepherd  "  occurs  first  in  Num.  27.17.  Compare 
1  K.  22.17;  2  Ch.  18.16;  Ezek.  34.5;  Zech. 
10.2;  and  in  the  N.T.  Matt.  9.36  ;  Mk.  6.34. 

Nun. — Continuation  of  posterity :  the  father 
of  Joshua  (Ex.  33.11),  descended  from  Ephraim 
(1  Ch.  7.27),  the  son  of  Joseph. 

Nurse. — The  nurse  in  an  Eastern  family  is 
always  an  important  personage,  considered 
as  a  sort  of  second  parent,  whether  she  has 
been  foster-mother  or  otherwise.  She  always 
accompanies  the  bride  to  her  husband's  house — 
"  and  they  sent  away  Rebekah  and  her  nurse  " 
(Gen.  24.59).  See  also  Gen.  35.8  ;  Num.  11.12  ; 
Ruth  4.16  ;  2  Sam.  4.4  ;  2  K.  11.2  ;  Isai.  49.23. 
Nuts. — The  nuts  which  formed  part  of  the 
present  forwarded  to  his  unknown  son  by 
Jacob  (Gen.  43.11)  were  the  nuts  of  the  pistachio 
tree  which  is  indigenous  to  Palestine  and 
Syria,  where  it  is  still  extensively  cultivated 
for  the  sake  of  its  nuts,  which  are  exported 
from  Aleppo  and  the  ports  of  the  Levant.  The 
oily  almond-like  kernels  are  eaten  as  a  dessert, 
and  made  into  a  sweetmeat.  The  nuts  were 
highly  valued  by  the  ancients,  both  for  food  and 
as  a  stomachic ;  and  also  as  an  antidote  to 
the  bite  of  serpents.  In  "  the  garden  of  nuts" 
(Cant.  6.11)  the  reference  is  to  the  familiar 
walnuts.  At  the  present  time  the  walnut  is 
cultivated  in  all  the  glens  and  lower  slopes  of 
Lebanon  and  Hermon,  and  in  some  parts  of 
Galilee. 

Nym'phas,  or,  Nympha. — A  rich  and  earnest 
Christian  in  Laodicea,  whose  house  was  used  as 
a  place  of  assembly  for  Christians  (Col.  4.15). 
It  is  doubtful  whether  Nymphas  (a  man)  or 
Nympha  (a  lady)  is  the  right  form,  probably 
the  latter. 


OAK] 


343 


[OBADIAH,  BOOK  OF 


Oak. — There  are  no  fewer  than  nme  species  of 
oak  in  Syria,  besides  almost  as  many  varieties. 
When  the  land  was  colonised  by  Canaanite 
tribes,  Western  Palestine  was  probably  as  rich 
in  oak  forests  as  Eastern  Palestine  is  still. 
Some  oaks  are  evergreen,  and  others  deciduous, 
shedding  their  foliage  in  the  autumn.  This  is 
an  obvious  distinction  such  as  would  be  noticed 
even  in  an  unscientific  age.  That  such  was  the 
case  with  the  ancient  Hebrews  we  learn  from 
two  passages  in  Isaiah — "  Ye  shall  be  as  an 
oak  (R.V.  marg.,  terebinth)  whose  leaf  fadeth  " 
(Isai.  1.30)  and  "  As  a  teil  tree,  and  as  an  oak, 
whose  substance  is  in  them,  when  they  cast 
their  leaves  "  (Isai.  6.13 ;  but  see  11. V.  and 
marg.).  The  evergreen  oak  is  represented  in 
Palestine  chiefly  by  the  prickly  evergreen  or 
Kermes  oak,  specimens  of  which  are  to  be  found 
with  a  girth  of  from  twenty-two  to  thirty-seven 
feet.  Another  abundant  species  is  the  Valonia 
or  prickly-cupped  deciduous  oak,  of  the  Levant, 
where  its  acorns  are  used  in  tanning,  but  the 
Arabs  eat  them  for  food.  The  oak  was  used  as  a 
symbol  of  strength :  "  He  was  strong  as  the 
oaks  "  (Amos  2.9).  Idols  were  sometimes  made 
of  oak  (Isai.  44.14, 15),  and  the  oars  for  the 
Syrian  galleys  (Ezek.  27.6).  It  should  be  noted 
that  in  nine  passages,  for  a  Hebrew  word 
rendered  "  plain  "  in  A.V.  the  R.V.  has  "  oak," 
marg.  "terebinth"  (Gen.  12.6, 13.18, 14.13, 18.1; 
Deut.  11.30;  Judg.  4.11,  9.6,  37  ;  1  Sam.  10.3). 
See  also  R.V.  of  Josh.  19.33  ;  Isai.  57.5. 

Oath. — The  use  of  oaths  in  solemn  agreements 
and  associations  is  frequent.  In  the  O.T.  this 
use  was  recognised  by  the  Law  (Ex.  20.7  ;  Lev. 
19.12) ;  appears  in  promises  of  God  Himself 
(Gen.  26.3) ;  is  used  in  agreements  between 
king  and  subject  (1  K.  2.43),  patriarch  and 
people  (Gen.  50.25),  master  and  servant  (Gen. 
24.2-9),  people  and  people  (Josh.  9.20),  one 
individual  and  another  (Ruth  1.17);  and  is 
employed  in  promises  to  God  (Gen.  14.22,  23). 
Many  forms  of  oath  are  found,  "  God  do  so  to 
me  and  more  also,"  with  its  variants,  being  the 
most  frequent  (1  Sam.  3.17  ;  1  K.  2.23).  One 
manner  of  taking  an  oath  is  described  in  Gen. 
24.2-9.  The  more  usual  method  was  by  raising 
the  right  hand  to  heaven  (Gen.  14.22  ;  and  cf. 
Ps.  106.26).  In  the  N.T.  our  Lord's  words  in 
Matt.  5.33-37  are  directed  not  against  judicial 
oaths,  but  against  the  careless  and  profane  use 
of  an  oath  in  ordinary  transactions  (see  also 
Matt.  23.16-22  ;  Jas.  5.12).  He  Himself,  when 
questioned,  answered  on  oath  (Matt.  26.63,  64  : 
Mk.  14.62).  Expressions  in  the  nature  of  oaths 
are  found  in  St.  Paul's  Epistles  (Rom.  1.9 ;  1  Cor. 
15.31  ;  2  Cor.  1.18  ;  Gal.  1.20). 

Obadiah.—  Servant  of  Jehovah  :  1.  A  descend- 
ant of  Zerubbabel.  His  sons  are  mentioned  in 
1  Ch.  3.21.  2.  A  descendant  of  Issachar  and  a 
leading  man  of  his  tribe  (1  Ch.  7.3).  3.  A  de- 
scendant of  King  Saul  (1  Ch.  8.38,  9.44).  4.  A 


member  of  the  Temple  choir  in  the  time  of 
Nehemiah  (1  Ch.  9.16;  Neh.  12.25).  In  Neh. 
11.17  his  name  is  given  as  Abda.  5.  A  Gadite 
warrior  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Ch.  12.9). 
6.  One  of  the  princes  of  Judah  in  the  reign  of 
Jehoshaphat  who  were  sent  by  the  king  to  teach 
in  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Ch.  17.7).  7.  One  who 
returned  from  Babylon  with  Ezra  (Ezra  8.9). 
8.  A  priest,  or  family  of  priests,  who  sealed  the 
covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  10.5).  9.  An 
officer  of  high  rank  in  the  court  of  Ahab. 
He  was  a  secret  worshipper  of  Jehovah,  and 
concealed  a  hundred  of  the  prophets  from  the 
persecution  of  Jezebel.  Elijah  encountered  him 
and  insisted — in  spite  of  the  timidity  of  Obadiah 
— that  he  (Obadiah)  should  bring  the  prophet 
into  the  presence  of  Ahab  (1  K.  18.3-16).  He 
has  been  identified  by  some  with  Obadiah  the 
prophet.  10.  The  father  of  Ishmaiah  (1  Ch. 
27.19).  11.  An  overseer  of  workmen  at  the 
restoration  of  the  Temple  (2  Ch.  34.12). 

12.  Obadiah,  the  prophet,  and  author  of  the 
book  bearing  his  name.  Nothing  is  known  as  to 
his  history.  In  the  time  of  Jerome  his  identifica- 
tion with  the  servant  of  Ahab  or  the  "  third 
captain  of  fifty "  (2  K.  1.13)  was  current. 
The  Talmud  notices  a  statement  that  Obadiah 
was  a  proselyte  from  Edom. 

Obadiah,  Book  ot— The  date  of  the  prophecy 
contained  in  this  book  must  depend  very  largely 
upon  the  identification  of  the  capture  of  Jeru- 
salem referred  to  in  ver.  11.  The  circumstances 
point  to  this  being  the  capture  by  the  Chaldeans 
under  Nebuchadnezzar.  The  Edomites,  against 
whom  the  prophecy  is  directed,  were  ancient 
enemies  of  Israel  (Num.  20.14-21),  and,  though 
conquered,  had  regained  something  of  their 
old  power  (2  K.  16.6,  R.V.).  Apparently  they 
joined  Nebuchadnezzar  in  humbling  their  old 
adversaries.  Obadiah  denounces  Edom  for 
this  offence,  probably  about  the  years  588-6 
B.C.  His  predictions  as  to  Edom  were  com- 
pletely fulfilled.  The  contents  of  his  book  may 
be  summarised  thus  : — 

Israel  had  no  greater  enemy  than  the  Edom- 
ites. They  were  proud  of  their  wisdom  (ver.  8), 
and  of  their  rocky  and  impregnable  position 
(ver.  3).  The  prophet  foretells  the  uncovering 
of  their  treasures,  and  rebukes  their  heartless 
treatment  of  the  Jews,  their  kinsmen,  in  rejoicing 
over  their  calamities  and  encouraging  Nebuchad- 
nezzar utterly  to  exterminate  them  (Ps.  137.7)  ; 
for  all  which  an  early  day  of  retribution  was  to 
come :  "  As  thou  hast  done,  it  shall  be  done 
unto  thee  "  (rer.  15).  But  the  chosen  race  them- 
selves had  just  been  carried  into  captivity ;  the 
holy  land  was  deserted,  and  the  chastisement 
denounced  against  the  Edomites  might  therefore 
appear  not  to  differ  from  that  which  had  already 
been  inflicted  upon  the  seed  of  Jacob.  The 
prophet  therefore  goes  on  to  declare  that  Edom 
should  be  as  though  it  had  never  been,  and 


OBAL? 


344 


[OIL 


should  be  swallowed  up  for  ever  (ver.  18)  (a 
prophecy  which  has  been  remarkably  fulfilled) ; 
while  Israel  should  rise  again  from  her  present 
fall ;  should  repossess,  not  only  her  own  land, 
but  also  Philistia  and  Edom  ;  and  finally  rejoice 
in  the  holy  reign  of  the  promised  Messiah.  With 
the  prophecy  of  Obadiah  compare  the  words 
of  Ezek.  35;  Joel  3.19,20;  Amos  1.11,12, 
9.11-15;  and,  more  especially,  Jer.  49.7-22. 
There  are  no  N.T.  references  to  this  short  pro- 
phecy. 

O'bal. — Bare  :  the  founder  of  an  Arab  tribe 
(Gen.  10.28).  In  1  Ch.  1.22  the  name  is  written 
Ebal. 

O'bed. — Servant:  1.  The  son  of  Boaz  and 
Iluth  the  Moabitess,  father  of  Jesse,  grandfather 
of  King  David,  and  an  ancestor  of  our  Lord 
(Ruth  4.17,  21,  22  ;  1  Ch.  2.12  ;  Matt.  1.5  ; 
Lk.  3.32).  2.  The  grandson  of  Zabad,  one  of 
Davfd's  chief  warriors  (1  Ch.  2.37,  38).  3.  One 
of  David's  mighty  men  (1  Ch.  11.47).  4.  A  gate- 
keeper of  the  Temple  (1  Ch.  26.7).  5.  The 
father  of  Azariah  (2  Ch.  23.1). 

O'bcd-e'dom.— Servant  of  Edom:  1.  The  ark, 
when  being  conducted  from  the  house  of  Abina- 
dab  in  Gibeah  to  the  city  of  David,  was  carried 
aside  to  the  house  of  Obed-edom,  a  Gittite, 
where  it  continued  three  months,  bringing 
blessing  upon  the  whole  household  (2  Sam. 
6.10-11  ;  1  Ch.  13.13-14).  2.  Obed-edom  the 
Levite,  son  of  Jeduthun  (1  Ch.  16.38),  a  door- 
keeper for  the  ark.  The  family  continued  to  be 
keepers  of  the  vessels  of  the  Temple  in  the  reign 
of  Amaziah  (1  Ch.  15.18,  21,  24,  16.5,  26.4,  8, 
15  ;  2  Ch.  25.24).  Possibly  the  two  are  iden- 
tical. 

Obeisance. — [SALUTATIONS.] 

Obelisk.— [ON  2,  PILLAR.] 

O'bil. — Camel-driver :  an  Ishmaelite  camel- 
driver  in  the  days  of  David  (1  Ch.  27.30). 

Ob  lation.  —[SACRIFICE.  ] 

OTjoth. — An  encampment  of  the  Israelites, 
east  of  Moab,  during  the  journey  through  the 
wilderness  (Num.  21.10,  33.43). 

Occupy.— In  Ezek.  27  and  Lk.  19.13  this 
means  trade  with. 

Occurrent.— In  1  K.  5.4  the  old  form  of  our 
modern  "occurrence." 

Oc'ran  (R.V.  Ochran).—  The  father  of  Pagiel 
(Num.  1.13,  2.27,  7.72,  77, 10.26). 

O'ded.— Restorer:  1.  The  father  of  the  pro- 
phet Azariah  (2  Ch.  15.1).  In  ver.  8  there  is 
evidence  that  the  text  should  read  "  the  pro- 
phecy of  Azariah  the  prophet,  the  son  of  Oded." 
2.  A  prophet  of  Jehovah  in  Samaria,  at  the 
time  of  Pekah's  invasion  of  Judah.  He  per- 
suaded Pekah  to  restore  the  200,000  captives 
he  had  taken  (2  Ch.  28.9). 

Offence,  Offend. — These  words  often  mean 
"a  stumbling-block,"  or  "cause  to  stumble." 
So  Matt.  16.23,  18.6. 

Offerings. — [SACRIFICE.] 

Officer. — Several  Hebrew  words  are  in  the 
O.T.  rendered  into  English  as  "  officer."  In 
some  cases  there  is  implied  a  personage  employed 
about  the  court  (Gen.  37-30  ;  1  A'.  22.9  ;  2  Ch. 


18.8) ;  or  persons  with  the  oversight  of  others 
(Ex.  5.6 ;  Deut.  1.15) ;  or,  generally,  persons 
doing  the  king's  business  (Esth.  9.3,  R.V.).  In 
the  N.T.  the  word  in  Lk.  12.58  is  rendered  in  the 
R.V.  marg.  as  "  exactor,"  i.e.  the  person  secur- 
ing payment  of  the  fine  imposed.  The  more 
usual  N.T.  word  (Matt.  5.25,  and  frequently  in 
John)  suggests  an  officer  corresponding  to  a 
beadle  or  bailiff. 

Og. — An  Amoritish  king  of  Bashan,  a  man  of 
gigantic  stature,  whose  rule  extended  over  sixty 
cities  (Josh.  13.12).  He,  his  children,  and  his 
people  were  exterminated  at  the  battle  of 
Edrei,  and  the  territory  was  assigned  to  the 
Reubenites,  Gadites,  and  half  the  tribe  of 
Manasseh  (Num.  32.33  ;  Deut.  1.4,  3.1-13,  4.47, 
31.4  ;  Josh.  2.10,  9.10,  13.12,  30).  This  victory 
lingered  long  in  the  national  memory  (Ps. 
135.11,  136.20).  Og's  "  bedstead  of  iron," 
treasured  in  Rabbah  of  the  children  of  Ammon 
(Deut.  3.11),  was,  more  probably,  a  sarcophagus 
of  black  basalt.  [BASHAN.] 

O'had. — One  of  the  six  sons  of  Simeon  (Gen. 
46.10;  Ex.  6.15). 

O'heL— Tent :  a  son  of  Zerubbabel  (1  Ch.  3.20). 

Oho'lah,  Oholibah. — [AHOLAH,  AHOLIBAH.] 

Oho'liab.— [AHOLIAB.] 

Oholiba'mah. — [AHOLIBAMAH.] 

Oil — The  principal  source  of  oil  among  the 
Jews  was  the  olive-berry.  Trade  in  oil  was 
carried  on  with  the  Tynans,  by  whom  it  was 
probably  often  re-exported  to  Egypt,  whose 
olives  do  not,  for  the  most  part,  produce  good 
oil.  Oil  to  the  amount  of  20,000  batlis  (2  Ch. 
2.10)  or  20  measures  (1  K.  5.11)  was  among 
the  supplies  furnished  by  Solomon  to  Hiram. 
Direct  trade  in  oil  was  also  carried  on  between 
Egypt  and  Palestine  (1  K.  5.11  ;  2  Ch.  2.10,  15  ; 
Ezra  3.7  ;  Isai.  30.6,  57.9  ;  Ezek.  27.17  ;  Eos. 
12.1).  The  "meat-offerings"  prescribed  by 
the  Law  were  frequently  mixed  with  oil  (Lev. 
2.4,  7, 15,  8.26,  31  ;  Num.  7.19  ;  Deut.  12.17, 
32.13;  1  K.  17.12,15;  1  Ch.  12.40;  Ezek. 
16.13,  19).  Oil  was  included  among  the  first- 
fruit  offerings  (Ex.  22.29,  23.16;  Num.  18.12; 
Deut.  18.4 ;  2  Ch.  31.5).  Tith^  of  oil  were  re- 
quired (Deut.  12.17 ;  2  Ch.  31.5  ;  Neh.  10.37,  39, 
13.12  ;  Ezek.  45.14).  The  oil  for  "  the  light  " 
was  expressly  ordered  to  be  olive-oil,  beaten, 
i.e.  made  from  olives  bruised  in  a  mortar  (Ex. 
25.6,27.20,21,  35.8;  Lev.  24.2;  1  Sam.  3.3; 
2  Ch.  13.11 ;  Zech.  4.3, 12).  Oil  was  used  at 
the  consecration  of  priests  (Ex.  29.2,  23;  Lev. 
6.15,21),  the  daily  sacrifice  (Ex.  29.40),  the 
leper's  purification  (Lev.  14.10-18,21,24,28), 
and  the  completion  of  the  Nazirite's  vow 
(Num.  6.15).  Certain  offerings  were  to  be 
devoid  of  oil,  as,  for  example,  the  sin-offering 
(Lev.  5.11)  and  the  offering  of  jealousy  (Num. 
5.15).  Oil  was  used  by  the  Jews  for  anoint- 
ing the  body,  after  a  bath,  for  example,  or 
before  a  festive  occasion.  In  time  of  mourn- 
ing or  calamity  they  abstained  from  the  use  of 
oiL  At  Egyptian  entertainments  it  was  usual 
for  a  servant  to  anoint  the  head  of  each  guest, 
as  he  took  his  seat  (Deut.  28.40;  ItuA  3.3; 


OIL  THEE] 


345 


[OLD  TESTAMENT,  THE 


2  Sam.  12.20,  14.2 ;  Ps.  23.5,  92.10,  104.15  ; 
Isai.  61.3  ;  Dan.  10.3  ;  Amos  6.6  ;  Mic.  6.15  ; 
Lk.  7.46).  Oil,  applied  externally  or  internally, 
was  used  as  a  medicine  (Isai.  1.6,  R.  V. ;  ML  6.13 ; 
Lk.  10.34 ;  Jas.  5.14).  Oil  was  used  in  general 
for  lamps ;  it  is  used  in  Egypt  with  cotton  wicks 
twisted  round  a  piece  of  straw,  the  receptacle 
being  a  glass  vessel  into  which  water  is  first 
poured  (Matt.  25.1-8;  Lk.  12.35).  Oil  indi- 
cated gladness,  the  absence  of  oil  sorrow  or 
humiliation  (Isai.  61.3 ;  Joel  2.19  ;  Rev.  6.6). 
Oil  is  often  used  as  symbolical  of  nourishment 
and  comfort  (Deut.  32.13,  33.24;  Job  29.6; 
Ps.  45.7,  109.18;  Isai.  61.3).  [ANOINT,  OLIVE.] 

Oil  Tree. — The  oil  tree  mentioned  in  Isai.  41.19 
is  the  oleaster,  sometimes  erroneously  termed 
the  "  wild  olive."  It  yields  an  inferior  kind 
of  oil,  used  as  a  medicament,  though 
unfit  for  food.  The  oleaster  is  a  small  tree 
common  in  all  parts  of  Palestine  except  the 
Jordan  valley.  The  wood  is  hard  and  fine- 
grained, and  hence  was  very  suitable  for  carving 
into  the  symbolic  figures  of  cherubimiin  Solomon's 
temple  (1  K.  6.23,  where  the  translation  "  olive 
tree  "  should  be  "  oleaster  ").  The  leaves  are 
small  and  narrow,  and  the  flowers  inconspicuous  ; 
yet  the  oleaster  is  a  graceful  shrub.  The  same 
Hebrew  word  occurs  in  Neh.  8.15  (A.V.  "  pine 
branches,"  R.V.  "branches  of  wild  olive"). 
[OLIVE.] 

Ointment.— In  Ex.  30.25,  for  "  an  oil  of  holy 
ointment,"  the  R.V.  has  "  an  holy  anointing 
oil."  In  Isai.  1.6  for  "  ointment "  R.V.  reads 
"  oil."  The  ointment  with  which  our  Lord 
was  anointed  (Malt.  26.7 ;  John  12.3)  was  spike- 
nard. ("ANOINT,  OIL.  SPIKENARD.] 

Old  Testament,  The.— I.  The  Title.— It  is 
difficult  to  decide  whether  "  Covenant "  or 
"  Testament "  represents  the  more  accurately 
the  word  diatheke  in  the  phrase  he  kaine  diatheke 
("  the  new  diatheke  ")  in  Lk.  22.20 ;  1  Cor.  11.25 
(compare  Heb.  9.15  and  elsewhere).  The  facts 
appear  to  be  that  the  Hebrew  word  berith  means 
properly  a  covenant,  an  agreement,  whether 
between  man  and  man  (Gen.  31.44),  or  between 
God  and  man  (Gen.  15.18  ;  Ex.  19.5  ;  Jer.  31.31). 
It  was,  however,  evident  that  a  covenant  on 
God's  side  implied  much  condescension  and 
grace  on  His  part,  and  very  little  more  than 
mere  acceptance  on  the  part  of  man.  Hence 
the  Alexandrian  translators  of  the  O.T.  into 
Greek,  with  a  reverence  for  God  which  is  seen 
frequently  in  their  version,  shrank  from  using 
the  usual  Greek  word  for  a  covenant  or  agree- 
ment, syntheke,  and  used  instead  the  similar 
word  diatheke,  which  was  commonly  used  of  a 
disposition  of  property,  to  take  effect  either 
during  the  lifeLme  of  the  disposer  (in  which  case 
it  would  correspond  to  our  deed  of  gift),  or  at 
his  death  (in  which  case  it  would  correspond 
to  our  will  or  testament).  Hence,  while  we 
perforce  use  the  term  The  Old  Testament,  we 
must  not  limit  it  to  our  ordinary  meaning  of 
the  word  testament,  but  must  include  in  it  also 
that  of  free  disposal  by  the  supreme  Lord,  as 
well  as  covenant  or  agreement.  The  phrase 


implies  that  there  has  been  a  change  in  the 
manner  in  which  God  deals  with  us,  according 
to  His  promise  in  Jer.  31.31,  and  the  use  of 
testament  rather  than  covenant  represents  the 
consciousness  of  the  Christian  Church  that  this 
change  is  in  the  direction  of  greater  grace  on 
God's  part,  and  a  recognition  on  man's  of  his 
inability  to  do  more  than  receive  it.  No  doubt 
also  the  Roman  custom  of  making  "  testaments  " 
dependent  only  on  the  death  of  the  "  testator  " 
(Heb.  9.16)  has  strengthened  the  use  of  the  term 
by  believers,  who  know  that  they  owe  every- 
thing to  Christ's  death. 

II.  When  we  turn  to  the  O.T.  itself  we  observe 
that  its  English  form  answers  to  the  contents 
of  the  Hebrew  original,  and,  generally  speaking, 
to  the  order  of  the  Septuagint  Greek  translation. 
For  our  English  Bible  carefully  separates  from 
the  canonical  books,  which  alone  we  usually 
call  the  O.T.,  "  the  other  books,"  which  we 
usually  call  the  Apocrypha.  The  Septuagint 
made  no  such  distinction.  [NON-CANONICAL 
HOOKS.]  The  Hebrew  order,  however,  is  different 
from  our  own.  It  is  in  three  collections, 
first  the  Law,  i.e.  the  Pentateuch;  secondly 
the  Former  and  Latter  Prophets,  including 
in  the  former  the  Books  of  Joshua,  Judges, 
1  and  2  Samuel,  and  1  and  2  Kings,  and 
in  the  latter  the  Greater  Prophets  Isaiah, 
Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel,  and  the  Book  of  the 
Twelve,  i.e.  the  Minor  Prophets;  thirdly, 
the  Writings,  viz.  the  three  Poetical  Books 
(Psalms,  Proverbs,  Job),  the  Five  Rolls  (Song 
of  Songs,  Ruth,  Lamentations,  Ecclesiastes, 
Esther) ;  Daniel,  Ezra.  Nehemiah,  and  1  and  2 
Chronicles.  The  basis  upon  which  this  arrange- 
ment rests  appears  to  be  the  order  in  which  the 
several  books  were  received  into  the  Canon 
of  Scripture.  [CANON.] 

It  is  more  important  to  call  attention  to  the 
fact  that  the  present  text  of  the  Hebrew  Bible, 
from  which  our  English  version  was  translated, 
is  that  accepted  by  the  Massoretic  writers  (as 
they  are  called)  of  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries 
A.D.  These  were  Jewish  scholars  who  busied 
themselves  with  the  exact  letters  and  vowel- 
points  of  the  Bible,  fixing  these  as  closely  as  they 
could  by  the  tradition  (Massora)  that  had  come 
down  to  them.  By  a  comparison  of  other  and 
earlier  evidence  (such  as  the  Talmud  of  the 
fifth  or  sixth  centuries,  Jerome's  Vulgate  of 
about  390  A.D.,  the  Mishna  in  the  third  century, 
and  quotations  in  the  Fathers  and  in  the  N.T. 
and  even  in  Josephus  and  Philo),  we  are  able  to 
see  that  the  text  of  the  O.T.  fixed  by  the 
Massoretes  was  practically  identical  with  that 
current  in  the  beginning  of  the  first  century 
of  our  era.  From  that  time  at  least  the  Jews 
appear  to  have  guarded  it  with  scrupulous 
tidelity.  But  earlier  evidence  tends  to  show 
the  contrary.  Some  of  the  divergences  of 
the  Septuagint  from  the  Massoretic  Text  must 
be  due  to  mutilations,  copyists'  mistakes,  and 
even  different  readings  in  the  Hebrew  manu- 
scripts used  by  the  translators.  The  Nash 
Papyrus  of  the  Ten  Commandments,  thougli 


OLD  TESTAMENT,  THE] 


346 


[OLD  TESTAMENT,  THE 


dating  perhaps  from  the  second  century  A.D., 
differs  in  details  from  the  ordinary  text.  Hence 
we  cannot  affirm  that  until  the  first  century  or 
so  the  Jews  took  any  special  trouble  to  copy  their 
manuscripts  with  scrupulous  accuracy.  No 
doubt  they  took  ordinary  care,  but  no  more. 
Later  Jews,  especially  after  the  time  of  R. 
Akiba  (132  A.D.),  drew  lessons  from  every 
single  letter.  Earlier  Jews  had  not  attained 
to  such  a  pitch  of  superstition,  and  guarded  the 
books  more  than  the  letters.  When  we  add 
to  this  the  facts  that  our  existing  Hebrew 
manuscripts  are  very  late  (the  earliest  was 
"  probably  \vritten  about  820-55,'?  see  Ginsburg's 
Introduction  to  the  Hebrew  Bible,  p.  469),  and 
that  the  earliest  translation  (the  Septuagint, 
which  see)  is  often  very  vague  and  uncertain, 
and  that  we  have  practically  no  quotations 
earlier  than  the  first  century  A.D.,  we  can 
understand  that  there  is  much  more  scope  for 
scholarly  conjecture  and  emendation  of  the  text 
of  the  O.T.  than  there  is  in  that  of  the  N.T. 

III.  The  Present  Value  of  the  O.T. — For  the 
value  and  the  specific  teaching  of  the  separate 
books  of  the  O.T.  we  must  refer  the  reader  to 
the  articles  dealing  with  each  book.  Here  it 
must  be  sufficient  to  speak  of  the  O.T.  as  a 
whole. 

1.  There  are  certain  general  principles  which 
must  be  borne  in  mind  by  every  reader  of  it. 
(i.)  It  does  not  stand  on  an  equality  with  the 
N.T.  as  regards  either  doctrine  or  morality. 
For  want  of  remembering  this  not  a  few  persons 
have  derived  from  it  grievous  heretical  leaching, 
and  infidels  have  drawn  weapons  from  it, 
thinking  thereby  to  attack  Christianity.  But 
the  writer  of  the  Epistle  to  theHe&rews  expressly 
says  (1.1,  R.V.)  that  it  was  "  by  divers  portions 
and  in  divers  manners  "  that  God  spoke  t«  the 
fathers  by  the  prophets,  that  (to  put  the  phrase 
into  modern  language)  His  revelation  of  Him- 
self was  but  fragmentary,  as  well  as  given  under 
many  provisional  modes ;  His  full  and  final 
revelation  was  given  only  in  the  Lord  Jesus. 
Hence  the  statements  of  the  O.T.  have  only 
relative  value,  compared  with  the  great  truths 
contained  in  the  N.T.  The  highest  standard 
of  truth  and  ethics  is  given  in  the  N.T.  alone  ; 
the  final  court  of  appeal  is  there. 

(ii.)  Closely  akin  to  this  is  the  fact  that  the 
O.T.  describes  the  actions  and  words  of  persons 
who  were  in  a  different  plane  of  culture  from 
our  own.  It  is  difficult  for  a  prosaic  English- 
man to  enter  into  the  poetic  temperament  of  an 
Oriental  who  is  accustomed  to  parable  and 
hyperbole  in  everyday  speech.  The  reader 
of  the  Bible,  especially  of  the  O.T.,  must  re- 
member that  sayings  which  we  should  naturally 
understand  literally  would  to  him  at  once 
suggest  parable  and  allegory;  also,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  prudery  is  unknown  in  the 
East,  and  that  Orientals  feel  no  shame  in 
speaking  of  many  things  as  to  which  we  in 
t'.ie  West,  and  in  the  twentieth  century,  keep 
silence. 

(iii.)  We  must  remember    that  the  O.T.  is 


essentially  a  record  of  how  God  prepared  a 
nation  to  be  the  recipient  of  the  full  revelation 
of  Himself.  His  method  was  not  one  which 
we  should  ourselves  have  devised,  and  perhaps 
we  are  only  beginning  to  understand  much  of 
what  that  method  was.  For  He  seems  not 
only  to  have  trained  the  nation  of  Israel,  but 
also  to  have  prepared  the  surroundings,  the 
milieu,  in  which  Israel  was  to  be  trained.  He 
did  riot,  unless  all  modern  investigation 
(whether  by  spade  work  or  literary  work)  is 
to  be  thrown  aside,  take  a  nation  from  its 
beginning,  uninfluenced  by  earlier  nations,  and 
keep  it  so  apart  that  it  drew  nothing  from 
nations  around.  Rather  He  took  a  nation 
which  had  imbibed  from  its  earliest  infancy 
spiritual  nourishment  from  others  (Abraham 
and  his  immediate  descendants  must  have  been 
steeped  in  Babylonian  and  Arabian  lore),  and 
as  it  grew  gave  it  leaders  learned  in  the  wisdom 
of  other  countries.  Moses  was  learned  as  an 
Egyptian,  and  also,  as  trained  in  the  court,  can 
hardly  have  been  ignorant  of  Babylonian 
cuneiform.  When  the  Israelites  settled  in 
Palestine,  they  came,  for  good  or  evil,  into 
touch  with  Canaanite  culture,  which  appears 
to  have  been  high.  To  David,  and  still  more 
to  Solomon,  came  the  influence  of  Tyre  and 
other  nations,  while  Assyria,  and,  later,  Baby- 
lonia and  Persia,  brought  much,  more  than  mere 
military  and  political  power  to  bear  on  the  men 
of  Israel  of  succeeding  ages.  In  one  sense,  indeed, 
Israel  lived  alone,  for  it  refused  to  acknowledge 
the  false  gods  of  the  nations  round  ;  but  in 
another,  lying  as  it  did  on  the  high  road  between 
Babylon  and  Egypt,  and  bordering  on  Moab 
and  Edom  and  the  desert  tribes,  it  was  in  a 
condition  to  assimilate  what  was  good  in  their 
learning. 

God,  Who  had  worked  among  the  heathen, 
for  the  Life  was  erer  the  Light  of  men  (John  1.4), 
prepared  His  special  people  not  only  by  separat- 
ing them,  se  that  they  grew  up  in  mental  and 
spiritual  vigour,  but  also  by  incorporating 
among  them  from  time  to  time  such  Gentile 
teaching  as  enabled  them  to  make  fuller  progress 
in  the  knowledge  of  Him.  Israel,  and  Israel 
alone,  was  able  to  assimilate  all  this  ;  Israel, 
and  Israel  alone,  became  increasingly  fitted  to 
be  the  recipient  of  the  Incarnation. 

2.  The  O.T.  is  evidently  intended  to  be  of 
spiritual  help  to  ourselves,  (i.)  It  is  for  the 
most  part  history,  in  which  principles  are 
illustrated.  No  single  person,  for  example, 
is  depicted  as  faultless,  but,  however  good  and 
great  he  is,  when  he  sins,  his  sin  bears  the  fruit 
of  sin,  and  punishment  follows  in  some  form. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  easy  to  trace  out  in  every 
instance  the  effect  of  good  actions,  and,  in 
particular,  good  motives,  upon  the  destiny  of 
individuals  and  peoples.  Naturally  the  reader 
will  make  a  great  mistake  in  his  perception  of 
these  principles,  and  his  perception  of  their 
results,  if  he  judges  the  actions  and  words  of 
the  various  persons  by  one  and  the  same 
standard.  ITe  must  allow  for  the  public  opinion 


OLIVE] 


347 


[ON 


of  the  time  of  a  Jael  or  a  Jephthah,  or  even  of 
an  Elijah  and  a  Jehu  ;  he  must  endeavour  to 
appreciate  the  sense  of  tribal  and  family  unity 
which  involved  all  the  members  in  the  sin  and 
the  punishment ;  he  must  understand  the  fury 
of  the  oppressed  against  the  oppressor,  though 
as  a  follower  of  Christ  he  himself  has  learned 
higher  methods  of  prayer  than  Imprecatory 
Psalms. 

(ii.)  But  the  Christian  reader  of  the  O.T. 
will  pain  more  than  a  clearer  insight  into  eternal 
principles,  and  illustrations  of  their  application. 
He  will  find  much  direct  spiritual  help.  The 
lives  of  the  saints  recorded  there — for  saints 
many  of  them  were,  in  spite  of  their  comparative 
ignorance  of  the  higher  revelation  of  God's 
will — will  yield  him  encouragement,  and  will 
bring  him  to  his  knees  in  humility  and  shame 
that  with  his  greater  advantages  he  comes  so 
far  short  of  them.  He  will  glory  in  the  Hope 
of  social  perfection  set  before  him  in  the  Latter 
Prophets,  a  Hope  which  has  been  fulfilled  but 
partially  as  yet  in  the  coming  of  Messiah — for 
the  work  of  Messiah  has  been  only  begun. 
Above  all,  he  will  try  to  enter  into  the  spirit 
of  the  Psalms,  written  as  these  were  by  men 
who  evidently  had  very  close  communion  with 
God,  and  had  made  great  progress  in  spiritual 
life.  No  devout  Christian  man  can  safely 
neglect  prayerful  study  of  the  O.T.,  however 
much  he  reads  the  N.T. 

Olive. —  The  olive  tree  is  first  named  in 
Gen.  8.11,  Noah's  dove  returning  with  an  olive 
leaf.  The  tree  was  a  conspicuous  feature  of  the 
Holy  Land  when  the  Israelites  took  possession 
(Deut.  6.11 );  and  is  associated  with  the  vine  as  a 
source  of  profit  (1  Sam.  8.14  ;  2  K.  5.26).  The 
fruit  was  gathered  by  beating  or  shaking  the 
tree  (Deut.  24.20),  provision  being  made  as  to 
gleaners  (Ex.  23.11).  The  oil  was  extracted  by 
beating,  pressing,  or  treading  the  fruit  (Ex.27. 20 ; 
Joel  2.24 ;  Mic.  6.15).  The  use  of  the  olive- 
wood  is  referred  to  in  1  K.  6.23  ;  it  is  still 
employed  in  Palestine  for  cabinet-work.  So 
familiar  an  object  was  naturally  used  symbolic- 
ally. A  righteous  man  is  compared  to  the  olive 
on  account  of  its  freshness  of  appearance  and  its 
fruitfulness  (Ps.  52.8 ;  Uos.  14.6), and  his  children 
are  described  as  olive  branches  (Ps.  128.3). 
Eliphaz  says  of  the  wicked,  "  He  shall  cast  off 
his  flower  as  the  olive"  (Job  15.33),  referring  to 
the  profusion  with  which  the  blossoms  some- 
times fall  from  the  tree.  The  fruit  of  the  olive 
in  its  wild  state  is  small  and  worthless ;  it  is  made 
plentiful  and  valuable  by  the  grafting  in  of 
scions  from  a  good  stock.  Paul  uses  this  fact  with 
striking  force  in  showing  the  obligations  of  the 
Gentiles  to  the  true  Israel  (Rom.  11.17);  it  is 
contrary  to  nature,  he  says,  to  graft  a  wild 
scion  upon  a  good  stock.  [On,.] 

Olives, Mount  of  (or,  Olivet,  2  Sam.  15.30  A.V. ; 
Jets  1.12). — A  flattened  and  rounded  ridge,  rather 
more  than  a  mile  long,  on  the  east  of  Jerusalem 
(Ezek.  11.23;  Zech.  14.4),  and  separated  from 
it  by  the  valley  and  gorge  of  the  Kidron.  It  is 
about  300  feet  higher  than  the  Temple  Mount, 


and  gradually  rises  from  the  high  level  tract 
north  of  the  city,  trending  east  and  south  to  about 
|  mile  south  of  the  Haram,  where  the  Kidron  turns 
east  towards  the  Dead  Sea.  The  ridge  has  four 
summits — (1)  The  Galilee,  or,  Viri  GalilcBi  ("  men 
of  Galilee  "),  the  traditional  spot  upon  which  the 
angels  stood  and  said,  "  Ye  men  of  Galilee  "  (Acts 
1.11) ;  (2)  the  traditional "  Mount  of  Ascension  "  ; 
(3)  the  "  prophets  "  from  a  singular  catacomb 
called  "  the  prophets'  tombs  "  ;  (4)  "  the  mount 
of  offence "  from  Solomon's  idol-worship 
(1  K.  11.7  ;  2  K.  23.13).  The  ridge  was  the 
scene  of  David's  flight  from  Absalom  (2  Sam. 
15.30,  16.1, 13).  From  it  branches  were  ob- 
tained to  celebrate  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  after 
the  return  from  captivity  (Neh.  8.15).  It  was 
the  scene  of  the  triumphal  entry  of  our  Lord  into 
Jerusalem,  by  the  road  between  summits  (3)  and 
(4) ;  of  His  last  prophecy,  and  of  His  ascension, 
from  the  east  brow  near  Bethany  (Matt.  26.30  ; 
Mk.  14.26  ;  Lk.  22.39  ;  John  8.1  ;  Matt.  21.1- 
11;  Mk.  11.1;  Lk.  19.29,37;  Matt.  24.3; 
Mk.  13.3  ;  Lk.  21.37,  24.50  ;  Acts  1.12). 

Olym'pas. — A  Christian  at  Rome  whom  Paul 
salutes  (Rom.  16.15). 

O'mar. — A  grandson  of  Esau  and  a  "  duke  " 
of  Kdom  (Gen.  36.11, 15  ;  1  Ch.  1.36). 

0 'mega.— The  last  letter  of  the  Greek  alphabet 
(Rev.  1.8,  11). 

Omer. — A  dry  measure  equal  to  5'1  pints 
(Ex.  16.36). 

Om 'ri. — Worshipper  of  Jehovah :  1.  A  king  of 
Israel  and  father  of  Ahab.  When  Omri  first 
appears,  about  890  B.C.,  in  the  sacred  narrative 
he  is  commander-in-chief  under  king  Elah.  On 
the  murder  of  the  latter  by  Zimri,  Omri  was 
proclaimed  king  by  his  soldiers.  He  attacked 
Zimri  at  Tirzah,  and  took  the  city.  Zimri 
perished  in  the  flames  of  the  palace  wherein  he 
had  been  holding  his  court  as  king  of  Israel. 
Tibni  and  Joram  challenged  the  supremacy 
of  Omri,  and  a  civil  war  lasting  four  years 
followed.  Omri  was  successful,  reigned  for 
six  years  at  Tirzah,  and  then  transferred  his 
residence  to  Samaria,  6  miles  from  Shechem, 
where  he  reigned  six  years  more.  Omri  made 
a  treaty  with  Benhadad  I.,  king  of  Damascus, 
surrendering  to  him  some  frontier  cities,  and 
making  provision  for  a  resident  Syrian  colony 
in  Samaria.  Omri  married  his  son,  Ahab,  to 
Jezebel,  the  daughter  of  an  important  Phoenician 
prince,  and  in  this  way  the  evils  of  the  Tyrian 
form  of  Baal-worship  were  introduced  into  the 
kingdom.  Further,  during  the  reign  of  Omri 
Bethel  remained  the  religious  capital  »f  the 
country,  where  the  calf-worship  of  Jeroboam 
was  continued.  Micah,  about  730  B.C.,  de- 
nounced the  policy  and  religion  of  Omri  under 
the  name  of  "  the  statutes  of  Omri  "  (1  K. 
16.15-26,  20.34  ;  Mic.  6.16).  2.  A  grandson  of 
Benjamin  (1  Ch.  7.8).  3.  A  descendant  of 
Judah  (1  Ch.  9.4).  4.  A  chief  of  the  tribe  of 
Issachar  in  the  reign  of  David  (1  Ch.  27.18). 

On. — A  chief  of  a  tribe  of  Keuben  who  took 
part  in  a  revolt  against  Moses  (Num.  16.1). 

On. — Heliopolis,  or  city  of  the  sun  ;   a  city  of 


ONAM] 


34S 


[OEPAH 


Egypt  where  Joseph's  father-in-law  was  priest 
(Gen.  41.45,50,  46.20).  It  is  identified  with 
Aven  \Ezek.  30.17)  and  Bethshemesh  (Jer.  43.13). 
The  site  is  about  10  miles  north-east  of  Cairo.  It 
lay  at  no  great  distance  from  the  land  of  Goshen. 
" '  Cleopatra's  needle '  was  originally  one  of 
the  numerous  obelisks  erected  in  front  of  the 
temple  there  by  Thothmes  ra.,  1503-1449  B.C." 
(Driver).  Tradition  points  to  On  as  a  place 
where  Mary  and  the  infant  Christ  came  when, 
in  fear  of  Herod,  Joseph  brought  them  into 
Egypt. 

O'nam.— 1.  A  son  of  Shobal  (Gen.  36.23  ; 
1  Ch.  1.40).  2.  The  son  of  Jerahmeel  (1  Ch. 
2.26,  28). 

0 'nan. —The  second  son  of  Judah  by  the 
Canaanitess,  "  the  daughter  of  Shua "  (Gen. 
38.4;  1  Ch.  2.3). 

One'simus. — Profitable  :  a  slave  at  Colossae 
who  ran  away  from  his  Christian  master,  came 
to  Rome,  and  was  there  converted  to  Christianity 
by  Paul.  Onesimus  thereafter  returned  to  his 
master,  Philemon,  bearing  a  letter  to  him  from 
Paul.  This  is  now  familiar  to  us  as  the  Epistle 
to  Philemon.  See  also  Col.  4.9.  [PHILEMON.] 

Onesi'phorus.  —  Helpful :  a  Christian  of 
Ephesus  from  whom  Paul  received  kindness 
when  in  captivity  at  Rome  (2  Tim.  1.16-18, 
4.19). 

Onions.— The  onions  of  Egypt,  which  the 
Israelites  remembered  with  longing  (Num.  11.5), 
are  of  a  milder  flavour  than  our  own.  Easterns 
have  always  been  very  fond  of  this  vegetable. 

O'no. — A  town  of  Benjamin  whose  inhabit- 
ants returned  from  captivity  (1  Ch.  8.12 ;  Ezra 
2.33;  Nth.  6.2,  7.37,11.35). 

On'ycha.— An  ingredient  of  the  "pure  and 
holy"  perfume  described  in  Ex.  30.34,35. 
Onycha  is  supposed  to  be  the  operculum  (or 
covering  to  the  mouth)  of  a  species  of  mollusc 
(Strombus)  living  in  Eastern  seas.  The  shells 
are  used  in  large  quantities  for  making  cameos, 
and  the  operculum  is  pounded  and  mixed  with 
aromatic  substances.  It  is  the  "odoriferous 
shell  "  of  the  ancients. 

Onyx. — A  precious  stone  so  called  from  the 
Greek  onux,  the  nail,  from  its  colour  and  veining. 
It  is  first  mentioned  with  the  gold  and  bdellium 
of  the  river  Pison  in  Eden  (Gen.  2.12,  R.V.  marg. 
beryl).  Onyx  stones  are  prepared  by  David  for 
the  Temple  (1  Ch.  29.2).  These  were  probably 
stones  of  the  marble  onyx  or  onychus ;  gems 
would  hardly  be  used  in  the  exterior  of  the 
Temple,  though  variegated  marble  might  very 
well  be.  The  onyx  of  the  high-priest's  pectoral 
was,  no  doubt,  the  gem  onyx  (Ex.  28.9-12,  etc.), 
which  was  specially  adapted  for  engraving. 
See  also  Job  28.16 ;  Ezek.  28.13. 

Ophel. — Swelling  mound :  a  portion  of  the  east 
hill  of  Jerusalem  ;  the  low  projecting  shoulder 
sloping  a  horizontal  distance  of  2000  feet  from  the 
south  wall  of  the  Haram  platform  to  the  pool  of 
Siloam  (2  Ch.  27.3,  33.14 ;  Neh.  3.26,  27, 11.21). 

O'phir.— 1.  A  son  of  Joktan  (Gen.  10.29; 
1  Ch.  1.23).  The  name  is  understood  to  corre- 
spond to  some  city,  region,  or  tribe  in  Arabia. 


2.  Ophir,  as  a  geographical  name,  has  been 
identified  with  three  localities,  the  south  part 
of  Arabia,  India,  and  east  coast  of  Africa. 
The  preponderance  of  evidence  is  in  favour  of 
Arabia.  It  was  the  source  whence  David  and 
Solomon  obtained  gold  and  other  valuable  com- 
modities (1  K.  9.23,  10.11,  22.48  ;  1  Ch.  29.4  ; 
2  Ch.  8.18,  9.10;  Job  22.24,  28.16;  Ps.  45.9; 
Isai.  13.12). 

Oph'ni. — The  most  northerly  town  of  Benja- 
min (Josh.  18.24). 

Oph'rah.—  (?)  Hind :  K  A  frontier  town  of 
Benjamin,  4  miles  east  of  Bethel  (Josh.  18.23  ; 
1  Sam.  13.17) ;  perhaps  the  Ephraim  to  which 
our  Lord  retired  after  the  resurrection  of 
Lazarus  (John  11.54).  2.  A  town  of  Manasssh  ; 
the  residence  and  burial-place  of  Gideon  (Judg. 
6,  8.27, 32,  9.5).  3.  The  son  of  Meonothai 
(1  Ch.  4.14). 

Orator. — The  phrase,  "  eloquent  orator,"  in 
Isai.  3.3  is  rightly  rendered  in  R.V.  "  the  skilful 
enchanter."  In  Acts  24.1  "  orator  "  represents 
the  professional  title  of  Tertullus,  the  Roman 
advocate  retained  by  the  Jews  as  prosecuting 
counsel. 

O'reb. — Haven  :  1.  One  of  the  chieftains  of 
the  Midianile  host  which  invaded  Israel  and  was 
defeated  and  driven  back  by  Gideon  (Judg.  7.25, 
8.3;  Ps.  83.11).  Oreb  was  slain  by  the  men 
of  Ephraim  and  his  head  brought  to  Gideon. 
2.  The  rock  Oreb,  a  sharp  peak  overlooking  the 
plain  of  Jordan ;  where  the  Midianite  chief 
Oreb  and  his  forces  were  intercepted  when 
fleeing  from  Gideon,  and  slain  by  the  Ephraimites 
( Judg.  7.25  ;  Isai.  10.26).  See  1. 

O'ren. — A  son  of  Jerahmeel  (1  Ch.  2.25). 

Organ  (R.V.  Pipe). — The  word  occurs  four 
times  in  the  O.T.  (Gen.  4.21  ;  Job  21.12,  30.31  ; 
Ps.  150.4).  The  context  points  to  a  general 
term  for  a  wind-instrument  as  distinguished 
from  a  "  harp  "  or  string  instrument. 

Ori'on. — The  constellation  referred  to  in 
Job  9.9,  38.31,  and  Amos  5.8  is  that  known  to 
us  under  the  same  name. 

Ornaments. — The  inhabitants  of  Palestine — 
as  of  the  East  at  the  present  day — were  devoted 
to  finery.  Isaiah  (3.18-23)  describes  the  articles 
worn  by  luxurious  women  in  his  day.  Orna- 
ments were  lavishly  displayed  at  festivals, 
whether  of  a  public  or  private  character,  par- 
ticularly at  weddings  (Isai.  61.10 ;  Jer.  2.32  ; 
Hos.  2.13).  In  times  of  public  mourning  they 
were  laid  aside  (Ex.  33.4-6).  The  "earring" 
of  Gen.  24.22  should  be  "  nose-ring."  "  Brace- 
lets "  of  Gen.  38.18  should  read  "string"; 
"  bracelets "  and  "  tablets "  of  Ex.  35.22 
should  be  "brooches"  and  "armlets." 

Or'nan. — A  Jebusite  prince  whose  thrashing- 
floor  was  purchased  by  David  for  an  altar 
(1  Ch.  21.15-25;  2  Ch.  3.1).  In  2  Sam. 
24.18-24  the  name  is  Araunah  (which  see). 

Or'pah. — Orpah  and  Ruth  married  brothers, 
men  of  Bethlehem-judah,  sojourning  in  Moab. 
When  the  husbands  died,  Orpah  remained  in 
Moab,  while  Ruth  returned  with  her  mother- 
in-law  (Ruth  1.4, 14). 


OSEE] 


349 


[OZNITES 


Osee  (R.V.  Eosea).— (Rom.  9.25). 

Oshe'a  (R.V.  Hoshea). — Deliverance  (Num. 
13.8, 16) :  the  original  name  of  JOSHUA 
(Jehovah  is  deliverer), 

Osnapper. — [ASNAPPER.] 

Ospray. — One  of  the  birds  it,  was  forbidden 
to  eat  (Lev.  11.13  ;  Deut.  14.12).  It  is  found 
chiefly  in  the  north  of  Palestine,  especially 
resorting  to  the  shores  of  the  Bay  of  Acre  and 
the  streams  flowing  into  it.  It  feeds  upon 
fish.  [EAGLE.] 

Ossifrage  (R.V.  Gier  Easle).— The  bird  so 
called  in  Lev.  11.13  and  Deut.  14.12  is  the 
lammergeier  or  bearded  vulture.  It  is  about 
3£  feet  in  length  and  its  expanse  of  wing  over 
9  feet.  [EAOLE.] 

Ostrich. — The  bird  is  twice  referred  to  in 
the  A.V.  In  Job  39.13-18  there  is  a  vivid 
picture  of  its  pride  of  speed  qualified  by 
stupidity  and  cruelty  towards  its  eggs  and  young 
ones  ;  its  proverbial  cruelty  is  noted  also  in 
Lam.  4.3.  In  addition  to  these  passages  the 
R.V.  substitutes  "  ostrich  "  for  "  owl  "  among 
unclean  birds  (Lev.  11.16;  Deut.  14.15),  and 
as  a  creature  dwelling  in  the  desolation  of  the 
desert  (Job  30.29;  /sat.  13.21,  34.13,  43.20; 
Jer.  50.39  ;  Mic.  1.8).  It  is  not  true  that  the 
ostrich  ever  hides  its  head  in  the  sand,  in  the 
belief  that  it  is  then  invisible.  Ostriches  have 
been  known  from  time  immemorial  in  Syria, 
Arabia,  and  Mesopotamia. 

Oth'ni.—  The  son  of  Shemaiah  (1  Ch.  26.7). 

Othni'el.— The  son  of  Kenaz  of  Judah 
(Josh.  15.17) ;  and  the  younger  brother  of 
Caleb  (Judg.  1.13),  whose  daughter,  Achsah,  he 
received  in  marriage  as  a  reward  for  taking 
Kirjath-sepher  ( Judg.  3.9  ;  1  Ch.  4.13).  The  mar- 
riage of  an  uncle  with  his  niece  is  not  expressly 
prohibited  by  the  Levitical  law  (Lev.  18.12, 
20.19).  Othniel  was  the  first  Judge  of  Israel 
after  Joshua.  He  delivered  the  land  from  the 
oppression  which  it  had  suffered  at  the  hands 
of  the  king  of  Mesopotamia. 

Ouch. — Properly  Nouch.  An  ornament  set 
with  jewels.  So  on  each  shoulder  of  the  high- 
priest's  ephod  (Ex.  28.11,12;  39.6,  7) ;  also  used 
of  the  gold  casing  of  the  jewels  on  his  breast- 
plate (Ex.  28.13). 

Oven. — Public  ovens  are  common  in  the 
East,  the  inhabitants  of  every  dozen  houses  or 
so  building  one  for  their  general  use.  The  oven 
is  often,  in  size  and  shape,  much  like  a  beehive, 
constructed  of  well -baked  bricks,  cemented 
together  with  lime  mixed  with  a  good  deal  of 
salt.  The  space  left  open  for  baking  is  about 
3  feet  in  diameter  and  the  aperture  barely 
9  inches  square.  The  oven  is  first  filled  with 
brambles,  brushwood,  or  dried  herbage  (Matt. 
6.30).  These  are  burned,  and  when  the  oven  is 
sufficiently  heated  the  hot  cinders  and  ashes 


are  swept  with  a  birch-broom  to  the  sides. 
A  wet  cloth  is  quickly  placed  over  the  centre 
of  the  oven,  the  thin  cakes  of  flour  are  de- 
posited on  this,  the  door  of  the  oven  is  closed 
with  a  large  stone,  and  in  ten  minutes  the  bread 
is  ready.  In  the  earliest  times  each  household 
possessed  a  portable  oven,  similar  to  above 
(Ex.  8.3),  and  it  was  only  on  occasions  of  famine 
that  the  same  oven  sufficed  for  several  families 
(Lev.  26.26).  Another  sort  of  oven  was  a 
shallow  earthen  vessel,  placed  on  the  ground 
or  floor,  with  a  fire  beneath. 

OwL— The  "great  owl"  (Lev.  11.17;  Dent. 
14.16  ;  Isai.  34.15)  of  Palestine  is  the  Egyptian 
eagle  owl,  and  is  almost  confined  to  Egypt  and 
Palestine.  It  is  a  large  bird,  nearly  2  feet  long, 
haunting  ruins  and  the  desolate  wilderness. 
In  the  latter  case  it  nests  in  burrows.  The 
"  little  owl  "  of  Palestine  is  very  common  there. 
It  is  a  great  favourite  with  the  Arabs,  says 
Mr.  H.  Chichester  Hart  (Animals  of  the  Bible), 
"  being  regarded  as  a  lucky  species,  and  one 
friendly  to  man.  .  .  .  Neither  ruin  nor  tomb 
of  pretension  will  easily  be  found  without  one. 
Around  the  villages  and  in  the  olive  gardens  it 
is  always  to  be  met  with,  and  as  regularly  as 
the  sun  sets  its  musical  melancholy  note  is 
almost  sure  to  be  heard,  no  matter  where  the 
traveller  pitches  his  tent.  As  it  cries,  it  bows 
and  sways  itself  in  a  most  grotesquely  weird 
fashion,  and,  as  it  is  quite  tame,  it  admits  of  a 
close  study  of  its  amusing  ways."  The  "  little 
owl"  of  Palestine  (Lev.  11.17;  Deut.  14.16) 
is  closely  allied  to  the  "  little  owl  "  of  Europe, 
but  is  smaller  and  of  a  paler  colour  (Job 
30.29;  Ps.  102.6;  Isai.  34.14;  Jer.  50.39 ;  Mic. 
1.8). 

Ox,  Oxen.  —  Oxen,  among  the  Israelites, 
performed  all  those  agricultural  duties  which 
horses  do  with  us.  They  were  used  for  plough- 
ing (Deut.  22.10  ;  1  K.  19.19),  for  treading  out 
corn  (Deut.  25.4;  Eos.  10.11),  for  draught 
purposes  (Num.  7.3 ;  1  Sam.  6.7),  and  as 
beasts  of  burden  (1  Ch.  12.40).  The  flesh 
was  eaten  (Deut.  14.4 ;  1  K.  1.9).  They  were 
used  for  sacrifices  (Gen.  15.9 ;  2  Ch.  29.33 ; 
1  K.  8.63),  and  milk  and  butter  were  derived 
from  them.  As  a  rule,  oxen  were  allowed 
to  roam  over  the  fields,  but  a  certain  selection 
were  fattened  for  the  table  and  stall-fed  by 
the  rich.  Fat  oxen  are  distinguished  from 
oxen  out  of  the  pastures  in  1  K.  4.23. 

O'zem.— 1.  A  brother  of  David  (1  Ch.  2.15). 
2.  A  son  of  Jerahmeel  (1  Ch.  2.25). 

O'zias. — An  ancestor  of  our  Lord  (Matt. 
1.8,  9).  [UzziAH.] 

Oz'ni.— A  son  of  Gad  (Num.  26.16),  called 
Ezbon  in  Gen.  46.16. 

Oz'nites.— The  descendants  of  Ozni  (Num. 
26.16) 


PAARAI] 


350 


[PALE3TINA,  PALESTINE 


Paa'raL— "The  Arbite."  One  of  David's 
heroes  (2  Sam.  23.35).  In  1  Ch.  11.37  he  is 
called  Naarai.  [ARBITE,  THE.] 

Pace.— Found  in  2  Sam.  6.13  only.  The 
word  so  translated  is  elsewhere  rendered  step, 
and  the  distance  would  presumably  be  that  of 
one  of  our  steps  or  paces,  about  3  feet. 

Pa'dan  (R.V.  Pad'dan).— (?)  Garden,  field  (Gen. 
48.7).  [PADAN-ARAM.] 

Pa'dan-a'ram  (R.V.  Pad'dan-aram).— - The  field 
of  Aram,  or  Syria  :  the  cultivated  plateau  in 
the  north  of  Mesopotamia  which  bordered  on 
the  Euphrates,  as  distinguished  from  the  hilly 
country  round  about.  Here  Nahor  anil  Abraham 
dwelt  before  journeying  to  Canaan  (Gen. 
25.20,  28.2,7,  31.18,  33.18,  35.9,26,  46.15). 
[MESOPOTAMIA.] 

Paddle.— Found  in  Deut.  23.13  only.  Pro- 
perly "  spaddle  "  or  small  spade. 

Pa'don. — Ransom',  the  ancestor  of  some 
who  returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.44 ; 
Neh.  7.47). 

Pagi'el.— The  son  of  Ocran.  He  was  the 
chief  prince  of  Asher  at  the  time  of  the  Exodus, 
and  was  chosen  to  number  the  people  (A'um. 
1.13,  2.27,  7.72,  77,  10.26). 

Pa'hath-moab. — Governor  of  Moab  :  the  chief 
of  one  of  the"  principal  tribes  of  Judah.  His 
posterity  returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.6, 
10.30 ;  Neh.  3.11,  7.11,  10.14).  The  singularity 
of  his  name  may  be  accounted  for  through  the 
migration  of  the  sons  of  Shelah,  son  of  Judah, 
to  Moab  where  they  "  had  dominion  "  (1  Ch. 
4.22).  Compare  the  case  of  Elimelech  (Ruth 
1.2).  Another  party  of  the  same  family  re- 
turned with  Ezra  (Ezra  8.4). 

Pai. — Bleating :  an  unknown  city  of  Edom 
(1  Ch.  1.50  ;  Pau  in  Gen.  36.39).  It  was  the 
capital  of  King  Hadad. 

Paint,  Painting. — The  art  of  painting  is 
almost  unrecognised  in  the  O.T.,  but  there  is 
a  solitary  reference  ( Jer.  22.14)  to  its  decorative 
use  in  domestic  architecture.  Painting  the 
eyes  is  thrice  referred  to :  in  the  case  of 
Jezebel  (2  K.  9.30)  where  for  "painted  her 
face  "  R.V.  has  "  painted  her  eyes  "  ;  in 
Jer.  4.30,  where  for  "  rentest  thy  face  with 
painting "  R.V.  "  enlargest  [marg.  Heb. 
rendest]  thine  eyes  with  paint " ;  and  in  Ezek. 
23.40.  Generally  the  eyebrows  and  both 
eyelids  were  painted  with  stibium  or  antimony. 
In  modern  Egypt  kohl  is  used  for  this  purpose. 
It  is  made  of  the  smoke-black  of  burned 
almond-shells,  or  of  an  aromatic  resin  called 
liban.  The  custom  has  been  handed  down  in 
Egypt  intact  through  four  or  five  millenniums, 
for  ancient  paintings  and  sculptures  exhibit 
it,  and  even  kohl  vessels,  with  the  probes  and 
the  remains  of  the  black  powder,  have  been 
discovered  in  ancient  tombs.  The  dye  when 
used  was  mixed  with  oil,  and  was  kept  in  small 
jars  of  horn.  Thf>  prob*»  with  which  it  was 


applied  was  a  small  blunt  bodkin  of  wood 
or  ivory.  The  process  of  painting  the  eyes 
is  thus  described  by  Chandler — "  A  girl, 
closing  one  of  her  eyes,  took  the  two  lashes 
between  the  forefinger  and  the  thumb  of  the 
left  hand,  pulled  them  forward,  and  then 
thrusting  in  at  the  external  corner  the  probe 
which  had  been  dipped  in  the  paint,  and 
extracting  it  again,  the  particles  remained 
within  and  were  presently  ranged  round  the 
organ."  The  eyes  were  thus  literally  "  put 
in  paint "  and  were  "  rent  "  open  in  the  process. 
A  broad  line  was  also  drawn  round  the  eye. 
The  result  of  the  whole  was  an  apparent 
enlargement  of  the  eye  (Jer.  4.30).  There  is 
nothing  to  show  that  henna  [CAMPHIRE],  now 
used  in  the  East  to  stain  finger  and  toe  nails, 
was  known  to  the  Hebrews. 

Palace. — Eight  Hebrew  words  are  rendered 
"  palace  "  in  the  A.V.  The  English  word  is 
thus  applied  not  only  to  the  king's  dwelling 
but  also  to  a  stronghold  (Ezra  6.2  ;  Neh.  1.1), 
a  temple  (1  Ch.  29.1),  or  even  the  abode  of  a 
wealthy  person  (Ps.  45.8).  In  the  N.T.  the 
word  is  especially  applied  to  the  residence  of 
the  Roman  governor,  the  palace  built  by 
Herod  referred  to  as  the  praetorium  (Mk. 
15.16).  It  is  also  used  of  the  high-priest's 
palace  (John  18.15).  In  Phil.  1.13  "palace" 
should  be  altered  with  the  R.V.  to  "  praetorian 
guard."  David's  palace  was  built  by  the  aid  of 
artisans  whom  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  supplied 
(2  Sam.  5.11).  The  more  imposing  palace  built 
by  Solomon  is  described  in  1  K.  5.8.  There  are 
allusions  to  the  treasures  found  in  the  king's 
house  or  palace  (1  K.  14.26,  15.18  ;  2  K.  14.14, 
etc.) ;  and  (Ezra  6.2)  to  a  roll  or  record  found 
in  the  palace  at  Ecbatana. 

Pa'laL — A  judge  :  the  son  of  Uzzai  appointed 
to  help  in  the  restoration  of  the  walls  of  Jeru- 
salem in  the  time  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  3.25). 

Palanquin.  —  Cant.  3.9,  R.V.,  where  the 
R.V.  marg.  has  "car  of  state."  Probably  a 
sumptuous  litter. 

Palesti'na,  Palestine.— The  Philistine  land: 
properly,  the  district  of  the  Holy  Land  inhabited 
by  the  Philistines.  It  was  on  the  west  coast  of 
Canaan,  reaching  from  the  River  of  Egypt,  a 
little  south  of  Gaza,  to  Joppa.  The  word  in 
these  forms  occurs  but  four  times,  being  rendered 
elsewhere  by  the  terms  Philistia  or  Philistines 
(Ex.  15.14  ;  Isai.  14.29, 31 ;  Joel  3.4).  [PHTLISTIA, 
PHILISTINES.]  In  its  modern  sense,  Western 
Palestine  included  that  part  of  Syria  between 
the  Jordan  Valley  and  the  Dead  Sea  and  the 
eastern  coast  of  the  Mediterranean.  Eastern 
Palestine  ran  out  to  the  Syrian  desert  The 
northern  boundary  was  a  line  drawn  from  a 
few  miles  south  of  Tyre  to  Dan,  and  thence 
along  the  foot  of  Mount  Hermon  eastward  to 
the  desert.  The  southern  boundary  was  the 
"  hrnnk  of  Egypt."  th<>  W:v1v  «-l-Arish,  a  winter 


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351 


[PALESTINA,  PALESTINE 


torrent  which  carries  the  waters  of  the  Negeb 
into  the  Mediterranean,  at  a  point  about  40 
miles  south  of  Gaza.  The  distance  from  Dan 
in  the  north  to  Beersheba  in  the  south  is  143 
miles.  The  length  of  Western  Palestine  is  given 
as  about  1 40  miles ;  its  average  breadth  from 
Jordan  to  the  Mediterranean  about  40. 

The  main  geographical  features  of  the  country 
are — the  fertile  plain  stretching  from  north  to 
south  along  the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean  ; 
the  Shephelah,  or  hilly  lowland,  in  both  the 
northern  and  the  southern  parts  of  the 
country ;  the  mountainous  interior,  likewise 
stretching  the  whole  length  of  the  country 
from  north  to  south;  the  Jordan  Valley,  con- 
taining the  river  Jordan,  Lakes  Merom, 
Tiberias,  and  the  intensely  salt  Dead  Sea  ;  the 
Negeb,  or  Southern,  dry  land,  south  of  Judaea ; 
and  the  Wilderness  of  Zin,  known  also  as  the 
Arabah,  the  scene  of  the  last  year  of  the 
"  wanderings  "  of  the  Israelites. 

The  coast  plain  extended  southwards  from 
the  Phoenician  frontier  to  Mount  Carmel,  a 
bold  promontory  jutting  into  the  sea,  then 
along  the  flowery  vale  of  Sharon,  still  im- 
mensely fertile  when  its  covering  of  sand  is  dug 
through  ;  lastly,  the  Philistine  plain  stretched 
inland  in  a  series  of  low  hills  (the  Shepholah) 
to  the  foot  of  the  Judaean  mountains  (1  Ch. 
7.28;  Jer.  17.20;  Zech.  7.7). 

The  Galilean  highlands  (Mountains  of  Naph- 
tali)  are  composed  of  flat-topped  limestone, 
deeply  indented  and  scarred  with  clefts  and 
precipices.  Between  these  hills  and  the  moun- 
tains of  Samaria  lies  the  famous  Valley  of 
Jezreel,  triangular  in  shape,  and  about  15  miles 
long  [ARMAGEDDON,  ESDKAELON],  its  base  being 
against  the  eastern  hills  and  its  apex  near  the  sea 
at  the  foot  of  Mount  Carmel  and  near  the  mouth 
of  the  river  Kishon  (Judg.  5.21).  This  valley 
was  the  great  historic  battlefield  of  Palestine, 
the  scene  of  many  decisive  encounters.  [BARAK, 
GIDEON,  SAUL,  DAVID,  MEGIDDO,  JOSIAH.] 
Dominating  this  famous  valley  and  plain  are 
the  heights  of  Tabor  and  Gilboa,  and  amongst 
its  towns  were  Slmnem,  Endor,  Cana,  Nain, 
Nazareth.  South  of  the  Valley  of  Jezreel  is  the 
range  of  hills  called  Mount  Ephraim.  Amidst 
these  hills  of  Samaria  are  many  fertile  valleys, 
notably  the  vale  of  Shechem,  between  Ebal  and 
Gerizim.  The  chief  towns  of  this  district  were 
Samaria,  Tirzah,  Bethel,  and  Shiloh.  Still  to  the 
southward  are  the  hills  of  Judaea.  Rugged  and 
precipitous,  they  form  a  position  of  extreme 
security  and  strength,  a  fitting  site  for  the 
fortress  -  sanctuary  of  Jerusalem.  Southward 
of  the  Holy  City  the  hill-country  continues  to 
Beuiilehem  and  to  Hebron  (or  Kirjath- arba), 
one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  in  the  world. 
Here,  at  Mamre,  Abraham  conversed  with  angels. 
Here,  too,  at  Machpelah,  one  of  the  Bible  sites 
that  is  certainly  known,  he  was  buried.  Twenty- 
five  miles  farther  south  at  Beersheba  the  hills 
sink  into  the  desert,  the  natural  boundary  of  the 
land. 

The  Wilderness  of  Judah  (Judq.  1.16)  is  a 


of  exceedingly  wild  land,  south  and  east  of 
Jerusalem,  and  extending  along  the  western 
side  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Here  the  rugged  and  pre- 
cipitous rocks  abound  in  caverns,  occupied  with 
a  few  petty  wandering  tribes  in  search  of  the 
scant  pasturage.  Wild  goats  and  "  conies  "  are 
to  be  found  in  this  desolate  region.  It  was  the 
scene  of  David's  wanderings,  and,  at  En-gedi,  of 
his  memorable  meeting  with  Saul. 

The  Valley  of  the  Jordan  is  a  narrow,  level 
plain,  65  miles  long,  formed  of  alluvial  deposit 
on  which  tropical  vegetation  flourishes.  In 
April  the  melting  snows  cause  the  Jordan  to 
overflow  its  banks  and  the  low-lying  lands  near 
by,  dislodging  wild  animals  from  their  lairs,  and 
forcing  them  to  the  higher  country.  The  sinu- 
osity of  the  Jordan  is  so  great  that  its  length  is 
three  times  that  of  the  valley  through  which  it 
runs. 

The  Salt  Sea  (the  name  "  Dead  Sea  "  is  not 
found  earlier  than  the  second  century  A.D.)  is 
16  miles  from  Jerusalem.  It  is  overhung  on 
all  sides  by  desolate  and  barren  mountains.  The 
water  of  this  salt  lake  is  so  intensely  bitter  that 
no  form  of  organised  life  can  survive  in  it. 
Though  it  receives  the  waters  of  the  Jordan  and 
many  other  streams,  yet  its  great  depth  (1292  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean)  gives  it  a 
temperature  so  high  that  evaporation  proceeds 
at  an  enormous  rate.  It  is  called  in  Scripture 
the  "Sea  of  the  Plain"  (Deut.  4.49;  2  K. 
14.25),  the  "  Salt  Sea  "  (Deut.  3.17 ;  Josh.  3.16, 
12.3),  and  the  "  East  Sea  "  (Ezek.  47.18 ;  Joel 
2.20 ;  Zech.  14.8) ;  and  by  the  Arabs,  Ba.hr  Lut, 
the  "  Lake  of  Lot." 

The  Lake  of  Tiberias  (Bohr  Tubariyeh),  called 
also  Sea  of  Galilee,  Lake  of  Gennesaret,  and 
Chinnereth,  lies  682  feet  below  the  Mediterranean. 
It  is  over  12  miles  in  length  and  7J  miles  in 
breadth,  the  course  of  the  turbid  Jordan  being 
clearly  defined  far  into  its  beautifully  clear 
waters.  Owing  to  its  position,  sheltered  on  all 
sides  by  hills  and  lying  so  deep,  the  heat  is  in- 
tense during  the  day,  and  violent  storms  are 
caused  when  evening  brings  a  rapid  fall  in  tem- 
perature. The  lake  abounds  in  fish. 

Lake  Merom  (Baheiret  el-Huleh)  lies  also  on 
the  course  of  the  Jordan,  nearer  its  source  than 
the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  its  surface  is  nearly  700 
feet  higher  than  that  lake,  being  7  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  ocean.  It  is  7  miles  long,  and 
narrows  considerably  towards  its  outlet  into 
the  Jordan,  while  its  northern  shore  is  sur- 
rounded with  marshes,  filled  with  a  dense  mass 
of  rank  vegetation,  the  shelter  of  numerous 
wild  creatures.  [MEROM.] 

The  Mountains  and  High  Lands  of  Palestine 
are  a  continuation  of  the  Lebanon  range,  Mount 
Hermon  being  91GO  feet  high.  Mount  Safed 
(2773  feet),  midway  between  Lakes  Merom  and 
'Tiberias,  attracts  attention  in  the  north,  not 
so  much  because  of  its  height  as  because  it  is 
surrounded  by  such  deep  valleys.  The  ancient 
town  that  surmounts  it  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  "city  sot  on  a  hill"  referred  to  by 
the  Saviour  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount, 


PALESTINA,  PALESTINE] 


352 


[PALESTINA,  PALESTINE 


Jebel  Jermak,  to  the  west  of  Safed,  is  a  forest- 
clad  eminence  3934  feet  above  the  sea,  the 
highest  mountain  in  Palestine  proper.  Tabor 
(Jebel  el-Tor),  1890  feet,  is  one  of  the  most 
striking  objects  in  Palestine.  Its  north-western 
side  overlooks  the  vale  of  Nazareth.  Carmel  is 
a  chain  of  hills  extending  from  the  coast  inland 
for  15  miles.  The  highest  point  of  the  chain 
is  1750  feet  above  the  Mediterranean.  The 
northern  aspect  is  abrupt  and  steep,  while  the 
southern  has  numerous  spurs  sloping  towards 
the  coast. 

Conspicuous  in  Samaria  are  Mounts  Ebal  and 
Gerizim  (Jebel  Eslamizeh  and  Jebel  et-Tor), 
rising  opposite  to  each  other  to  a  height  of  about 
3000  feet,  with  a  narrow  but  very  fertile  valley 
between,  at  the  narrowest  part  of  which  lies 
Shechem,  now  Ps7ablus. 

The  Tablelands  of  Judaea  are  a  continuation 
of  the  heights  of  Samaria.  Though  there  are  no 
outstanding  mountains,  yet  the  general  level  of 
the  hilltops  above  the  sea  is  1500  feet. 

The  Hot  Springs  of  Palestine  indicate  that 
volcanic  action  has  not  ceased  there,  though 
indeed  frequent  earthquakes  render  such  evi- 
dence superfluous.  These  springs  are  to  be  found 
from  the  head  of  the  Dead  Sea  along  the  valley 
of  the  Jordan  northward  to  Tiberias,  where  the 
Romans  had  built  many  favourite  baths.  The 
water  is  too  hot  for  the  hand  to  bear,  a  tempera- 
ture of  144*  having  been  observed  at  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  Further  evidence  of  the  volcanic 
character  of  this  region  is  seen  in  the  extensive 
lava  and  sulphur  deposits,  especially  on  the 
west  coast  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  around  the  foot 
of  Mount  Safed,  where  are  traces  of  two  extinct 
volcanoes.  Palestine  has  always  been  subject 
to  earthquakes  (Amos  1.1 ;  Zech.  14.5). 

Palestine  is  fairly  well  watered.  Though  many 
of  its  streams  are  periodical,  yet  a  number  of 
wells  and  springs,  especially  in  the  higher  moun- 
tains, compensate  for  the  absence  of  perennial 
streams.  The  distribution  of  the  supply,  however, 
is  irregular,  and  some  districts,  notably  the 
Judsean  desert  and  the  low  hill-country  near  the 
coast,  come  very  badly  off.  But  in  many  spots 
where  water  is  deficient,  compensation  comes 
in  the  form  of  very  heavy  dews.  The  rivers  are 
few,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  Jordan,  of 
little  importance.  After  Jordan  the  chief  is  the 
Leontes  (Nahr  Litany),  which  rises  in  the  north 
and  discharges  into  the  Mediterranean  about 
5  miles  above  Tyre  (es-Sur),  The  Brook 
Kishon  (Nahr  el-Mukutta)  enters  the  Mediter- 
ranean north  of  Mount  Carmel.  The  Shihor  ( Wady 
el-Arish),  or  Brook  of  Egypt,  rises  in  the  hills 
in  the  north  of  the  Sinai  tic  Peninsula,  and  flows 
into  the  Mediterranean  at  the  extreme  south 
of  Palestine.  Besides  these,  there  are  several 
streams  on  the  east  of  Jordan,  which  do  not  con- 
cern us  here  (but  see  JORDAN),  and  numerous 
wadys,  full  only  in  winter  or  after  heavy  rains, 
at  other  times  mere  dry,  rocky  ravines. 

The  climate  of  Palestine  is  very  variable.  The 
mean  temperature  of  the  coastal  region  is  70°, 
the  extremes  being  50°  and  85°.  The  higher 


lands  are  cooler,  Jerusalem  having  a  mean  tem- 
perature of  62°,  while  the  extremes  are  much 
greater.  Frost  and  snow  sometimes  occur, 
but  do  not  last  long.  In  the  Jordan  valley  it 
is  almost  never  cool,  the  thermometer  seldom 
registering  lower  than  77°,  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  sometimes  rises  to  130*.  The  heat  of 
Judaea  and  Galilee  in  summer-time  is  very 
great,  sometimes  even  fatal,  especially  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Mount  Tabor.  (Compare  the 
story  in  2  K.  4.18-20.)  There  is  no  rain  in 
Palestine  during  the  summer,  but  in  the  evening 
the  dew,  with  a  heavy  mist,  falls  heavily  and  sud- 
denly, so  that  the  incautious  traveller  is  wetted 
to  the  skin.  The  early  rains  fall  in  the  month 
of  Tisri  (September-October),  replenishing  the 
streams  in  the  south  (Ps.  126.4) ;  the  latter  rains, 
in  the  month  Nisan  (March-April).  The  former 
quicken  the  seed,  the  latter  fill  the  ears.  It  was 
at  the  time  of  the  Passover,  when  the  Jordan 
had  been  swollen  by  the  latter  rains,  that  the 
Israelites  crossed  the  Jordan  (Josh.  3). 

The  east  wind  in  Palestine  is  harmful  to 
vegetation,  as,  owing  to  its  extreme  dryness,  it 
carries  off  all  moisture.  It  is  dangerous  also 
from  its  long  duration  and  strength  (Ps.  48.7). 
The  west  wind  is  beneficent,  bringing  rain  after 
drought.  Like  the  east  wind,  the  north  wind  is 
cold  and  dry  (Job  37.9-22),  while  that  from  the 
south  is  tempestuous. 

As  the  rainfall  is  only  about  30  inches  annually, 
and  distributed  over  only  fifty  days,  the  value  of 
the  numerous  wells  in  Palestine  can  be  ap- 
preciated. It  was  this  fact  that  made  them  so 
frequently  a  cause  of  strife,  as  between  Abimelech 
and  Isaac  (Gen.  26.18-21),  while  Moses  com- 
memorated God's  bounty  in  giving  wells  without 
the  labour  of  digging  (Devi.  6.11).  [RAIN, 
WELLS,  WATER.]  It  is  owing  to  the  very  dryness 
of  the  air  that  the  mirage  so  often  appears  to 
disappoint  the  thirsty  traveller  with  a  vision  of 
cool  water  (Isai.  35.7). 

The  geological  structure  of  Palestine  is  that  of 
a  rugged  mountainous  tract  of  limestone  of  the 
Jurassic  and  Cretaceous  periods,  forming  the 
southern  offshoot  of  the  Lebanon  range,  and 
part  of  a  vast  deposit  of  limestone  stretching  far 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  Holy  Land.  Its  most 
exceptional  feature  is  the  straight  crevasse  (not 
uncommon  in  limestone  formations,  but  nowhere 
of  such  extent  and  depth  as  here)  extending  north 
and  south,  and  containing  the  river  Jordan,  Lakes 
Merom  and  Tiberias,  and  the  Dead  Sea.  This 
fissure  is  of  volcanic  origin,  the  result  of  an 
upheaval  from  beneath,  which  has  tilted  the  lime- 
stone back  on  each  side,  leaving  this  huge  split  in 
the  earth,  2625  feet  below  the  sea-level  in  its 
deepest  part.  The  upper  stratum  of  limestone  is 
tolerably  hard,  varying  in  colour  from  white  to 
reddish  brown,  with  few  fossils,  and  abounding 
in  caverns.  Its  general  surface  has  been  formed 
into  gently  rounded  hills,  crowded  together  and 
separated  by  numerous  clefts  or  ravines  due  to 
erosion,  and  spreading  out  into  narrow  valleys 
and  plains  of  great  fertility.  But  many  of  the 
fissures,  caused  by  loner-past  earthquakes,  ex- 


PALESTINA,  PALESTINE] 


353 


[PALESTINA,  PALESTINE 


hibit  the  lower  strata.  This  lower  formation 
differs  entirely  in  character  from  the  upper.  The 
huge  fissures,  cleaving  the  rock  in  all  directions, 
sometimes  to  a  depth  of  1000  feet,  while  only 
30  to  40  feet  wide,  show  it  as  a  dark  grey  stone, 
compact  and  solid,  with  abundant  fillets  of  an  ex- 
tinct echinus,  and  forming  the  solid  floor  of  the 
country  under  its  whole  extent  and  both  sides 
of  the  Jordan.  Subsequent  to  the  violent  up- 
heaval which  produced  the  rugged  fissures  and 
abrupt,  pointed  landscape  such  as  is  seen  on 
the  road  from  Jericho  to  Jerusalem,  it  was 
pierced  again,  and  large  eruptions  of  lava  were 
forced  up  from  beneath.  This  lava  now  appears 
as  basalt  or  trap,  abundant  in  the  mountains 
north  of  Samaria.  This  basalt  forms  the  cliSs 
at  the  back  of  Tiberias,  and  to  its  disintegration 
is  due  the  black  soil  of  the  plain  of  Gennesaret 
and  neighbouring  localities.  In  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Safed  are  still  to  be  found  three  ancient 
craters,  filled  with  water,  and  known  as  lakes 
of  El-Jish,  Taiteba,  and  Delata. 


of  several  kinds.  The  heron,  bittern,  lap  whig, 
osprey,  owl,  partridge,  peacock,  pigeon,  dove, 
quail,  raven,  stork,  sparrow,  are  all  to  be  found 
there,  some  in  great  quantity. 

Of  the  fishes  of  Palestine  nearly  half  the  total 
number  are  peculiar  to  the  Jordan,  and  belong 
to  genera  that  are  chiefly  African  in  type.  There 
are  no  fish  in  the  Dead  Sea,  but  the  Lake  of 
Tiberias  contains  many  varieties,  the  catching 
of  them  forming  an  important  industry.  [FISH, 
FISHING.] 

Of  the  insects,  bees,  locusts,  grasshoppers 
are  most  abundant,  the  latter  two  often  causing 
great  damage  to  the  crops,  and  causing  constant 
terror  to  the  husbandman.  Though  the  flea  is 
only  twice  mentioned  in  the  Bible  (1  Sam.  24.14, 
26.20)  it  is  so  abundant  as  to  be  a  very  serious 
annoyance,  especially  about  camping  grounds 
and  in  the  inns.  Flies  also  are  another  nuisance, 
being  a  chief  cause  of  the  spreading  of  ophthal- 
mia, so  prevalent  all  over  the  East.  The  gad-fly, 
horse-fly,  and  other  stinging  and  blood-sucking 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  ANCIENT  DIVISIONS  OP  THE  COUNTRY. 


Canaanitish. 

Israelitish. 

Roman. 

Sidonians  . 
Unknown  . 

Tribe  of  Asher  (in  Libanus)                                             1 
Naphtali  (north-west  of  the  Lake  of  Tiberias) 

\ 

Upper  Galilee 

Perizzites  . 

Zebulun  (west  of  the  Lake  of  Tiberias) 
Issachar  (Plain  of  Esdraelon,  Mount  Tabor) 

\ 

Lower  Galilee 

Hivites      . 

Half  tribe  of  Manasseh  (Dora  and  Caesarea) 
Ephraim  (Shechem,  Samaria)   . 

I 

Samaria 

Jebusites  . 

Benjamin  (Jericho,  Jerusalem) 

Amorites,  Hitlites 

Judah  (Hebron,  Judaea  Proper) 

Philistines. 

Simeon  (south-west  of  Judah)  .                             . 

Judaea 

,, 

Dan  (Joppa)  ....                            . 

Moabites   . 

Reuben  (Persea,  Heshbon) 

Ammonites,  Gilead 

Gad  (Decapolis)        ... 

Persea 

Kingdom  of  Bashan    . 

Half-tribe  of  Manasseh  (Gaulanitis,  Batanea) 

With  its  wonderfully  varied  climate  it  might 
be  expected  that  the  vegetable  life  of  Palestine 
would  in  like  manner  be  widely  varied.  Wheat, 
barley,  millet,  maize,  beans,  peas,  and  lentils 
form  the  principal  crops  ;  while  oranges,  citrons, 
and  lemons  are  largely  grown  and  exported. 
The  principal  trees  are  the  palm,  oak,  tere- 
binth, fig,  olive,  cypress,  cedar,  sycamore, 
acacia,  pine,  and  box. 

Animal  life  is  not  very  varied.  Besides  the 
domesticated  animals,  such  as  the  horse,  the  ox, 
and  the  sheep  and  camels,  asses  and  mules,  the 
animals  of  Palestine  include  several  beasts  of 
prey,  the  chief  of  which  are  the  lion  (now 
extinct),  bear,  leopard,  wolf,  hyaena,  jackal,  and 
fox.  The  dog  may  also  be  almost  considered  a 
wild  creature,  for  he  is  tolerated  only  for  his 
services  as  scavenger.  The  crocodile  still  exists 
in  Palestine,  as  well  as  the  wild  boar,  wild  goat, 
and  numerous  smaller  creatures. 

Song  birds  are  rare,  but  birds  of  prey  are  very 
numerous,  the  eagle,  vulture,  and  hawks  and  kites 
23 


varieties  are  common  in  the  valley  of  the 
Jordan,  and  are  exceedingly  injurious  to  animals. 
[BEE,  FLY.] 

An  estimate  of  the  population  of  Palestine 
in  O.T.  times  gives  it  at  about  five  millions.  At 
the  present  day  the  population  is  considerably 
under  one  million,  probably  between  600,000 
and  700,000,  chiefly  Mohammedans,  Christians, 
and  Jews,  the  Moslems  being  about  four-fifths 
of  the  whole;  the  Jews,  numbering  about 
100,000,  live  chiefly  in  and  around  Jerusalem. 
Arabic  is  the  common  language. 

According  to  race  the  population  consists  of 
Syrians,  Greeks,  Arabs,  Turks,  Jews,  and  Franks. 
The  Arabian  is  again  of  two  classes,  settled  and 
wandering.  The  latter,  known  as  Bedouin,  are 
divided  into  tribes.  These  live  by  cattle-rearing 
and  thieving,  and  there  is  constant  hostility 
between  them  and  the  other  inhabitants. 

The  Bible  has  many  names  for  the  country 
known  to  us  as  Palestine.  In  the  time  of  the 
Patriarchs  and  Judges  it  was  called  the  "  Land 


PALESTINA,  PALESTINE] 


354 


[PALESTINA,  PALESTINE 


of  Canaan,"  "  the  land  of  the  Hebrews  "  (Gen. 
40.15),  perhaps  the  "land  of  the  Hittites " 
( Josh.  1.4),  the  "  land  of  Israel "  (1  Sam.  13.19, 
etc.),  a  term  applied  to  the  whole  country  west 
of  the  Jordan,  and  not  to  that  portion  of  it  com- 
prising the  kingdom  of  Israel.  Hosea's  lofty 
title  was  the  "land  of  Jehovah"  (Eos.  9.3), 
while  Zechariah  (2.12)  calls  it  the  "  Holy  Land," 
a  title  which  is  said  to  have  been  bestowed  upon 
the  country  even  before  the  time  of  the  Hebrews. 
In  Daniel  it  is  "  the  glorious  land"  (Dan.  11.41), 
in  Amos  the  "  land  of  the  Amorite  "  (Amos  2.10), 
"the  Land"  only  in  Ruth  1.1;  Jer.  22.27; 
Lie.  4.25.  From  the  Captivity  to  the  birth 
of  Jesus  the  name  Judoea  had  been  applied  to 
the  whole  country  (Matt.  19.1 ;  Mk.  10.1).  In 
Hebrews  Palestine  is  spoken  of  as  the  "  Land  of 
Promise  "  (Heb.  11.9). 


Ephraim  and  half  of  Manasseh  the  middle 
districts  (Samaria) ;  while  Judah,  Benjamin, 
Dan,  and  Simeon  possessed  the  southern 
portion  (Judaea).  But  Dan,  finding  a  difficulty 
in  overcoming  the  Philistines  of  the  sea-coast, 
afterwards  divided,  and  sent  a  colony  north, 
which  settled  in  the  country  to  the  west  of 
Mount  Hermon  and  south  of  the  Lebanon  range. 
The  remaining  tribes,  Reuben,  Gad,  and  half 
of  Manasseh  were  given  possessions  east  of  the 
Jordan,  the  Lake  of  Galilee,  and  the  Dead  Sea, 
districts  not  generally  included  in  Palestine  by 
modern  geographers.  See  each  tribe  separately. 
After  the  extension  and  consolidation  of  the 
kingdom  of  Solomon,  the  distinction  of  the 
tribes  became  less  marked,  and  there  was 
more  of  a  national  feeling  and  sentiment, 
tending  towards  the  obliteration  of  sectional 


OP  HEROD  THE  GREAT,  37  B.C.  TO  4  B.C. 


Judaea,  Samaria,  Idumoea. 

Galilee,  Peraea  Proper. 

Trachonitis  and  Ituroea. 

Revenue  400  talents  (about  one 
million  sterling). 

These  he  bequeaths  to  his  son, 

Archelaus,  who  is  banished,  and 
the  province  is  put  under 
procurators    Coponius,     6—9 
A.D.  ;  Ambibulus,  9-12  A.D.  ; 
Rufus,  12-15  A.D.  ;  Valerius 
Gratus,  15-27  A.D. 

Pontius  Pilate,  26-36  A.D. 

Revenue  200  talents. 

These  he  bequeaths  to  his  son, 

Herod  Antipas,  who  beheaded 
John. 

Herod   Antipas  was  banished 
39  A.IX 

Revenue  100  talents. 

These  he  bequeaths  to  his  son, 
Philip  Herod  (Lk.  3.1). 

Philip  dies  34  A.D. 

Herod  Agrippa  i.  (grandson  of  Herod)  (Acts  12)  made  king  of  the  whole  41-44  A.D. 

Procurators  :  —  Fadus,    44  -  ? 
A.D.  ;   Alexander,  ?-48  A.D.  ; 
Ventidius,  48-52  A.D.  ;  Felix, 
52,     53-60    A.D.;      Festus, 
60-62  A.D. 

Agrippa  I.),  tetrarch  of  Chalc 
Trachonitis  and  part  of  Galile 
him  at  Coesarea  (Acts  25.26). 

Agrippa    n.    (son    of    Herod 
s,  50  A.D.,  is  made  tetrarch  of 
B,  53  A.D.    Paul  pleads  before 

The  political  history  of  the  country  shows  us 
that  there  were  in  the  early  times  ten  nations 
of  Canaanites,  afterwards  reduced  to  seven 
(Gen.  15.18-21;  Lent.  7-1).  The  most  powerful 
of  these  were  the  Amorites  (Gen.  15.10),  who 
sometimes  even  gave  their  name  to  the  whole. 
At  the  time  of  the  entry  of  the  Hebrews  the 
country  was  occupied  by  the  Philistines,  Moab- 
ites,  Midianites,  Amorites,  Ammonites,  Amalek- 
ites,  and  Edomites.  Joshua  divided  the  country 
into  twelve  parts,  one  for  each  tribe,  including 
Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  the  tribe  of  Levi 
having  its  portion  scattered  among  the  rest. 
Asher,  Naphtali,  Zebulun,  and  Issachar  were 
given  the  northern  portion  of  the  land  (Galilee) ; 


boundaries  and  interests.  This  tendency  was 
hastened  by  the  king's  action  in  redividing 
the  land  into  twelve  new  provinces  or  governor- 
ships as  related  in  1  K.  4.7-19. 

The  death  of  Solomon  resulted  in  the  rupture 
of  the  kingdom.  Ten  tribes  revolted  from  his 
son  Rehoboam  and  founded  the  separate 
kingdom  of  Israel,  with  Shechem  (afterwards 
Tirzah  and  Samaria)  as  their  capital  (1  K.  15.33, 
16.23,  24).  The  loyal  tribes  of  Benjamin  and 
Judah,  with  parts  of  Dan  and  Simeon,  formed 
the  kingdom  of  Judah,  with  Jerusalem  for 
capital.  These  two  kingdoms  lasted  side  by 
side  for  220  years,  until  the  overthrew/  of 
Israel  by  the  Assyrians  under  Sargon.  One 


PALLU] 


355 


[PAMPHYLIA 


hundred  and  twenty  years  later  the  Babylonians 
conquered  Judah,  and  Nebuchadnezzar  carried 
the  people  into  captivity,  where  they  remained 
until  permitted  to  return  by  Cyrus  the  Persian, 
who  had  in  turn  overthrown  Babylonia. 

Under  Cyrus,  Palestine  formed  part  of  the 
Persian  province  of  Syria,  until  the  conquests 
of  Alexander  and  the  division  of  his  empire 
between  his  generals  resulted  in  Palestine 
becoming  subject  in  turn  to  the  rulers  of  Egypt 
and  Syria  until  the  final  conquest  by  the 
Romans.  [See  ISRAEL,  JUDAH,  etc.,  for  detailed 
history.] 

Under  the  Romans  Palestine  was  divided  into 
the  districts  of  Galilee,  Samaria  and  Judaea, 
and  Idumsea,  with  Peraea,  Trachonitis,  and 
Iturcea,  beyond  the  Jordan.  At  the  birth  of 
our  Saviour  the  whole  of  these  constituted 
the  Dominions  of  Herod  the  Great,  who  ruled 
from  37  B.C.  to  4  B.C.  [HEROD.]  It  belonged 
to  the  Roman  Empire  in  its  western  or 
eastern  form  till  636  A.D.,  when  the  Moham- 
medan Arabs  conquered  it,  and  though  the 
Crusaders  held  temporary  possession  for  nearly 
two  centuries,  1100  to  1271,  it  has  belonged  to 
Mohammedans  since.  The  Turks  seized  it  in 
1518.  In  the  time  of  the  Crusades  episcopal  sees 
were  established  in  the  principal  cities. 

At  the  present  time  the  whole  country  is 
divided  into  the  pachaliks,  or  governments, 
of  Beyrout,  Damascus,  and  Jerusalem.  Several 
societies  of  Jews  throughout  the  world,  called 
Zionists,  are  feeling  their  way  towards  the 
purchase  of  Palestine  with  a  view  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  their  ancient  nation  and  faith  in 
the  land  of  their  fathers. 

Pal'lu. — (?)  Distinguished  :  second  son  of 
Reuben  and  founder  of  the  Palluites  (Ex.  6.14  ; 
Num.  26.5,  8 ;  1  Ch.  5.3).  In  Gen.  46.9  he  is 
called  Phallu. 

Pal'luites.— Descendants  of  Pattu  (Num.  26.5). 

Palm,  Palm  Tree. — It  is  with  the  date-palm 
that  the  Bible  student  is  concerned — a  tree 
the  value  of  which  in  Egypt,  Palestine,  and 
Arabia  can  hardly  be  overestimated.  The 
Arabs  have  a  saying  that  the  palm  has  as  many 
uses  as  there  are  days  in  the  year.  Its  date 
was  and  is  a  familiar  article  of  food.  The 
palm  trees  of  Elim  are  noted  in  the  wilderness 
journey  of  the  children  of  Israel  (Ex.  15.27  ; 
Num.  33.9).  The  booths  at  the  Feast  of  Taber- 
nacles were  to  be  made  in  part  of  palms  (Lev. 
23.40).  Jericho  was  distinguished  as  the  "  City 
of  palm  trees  "  (Deut.  34.3  ;  2  Ch.  28.15  ;  and 
cf.  Judg.  1.16,  3.13).  Deborah  dwelt  under 
a  palm  tree  associated  with  her  name 
(Judg.  4.5).  Palms  appeared  in  the  carved 
work  of  Solomon's  temple  (1  K.  6.29,  etc.). 
For  names  suggested  by  the  palm,  see  TAMAR, 
BAAL-TAMAR,  HAZEZON-TAMAR.  Our  Lord,  at 
His  entry  into  Jerusalem,  was  met  by  people 
bearing  palms  (John  12.13).  The  symbolical 
references  to  the  tree  show  that  the  palm  was 
formerly,  as  now,  considered  the  embodiment  of 
grace  and  beauty.  Its  lofty  stature  is  referred  to 
in  the  Song  of  Solomon  (7.7)  and  the  Book  of 


Jeremiah  (10.5) ;    its  verdure  and   fruitfulness 
even  to  old  age  in  Pa.  92.12, 14. 

Palmer-worm. — In  Hebrew,  gazam,  the  shaver. 
A  caterpillar,  probably  one  of  the  larval  states 
of  the  locust  (Joel  1.4,  2.25 ;  Amos  4.9). 
[LOCUST.] 

Palsy. — A  paralysis,  of  parts  or  of  the 
entire  nervous  system,  brought  about  by  some 
mechanical  injury,  or  disease  of  the  brain, 
spinal  cord,  or  particular  nerves.  In  some 
cases  the  paralysis  depends  on  temporary 
causes  capable  of  removal.  But  more  fre- 
quently a  loss  of  function  is  involved,  so  that 
the  person  who  is  said  to  be  palsied  is  per- 
manently disabled  in  some  way,  generally 
by  inability  to  move  or  help  himself  in  any 
way.  That  this  was  the  case  of  the  one  who 
was  borne  of  four  and  brought  to  Christ  at 
Capernaum  is  evident  (Matt.  9 ;  Mk.  2 ; 
Lk.  5),  because  the  special  term  used  by  Luke 
is  the  correct  technical  Greek  word  for  pro- 
nounced paralysis  from  disease.  But  it  is 
not  necessary  to  assume  that  his  disease  was 
the  direct  result  of  special  sin,  any  more  than 
in  the  case  of  the  impotent  man  at  the  pool 
of  Bethesda.  The  miraculous  character  of  the 
cure  is  shown  by  the  rapidity  with  which  it  was 
effected,  so  that  the  subject  was  not  only  freed 
from  his  infirmity  but  his  strength  was  restored, 
and  he  was  able  to  carry  the  mat  on  which  he 
lay.  The  case  of  the  centurion's  servant 
was  one  of  progressive  paralysis,  attended  by 
muscular  spasms  (Matt.  8.6 ;  Lk.  7.2),  in- 
volving great  pain  as  well  as  imminent  danger 
to  life.  Some  have  thought  the  impotent  man 
(John  5.2-9)  and  the  woman  mentioned  by 
Luke  (13.11-17)  to  have  been  paralytic  cases, 
but  there  is  little  to  support  this  view. 

Pal'ti. — Jehovah  delivers  :  the  son  of  Raphu, 
a  Benjamite,  and  one  of  the  twelve  spies  (Num. 
13.9).  [PHALTI.] 

Palti'el. — God  delivers :  the  son  of  Azzan, 
and  a  prince  of  Issachar  ;  one  of  the  appointed 
twelve  who  divided  the  land  of  Canaan  (Num. 
34.26).  [PHALTI,  PHALTIEL.] 

Pal'tite,  The.  —  One  of  David's  mighty 
men  (2  Sam.  23.26),  perhaps  an  inhabitant 
of  Beth-palet  in  the  south  of  Judah  (Josh. 
15.27).  In  1  Ch.  11.27,  however,  he  is  called 
"  the  Pelonite  "  ;  and  also  in  1  Ch.  27.10,  where 
he  is  spoken  of  as  an  Ephraimite  and  as  captain 
of  24,000  of  David's  soldiers. 

Pamphylia. — A  Roman  province  in  the  south 
of  Asia  Minor,  having  Cilicia  to  the  east,  Lycia 
to  the  west,  Pisidia  to  the  north,  and  the 
Mediterranean  south  of  it.  It  was  80  miles 
long  and  about  20  wide.  The  large  island  of 
Cyprus  lies  opposite  its  coast,  and  the  sea 
between  is  called  the  Sea  of  Pamphylia  (cf. 
Acts  27.5).  The  country  was  of  small 
extent,  including  only  a  narrow  strip  of  level 
ground  between  the  sea  and  the  Taurus  range. 
In  74  A.D.  Lycia  was  united  to  its  government. 

Its  chief  city,  Perga,  was  near  the  river 
Cestrus.  Paul  and  Barnabas  had  sailed  up  the 
river  after  crossing  the  sea  from  Cyprus.  It 


PAN] 


356 


[PARABLE 


was  here  that  John  Mark  left  them  (Acts  13.13, 
15.38).  They  preached  there  on  the  return 
journey  (14.25),  and  sailed  from  Attalia,  also 
in  Pamphylia  (14.26). 

There  were  a  good  number  of  Jews  in  Pam- 
phylia, and  it  is  supposed  that  they  had  a  syna- 
gogue at  Perga  (Acts  2.10).  [PERGA.] 

Pan. — Sometimes  this  word  is  used  to  denote 
a  shallow  vessel  of  clay  or  metal,  and  sometimes 
a  pot  or  caldron.  The  shallow  utensil  is  still 
used  by  the  Arabs  for  cooking  their  cakes  of 
meal  rapidly ;  the  deeper  pan  was  chiefly 
employed  in  cooking  meat,  for  which  purpose  it 
was  placed  on  three  stones  with  the  fire  beneath. 
Seven  different  Hebrew  words  are  translated  by 
"  pan "  in  the  Authorized  Version.  But  the 
division  given  above  indicate^  the  chief  and 
most  certain  difference  between  the  utensils 
mentioned.  [PoT.] 

Pan'nag. — An  unknown  balsam  or  spice  or 
food  exported  from  Palestine  to  Tyre  (EzeJc. 
27.17). 

Paper,  Papyrus.— The  Egyptians  at  a  very 
early  period  used  for  a  writing  surface  a  material, 
in  some  respects  resembling  paper,  called  papyrus. 
This  was  derived  from  the  stem  of  the  papyrus- 
reed,  a  plant  common  to  the  rivers  and  lakes  of 
Egypt  and  Palestine.  The  process  of  manu- 
facture, though  tedious,  was  easy.  When  the 
outer  skin  or  bark  was  taken  off  the  reed,  the 
pith  was  sliced  in  thin  layers.  These  were  then 
laid  side  by  side  on  a  table  and  carefully  matched 
and  flatted  together,  the  separated  pieces  ad- 
hering together  after  being  moistened  with  thin 
glue  and  water  and  put  under  pressure.  Each 
sheet  was  composed  of  two  layers,  one  in  which 
the  slips  ran  horizontally,  the  other  perpendicu- 
lar. They  were  dried  in  the  sun,  the  surfaces 
polished,  and  were  then  ready  to  be  written  upon. 
For  letters  and  short  documents  a  single  sheet 
was  sufficient,  but  for  a  longer  work  the  sheets 
were  glued  together. 

Isaiah  (19.7),  when  he  speaks  of  the  "  paper- 
reed"  (R.V.  meadows),  is  referring  to  the  growing 
papyrus ;  and  the  passage  in  2  John  12  is  a 
reference  to  the  writing  material  made  from  it. 
Countless  numbers  of  documents,  private,  official, 
and  literary,  written  upon  papyrus,  have  been 
discovered  in  Egypt  in  recent  years,  and  have 
thrown  great  light  on  the  customs  and  the 
languages  of  residents  in  Egypt  from  about 
500  B.C.  to  GOO  A.D. 

Pa'phos.— A  town  at  the  south-west  ex- 
tremity of  Cyprus,  and  the  scene  of  Saul's 
encounter  with  Elymas  the  sorcerer,  during 
his  first  missionary  tour  (Acts  13.6).  Paphos, 
now  Baffo,  was  a  noted  shrine  for  the  worship 
of  Venus,  or  Aphrodite,  who  was  said  to  have 
risen  from  the  sea  at  this  place.  It  was  the 
scene  of  much  profligacy  amongst  the  crowds  of 
pilgrims  who  gathered  to  worship  at  her  shrine. 
An  independent  king,  who  was  also  the  heredi- 
tary high-priest  of  the  temple  of  the  goddess, 
ruled  the  city  and  the  western  portion  of  the 
island  until  the  Romans  occupied  the  island  in 
58  B.C. 


Parable. — A  parable  is  a  narrative,  imagined 
or  true,  told  >for  the  purpose  of  imparting  a 
truth.  It  differs  from  the  proverb  in  that  the 
picture  presented  is  not  so  concentrated,  but 
contains  more  detail,  and  so  requires  less  mental 
effort  to  its  understanding.  It  differs  from  the 
allegory  in  that  it  illustrates  persons  in  their 
conduct  and  conversation,  whereas  the  latter 
personifies  attributes  and  qualities  themselves. 
It  differs  again  from  the  fable  in  limiting  its 
scope  to  the  human  and  possible.  In  the  O.T. 
Jotham's  story  (Judg.  9.8-15)  is  rather  a  fable 
than  a  parable,  but  Nathan's  (2  Sam.  12.1-4) 
and  Joab's  (14.5-7)  are  true  examples.  See  also 
the  half-acted  parable  by  the  wounded  prophet 
(1  K.  20.39  f.).  In  Isai.  5.1-6  we  have  the  semi- 
parable  of  the  vineyard,  and  in  28.24-28  of  the 
various  operations  in  agriculture. 

Our  Lord's  use  of  parables  was  quite  in  accord- 
ance with  the  method  of  teaching  given  to  the 
people  from  Temple  and  synagogue.  The  scribes 
and  teachers  of  the  Law  made  a  large  use  of 
parables  and  figures  of  speech  to  illustrate  their 
homilies.  Such  are  the  Haggadoth  of  the  Rab- 
binic books.  The  parable  was  an  instrument  of 
education  for  those  who  were  children  either  in 
age  or  character.  Thus  the  constant  employ- 
ment of  parable  in  His  ministry  (Mk.  4.34) 
served  at  once  to  illuminate  His  teaching,  by 
contact  with  common  life  and  human  interests, 
to  set  forth  the  nature  of  His  kingdom,  and  to 
test  the  disposition  of  His  hearers  (Matt.  21.45  ; 
Lk.  20.19). 

The  Saviour's  Parables  differ  greatly  from  one 
another.  Some  are  short  and  easy ;  others 
longer  and  more  difficult  to  understand.  Some 
teach  a  simple  moral  lesson,  others  a  deep 
spiritual  truth. 

Neander  has  thus  classified  the  parables  of  our 
Lord  with  reference  to  the  truths  taught  in  them, 
and  their  connexion  with  His  kingdom : — 

PARABLES  ON  THE  PROGRESS  OF  THE  KINGDOM 
OF  CHRIST. 

1.  The  Sower,  Matt.  13.3-8 ;  Mk.  4.3-8 ;  Lk. 
8.5-8. 

2.  The  Tares,  M att.  13.24-30. 

3.  The  Mustard-Seed,  Matt.  13.31,  32 ;    Mk. 
4.30-32  ;  Lk.  13.18, 19. 

4.  The  Leaven,  Matt.  13.33 ;  Lk.  13.20,  21. 

5.  The  Net,  Matt.  13.47,  48. 

MORAL  REQUISITES  FOR  ENTERING  THE  KINGDOM 
OF  CHRIST. 

(1)  Anti-Pharisaic  Parables,  or  Negative 
Requisites. 

6.  The  Lost  Sheep,  Matt.  18.12, 13 ;  Lk.  15.4-6. 

7.  Lost  Piece  of  Money,  Lit.  15.8-10. 

8.  The  Prodigal  Son,  Lk.  15.11-32. 

9.  Pharisee  and  Publican,  Lk.  18.9-14. 

10.  Strife  for  the-  first  Place  at  Feasts,  Lk 
14.7-11. 

(2)  Positive  Requisites. 

11.  The  Two  Sons,  Matt.  21.28-30. 

12.  The  Hidden  Treasure,  Matt.  13.44. 


PARABLE] 


357 


[PARADISE 


13.  The  Pearl,  Matt.  13.45,  46. 

14.  The  Tower  and  the  Warring  King,  Lk. 
14.28-33. 

15.  The  Wedding  Garment,  Matt.  22.11-14. 

CALL  TO  ENTER  THE  KINGDOM  OF  CHRIST. 

16.  The  Feast,  Matt.  22.1-14  ;  Lk.  14.16-24. 

ACTIVITY  IN  THE  KINGDOM  OF  CHRIST. 

17.  The  Vine,  John  15.1-8. 

18.  Wicked    Vine-Dressers,   Matt.   21.33-41 ; 


Mk.  12.1-9  ;   Lk.  20.9-16. 
19.  The   Talents,   Matt. 


25.14-30;    and    the 


(2)  The  right  Use  of  worldly  Possessions. 

24.  The  Unjust  Steward,  Lk.  16.1-12. 

25.  The  Rich  Man  and  Lazarus,  Lk.  16.19-31. 

(3)  The  Christian  Spirit  under  the  Name  of 
Prudence. 

26.  The  Ten  Virgins,  Matt.  25.1-13. 

(4)  Prayer. 

27.  The  Importunate  Widow,  Lk.  18.1-8. 

28.  The  Friend  on  his  Journey,  Lk.  11.5-10. 
The  following  table  shows  the  occurrence  of 

the  parables  in  the  gospels : — 


THE  PARABLES  OF  OUR  LORD  IN  THE  GOSPELS. 


Related  in  three  Gospels  — 

Matthew. 
13.3-23 

Mark. 
43-20 

Luke. 
8  4-15 

3  The  Mustard-Seed       

13.31,  32 

4.30,  32 

13  18  19 

The  Wicked  Vine-Dressers  
Related  in  two  Gospels  only  — 
•fThe  Leaven       

21.33-41 
1333 

12.1-9 

20.9-16 
1320  21 

19.12,  14 

15.3-7 

Related  in  one  Gospel  only  — 
Z  The  Tares          •   . 

13.24-30 
13.44 

.. 

£  The  Pearl  of  Great  Price     
?  The  Draw-Net   .         .         . 
The  Unforgiving  Servant    ..... 

13.45,  46 
13.47-50 
18.23-35 
20.1-16 

•• 

The  Two  Sons  
The  Marriage  of  the  King's  Son  .... 
The  Wedding  Garment       
The  Ten  Virgins         
The  Ten  Talents        

21.28-32 
22.1-10 
22.11-14 
25.1-13 
25.14-30 

•• 

•• 

?  The  Seed  Growing  Secretly         .... 
The  Householder  and  his  Servants 
The  Two  Debtors      
The  Good  Samaritan          

4.26-29 
13.34-37 

7.41-43 

10.25-37 

The  Friend  at  Midnight     
The  Rich  Fool           
The  Stewards  and  their  Absent  Master 
The  Barren  Fig-Tree  

•• 

-• 

11.5-10 
12.16-21 
12.41-48 
13.6-9 

The  Great  Supper      
The  Lost  Piece  of  Silver     

•• 

•• 

14.16-24 
15.8-10 

15.11-32 

The  Dishonest  Steward      
The  Rich  Man  and  Lazarus         .... 
The  Unprofitable  Servant  
The  Judge  and  the  Importunate  Widow 
The  Pharisee  and  Publican         .... 
The  Pounds      

•• 

•• 

16.1-9 
16,19-31 
17.7-10 
18.1-8 
18.9-14 
19.12-27 

The  Vine  .         .         

John  15  1-8 

Pounds,  Lk.  19.12-27. 

20.  Barren  Fig  Tree,  Lk.  13.6-9. 

21.  The  Labourers,  Matt.  20.1-16. 

TEE  TRUE  SPIRIT  OF  THE  KINGDOM  OF  CHRIST. 
(1)  Forgiveness. 

22.  Good  Samaritan,  Lk.  10.30-37. 

23.  Unforgiving  Servant,  Matt.  18.23-35  ;   cf . 
Lk.  7.41, 42. 


Paraclete. — [SPIRIT,  HOLY.] 

Paradise. — The  word  is  of  Persian  origin,  mean- 
ing a  garden,  park,  or  enclosure.  It  occurs  in  the 
N.T.  only,  either  as  the  place  of  the  godly  de- 
parted spirits  (Lk.  23 A3 ;  2  Cor.  12.4),  or  in  its 
full  meaning  (Rev.  2.7).  The  Hebrew  word  of 
allied  form  is  found  in  Neh.  2.8  of  the  "  king's 
forest "  (R. V.  marg.,  or,  park) ;  in  Cant.  4.13  as  "  an 
orchard  "  (R.V.  marg.,  or,  a  paradise).  [EDEN.] 


PARAH] 


358 


[PARTRIDGE 


Pa 'rah. — Ileift*:  a  town  allotted  to  Ben- 
jamin (Josh.  18.23).  Its  present  name  is  Farah, 
a  little  west  of  Jericho. 

Pa'ran. — Usually  identified  with  the  modern 
El-Tih,  the  billy  country  and  desert  crossing 
midway  the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  from  the  Wady 
Feirun  on  the  south,  northwards  to  Palestine. 
Paran  was  the  home  of  Ishmael  (Gen.  21.21), 
and  the  scene  of  the  wanderings  of  the  Israelites 
(Num.  10.12,  12.10,  13.3,26;  Deut.  1.1,  33.2; 
Hob.  3.3).  David  dwelt  here  after  the  death  of 
Samuel  (1  Sam.  25.1,  if  the  text  should  not  be 
emended  to  Maon) ;  and  Hadad  sought  safety 
in  its  fastnesses  from  Solomon  (1 K.  11.18). 

Par'bar. — Lighted  (by  the  sun) :  a  Persian 
word,  apparently  the  same  as  that  translated 
"  suburbs  "  in  the  A.V.,  and  "  precincts  "  in 
the  K.V.,  of  2  K.  23.11*.  A  walled-in  place  west 
of  the  Temple  (1  Ch.  26.18,  "the  Precinct," 
R.V.  marg.) ;  perhaps  an  open  colonnade. 

Parcel  of  ground.— Parcel  in  Old  English 
signified  a  division,  share,  or  portion.  It  is  still 
used  as  a  law  term.  To  parcel,  was  to  divide 
into  portions  (Gen.  33.19;  Josh.  24.32;  Ruth 
4.3). 

Parched  corn.— This  was  corn,  gathered 
while  the  unripe  ears  were  still  soft,  roasted  on 
hot  plates.  Wheat  or  barley  ears  thus  prepared 
was  a  common  article  of  diet  in  O.T.  times, 
and  continues  to  be  to  this  day  in  all  Eastern 
countries  (Lev.  23.14 ;  Josh.  5.11 ;  Ruth  2.14  ; 
1  Sam.  17.17 ;  2  Sam.  17.28). 

Parched  ground  (/sat.  35.7).  —  Better 
"  mirage,"  with  the  R.V.  marg. 

Parchment. — A  material  for  writing  on,  made 
from  the  skins  of  calves,  sheep,  asses,  goats, 
pigs,  and  various  wild  animals.  According  to 
Pliny,  it  derived  its  name  from  a  king  of  Per- 
gamum,  Eumenes  n.,  who  reigned  about 
160  years  before  Christ.  His  ambition  was  to 
create  a  great  library  that  should  compare 
favourably  with  that  of  Alexandria  in  Egypt. 
But  the  king  of  that  country,  jealous  of  his 
rival,  forbade  the  export  of  papyrus,  and  so 
compelled  Eumenes  to  fall  back  on  the  ancient 
method,  and  use  prepared  skins.  In  the  making 
of  parchment  the  skins  are  deprived  of  all  hair, 
flesh,  fat,  and  excrescences  and  roughnesses 
rubbed  down  with  pumice.  While  still  stretched 
on  the  frame  the  skins  are  then  gone  over  with 
chalk  and  more  rubbing  until  a  smooth  velvety 
surface  is  produced,  fit  for  its  purpose.  The 
parchment  is  then  allowed  to  dry  slowly  while 
still  stretched  on  the  frame.  Jerome  is  said 
to  have  been  the  first  to  possess  a  library 
wholly  of  works  written  on  parchment.  The 
parclunents  asked  for  by  Paul  (2  Tim.  4.13) 
are  not  described  by  him.  Many  conjectures 
have  been  made  as  to  their  contents,  the  identi- 
fications varying  from  legal  documents  to  notes 
on  the  life  of  our  Lord. 

Pardon. — The  forgiveness  by  God  of  trans- 
gression against  Him  is  variously  represented. 
It  is  a  lifting  up,  or  taking  away  of  sin 
(Ps.  32.1);  a  covering  of  sin  (Ps.  85.2);  a 
non-imputation  of  it  (1's.  32.2) ;  a  blotting 


out  (Isai.  43.25) ;  and  a  non-remembrance  of 
it  (Isai.  43.25;  Heb.  8.12).  Pardon  is  an  act 
of  free  grace  (Ps.  51.1 ;  Isai.  43.25) ;  a  point  of 
justice,  in  accordance  with  His  purpose,  on  the 
confession  of  our  sins  (1  John  1.9) ;  a  complete 
act  of  forgiveness  (Ps.  103.2,  3  ;  1  John  1.7). 
The  act  of  pardon  is  final,  and  will  never  be 
repealed  (Mic.  7.19).  God  only  can  pardon, 
though  man  may  declare  His  readiness  to 
forgive.  Wealth  cannot  buy  pardon  (Prov. 
11.4),  and  works  of  righteousness  cannot  merit 
it  (Rom.  11.6). 

Par  mash 'ta.  —  Perhaps  from  the  Sanscrit, 
meaning  chief:  one  of  the  ten  sons  of 
Haman  the  Agagite  slain  by  the  Jews  in  the 
days  of  Esther  (Esih.  9.9). 

Par'menas.— Steadfast,  abiding:  the  sixth 
on  the  list  of  the  seven  commonly  called 
deacons  (Acts  6.5).  He  is  said  to  have  been 
martyred  at  Philippi  in  the  reign  of  Trajan. 

Par'nach. — The  father  of  Elizaphan,  prince 
of  the  tribe  of  Zebulun  (Num.  34.25). 

Pa'rosh. — Flea:  1.  Ancestor  of  some  who 
returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.3  ;  Nth.  7.8). 
2.  One  whose  descendants  returned  with  Ezra 
(Ezra  8.3).  Of  these,  seven  had  married  foreign 
wives  (Ezra  10.25).  3.  Father  of  the  Pedaiah 
who  helped  build  the  wall  (Neh.  3.25).  4.  A 
family  that  sealed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  10.14). 

Parshanda'tha.— Perhaps,  given  by  prayer  : 
the  eldest  son  of  Haman,  the  Agagite,  who  was 
slain  by  the  Jews  in  Shushan  (Esih.  9.7). 

Parthians. — A  great  empire  of  antiquity, 
which  arose  out  of  the  ruins  of  the  Persian 
(256  D.C.),  and  maintained  a  long  struggle 
against  the  Romans.  The  country  extended 
from  India  to  the  Tigris,  and  from  the  Chorasmian 
desert  to  the  shores  of  the  Southern  Ocean. 
The  Parthians  were  a  nation  of  fighters,  being 
the  only  power  that  was  able  to  resist  the 
Roman  arms.  Their  armies  were  composed  of 
horsemen,  who  fought  chiefly  with  the  bow  ; 
then*  skill  in  managing  their  horses  and  in  using 
their  bows  obtained  for  them  a  renown  and  a 
feeling  of  dread  that  became  proverbial,  "  A 
Parthian  shot"  denoting  at  once  their  method 
of  shooting  a  deadly  shaft  while  pretending  re- 
treat and  also  the  skill  displayed  in  the  action. 
For  five  hundred  years  the  Parthian  empire  lasted, 
and  then  the  Persians  under  Artaxerxes,  son 
of  Sassan,  succeeded  in  re-establishing  their 
empire  226  A.D.  Parthia  is  still  a  part  of 
Persia,  but  is  poor  and  thinly  inhabited.  All 
that  is  left  of  its  former  greatness  is  the  ruins 
of  several  cities.  The  Parthians  are  mentioned 
only  in  Acts  2.9. 

Partridge. — In  Palestine  and  Asia  generally, 
north  of  the  Himalayas,  is  to  be  found  the 
Chukor  partridge,  large,  handsome,  and  beauti- 
fully marked.  In  autumn  the  birds  gather 
into  coveys,  but  scatter  in  winter.  They  are 
much  esteemed  for  food,  but  are  not  easily 
caught,  being  extremely  adroit  at  concealing 
themselves.  In  the  south  of  Palestine  the 
Chukor  is  replaced  by  the  Heyii  partridge. 


PARUAH] 


359 


[PASSION 


This  is  the  partridge  of  Sinai.  It  is  a  very 
beautifully  mottled  little  bird,  and  very  difficult 
to  distinguish  from  the  stones  and  sand  on 
which  it  sits.  It  does  not  readily  take  to 
flight,  trusting  more  to  its  legs  than  to  its  wings. 
Thus  it  is  that  these  birds  are  easily  hunted  with 
sticks  (1  Sam.  26.20).  "  The  passage  in  Jeremiah 
(17.11)  has  led  to  many  ingenious  interpreta- 
tions. If  it  is  true,  as  stated,  that  the  ancient 
Orientals  believed  the  partridge  was  in  the  habit 
of  stealing  the  eggs  and  hatching  them,  and 
that  when  the  young  were  hatched  they  forsook 
their  false  parent,  we  might  be  satisfied  with 
the  marginal  reading.  Another  meaning  and  a 
Detter  one  is  taken  from  the  fact  that  partridge 
eggs  are  assiduously  collected  for  food  by  the 
Arabs,  and  hence  that  he  who  collects  wealth 
unjustly  will  have  as  little  enjoyment  and 
satisfaction  out  of  it  as  a  partridge  who  has 
laid  a  clutch  of  eggs  and  commenced  to  sit  on 
them,  but  is  robbed "  (Animals  of  the  Bible). 
[EN-HAKKOEE.] 

Paru'ah.— (?)  Blooming  :  a  man  of  Issachar 
(1  K.  4.17). 

Parva'im. — An  unknown  place  from  whence 
gold  was  procured  for  Solomon's  Temple 
(2  Ch.  3.6) ;  perhaps  Farwa  in  Yemen  in  Arabia. 

Pa'sach.— Cut  off  :  a  chief  of  the  tribe  of 
Asher  (1  Ch.  7.33). 

Pas-dammin.—  (?)  Ending  of  bloodshed:  the 
same  place  as  Ephes-dammin,  which  see  (1  Ch. 
11.13). 

Pase'ah,  Phase'ah.— Limping :  1.  A  son  of 
Eshton  in  the  genealogies  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  4.12). 
2.  His  descendants  were  of  the  Nethinim  who 
returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.49).  So  also 
Neh.  7.51,  where  the  same  Hebrew  word  is 
transliterated  in  the  A.V.  as  Phaseah.  3.  The 
father  of  Jehoiada,  who  assisted  Nehemiah  to 
rebuild  the  old  gate  (Neh.  3.6). 

Pash'hur,  Pash'ur.— 1.  The  son  of  Immer  and 
chief  of  a  family  of  priests  at  Jerusalem  (Jer. 
20.1).  Immer  was  the  head  of  the  sixteenth 
course  of  priests  (1  Ch.  24.14).  He  imprisoned 
Jeremiah  in  the  stocks  by  the  gate  of  Benjamin, 
and  received  from  the  outraged  prophet  the 
name  of  Magor-missabib  (Terror  on  every  side). 
Jeremiah  also  prophesied  that  he  and  his  house 
should  die  captives  in  Babylon.  Pashur  appears 
to  have  performed  the  office  of  prophet  (Jer. 
20.6).  2.  Another  head  of  a  priestly  family  and 
a  prince  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  9.12 ;  Neh.  11.12 ;  Jer. 
21.1).  He  also  persecuted  Jeremiah,  and  when 
the  prophet  foretold  disaster  (Jer.  38.1)  he 
advised  the  king  to  put  him  to  death.  3. 
Father  of  the  Gedaliah,  who  joined  Pashur  2  in 
persecuting  Jeremiah  (Jer.  38.1).  4.  The  head 
of  a  priestly  family  which  came  up  with 
Zerubbabel  (Eera  2.38,  10.22  ;  Neh.  7.41).  He 
may  be  the  same  as  Pashur  1.  5.  A  priest 
who  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  10.3),  if  it  is  not 
rather  the  name  of  the  House  of  Pashur  1. 

Passion. — The  familiar  usage  of  this  term 
in  its  older  sense  of  suffering  as  applied  to 
the  redemptive  sufferings  of  our  Lord  (Geth- 
semane,  the  trial,  scourging,  mockery,  and  the 


cross)  is  found  only  once  in  the  English  Bible 
(Acts  1.3,  "  after  His  passion,"  A.V.  and  B..V. : 
Wyclif  and  other  earlier  versions  have  the  word 
also  in  Heb.  2.9;  1  Pet.  1.11,  4.13).  Literally 
the  phrase  means  "  after  that  He  suffered,"  the 
absolute  use  of  the  verb  (i.e.  without  an  object ; 
cf."  suffer  many  things,  these  things,"  MTc.  8.31  ; 
Lk.  24.26,  etc.)  showing  approach  to  a  technical 
or  theological  sense,  according  to  which  all 
the  incidents  of  our  Lord's  betrayal  and  death 
were  summed  up  into  one  great  act  of  redemp- 
tion. This  absolute  use  of  the  verb  is  not  found 
in  St.  Paul,  though  in  the  same  way  he  speaks 
of  "  the  sufferings  "  of  Christ  (2  Cor.  1.5,  Phil. 
3.10 :  cf.  "  afflictions  of  Christ,"  Col  1.24) ; 
but  in  later  N.T.  writings  it  is  common  (Lk.  24.46 ; 
Acts  1.3,  3.18,  17.3;  Heb.  2.18,  9.26,  13.12; 
1  Pet.  2.21, 3.18, 4.1).  More  limited  but  virtually 
equivalent  expressions  are  to  be  noted  in  the 
references  to  the  death,  crucifixion,  cross  of 
Christ,  especially  to  the  humiliation  and  shame 
of  the  cross,  a  mode  of  death  from  which  Paul 
himself,  as  Roman  citizen,  was  exempt  (Gal.  3.13, 
Phil.  2.8  ;  cf.  Heb.  12.2,  13.13). 

We  are  not  here  concerned  with  the  inter- 
pretation of  our  Lord's  "  passion,"  but  only  with 
the  N.T.  record  of  the  facts.  The  Synoptic 
Gospels  dwell  little  on  the  meaning,  but  .much 
on  the  event.  In  the  earliest  of  them,  St.  Mark, 
whose  account  is  used  by  the  other  two,  Jesus 
thrice  predicts  His  sufferings  (Mk.  8.31,  9.31, 
10.33),  once  refers  to  His  death  as  "  a  ransom 
for  many"  (10.45),  and  once  to  His  "blood 
of  the  covenant,  which  is  shed  for  many" 
(14.24).  Yet  to  the  events  immediately  con- 
verging upon  the  cross,  occupying  less  than  a 
week,  St.  Mark  devotes  more  than  one-third 
of  his  whole  book.  The  fragmentary  record 
becomes  a  diary :  the  stress  laid  by  the  history 
upon  the  Passion,  endorses  and  vindicates  the 
stress  laid  upon  it  in  the  faith  of  the  early 
Church. 

On  the  main  incidents  of  the  Passion  the 
Synoptic  records  may  be  briefly  compared. 
(For  the  Fourth  Gospel  see  below.) 

1.  Gethsemane.—In  the  sorrowful  emotion  of 
Jesus,  Mark  depicts  an  element  of  "  amazement " 
or    "  terrified    surprise "    (Swete),    omitted    by 
Matthew.     Luke  greatly  shortens  this  part  of  the 
narrative,  and  alone  records  the  appearance  of 
the  angel  and  the  "  agony  "  (Lk.  22.43,  44.     It  is 
doubtful  whether  the  two  vers.form  part  of  Luke's 
original  text,  but  Westcott  and  Hort  regard  them, 
with  23.34,  where  a  similar  doubt  exists,  as  the 
most  precious  among  the  remains  of  evangelic 
tradition  which  were  rescued  from  oblivion  by 
the  scribes  of  the  second  century).     The  slight 
variations  in  the  accounts  of   the  prayer   for 
deliverance    from    death,    with    its    victorious 
submission  to  the  Father's  will,  leave  the  sub- 
stance unaffected. 

2.  The  Arrest. — Mark  gives  no  word  from  Jesus 
in  answer  to  the  kiss  of  betrayal;    Matthew, 
"  Friend,  do  that  for  which  them  art  come  "  ; 
Luke,  "  Judas,  betrayest  thou  the  Son  of  man 


PASSOVER] 


360 


[PASSOVER 


with  a  kiss  ?  "     In  some  minor  details  the  narra- 
tives supplement  one  another. 

3.  The  Mockery. — All  record  the  mockery  in 
the  high-priest's  house:   in  Mark  and  Matthew 
this  precedes,  in   Luke  follows,  condemnation. 
Mark  and  Matthew  tell  of  the  scourging  and  the 
mockery  by  the  soldiers  of  Pilate  :    Luke  omits 
both,  but  records    an   earlier  mockery  by  the 
soldiers  of  Herod. 

4.  The  Crucifixion.— The  taunts  of  the  by- 
standers (people,  rulers,  and  soldiers)  appear  in 
all    three    accounts :    according    to    Mark    and 
Matthew,  both  of  the  crucified  robbers  joined  in 
the  reproaches,  but  Luke  tells  the  beautiful  story 
of  the  "  penitent  thief."    Mark  speaks  of  drink 
twice  offered  to  our  Lord,  both  times  as  an  act 
of  mercy ;    the  customary  stupefying  draught 
("  wine   mingled    with   myrrh ")   before   cruci- 
fixion, which  Jesus  refused  to  drink,  and  a  sponge 
soaked  in  vinegar  (or  sour  wine),  to  relieve  the 
last  moments   of   exhaustion.     The  former   of 
these  is  represented  by  Matthew  as  an  additional 
cruelty   ("  wine   mingled    with   gall  ") :     Luke 
makes  the  offering  of  "  vinegar  "    a  feature  of 
the  mockery  by  the  soldiers  as  soon  as  Jesus  was 
crucified. 

5.  The   Seven    Words   from    the    Cross.— The 
probable   order    of    these,    with    the   attesting 
Gospels,  is  as  follows  : — 

(1)  "Father,   forgive  them;    for  they  know 
not  what  they  do  "  (Lk.  23.34  ;  see  R.V.  marg.). 

(2)  "  Verily  I  say  unto  thee,   To-day  shalt 
thou  be  with  Me  in  Paradise  "  (Lk.  23.43*). 

(3)  "  Woman,  behold   thy  son  !  ...  Behold 
thy  mother  !  "    ( John  19.26,  27). 

(4)  "My   God,    My    God,    why    hast    Thou 
forsaken  Me?"  (Matt.  27.46;  Mk.  15.34). 

(5)  "  I  thirst "  ( John  19.28). 

(6)  "  It  is  finished  "  (John  19.30). 

(7)  "  Father,  into  Thy  hands  I  commend  My 
spirit "  (Lk.  23.46). 

The  account  of  the  Passion  contained  in  the 
Fourth  Gospel  is  dominated  by  the  writer's 
lofty  conception  of  the  Person  of  Christ.  There 
is  less  stress  upon  our  Lord's  humiliation  and 
human  sufferings,  more  upon  the  Divine  self- 
surrender  of  One  who,  while  He  submits,  remains 
Master  and  King  (see  John  18.6,  36,  19.11).  St. 
John  says  nothing  of  the  struggle  in  Gethsemarie 
(yet  see  John  12.27,  28) :  with  him  the  scourg- 
ing is  not  that  undergone  by  a  criminal  con- 
demned to  death,  but  a  lighter  punishment, 
inflicted  by  Pilate  at  an  earlier  stage,  in  the  hope 
of  appeasing  the  Jews  and  saving  Jesus.  The 
story  of  the  mockery  by  the  soldiers  loses  much 
of  its  harshness,  and  is  developed  into  a  symbol 
of  the  real  Kingship  of  its  victim :  the  account 
of  the  crucifixion  is  greatly  curtailed.  And  in 
the  added  incident  of  the  pierced  side  from  which 
"  came  out  blood  and  water,"  the  writer 
emphasises  afresh  the  central  truths  of  this 
Gospel  of  the  self  -  revelation  of  the  "  Son  of 
God,"  the  "  Word  "  become  flesh. 

Passover. — The  festival  instituted  to  keep  in 
remembrance  the  destruction  of  the  first-born  of 


Egypt,  and  the  deliverance  of  the  Israelites.  It 
derived  its  name  from  the  passing  over  by  the 
angel  of  death,  of  those  dwellings  of  the  Israelites 
whose  doorposts  were  sprinkled  with  the  blood 
of  the  paschal  lamb  (Ex.  12.11-27).  It  is  called 
"the  Lord's  Passover"  (Ex.  12.11,27);  the 
"  feast  of  unleavened  bread  "  (Lev.  23.6 ;  Lk. 
22.1) ;  the  "  days  of  unleavened  bread  "  (Acts 
12.3,  20.6).  The  word  Passover  is  applied  not 
only  to  the  feast  as  a  whole,  but  also  to  the 
paschal  lamb  (Lk.  22.7  ;  1  Cor.  5.7) ;  and  the 
paschal  meal  (Matt.  26.18, 19  ;  Heb.  11.28). 

At  its  institution,  the  directions  for  keeping 
the  Passover  were  as  follows :  The  month 
of  the  coming  out  of  Egypt  (Nisan  =  Abib)  was 
to  be  the  first  month  of  the  sacred  or  ecclesi- 
astical year  ;  and  on  the  fourteenth  day  of  this 
month,  between  the  evenings,  i.e.  between  the 
sun's  decline  and  its  setting,  Israelites  were  to 
kill  the  paschal  lamb  and  to  abstain  from 
leavened  bread.  The  day  following,  being  the 
15th,  reckoned  from  six  o'clock  of  the  pre- 
ceding evening,  began  the  grand  feast  of  the 
Passover,  lasting  seven  days  ;  but  only  the  first 
and  seventh  days  were  peculiarly  solemn.  The 
slain  lamb  was  to  be  without  defect,  a  male,  and 
of  the  first  year.  If  no  lamb  could  be  found 
the  Israelites  could  take  a  kid.  They  were  to 
eat  the  lamb  the  same  night,  roasted,  with 
unleavened  bread  and  a  salad  of  bitter  herbs. 
It  was  forbidden  to  eat  any  part  of  the  sacrifice 
raw,  or  boiled ;  nor  were  they  to  break  a  bone. 
If  any  part  remained  to  the  following  day,  it 
was  burnt.  Those  who  ate  the  Passover  were 
to  be  in  the  posture  of  travellers,  having  their 
loins  girt,  shoes  on  their  feet,  staves  in  their 
hands,  and  eating  in  a  hurry.  During  the  whole 
eight  days  of  the  Passover  no  leavened  bread 
was  to  be  used,  though  it  was  allowed  to  dress 
victuals,  which  was  forbidden  on  the  Sabbath 
day  (Ex.  12). 

The  Passover  was  one  of  the  three  feasts 
at  which  all  males  were  to  "  appear  before  the 
Lord  God  "  (Ex.  23.14-17).  The  obligation  of 
keeping  the  Passover  was  so  strict,  that  whoever 
should  neglect  it  would  be  condemned  to  death 
(Num.  9.13) ;  but  those  who  had  any  lawful 
impediment,  as  a  journey,  sickness,  or  un- 
cleanness  [UNCLEANNESS]  were  to  defer  the 
celebration  of  the  Passover  until  the  second 
month  of  the  ecclesiastical  year,  the  fourteenth 
day  of  the  month  lyyar  (April  and  May).  We 
see  an  example  of  this  in  Hezekiah's  time  (2  Ch. 
30.2,  3). 

Later  modifications  of  these  directions  included 
the  offering  of  the  Omer,  or  first  sheaf  of  harvest 
(Lev.  23.10-14),  the  instructions  as  to  the  special 
sacrifices  to  be  offered  each  day  of  the  festival 
week  (Num.  28.16-25),  and  the  command  that 
the  paschal  lambs  should  be  slain  at  the  national 
Sanctuary,  and  that  the  blood  should  be  sprinkled 
on  the  altar,  instead  of  the  lintels  and  door- 
posts of  the  houses  (Deut.  16.1-6).  "  Between 
the  evenings,"  possibly  as  the  sun  was  setting 
(between  sunsei  and  dark),  or  perhaps  between 
three  and  six  o'clock,  the  lambs  were  slain,  the 


PASSOVER] 


361 


[PASSOVEE 


fat  and  blood  being  set  aside.  The  meal  was 
then  partaken  of  in  accordance  with  its  original 
institution.  The  same  night,  after  the  15th 
of  Nisan  had  commenced,  the  fat  was  burned  by 
the  priest,  and  the  blood  sprinkled  on  the  altar 
(2  Ch.  30.16,  35.11).  On  the  15th,  the  night 
being  past,  a  convocation  was  held,  during 
which  no  unnecessary  work  might  be  done 
(Ex.  12.16).  On  the  following  day  the  first 
sheaf  of  harvest  was  oSered,  waved  by  the  priest 
before  the  Lord,  and  a  male  lamb  was  offered 
as  a  burnt  sacrifice  with  a  meat  and  drink  offer- 
ing. The  intervening  days  until  the  seventh  of 
the  festival  were  days  of  quiet,  excepting  that 
certain  burnt  and  sin  offerings  were  made,  and 
freedom  from  some  kinds  of  labour  was  enjoined. 
The  21st  of  Nisan,  the  last  day,  there  was  again 
a  holy  convocation  (Deut.  16.8).  Cheerfulness 
was  to  be  the  prevailing  tone  of  the  whole 
feast  (Deut.  27.7). 

In  the  time  of  our  Lord,  as  the  festival  and 
accompanying  sacrifices  could  only  be  made 
at  Jerusalem,  an  enormous  number  of  people 
were  thus  brought  together,  far  too  many  to  be 
accommodated  within  the  walls  of  the  city. 
This  was  the  reason  the  rulers  gave  for  not 
apprehending  our  Lord.  They  feared  an  up- 
roar from  the  multitude  of  people  gathered  at 
Jerusalem  for  the  celebration  of  the  Passover 
(Matt.  26.5). 

The  Last  Supper  occurred  at  the  time  of  the 
Passover.  The  expressions  used  in  John 
13.1-20,  18.28,  19.14,  31  seem  to  imply  that  the 
Jewish  Passover  night  had  not  yet  arrived,  and 
hence  it  would  follow  that  the  Supper  was  eaten 
on  the  day  before  the  regular  Passover  day.  It 
would  follow  therefore  that  the  evening  was  the 
13th  to  14th  of  Nisan,  the  regular  time  of  the 
paschal  feast  being  the  14th  to  15th.  The 
day  of  the  Crucifixion,  therefore,  would  not  be 
the  solemn  feast  of  the  Jews,  immediately  suc- 
ceeding the  Passover  evening,  but  the  day  before. 
But  in  the  other  three  Gospels  it  is  explicitly 
stated  that  on  the  day  "  when  the  Passover 
must  be  "  (i.e  ought  legally  to  be)  "  killed,"  "  in 
the  evening,"  "  when  the  hour  was  come," 
"  He  sat  down  with  the  Twelve,"  and  said  that 
He  had  earnestly  "  desired  to  eat  this  Passover  " 
before  He  suffered.  It  is  not  easy  to  explain 
the  apparent  discrepancy.  Only  we  may  be 
well  assured  that  John,  writing  after  the  other 
evangelists,  and  evidently  familiar  with  then* 
accounts,  perceived  no  contradiction,  and  that 
there  must  be  some  facts,  even  if  unknown  to 
us,  which  would  make  the  whole  clear.  The 
question  is  between  the  apparent  meaning  of  the 
first  three  evangelists,  and  the  apparent  meaning 
of  John.  The  testimony  of  John  is  more  dis- 
tinct than  that  of  the  synoptical  Gospels,  and  it 
is  therefore  probable  that  the  paschal  meal  was 
forestalled  by  our  Lord,  and  that  He,  the  true 
Paschal  Lamb,  died  at  the  very  hour  when  the 
lambs  were  slain  in  the  Temple. 

By  our  Lord's  time  the  simple  directions  in 
Ex.  12  had  been  added  to.  The  observance 
then  was  as  follows :  The  males  of  the  family 


or  company,  met  together  in  the  evening,  when 
they  washed  their  feet  and  hands  and  placed 
themselves  at  table  in  the  reclining  posture 
then  customary.  [BANQUETS.]  In  earlier  days 
they  had  eaten  the  Passover  standing,  with  their 
staves  in  their  hands,  as  though  about  to  go  a 
journey  (Ex.  12.11) ;  but  after  they  had  reached 
the  Promised  Land  the  usual  custom  of  meal- 
times was  followed.  The  meal  was  begun  by  a 
cup  of  wine,  mixed  with  water,  being  presented 
to  each  guest,  over  which  a  blessing  was  pro- 
nounced, "  Blessed  be  He  that  created  the 
fruit  of  the  vine  !  "  The  lamb,  some  unleavened 
bread,  and  bitter  herbs,  were  then  placed  on 
the  table,  as  appointed  by  the  Law,  also  other 
articles  of  food.  The  principal  person  then 
distributed  portions  of  the  paschal  lamb,  with 
unleavened  bread,  until  all  the  lamb  had  been 
eaten.  Every  person  present  was  bound  to  eat 
to  the  size  of  an  olive  at  least.  After  this  first 
repast  they  again  washed  their  feet,  and  set  them- 
selves in  their  former  positions,  to  eat  the  second 
course.  This  consisted  of  the  bitter  herbs  eaten 
with  a  sauce  made  of  bruised  palm  branches, 
and  berries  or  raisins,  mixed  with  vinegar. 
This  sauce  was  thick,  and  called  "  haroseth," 
and  represented  the  clay  from  which  their 
forefathers  made  bricks  during  their  captivity. 
Another  cup  of  wine  was  taken.  The  master  of 
the  feast  divided  the  bread  into  two  parts,  and, 
laying  one  part  aside,  covered  with  a  napkin, 
blessed  the  other  and  distributed  it,  saying, 
"  Blessed  be  Thou,  O  Lord  our  God,  the  King 
of  the  whole  world,  in  the  eating  of  unleavened 
bread."  He  next  took  the  reserved  part  from 
the  napkin,  and  divided  it  into  as  many  portions 
as  there  were  guests. 

At  that  point  one  of  the  youngest  of  the 
company  asked  the  meaning  of  this  rite  (Ex. 
12.26).  The  master  answered  the  child  by 
repeating  the  hagadah,  or  "  showing  forth." 
"  This  is  the  bread  of  affliction,  which  our  fathers 
ate  in  the  land  of  affliction.  Let  him  that  is 
hungry  come  and  eat  the  passover;  for  this 
Passover  is  our  Saviour  and  our  refuge."  Then 
taking  the  cup  he  first  tasted  it  himself,  and 
presented  it  to  each,  saying,  "  Blessed  be  Thou, 
0  Lord  our  God,  King  of  the  world,  who  hast 
created  the  fruit  of  the  vine  !  "  This  third  cup 
was  usually  called  the  cup  of  blessing  (Ps. 
116.13 ;  1  Cor.  10.16).  The  meal  ended  with  the 
taking  of  a  fourth  cup  of  wine,  and  the  singing 
of  the  113th  and  five  following  psalms  of 
praise  and  thanksgiving,  of  which  the  118th  is 
peculiarly  significant  of  the  coming  of  Christ. 
These  psalms  were  called  the  great  Hallel,  or 
Hallelujah. 

During  the  Passover  week  (on  the  16th  of  Abib), 
the  sheaf  of  the  first-fruits  of  the  barley  harvest 
was  offered  with  a  particular  sacrifice  (Lev. 
23.9-14).  On  the  anniversary  of  this  day  our 
Lord  rose  from  the  dead,  and  the  Apostle  Paul 
may  have  had  this  fact  in  view  when  speaking  of 
Christ's  resurrection,  "  He  is  become  the  first- 
fruits  of  them  that  slept "  (1  Cor.  15.20). 

The  keeping  of  the  Passover  is  recorded  at  its 


PASTOR] 


362 


[PAUL 


foundation  (Ex.  12.28, 50) ;  in  the  wilderness  of 
Sinai  (Num.  9.3-5) ;  in  the  plains  of  Jericho  on 
entering  Canaan  (Josh.  5.10, 11) ;  by  Hezekiah 
and  some  of  the  people  (2  Ch.  30) ;  by  Josiah 
(2  K.  23.21-23  ;  2  Ch.  35.1, 18, 19) ;  after  the 
return  from  the  Captivity  (Ezra  6.19-22) ;  by 
our  Lord  (Matt.  26.17-20;  Lk.  22.15;  John 
2.13,  23).  [FESTIVALS,  LORD'S  SUPPER.] 

Pastor. — Shepherd :  in  the  O.T.  found  only 
in  the  Book  of  Jeremiah  (2.8,  etc.) ;  in  the  N.T. 
only  in  Eph.  4.11,  where  "  pastors  and  teachers  " 
(one  class)  are  distinguished  from  "  prophets 
and  evangelists." 

Pat'ara. — A  city  on  the  coast  of  Lycia,  40 
miles  west  of  Myra.  Paul  sailed  from  this  port 
on  his  way  to  Jerusalem  at  the  close  of  his  third 
missionary  voyage  (Acts  21.1-2).  Patara  pos- 
sessed a  famous  oracle  of  Apollo,  and  though 
once  of  considerable  importance,  and  the  seat  of 
a  bishop,  is  now  but  a  place  of  ruins,  which  are 
being  slowly  buried  in  sand. 
Path,  Pathway.— [ROADS.] 
Path'ros. — An  Egyptian  word  meaning  the 
South  Land.  The  northern  part  of  Upper 
Egypt,  and  the  Thebais  of  the  Greeks.  It 
extended  from  a  few  miles  south  of  Memphis  to 
Syene  on  the  first  cataract.  Recent  discoveries 
of  papyri  have  confirmed  the  existence  of  Jews 
at  Syene  in  the  sixth  century  B.C.  Jeremiah 
included  the  Jews  who  dwelt  in  Pathros  in  the 
doom  he  pronounced  against  "  all  the  Jews  which 
dwell  in  the  land  of  Egypt  "  (Jer.  44.1)  for  their 
idolatrous  leanings.  Ezekiel  mentions  Pathros 
when  speaking  of  the  return  of  captive  Egyptians 
(Ezek.  29.14,  30.14).  Isaiah  prophesied  the 
return  of  the  Jews  from  "  Egypt,  and  from 
Pathros,  and  from  Cush "  (Isai.  11.11). 
[PATHRUSIM.] 

Pathru'sim. — The  people  of  Pathros  (Gen. 
10.14 ;  1  Ch.  1.12). 

Pat'mos. — A  small  rocky  and  bare  island  in 
the  JZgean  Sea,  lying  in  a  south-west  direction 
from  Ephesus  (Rev.  1.9).  It  is  about  18  miles 
in  circumference,  and  on  account  of  its  dreary 
and  desolate  character  was  used  by  the  Roman 
emperors  as  a  place  of  confinement  for  criminals. 
To  this  island  John  was  banished  by  the  Em- 
peror Domitian;  and  here  he  received  the 
revelation  recorded  in  the  Apocalypse. 

Patriarchs. — Princes,  chiefs  or  heads  of  families 
or  tribes-,  the  term  has  been  applied  in  a 
special  sense  in  the  N.T.  to  Abraham,  Isaac, 
Jacob,  the  sons  of  Jacob,  and  to  David  (Acts 
2.29,  7.8,9;  Heb.  7.4).  In  the  O.T.  the 
equivalent  expression  is,  generally,  "  Prince  of 
a  tribe."  But  commonly  the  title  is  given  to 
those  who  lived  before  the  time  of  Moses.  Under 
the  patriarchal  system  the  parent  of  the  family 
or  head  of  the  tribe  exercised  supreme  authority 
over  his  children  and  servants.  He  was  himself 
accountable  to  no  earthly  superior,  and  could 
reward  or  punish  as  he  thought  proper.  This  is 
fully  exemplified  in  the  lives  of  Abraham,  Isaac, 
and  Jacob.  'Each  exercised  his  authority  with 
an  absolute  power  and,  as  in  the  cases  of  Ishmael, 
Esau  and  Jacob,  Simeon  and  Levi,  acted  from 


what  would  appear  personal  feelings,  rather 
than  from  any  defined  code  of  laws.  It  is 
obvious  that  in  proportion  as  men  were  actuated 
by  the  fear  of  God  their  government  would  be 
exercised  with  justice  and  kindness,  but  where 
this  was  wanting  there  would  be  oppression, 
violence,  and  wrong. 

Pat'robas. — An  abbreviated  form  of  Patrobius. 
A  Christian  at  Rome  saluted  by  Paul  (flom.16.14). 
He  was  said  to  have  been  one  of  the  seventy, 
afterwards  bishop  of  Puteoli,  and  to  have  been 
martyred. 
Pau.— [PAL] 

Paul. — Little  one :  the  Roman  name  of  Saul 
of  Tarsus,  first  used  in  Acts  13.9,  when  he 
withstood  Elymas  the  sorcerer,  and  began  his 
definitely  Gentile  work  at  the  court  of  Sergius 
Paulus.  Presumably  he  had  borne  the  name 
before  in  intercourse  with  Gentiles ;  but  after 
this  incident  it  is  always  used  of  the  apostle  in 
the  Acts  and  in  his  epistles.  Inscriptions  show 
that  Paul  was  at  the  time  a  not  uncommon 
name  in  Syria  and  the  east  of  Asia  Minor. 

The  birth  and  parentage  of  the  future  apostle 
enabled  him  to  call  himself  "  a  Hebrew  of  the 
Hebrews."  He  was  of  unmixed  Jewish  blood, 
of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  (Rom.  11.1 ;  2  Cor. 
11.22;  Phil.  3.5),  born  at  Tarsus  in  Cilicia 
(Acts  9.11,  21.39,  22.3)  about  the  year  2  B.C., 
when  the  power  of  the  Roman  Emperor  Augustus 
was  at  its  height.  His  education  was  character- 
istically Jewish.  As  a  boy  he  was  sent  to  Jeru- 
salem for  instruction  under  Gamaliel  "  according 
to  the  perfect  manner  of  the  law  of  the  fathers  " 
(Acts  22.3).  Gamaliel,  like  Paul's  own  family, 
belonged  to  the  Pharisees.  From  him  it  was 
natural  that  Paul  should  obtain  a  firm  grasp 
of  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  (Acts  23.6, 
26.5;  Phil.  3.5).  By  Gamaliel,  also,  he  was 
taught  to  be  "  zealous  "  with  the  zeal  of  the 
"  straitest  sect "  of  his  religion  (Gal.  1.14). 
Further,  Paul  learned  the  craft  of  a  tent-cloth 
maker  (Acts  20.34 ;  1  Thess.  2.9).  But  Tarsus 
was  a  centre  of  learning,  almost  as  celebrated  as 
Athens  or  Alexandria,  and  it  was  here  doubtless 
that  Paul  acquired  such  familiarity  (more  or  less) 
with  the  old  poets  and  writers  as  is  shown  by  the 
three  or  four  quotations  that  he  makes  from 
them  (Acts  17.28 ;  1  Cor.  15.35 ;  Tit.  1.12). 
The  equipment  of  Paul  was  thus  comprehensive. 
In  intellectual  culture  he  was  in  contact  with  the 
Greek  world  ;  through  his  citizenship  he  was  in 
political  contact  also  with  the  Roman  world  ; 
and  from  the  fact  that  this  citizenship  was 
hereditary  it  follows  that  his  family  had  social 
advantages.  His  relatives  were  widely  scattered, 
for  some  lived  in  Jerusalem  (Acts  23.16),  and, 
according  to  one  interpretation,  some  in  Rome 
(Rom.  16.11),  who  even  became  Christians  before 
him  (Rom.  16.7). 

Paul  first  appears  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
in  the  account  of  the  stoning  of  Stephen.  While 
he  took  no  part  in  the  actual  stoning,  he  watched 
the  garments  of  those  who  did  (Acts  7.58-60, 
8.1).  It  was  an  incident  of  momentous  im- 
portance to  Paul,  and  manifestly  made  a  deep 


PAUL] 


363 


impression  on  his  mind  (Acts  22.20).  Paul  now 
threw  himself  into  the  work  of  persecution. 
In  so  doing  he  claimed  for  himself  that  he  was 
acting  for  God,  and  for  the  traditions  of  his 
fathers  (Acts  22.3,  26.9;  Gal  1.14).  Very  soon 
Jerusalem  proved  an  insufficient  field  for  his 
zeal,  all  the  Christians  in  it  being  either  in  prison, 
or  in  concealment,  or  in  flight.  "  Breathing  out 
threatenings  and  slaughter,"  he  desired  of  the 
high-priest  "  letters  to  Damascus  unto  the  syna- 
gogues, that  if  he  found  any  that  were  of  the  Way, 
whether  men  or  women,  he  might  bring  them 
bound  to  Jerusalem  "  (Acts  9.1,  2).  It  would 
seem  likely  that  Paul  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  Sanhedrin  soon  after  the  murder  of  Stephen, 
if  he  was  not  one  before.  As  he  himself  said,  he 
not  only  exercised  the  power  of  imprisonment 
by  commission  from  that  body,  but  also  gave  his 
"  voice  "  or  vote  against  the  Christians  (Acts 
26.10). 

Stephen's  death  led  to  Paul's  conversion. 
Full  of  his  mission  of  service  to  God,  as  he 
supposed  it  was,  Saul  proceeded  on  his  way  to 
Damascus.  But  on  the  way  the  persecutor 
was  changed  into  a  disciple ;  his  zeal  for  the 
destruction  of  Christianity  was  turned  to  the 
support  and  comfort  of  the  persecuted.  The  mir- 
aculous event  is  narrated  by  Luke  (Acts  9.1-19) 
and  by  Paul  in  his  speeches  to  the  crowd  in 
Jerusalem  after  his  arrest  (Acts  22.4-16),  and 
before  Agrippa  and  Festus  at  Cscsarea  (Acts 
26.10-18). 

The  scene  of  the  event  was  a  spot  near 
Damascus,  perhaps  even  in  that  part  of  the 
road  traversing  the  surrounding  gardens,  which 
are  in  remarkable  contrast  to  the  desert-road 
forming  the  general  approach  to  the  city.  It 
happened  at  noon,  with  the  light  of  midday 
(Acts  22.6). 

The  first  eflect  of  the  miracle  was  the  relief 
of  the  Christians  at  Damascus.  His  errand  was 
well  known  in  the  city,  and  the  terror  it  inspired 
can  be  gathered  from  the  reluctance  of  Ananias 
to  approach  him  (Acts  9.13, 14),  and  the  in- 
credulity of  the  disciples  when  Saul  appeared 
as  a  fellow-disciple  in  the  synagogues  (Acts  9.21). 
The  blindness  of  Paul,  and  his  distress  of  mind 
and  body,  noted  by  Luke  (Acts  9.18, 19),  were 
part  of  the  preparation  for  the  visit  of  Ananias 
and  the  further  revelation  of  God's  will.  Note- 
worthy, too,  are  the  words  addressed  to  Ananias, 
"  Behold,  he  prayeth "  (Acts  9.11).  They 
mark  the  man  whose  habit  was  to  look  up  to 
God  for  everything  (Acts  16.25,  20.36,  21.5). 
Paul's  own  words  (Gal.  1.16, 17)  emphasise 
this. 

The  nature  of  the  Lord's  revelation  to  Paul  is 
dwelt  on  by  him.  It  is  evident  that  it  was  not 
merely  an  inward  impression  made  on  his  mind 
during  a  trance  or  ecstasy.  It  was  the  direct 
perception  of  the  visible  presence  of  Jesus 
Christ.  This  is  asserted  in  various  passages, 
both  positively  and  incidentally.  In  his  first 
letter  to  the  Corinthians,  when  ho  contends  for 
the  validity  of  his  own  apostleship,  his  argu- 
ment is,  "  Am  I  not  an  apostle  ?  Have  I  not 


seen  Jesus  our  Lord  ? "  (1  Cor.  9.1).  And 
when  he  adduces  the  evidence  for  the  truth 
of  the  resurrection  his  argument  is,  "  He  was 
seen  .  .  .  Cephas  .  .  .  James  ...  all  the 
apostles  .  .  .  last  of  all  of  me  ...  as  of  one 
born  out  of  due  time  "  (15.5-8).  Significant,  too, 
are  the  words  of  Ananias  :  "  The  Lord  hath 
sent  me,  even  Jesus  who  appeared  to  thee  in 
the  way  as  thou  earnest "  (Acts  9.17,  and  cf. 
Acts  22.14).  The  direct  and  immediate  character 
of  this  call,  without  the  intervention  of  any 
human  agency,  is  another  point  on  which  Paul 
himself,  in  the  course  of  his  apostolic  life,  laid 
the  utmost  stress.  "  Called  to  be  an  apostle," 
"  An  apostle  by  the  will  of  God  "  (Bom.  1.1 ; 
1  Cor.  1.1 ;  2  Cor.  1.1 ;  Eph.  1.1 ;  Col.  1.1), 
are  expressions  not  used  by  the  other  apostles. 
They  are  the  phrases  under  which  Paul  describes 
himself,  in  the  cases  where  his  authority  was 
in  danger  of  being  questioned. 

From  the  blindness  which  came  with  the 
vision,  Paul  was  relieved  through  the  ministry 
of  Ananias  (Acts  9.18) ;  and  with  the  opening 
of  his  eyes  came  final  submission  to  the  will  of 
God,  and  the  desire  to  be  "  His  witness  unto 
all  men  "  (Acts  22.14, 15).  He  was  baptized, 
and  began  his  ministry  amongst  the  children  of 
Israel  in  Damascus  (Acts  9.18-22,  27,  26.20). 

The  precise  order  of  events  immediately  after 
the  conversion  is  uncertain.  According  to  the 
Acts,  Paul,  after  his  conversion,  remained 
"  many  days  "  at  Damascus  until,  by  persecu- 
tion, he  was  forced  to  leave  (Acts  9.23-25). 
According  to  Gal.  1.17  he  went  at  once  into 
Arabia,  and  afterwards  returned  to  Damascus  ; 
and  thus,  as  it  seems,  it  is  not  until  after  his 
second  sojourn  there  that,  driven  away  by 
persecution,  he  returned  to  Jerusalem  after  an 
absence  of  three  years.  The  only  thing  to  be 
settled  is  whether  the  journey  in  Arabia  can  be 
included  in  what  the  Acts  represent  as  a  con- 
tinuous sojourn  at  Damascus.  The  words  in 
Acts  9.23  are,  "  And  after  that  many  days  were 
fulfilled  " — an  old  form  of  expression,  sufficiently 
comprehensive  to  admit  of  the  three  years 
which,  the  apostle  tells  us,  elapsed  between 
his  conversion  and  his  return  to  Jerusalem. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at 
that  the  Acts  should  omit  this  Arabian  journey, 
which  Paul  only  barely  mentions  in  Galatians, 
and  to  which  he  makes  no  other  reference. 
What  preaching  the  apostle  did  in  Arabia,  if 
any,  was  unostentatious.  Like  Moses,  like 
John  the  Baptist,  and  the  Master  Himself,  he 
retired  chiefly  for  meditation  and  prayer,  pre- 
paring himself  and  receiving  consecration  at 
the  hands  of  the  Lord.  It  were  unlikely  that 
the  disciples  at  Jerusalem  would  have  mis- 
trusted him  so  much  if  they  had  heard  of  him 
as  preaching  Jesus  for  so  considerable  a  period 
as  three  years.  Whether  in  Arabia,  or  in 
Damascus  or  elsewhere,  the  probability  is  that 
Paul  remained  comparatively  silent  until  tho 
time  came  for  him  to  take  his  place  as  onu  of 
the  apostles. 

There    is   more    certainty    respecting    Paul's 


PAUL] 


364 


[PAUL 


departure  from  Damascus,  for  we  have  the 
double  evidence  of  St.  Luke  in  the  Acts  and 
of  the  apostle  in  2  Cor.  According  to  the  former, 
the  Jews  lay  in  wait  for  Saul,  to  kill  him.  As 
they  watched  the  gates,  his  brethren  let  him 
down  in  a  basket  from  the  wall ;  not  a  difficult 
matter,  as  houses  were  not  only  on  the  wall, 
but  actually  overhung  it.  According  to  Paul's 
own  statement  (2  Cor.  11.32),  it  was  the  ethnarch 
under  Aretas  the  king  who  tried  to  capture 
him.  There  is  no  difficulty  in  reconciling  the 
two  statements.  We  might  similarly  say  that 
our  Lord  was  put  to  death  by  the  Jews  or  by 
the  Koman  Governor. 

Having  escaped  from  Damascus,  Paul  went 
to  Jerusalem,  and  there  endeavoured  to  join 
himself  to  the  body  of  the  disciples  (Acts  9.26). 
They  were  in  doubt,  but  the  friendship  of 
Barnabas  secured  that  of  the  other  Christians, 
and  Paul  "  was  with  them,  coming  in  and  going 
out  at  Jerusalem."  His  Hellenistic  education 
made  him  a  successful  disputant  among  the 
"  Grecians."  His  changed  attitude  and  zeal 
roused  unusual  opposition  among  the  Jews,  and, 
his  life  being  endangered,  he  was  forced  to  fly 
to  Tarsus,  his  native  city  (Acts  9.30).  The 
repeated  command  of  God,  conveyed  to  him  in 
a  trance  (Acts  22.17-21),  convinced  him  that 
his  duty  lay  elsewhere,  among  the  Gentiles.  H« 
journeyed  to  Tarsus  by  way  of  Caesarea  (Caesarea 
Stratonis)  on  the  coast,  and  then  by  Antioch. 
Paul's  activities  were  now  exercised  in  studying 
and  teaching  at  Tarsus,  or  in  founding  those 
Churches  (Acts  15.23,  41)  which  were  afterwards 
greeted  in  the  apostolic  letter  from  Jerusalem, 
as  the  brethren  "  in  Antioch  and  Syria,  and 
Cilicia."  He  is  back  in  the  home  of  his  child- 
hood, and  it  is  uncertain  that  he  was  ever  here 
again. 

The  apostle  himself  tells  us  (Gal.  1.18, 19) 
that  the  cause  of  his  visit  to  Jerusalem,  after 
quitting  Damascus,  was  that  he  might  see  and 
Confer  with  Peter  and  James  the  Lord's  brother, 
who  were  the  only  apostles  there  at  that  time. 
He  lived  with  Peter  fifteen  days,  but  remained 
unknown  in  person  to  the  generality  of  Chris- 
tians in  Judaea.  His  object  in  being  thus 
particular  was  to  show  that  he  had  received  his 
commission  of  apostleship  direct  from  the  Lord 
Jesus,  through  Ananias,  and  not  from  the  other 
apostles.  What,  then,  was  Paul's  relation  to 
the  other  apostles  chosen,  taught,  and  sent  out  by 
Jesus  Himself  when  He  was  on  earth  ?  Paul 
energetically  repels  the  idea  of  any  sort  of  in- 
feriority ;  he  feels  that  it  would  be  an  injury  to 
his  miraculous  and  exceptional  vocation  if  he 
were  to  admit  that  it  was  not  equal  to  that  on 
which  the  Twelve  rested  their  authority.  "  Am 
I  not  an  apostle  ?  "  he  says  to  the  Corinthians, 
and  further,  "  Have  I  not  seen  Jesus  our 
Lord  ?  "  (1  Cor.  9.1).  The  apostles  themselves 
made  no  difficulty  over  Paul's  claim.  In  fact, 
even  before  Paul's  appearance  they  had  gladly 
recognised  and  welcomed  as  colleagues  all  those 
who,  by  their  abounding  faith  and  zeal,  were 
pointed  out  as  the  chosen  of  God.  In  this 


spirit  they  had  accepted  Stephen  and  Philip, 
among  others. 

While  Paul  was  at  Tarsus,  men  of  Cyprus  were 
made  the  instruments  of  awakening  the  Gentiles. 
One  of  them  might  be  that  "  Mnason  of  Cyprus," 
who  afterwards  was  his  host  (Acts  21.16) ; 
another,  Joses,  the  Levite  of  Cyprus,  whom  the 
apostles  had  long  ago  called  Barnabas,  the  "  son 
of  exhortation"  (Acts  4.36).  He  was  the  first 
teacher  sent  by  the  mother  Church  to  the  new 
disciples  at  Antioch.  He  laboured  hard  himself 
(Acts  11.23) ;  but,  feeling  the  greatness  of  the 
work,  "  he  departed  to  Tarsus  to  seek  Saul," 
whose  vigorous  character  he  felt  would  be  of  value 
in  this  city  of  heathen  philosophies.  Paul,  for 
his  part,  felt  the  call,  and  the  two  departed  at 
once  for  Antioch.  For  a  whole  year  Paul  laboured 
with  Barnabas,  and  it  was  to  their  converts 
that  the  name  "  Christian "  was  first  given 
(Acts  11.26).  At  this  time  Jerusalem  and  the 
rest  of  Judaea  was  suffering  from  famine,  follow- 
ing a  period  of  severe  earthquakes.  Relief 
flowed  in  from  all  quarters,  and  the  Gentiles 
at  Antioch  felt  themselves  bound  to  assist  their 
Christian  brethren  at  Jerusalem  then,  as  some 
thirteen  years  later  (Rom.  15.27).  They  lost  no 
time,  but  got  together  what  they  could,  and 
entrusted  the  money  to  Paul  and  Barnabas 
(Acts  11.29, 30).  On  their  return  to  Antioch  Paul 
and  his  companion  carried  with  them  "  John, 
whose  surname  was  Mark,"  cousin  of  Barnabas 
(Col.  4.10). 

The  first  missionary  journey  (Acts  13.1-15.28). 
Having  returned  to  Antioch,  Paul  and  Barna- 
bas felt  that  the  time  for  preaching  the  gospel 
in  other  countries  had  come.  The  new  move- 
ment was  made  in  obedience  to  the  Holy  Spirit 
(Acts  13.2),  and  was  prepared  for  by  fasting 
and  prayer.  Taking  John  Mark  with  them, 
they  went  first  to  Cyprus,  the  native  country 
of  Barnabas  (Acts  4.36).  Landing  at  Salamis, 
they  preached  in  the  synagogues,  and  then 
crossed  the  island  from  east  to  west  until  they 
came  to  Paphos  (which  see),  a  city  dedicated  to 
Venus,  and  the  centre  of  a  shameless  idolatry. 
Paphos  was  the  home  of  the  pro-consul  Sergius 
Paulus,  an  enlightened  man,  who,  for  want  of 
some  better  way,  was  seeking  the  light  through 
a  Jewish  magician,  Bar-jesus.  The  words  of 
Paul  were  heard  with  joy  by  Paulus,  but  Bar- 
jesus  interposed,  until  he  was  smitten  with 
temporary  blindness  as  a  punishment  for  the 
blindness  of  his  heart  (Acts  13.11).  Leaving 
Cyprus,  Paul  and  his  companions  now  passed 
over  to  Asia  Minor  until  they  reached  Perga  in 
Pamphylia,  where  Mark  left  them.  The  event 
must  have  caused  deep  sorrow  to  Paul,  and 
probably  some  estrangement  between  him  and 
Barnabas,  which  eventually  caused  them  to 
quarrel  and  separate  (15.37-39).  He  had 
travelled  with  them  from  the  coast  as  far  as  this 
Greek  city,  and  now,  apparently  losing  heart  at 
the  magnitude  of  the  work  sketched  out  by  Paul, 
returned  to  Jerusalem  (Acts  13.13).  Whatever 
the  cause  of  the  estrangement,  it  was  not  last- 
ing, for  afterwards  we  find  Paul  commending 


PAUL] 


365 


[PAUL 


Mark  to  the  Colossians  as  "a  fellow- worker  " 
and  "  a  comfort  "  (Col.  4.10, 11)  to  himself  and 
"profitable  to  the  ministry  "  (2  Tim.  4.11). 

Perhaps  even  a  bolder  man  than  John  Mark 
might  have  hesitated  before  venturing  on  the 
journey  contemplated  by  Paul.  "  Perils  of 
rivers'*  and  "perils  of  robbers"  are  only 
mildly  descriptive  of  the  dangers  he  would  be 
likely  to  encounter  in  the  journey  from  Perga  to 
Antioch  in  Pisidia.  The  lawless  and  marauding 
habits  of  the  people  of  the  mountains  of  Asia 
Minor  were  notorious.  Reaching  Antioch  in 
Pisidia,  the  apostles  were  received  with  great 
joy  by  the  Gentiles  when  these  had  heard  the 
message;  but  the  Jews  raised  such  a  storm 
of  opposition  that  they  "  expelled  Paul  and 
Barnabas  out  of  their  coasts"  (Acts  13.50). 
So,  obeying  their  Master's  direction,  they 
shook  oft  the  dust  of  their  feet. 

Lystra,  whither  the  travellers  proceeded, 
after  a  short  experience  of  opposition  at  Iconium 
(Acts  14.1-6),  possessed  a  statue  and  temple  to 
Jupiter  in  front  of  the  city  gate.  Jupiter  was 
conceived  as  the  "  father  of  gods  and  men,"  and 
it  was  believed  that  he  sometimes  visited  the 
earth,  accompanied  by  Mercury,  the  god  of 
eloquence.  It  was  not  surprising,  therefore, 
when  the  heathen  inhabitants  saw  Paul  heal  the 
lame  man,  that  they  should  think  themselves 
honoured  with  a  visit  from  the  gods  they  so 
ignorantly  worshipped.  Barnabas  they  called 
Jupiter  because  of  the  dignity  of  his  face  and 
figure.  Paul,  we  know,  was  a  small  man  (2  Cor. 
10.1, 10).  Him  the  Lystrians  called  Mercury, 
"  because  he  was  the  chief  speaker."  They  would 
have  done  sacrifice  to  the  visitors,  but  were 
restrained  by  the  apostles,  St.  Paul  explaining 
their  position  (Acts  14.8-18).  But  the  apostles 
had  been  followed  from  Iconium,  and  even  from 
Antioch  (Acts  14.19),  by  certain  hostile  Jews. 
These  stirred  the  populace  to  action.  Paul 
was  stoned,  and  then  flung  outside  the  city  walls 
as  dead.  But  "  as  the  disciples  stood  about  him, 
he  rose  up,  and  came  into  the  city  "  (Acts  14.20). 
The  next  day  Paul  departed  with  Barnabas  to 
rest  for  awhile  at  Derbe  (Acts  14.20).  It  is  not 
unreasonable  to  attribute  the  conversion  of 
Timothy  to  this  first  visit  of  Paul  to  Lystra.  On 
his  second  visit,  a  year  or  two  after,  we  are  told 
that  he  found  a  certain  Christian  there  "  whose 
name  was  Timothy  "  (Acts  16.1).  Now,  as  we 
know  that  Timothy  was  converted  by  Paul 
himself,  we  must  suppose  this  change  to  have 
taken  place  at  the  time  of  the  first  visit.  It 
is  not  unlikely  that  Timothy  had  witnessed 
both  the  stoning  and  the  coming  to  life  again  of 
the  apostle  (2  Tim.  3.10,  11). 

Derbe  (Gudelissin),  whither  the  apostles 
retired  from  the  persecution  of  Lystra,  was  some 
30  miles  distant,  in  Lycaonia  (Acts  14.6,  20). 
Here  they  were  not  exposed  to  persecution,  nor 
hindered  in  their  work  of  evangelising  the  city  ; 
the  result  being  that  they  had  "  many  disciples  " 
(Acts  14.21). 

Turning  back,  Paul  revisited  the  places 
where  he  had  been  so  shamefully  used  on  the 


outward  journey,  Lystra,  Iconium,  then 
Antioch  (Acts  14.21),  thus  bringing  to  a  close 
the  first  missionary  journey. 

Between  this  journey  and  the  second  a 
matter  of  great  importance  was  decided.  Great 
numbers  of  Jews  had  long  been  dispersed  beyond 
the  limits  of  their  own  land.  In  every  con- 
siderable city,  both  of  the  east  and  west,  were 
Jews  established,  with  their  synagogues,  wherein 
Moses  was  preached  every  Sabbath  day  (Acts 
15.21).  They  were  surrounded,  not  only  by  an 
idolatry  which  shocked  all  their  deepest  feelings, 
and  by  a  shameless  profligacy  associated  with 
what  was  called  religion,  but  also  by  a  proud 
and  contemptuous  philosophy  that  alienated 
the  more  educated  classes  to  as  great  a  distance 
as  the  unthinking  multitude.  Thus  the  "  middle 
wall  of  partition  "  (Eph.  2.14)  was  maintained 
and  strengthened, and  Jew  and  Gentile  were  as  the 
poles  asunder  on  most  matters  of  life,  excepting 
those  of  commerce.  In  the  meantime  there  was 
this  great  difficulty :  it  was  "  unlawful,"  as 
Peter  said  to  Cornelius,  "for  a  man  that 
was  a  Jew  to  keep  company  or  come  unto  one 
of  another  nation  "  (Acts  10.28).  Peter  himself 
afterwards  offended  his  brethren  at  Jerusalem 
because  he  had  "  gone  in  "  to  men  uncircumcised 
and  had  "  eaten  with  them  "  (Acts  11.3).  How, 
then,  were  Jews  and  Gentiles  to  be  united  in 
Christian  brotherhood,  as  members  in  the  family 
of  a  common  Father  ?  Paul  was  instrumental  in 
solving  the  difficulty.  When  Peter  explained 
the  matter  of  eating  with  the  uncircumcised,  and 
had  produced  his  witnesses  of  the  pouring  out  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  on  them,  his  accusers  were  silent, 
and  even  glorified  God  for  His  mercy  to  the 
Gentiles  (Acts  11.1-18).  But  the  discontent 
recurred.  It  was  therefore  decided  that  "  Paul 
and  Barnabas,  with  certain  others,"  should  be 
sent  to  confer  with  the  apostles  and  elders  at 
Jerusalem,  the  Church  of  which  was  still  pre- 
sided over  by  James,  and  was  regarded  as  the 
mother  Church  of  Christendom  (Acts  15.1-6, 12; 
Gal.  2.4,  5).  The  question  narrowed  to  the  one 
point  of  circumcision.  Paul  succeeded,  how- 
ever, in  maintaining  his  position,  and  received 
the  "  right  hand  of  fellowship,"  returning  to 
Antioch  as  the  recognised  apostle  of  the  "  gospel 
of  the  uncircumcision "  (Acts  15.22-26).  This 
was  fourteen,  or  more  probably  seventeen,  years 
after  his  conversion. 

But  though  Paul  had  succeeded  at  Jerusalem, 
on  his  return  to  Antioch,  whither  he  was  followed 
by  Peter,  the  whole  of  the  Jewish  Christians, 
including  Peter  and  Barnabas,  separated  from 
the  Gentile  brethren,  on  the  ground  that  the  Law 
was  still  operative  as  regarded  the  social  life. 

[It  should,  however,  be  stated  that  some 
scholars  are  now  of  opinion  that  the  narrative 
in  Gal.  2  is  topical  rather  than  chronological,  and 
that  this  visit  of  Peter  to  Antioch  really  took 
place  before  the  council.] 

The  second  missionary  journey  (Acts  15.36— 
18.28)  was  more  extended  than  the  first.  Start- 
ing from  Antioch  in  Syria,  Paul  proceeded  by 
way  of  Issus,  Derbe,  Lystra,  Iconium,  North 


PAUL] 


366 


[PAUL 


Galatia  (as  it  seems),  Troas,  Philippi,  Amphi- 
polis,  Thessalonica,  Berea,  Athens,  Corinth, 
Ephesus,  whence  he  sailed  back  to  Caesarea. 
The  start  was  marred  by  a  difference  of  opinion 
between  Paul  and  Barnabas.  The  latter  wished 
to  make  Mark,  a  kinsman,  who  had  been  rebuked 
by  Paul  for  half-hearted  work  (Acts  15.38),  one 
of  their  company.  Paul's  refusal  led  to  an  open 
rupture.  It  led  also  to  far  more  important 
results.  It  meant  that  the  Gentiles  were  to 
have  the  Water  of  Life  brought  them  through 
two  distinct  streams,  instead  of  one.  Paul  kept 
to  the  mainland  of  Asia  and  Europe,  while 
Barnabas  went  to  Cyprus  (Acts  15.39).  The 
quarrel,  though  violent,  did  not  last  long,  for 
Paul  speaks  well  of  him  afterwards  (1  Cor. 
9.6).  [BARNABAS,  MARK.]  Barnabas  and  his 
young  cousin  departed  first,  and  then  Paul, 
choosing  Silas  for  his  companion,  and  receiv- 
ing the  blessing  of  the  Church  (Acts  15.40), 
started  for  Cilicia,  his  native  province.  Thus 
"  he  went  through  Syria  and  Cilicia,  confirm- 
ing the  Churches"  (Acts  15.41).  At  Derbe 
he  had  a  momentous  interview  with  Timothy. 
The  circumcision  of  Timothy  by  Paul  needs 
explanation,  for  had  not  the  latter  taught  that 
circumcision  was  nothing  ?  (1  Cor.  7.19, 20). 
The  fact  was  that  so  much  of  the  apostle's  work 
lay  among  the  Jews  that  the  presence  in  his 
company  of  an  uncircumcised  son  of  a  Jewess 
would  have  greatly  retarded  his  work.  It  was 
an  act  of  far-sighted  caution,  in  view  of  the  un- 
trodden field  before  him,  for  his  purpose  was  to 
act  on  the  cities  through  the  synagogues,  and  to 
preach  the  gospel  first  to  the  Jew  and  then 
to  the  Gentile  (Acts  13.5, 14,  14.1,  17.1,  2,  10, 
etc.).  Such  a  course  would  have  been  impossible, 
had  not  Timothy  been  circumcised.  His  was 
quite  a  different  case  from  that  of  Titus,  who 
was  a  Gentile  on  both  sides,  and  therefore, 
apparently,  was  not  circumcised,  in  spite  of  the 
pressure  brought  to  bear  upon  Paul  (Gal.  2.3). 

Northern  Galatia  was  probably  the  next 
scene  of  his  labours.  Its  inhabitants  received 
Paul's  message  with  enthusiasm  and  glad- 
ness (Gal.  3.1,  4.14, 15),  overlooking  his  mean 
personal  appearance  and  some  grievous  bodily 
illness.  This  seems  to  have  affected  his  eyes, 
for  St.  Paul  continues  (Gal.  4.15),  "If  it 
had  been  possible  ye  would  have  plucked  out 
your  own  eyes,  and  have  given  them  to  me." 
Whether  or  not  this  had  any  connexion  with  the 
"  thorn  in  the  flesh  "  (2  Cor.  12.7)  is  a  matter  of 
conjecture.  Whether  it  was  ophthalmia,  or 
malaria,  or  epilepsy,  is  uncertain. 

Leaving  Galatia  the  travellers  crossed  a  part 
of  Mysia  (being  forbidden  by  "  the  spirit  of 
Jesus"  to  enter  Bithynia)  and  came  to  Troas. 
Here  Paul  was  only  separated  by  a  small 
stretch  of  sea  from  Europe.  Nevertheless  he 
had  as  yet  no  intention  of  leaving  Asia  Minor, 
where  many  places  remained  to  be  visited. 
During  his  short  sojourn  in  Troas,  Paul  attached 
to  himself  a  new  companion,  the  future  historian 
of  his  labours.  Luke  was  a  physician,  so  Paul 
calls  him,  and  not,  as  tradition  calls  him, 


a  painter.  [LuKE.]  It  is  Luke  himself  who 
tells  us  that  it  was  here  he  met  Paul.  "  We 
endeavoured  to  go  into  Macedonia  "  (Acts  16.10), 
he  says,  and  it  is  this  we  which  suddenly  reveals  to 
us  the  presence  of  Luke  among  the  companions 
of  Paul  at  Troas. 

It  was  in  a  vision  of  the  night  that  the  Lord 
gave  Paul  his  commission  to  go  to  Macedonia 
(Acts  16.9).  The  commission  was  promptly 
accepted  (Acts  16.10),  and  the  apostle  and  his 
three  companions,  Silas,  Timothy,  and  Luke,  set 
sail,  and  in  two  days  arrived  at  Ncapolis,  the 
seaport  of  Philippi. 

Philippi  was  a  great  military  post  and  com- 
mercial centre.  There  were  not  many  Jews 
at  Philippi,  and  no  synagogue,  only  a  temporary 
place  of  prayer,  i.e.  a  retired  spot  surrounded 
by  a  wall,  but  not  protected  by  a  roof.  The 
congregation  consisted  chiefly  of  women  (Acts 
16.13),  some  Jews  and  others  proselytes.  Of 
the  latter,  Lydia,  of  Thyatira,  was  con- 
verted and  baptized.  Here  was  the  first 
Christian  baptism  in  Europe,  though  Lydia 
herself  was  from  Asia.  The  restoration  to  her 
right  mind  of  a  demoniac  girl  led  to  the  arrest 
and  imprisonment  of  Paul  and  Silas  (Acts  16.19-) 
after  they  had  suffered  the  punishment  of 
scourging.  In  prison,  as  they  prayed,  their 
bonds  were  broken  and  the  doors  opened  through 
the  violence  of  an  earthquake.  Their  jailer 
was  converted,  took  them  to  his  own  residence 
over  the  prison,  and  fed  them  (Acts  16.30-34). 
In  the  morning  came  the  order  to  "  let  those  men 
go,"  literally,  "  let  those  fettows  go,"  for  it  was 
a  contemptuous  release  of  men  who  the  magis- 
trates thought  had  been  sufficiently  punished. 
They  were  startled  enough  when  their  messengers 
returned  from  the  jail,  and  reported  that  the 
men  were  Roman  citizens,  and  refused  to  take 
their  freedom  in  such  a  manner.  Quitting 
Philippi  at  the  earnest  request  of  the  praetors, 
Paul,  leaving  Timothy  and  Luke  behind  to  look 
after  the  infant  Church,  proceeded  to  Thessa- 
lonica, another  Macedonian  city  (about  100  miles 
from  Philippi).  The  road  Paul  now  traversed 
was  the  route  by  which  Xerxes  had  brought  his 
army.  Paul's  first  appearance  was  before  a 
crowded  assembly  of  true-born  Jews,  intent  on 
their  religious  worship.  For  three  successive 
Sabbaths  he  pleaded  (Acts  17.2),  obtaining 
much  success  among  the  proselytes  and  Gentiles, 
but  rousing  the  hostility  of  the  Jews.  These 
last  raised  the  mob,  and  in  the  absence  of  Paul 
and  Silas  carried  off  Jason,  who  was  their  host, 
and  brought  him  before  the  magistrates  for 
harbouring  the  apostles.  Thereupon  Paul  and 
Silas  left  Thessalonica,  and  travelled  60  miles 
to  Beroea,  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Olympian 
range,  where  they  were  glady  received  and  their 
teaching  carefully  and  thoughtfully  examined. 
The  result  was  the  formation  of  a  Church  strong 
in  numbers  and  influence  (Acts  17.10-12).  But 
the  hostility  of  the  Thessalonian  Jews  followed 
him  even  here,  and  the  Church  of  Beroea  sud- 
denly lost  its  founder  and  teacher,  though  Silas 
and  Timothy  remained  behind.  Directing  their 


PAUL] 


367 


[PAUL 


steps  towards  the  sea,  Paul,  with  some  new  com- 
panions, took  ship  for  Athens  (Acts  17.14, 15). 
As  Paul  "went  through  the  city"  (Acts  17.16-23) 
he  saw  God  dishonoured  on  every  side,  and  was 
melted  with  pity  for  the  city  which  was  "  full 
of  idols"  ("wholly  given  to  idolatry,"  A.V.). 
He  was  not  blinded  by  the  many  forms  of  beauty 
about  him,  nor  by  words  of  human  wisdom. 
He  saw  and  heard  with  an  earnestness  of  con- 
viction which  no  Epicurean  or  Stoic  could  have 
understood,  the  noted  hideousness  of  immorality 
underlying  so  fair  an  exterior,  and  felt  for  the 
people  proportionately.  Yet  he  was  alone  in 
Athens,  and  longed  for  the  presence  of  Silas  and 
Timothy,  to  comfort  his  own  soul,  and  to  aid  him 
in  explaining  the  nature  of  the  "  Unknown  God." 
He  had  seen  in  his  survey  of  the  city  an  altar 
thus  inscribed  (Acts  17.23),  and  he  sought  to 
turn  the  fact  to  advantage.  "  Whom  ye  ignor- 
antly  worship,  Him  declare  I  unto  you  "  (Acts 
17.23). 

This  speech  on  Mars'  Hill  was  but  the  con- 
tinuation of  daily  discussions  that  had  taken 
place  in  "  the  market "  and  in  the  synagogue. 
The  result  was  that  certain  men  and  women 
believed  [DIONYSIUS,  DAMARIS],  but  we  do  not 
know  if  the  number  of  Christians  was  large  or 
small,  or  how  long  Paul  remained  among  them. 
He  waited  for  some  time,  till  Silas  and  Timothy 
could  join  him.  But  we  possess  no  letter  to  the 
Athenians ;  and  we  do  not  know  that  he  was 
ever  in  Athens  again. 

From  Athens  Paul  had  sent  for  his  companions. 
Timothy  he  had  sent  off  again  to  help  and 
encourage  the  Christians  at  Thessalonica,  pre- 
ferring to  be  alone  to  feeling  that  they  were 
without  a  guide  in  their  tribulations  (1  Thess. 
3.1,2).  Silas  does  not  appear  at  Athens,  but 
we  find  him  with  the  apostle  at  Corinth,  and 
he  joins  in  the  salutation  of  1  and  2  Thess.  (see 
below).  But  Paul  had  come  by  himself  to  this 
city,  sad  and  heavy,  terrified  at  the  magnitude 
of  the  task  (1  Cor.  2.3).  The  "  much  trembling  " 
with  which  he  had  entered  the  city  soon  gave 
place  to  joy.  He  not  only  saw  how  gladly  the 
people  received  the  Word,  but  God  miraculously 
revealed  to  him  His  designs  regarding  the  city 
(Acts  18.9, 10).  Corinth  was  a  very  corrupt 
place.  It  had  become  a  byword;  and  to  live 
as  a  Corinthian  meant  to  pay  no  respect  to 
the  laws  of  morality.  Bengel  says,  "  '  The 
Church  of  God  in  Corinth  ! '  what  a  huge  and 
glorious  paradox  !  "  Amidst  all  the  wrangling 
and  tumult  Paul  lived  at  first  quietly  with  a 
Jew  (Acts  18.2)  who  had  been  banished  from 
Rome  by  Claudius,  and  perhaps  was  already  a 
Christian.  Or  Paul  may  have  been  attracted  to 
Aquila  because  he  was  a  tentmaker,  like  him- 
self. [AQUILA,  PRISCILLA.]  Paul  had  already 
determined  not  to  take  anything  for  himself 
for  preaching  the  Word,  and  he  therefore  re- 
sumed his  trade.  The  connexion  soon  resulted 
in  his  hosts  becoming  his  assistants  in  the 
spread  of  the  gospel,  and  as  such  are  com- 
memorated for  all  time  by  the  apostle  (Acts 
18.18,20;  1  Cor,  16.19;  2  Tim.  4.19).  While 


Paul  was  living  thus  quietly,  Timothy  and 
Silas  returned  from  Macedonia  (Acts  18.5').  The 
report  of  Timothy  as  to  the  condition  of  the 
Church  at  Thessalonica,  and  the  errors  they  had 
fallen  into,  caused  Paul  to  write  to  those  beloved 
converts  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians. 
At  this  time  the  Jews  at  Corinth  were  causing 
Paul  much  concern  by  endeavouring  to  withhold 
him  from  speaking  to  the  Gentiles  (1  Thess. 
2.15, 16).  He  was  greatly  concerned,  and  "  shook 
the  dust  off  his  garments"  (Acts  18.6)  and, 
proclaiming  himself  innocent  of  the  blood  of 
those  who  refused  salvation  (Ezek.  33.8, 9 ; 
Matt.  27.24 ;  Acts  5.28,  20.26),  he  declared  his 
intention  henceforth  to  preach  to  the  Gentiles. 
A  proselyte  named  Titus  or  Titius  Justus,  of 
whom  nothing  more  is  known,  oll'ered  his  own 
house,  which  was  close  to  the  synagogue.  In 
this  place  the  apostle  continued  to  meet  his 
flock.  He  was  followed  by  Crispus,  the  ruler 
of  the  synagogue,  whom  he  baptized  himself. 
With  his  own  hands  also  he  baptized  Gaius  and 
the  household  of  Stephanas,  in  these  instances 
departing  from  his  usual  custom,  which  was 
not  to  baptize  those  who  were  converted  by 
his  preaching. 

Paul  had  been  about  eighteen  months  in 
Corinth,  perhaps  also  visiting  other  places  in 
Achaia  and  establishing  Churches,  when  he 
thought  the  time  had  come  for  him  to  return 
to  Judoea.  Priscilla  and  Aquila,  for  this  is  the 
usual  order  of  their  names,  were  journeying  to 
Ephesus,  and  the  apostle  decided  to  accompany 
them.  He  took  a  solemn  farewell  of  the  Church 
(Acts  18.18),  and  departed  on  his  voyage.  His 
second  journey  had  lasted  about  three  years. 
Paul  embarked  at  Cenchreae,  the  eastern  port  of 
Athens,  "  having  shorn  his  head,  for  he  had  a 
vow "  (Acts  18.18).  This  vow  was  a  common 
Jewish  expression  of  thankfulness  for  deliver- 
ance from  danger.  The  man  who  took  this  vow 
abstained  from  wine  or  strong  drink  for  thirty 
days,  letting  his  hair  grow  long,  in  sign  of  con- 
secration. On  the  thirtieth  he  cut  off  his  hair, 
usually  in  the  Temple,  and  burnt  it  on  the  altar, 
with  appointed  sacrifices  (Num.  6).  Paul 
omitted  these  latter  details,  perhaps  in  order 
to  safeguard  Christian  liberty,  and  prevent  a 
triumph  for  the  Judaisers.  Contrast  his  later 
action  (Acts  21.24).  His  stay  this  time  at 
Ephesus  was  short.  He  made  a  visit  to  his 
fellow-countrymen,  preached  in  the  synagogue, 
and  then,  avoiding  all  requests  to  remain,  he 
embarked  once  more  for  Syria,  leaving  behind 
him  Priscilla  and  Aquila,  who  had  business  in 
Ephesus.  But  he  promised  to  return  if  possible, 
a  promise  he  amply  fulfilled.  The  vessel 
coasted  the  islands  of  Cos,  Cnidus,  Rhodes, 
Cyprus,  thence  across  the  open  sea  to  Caesarea. 
From  Caesarea  Paul  made  a  hasty  visit  to 
Jerusalem.  We  do  not  know  for  certain  if  he 
was  in  time  for  the  festival,  but  it  is  probable 
that  he  was.  We  are  told  simply  that  he 
"  saluted  the  Church  "  and  proceeded  at  once  to 
Antioch  (Acts  18.22).  Though  Antioch  had 
become  the  central  point  of  Christianity,  which 


PAUL] 


368 


[PAUL 


was  receding  more  and  more  from  the  land 
which  gave  it  birth,  yet,  so  far  as  we  know,  Paul 
now  visited  the  city  for  the  last  time.  Antioch 
is  not  mentioned  in  the  Acts  after  18.22,  but  its 
position  was  favourable  for  guarding  the  Churches 
of  Asia  Minor  from  the  Judaising  party,  and  a 
convenient  starting-point  from  which  to  reach 
not  only  the  Churches  of  Asia  and  Galatia,  but 
those  of  the  Isles  and  of  Greece. 

Leaving  Antioch,  Paul,  accompanied  by 
Timothy,  on  his  third  missionary  journey  (Acts 
19.1—21.34),  passed  through  Asia  Minor,  visiting 
and  encouraging  the  many  Churches  he  had 
established  in  that  region.  There  were  many 
wealthy  districts  in  which  idleness  and  luxury 
undermined  the  character  of  the  Christians,  so 
that  some  [GNOSTIC]  even  went  so  far  as  to 
declare  that  sins  of  the  body  could  have  no 
effect  on  the  soul.  Disputes  had  also  arisen  at 
Corinth  as  to  the  superior  efficacy  of  baptism 
by  Paul,  by  Apollos,  and  others  [Apoixos],  each 
professing  himself  a  follower  of  that  apostle. 
Paul  therefore  sent  Titus  there,  and  also  Timothy 
(though  the  latter  appears  not  to  have  gone  so 
far,  see  1  Cor.  4.17,  16.10  with  AcU  19.22), 
and  wrote  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians, 
after  he  had  been  in  Ephesus  about  three  years 
(Acts  20.31).  In  the  spring  of  57  A.D.,  when  he 
came  first  to  Ephesus  on  this  journey,  he  had 
his  memorable  meeting  with  the  twelve  men, 
followers  of  John  the  Baptist  (Acts  19.1).  In 
the  brief  report  of  the  interview  we  have  but 
a  question  or  two,  "  Did  ye  receive  the  Holy 
Ghost  when  ye  believed  ?  "  (Acts  19.1-7),  and  the 
resulting  laying  on  of  hands.  Paul's  preach- 
ing produced  great  effects  at  Ephesus,  both 
among  Jews  and  Gentiles.  The  idolatrous 
practices  of  the  city  had  been  seriously  affected, 
and  many  burnt  their  magical  books,  and  mean- 
while Paul's  character  had  risen  so  high  as 
to  obtain  influence  over  some  of  the  wealthiest 
and  most  powerful  personages  of  the  province. 
The  danger  that  now  threatened  Paul  was  the 
outcome  of  his  growing  influence,  and  its  serious 
interference  with  the  worship  of  Diana. 
Demetrius,  a  manufacturer  of  idols  and  little 
shrines  containing  an  image  of  Diana,  addressed 
an  inflammatory  speech  to  his  workmen  and 
others  against  the  teaching  of  Paul,  which  was 
taking  away  their  profits  (Acts  19.25  ff.),  and 
putting  the  great  temple  of  Diana  itself  in 
danger.  The  excitement  spread  instantly  ;  but 
the  mob,  after  some  hours  of  uproar,  was  tran- 
quillised  by  the  "  town-clerk "  (19.35),  shown 
by  the  inscriptions  to  be  a  very  important 
personage  at  Ephesus. 

Shortly  after,  Paul  gathered  the  Christians 
together  in  one  last  affectionate  meeting,  com- 
mended them  to  the  grace  of  God,  and  bade 
them  farewell  (Acts  20.1).  Leaving  Ephesus, 
Paul  visited  Troas  for  the  second  time,  with 
the  intention  of  founding  a  Church  (2  Cor. 
2.12) ;  but  the  non-arrival  of  Titus,  who  had 
been  sent  to  Corinth  from^JSphesus,  caused 
Paul  to  be  cast  down.  Nevertheless,  he  con- 
tinued preaching,  and  laid  the  foundations 


for  a  Christian  Church,  before  continuing  his 
journey  to  Neapolis  in  Macedonia.  Land- 
ing at  Neapolis,  he  immediately  proceeded  to 
Philippi,  where  he  was  cheered  by  the  warmth 
of  his  reception.  Here  he  met  with  Timothy 
again,  but  it  was  not  until  he  had  been  some 
time  in  Macedonia  that  he  was  comforted  by 
the  presence  of  Titus.  His  bodily  health  was 
bad  at  this  time  (2  Cor.  4.7,  5.10,  etc.) ;  especi- 
ally was  the  "  thorn  in  the  flesh "  troubling 
and  impeding  him.  But  the  real  trouble  was 
the  weight  of  the  "  care  of  all  the  Churches," 
and  the  real  cause  of  his  grief  was  the  danger 
which  now  threatened  the  souls  of  his  converts 
everywhere  throughout  the  Empire.  The 
struggle  was  between  Judaism  and  Christianity. 
These  were  the  "  fightings  without "  which 
filled  him  with  "  fears  within  "  and  gave  him 
no  rest  (2  Cor.  7.5).  Paul's  anxiety  was  relieved 
at  last  by  the  arrival  of  Titus  in  Macedonia,  with 
the  good  tidings  that  the  Corinthian  Church 
had  submitted  to  rebuke  and  set  about  reforma- 
tion. The  offending  person  had  been  punished, 
and  though  a  party  there  still  charged  Paul 
with  applying  to  his  own  uses  funds  con- 
tributed for  the  Christians  of  Palestine,  yet 
the  Churches  as  a  whole  trusted  him  entirely. 

As  soon  as  Titus  had  explained  the  situation 
at  Corinth,  he  was  sent  back  again  with  two 
others,  who  were  to  receive  the  subscriptions 
of  the  faithful  for  the  relief  of  Palestine.  Paul 
entrusted  to  Titus  himself  another  letter,  ad- 
dressed this  time  not  only  to  the  Corinthian 
Church  but  to  all  the  Christians  of  Achaia, 
our  Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians.  The 
great  collection  of  money  which  the  apostle 
had  instituted,  and  which  was  now  being  carried 
on  in  Macedonia  and  hi  Achaia,  was  started 
with  a  twofold  object.  There  was  undoubtedly 
great  distress  among  the  Hebrew  Christians, 
which  the  apostle  properly  thought  the  wealthier 
communities  that  were  being  added  to  the 
Church  should  relieve.  At  the  same  time,  he 
was  also  statesman  enough  to  see  that  the 
breach  between  the  Judaisers  and  Gentiles, 
which  was  becoming  wider  and  threatened  to 
do  much  mischief,  might  be  bridged  if  not 
closed  by  the  kind-hearted  liberality  of  the 
Gentiles.  The  healing  of  this  division  was  at 
this  time  the  dominating  idea  with  Paul. 
He  felt  that  if  the  Gentiles  had  been  made 
partakers  of  the  spiritual  blessings  of  the  Jews, 
their  duty  was  to  return  the  benefit  with  earthly 
blessings  (Rom.  15.27  ;  2  Cor.  9.12-15).  Of  all 
the  Churches  of  Macedonia,  none  took  a  more 
active  part  in  this  collection  than  that  of 
Philippi.  Of  the  three  persons  principally  en- 
gaged in  the  work  only  Titus  is  known  by 
name,  though  they  are  all  warmly  commended 
for  zeal  and  trueheartedness  (2  Cor.  8.18, 19,  22). 

[TITUS.] 

After  the  departure  of  Titus,  Paul  continued 
to  visit  the  Churches  in  the  northern  part  of 
Macedonia,  and  even  extended  his  operations 
along  the  eastern  side  of  the  Adriatic  Sea  in 
the  country  then  called  Illyricum,  but  now 


PAUL] 


369 


[PAUL 


known  as  Dalmatia,  Croatia,  and  Herzegovina, 
provinces  of  the  Austrian  Empire.  But  his 
heart  was  in  Corinth,  and,  as  winter  was 
coming  on,  he  soon  turned  southwards.  He 
declared  his  determination  to  punish  the  dis- 
obedient (2  Cor.  10.6)  minority  who  still  dis- 
puted his  authority  and  retained  their  habits 
of  impurity.  But  (on  the  most  probable  theory 
of  the  date  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians) 
when  the  apostle  reached  Corinth  he  was  met 
with  the  news  of  a  serious  defection  of  the 
Galatian  Churches,  probably  those  of  North 
Galatia,  who  were  throwing  off  his  authority 
and  submitting  to  the  Judaising  preaching  of 
missionaries  from  Jerusalem,  who  told  them 
that  Paul  was  no  true  apostle,  never  having 
been  with  Christ,  nor  received  His  commission. 
Also  that  his  doctrine  was  in  opposition  to  that 
of  Peter  and  James.  Paul  therefore  wrote  his 
Epistle  to  the  Galatians. 

For  three  months  Paul  made  Corinth  his 
headquarters,  completing  the  great  contribution 
for  Palestine.  This  was  now  collected  from 
the  individual  contributors,  and  entrusted  to 
treasurers  elected  by  the  whole  Church,  who 
were  to  carry  it  to  Jerusalem  in  company  with 
Paul.  While  waiting  until  all  should  be  in 
readiness  for  his  departure,  Paul  entrusted  a 
letter  to  the  Church  at  Rome  to  the  hands  of 
a  remarkable  woman,  named  Phoebe,  who  had 
much  befriended  him  and  other  Christians,  a 
Christian  lady  of  Cenchreoe,  who  was  travel- 
ling to  Rome  on  private  business.  His  reason 
for  writing  was  to  inform  them  of  his  in- 
tention of  visiting  them  when  on  his  way 
from  Jerusalem  to  Spain,  a  journey  already 
planned.  That  he  had  a  considerable  acquaint- 
ance in  the  metropolis  of  the  civilised  world 
is  shown  in  the  Epistle,  and  that  the  Christians 
there  were  chiefly  Gentile  is  assumed  from  the 
fact  that  he  emphasises  his  post  of  apostle  to 
the  Gentiles,  given  him  by  Christ  (Rom.  1.13). 
Paul  returned  to  Jerusalem  by  sea.  On  the  eve 
of  his  departure  for  Syria  he  learned  of  a 
plot  against  his  life,  such  as  he  had  met  on 
other  occasions  (Acts  9.23,  29,  23.12  ;  2  Cor. 
11.32).  To  escape  his  enemies  Paul  was  com- 
pelled to  travel  another  way,  moving  rapidly 
through  Macedonia  by  Thessalonica  to  Philippi, 
where  he  was  once  more  in  the  company  of 
Luke,  apparently  left  there  on  the  second 
missionary  journey  six  years  before.  He  seems 
to  have  kept  the  Passover  there,  for  "  after  the 
days  of  unleavened  bread"  he  embarked  for 
Troas,  the  ship  being  delayed  either  by  calms 
or  head  winds,  taking  five  days  on  the  voyage. 
[TROAS.] 

It  was  at  Troas  that  Paul  raised  from  the  dead 
the  young  man  Eutychus  (Acts  20.9  ft.).  Though 
the  ship  started  from  Troas,  Paul  himself  went 
overland,  round  the  promontory,  to  Assos, 
doubtless  to  enjoy  the  quiet  which  could  not 
be  obtained  in  a  ship  of  those  days,  before 
finally  embarking.  The  next  port  of  call  being 
Miletus,  whence  Paul  sent  to  the  Church  at 
Ephesus,  there  was  great  joy  among  the 

24 


Christians  there  when  they  heard  that  the 
apostle  was  so  near,  and  many  of  them  went 
the  20  miles  that  they  might  once  more  see 
and  hear  him.  His  speech  to  the  elders  was  a 
solemn  reminder  of  their  duties,  and  a  warning 
of  the  temptations  that  would  soon  arise  (Acts 
20.18-35).  The  parting  came  all  too  soon,  and 
the  ship  set  sail  with  a  fair  wind  (Acts  21.1)  past 
Cos  and  Rhodes  (which  see)  to  Patara,  the  har- 
bour of  Xanthus,  now  "  a  desert  of  moving  sand." 
Here  the  apostle  and  his  company  changed 
vessels  (21.2)  and  left  Patara  the  same  day,  and 
with  the  wind  still  in  their  favour  sailed  into 
the  open  sea,  crossing  the  340  miles  between 
Patara  and  Tyre.  There  were  disciples  at  Tyre, 
and  these  warned  Paul  of  the  danger  of  going  on 
to  Jerusalem.  But  he  resolved  to  face  it,  and 
after  seven  days,  when  the  vessel  was  ready, 
he  embarked  once  more  after  an  affecting  leave- 
taking  from  the  faithful.  The  same  scene  was 
repeated  at  Ptolemais,  where  Paul  landed, 
though  he  did  not  stop,  but  pushed  on  for 
Ccesarea  [TYHB,  PTOLEMAIS],  where  he  went 
to  the  house  of  Philip  the  Evangelist.  At 
Csesarea  he  was  able  to  spend  some  days,  as 
he  had  arrived  in  good  time  for  the  festival. 
Agabus,  who  had  the  gift  of  prophecy,  showed 
Paul  his  danger  in  dramatic  fashion.  Luke  and 
the  other  companions  of  Paul  wept  and  implored 
him  not  to  go,  but  his  resolution  was  fixed,  and 
his  friends  recognised  the  Will  of  God  in  the 
matter  (21.10-14),  and  even  accompanied  him 
to  Jerusalem,  where  he  was  welcomed  by  the 
brethren,  58  A.D. 

Paul  was  received  by  James  and  the  elders  of 
the  Church  with  the  kiss  of  brotherhood  (21.19). 
With  the  deputies  who  had  accompanied  him 
he  delivered  the  great  collection  of  money  from 
the  Gentile  Churches,  and  then  described  to  the 
assembly  all  that  "God  had  wrought  among 
the  Gentiles  by  his  ministry  "  (21.19).  For  this 
good  news  the  assembly  glorified  God,  and 
joined  in  solemn  thanksgiving.  But  there  was 
an  element  in  the  Christian  Church  from  among 
the  Pharisees  which  sought  to  turn  Christianity 
into  a  Jewish  sect.  They  had  all  along  been 
Paul's  enemies.  Their  minds  were  in  a  state 
of  transition  between  the  Law  and  the  Gospel. 
To  calm  the  agitation  of  this  noisy  party,  the 
assembly  induced  Paul  to  accompany  four 
Jewish  Christians,  who  were  under  a  Nazirite 
vow  [Vow],  to  the  Temple,  and  perform  with 
them  the  necessary  ceremonial.  As  a  measure 
of  conciliation  Paul's  action  proved  useless. 
As  he  was  in  the  Temple  he  was  sprung  upon 
and  held  upon  a  false  charge  of  bringing  a  Greek 
into  the  Holy  Place  (21.28).  He  would  un- 
doubtedly have  been  torn  to  pieces  by  the 
infuriated  mob  had  not  the  Roman  Commandant, 
appeared  and  stopped  their  rage.  Calmed  for 
the  moment  when  they  saw  Paul  a  prisoner, 
they  broke  out  once  more  when,  receiving  per- 
mission to  speak  from  the  steps  leading  up  to 
the  Castle  of  Antonia  from  the  Temple  area, 
he  declared  his  Divinely  appointed  mission  to 
the  Gentiles.  The  Commandant  was  perplexed, 


PAUL] 


370 


[PAUL 


and  was  about  to  extort  information  from  the 
apostle  when  Paul  declared  himself  a  Roman 
citizen,  whom  it  was  unlawful  to  punish  without 
a  trial.  Lysias  was  afraid  because  he  had 
"bound"  the  apostle.  It  seems  also  that  in 
any  case  it  would  have  been  illegal  to  have 
had  immediate  recourse  to  torture.  Certainly  it 
was  contrary  to  Roman  Law  to  put  any  Roman 
citizen  to  the  torture,  either  by  scourging  or  by 
any  other  way.  Later,  however,  this  rule  was 
violated. 

The  scene  now  suddenly  changes  from  the 
Roman  fortress  to  a  meeting  of  the  Sanhedrin, 
specially  called  by  the  Commandant  to  consider 
the  case  of  Paul.  Seeing  how  little  justice  he 
would  obtain,  Paul  defends  himself  by  declaring 
himself  a  Pharisee  (who  believed  in  the  re- 
surrection of  the  body),  knowing  that  a  fierce 
party  spirit  would  be  roused  against  the 
Sadducees  (who  held  no  such  belief).  His  ruse 
succeeded,  and  Paul  found  himself  once  more 
guarded,  rather  than  held  prisoner,  by  the 
Roman  soldiers  (Acts  23.10).  In  the  depression 
of  mind  that  followed,  Paul  was  comforted  by 
another  vision.  His  safety  was  secured  through 
the  instrumentality  of  his  nephew,  who  revealed 
a  plot  to  assassinate  him.  The  Commandant 
immediately  put  Paul  out  of  danger  by  sending 
him  secretly  to  the  governor  Felix  at  Csesarea 
(23.24  ff.),  who  ordered  him  to  be  retained  until 
his  accusers  arrived. 

For  nearly  two  years  Paul  was  kept  prisoner 
while  Felix,  in  expectation  of  a  large  bribe  (he 
may  have  heard  of  the  collection  the  deputa- 
tion had  brought  to  Palestine)  for  his  release. 
But  the  maladministration  of  Felix  brought  about 
his  recall  to  Rome,  and  Festus  took  his  place 
as  governor.  Hardly  was  he  come  when  the 
Sanhedrin  besought  him  to  let  them  try  Paul 
at  Jerusalem.  Festus  refused  their  demand, 
but  of  his  own  accord  suggested  that  course  to 
Paul.  But  the  apostle  knew  that  his  assassina- 
tion was  the  prime  object  of  the  change  of  scene, 
and  appealed  even  from  the  Provincial  Court,  pre- 
sided over  by  Festus,  to  that  of  Caesar  at  Rome. 
Festus  had  no  choice ;  the  right  of  appeal  was 
one  of  the  most  important  privileges  of  the 
Roman  citizen.  [APPEAL,  FESTUS.] 

But  Festus  was  puzzled  by  the  character  of 
the  charge  brought  against  his  prisoner,  and 
gladly  sought  the  aid  of  his  friends,  King  Herod 
Agrippa  n.  and  his  sister  Bernice,  who  had  come 
to  him  on  a  visit.  Paul  spoke  in  his  own  defence, 
and  Agrippa  held  that  he  might  have  been  set 
at  liberty  except  for  his  appeal  to  Rome. 

For  Rome  Paul  sailed  in  a  coasting  "  ship  of 
Adramyttium  "  (Acts  27.2),  which  after  touching 
at  Sidon  took  them  as  far  as  Myra,  sailing  north 
of  Cyprus,  instead  of  on  the  ordinary  course 
south  of  that  island,  because  of  the  west  winds. 
They  found  an  Alexandrian  corn-ship  bound  for 
Rome  sheltering  here.  The  vessel  was  a  large 
one,  for  she  carried,  in  addition  to  her  cargo, 
nearly  300  souls  (Acts  27.37).  Driven  by  strong 
gales  southwards,  the  ship  ran  until  sheltered  by 
the  island  of  Crete,  an  imprudent  course  to  take, 


for  the  south  coast  of  that  island  is  deficient 
in  harbours.  However,  they  anchored  at  Fair 
Havens,  a  roadstead  which  still  retains  the 
name.  Here  they  were  detained  by  the  north- 
west winds  continuing.  Paul  advised  remaining 
at  Fair  Havens,  advice  that  would  probably  have 
been  taken  had  that  anchorage  afforded  better 
accommodation  (Acts  27.12).  But  the  centurion 
(who  was  supreme)  preferred  the  judgment  of 
the  sailing  master  and  the  owner  of  the  ship. 
A  favourable  change  of  weather  occurring  just 
then,  the  sailors  light-heartedly  hoisted  sail  and 
rounded  the  point  of  land  called  Cape  Matala 
and  headed  for  Phoenice  (Lutro).  But  they 
were  almost  at  once  met  by  a  wind  of  hurricane 
force  called  the  Euroclydon  (Euraquilo,  R.V.), 
and  were  forced  to  run  before  it  until  they  got 
under  the  lee  of  the  small  island  of  Clauda, 
about  23  miles  south  of  Phoenice.  Here  they 
managed  to  get  the  boat  aboard,  and  "  under 
girded"  the  ship  with  ropes,  to  prevent  her 
planks  starting  in  the  gale.  They  also  reduced 
the  sails  exposed  to  the  wind,  and  made  every- 
thing as  snug  as  they  could.  The  gale  continuing, 
the  next  day  they  lightened  the  ship  by  throwing 
overboard  all  spare  gear.  Then  followed  several 
days  of  continued  hardship  and  anxiety,  when 
desperate  efforts  had  to  be  made  to  keep  the 
vessel  afloat.  Paul  encouraged  the  sailors  by 
describing  to  them  a  vision  he  had  had  in  the 
night.  On  the  fourteenth  night  from  Fair 
Havens  the  sailors  thought  they  were  near 
land.  They  endeavoured  to  leave  the  pass- 
engers to  their  fate,  and  escape  in  the  boat. 
But  Paul,  seeing  through  their  excuses,  spoke 
to  the  centurion,  who  settled  the  point  by 
cutting  the  boat  adrift,  thus  compelling  the 
sailors  to  remain  on  board  and  attend  to  the 
safety  of  all.  But  Paul  goes  further;  he  en- 
courages the  exhausted  soldiers  and  sailors  to 
eat,  and  himself,  "giving  thanks,"  sets  the 
example.  Thus  encouraged,  they  set  to  work  to 
throw  out  the  cargo  in  order  to  further  lighten 
the  vessel  and  to  make  other  preparations  for 
running  ashore.  As  day  broke,  a  favourable 
place  presented  itself,  and  with  seamanlike 
precautions  the  ship  was  beached.  The  soldiers, 
answerable  with  their  lives  for  the  safe  custody 
of  their  prisoners,  were  now  about  to  kill  them 
all,  to  prevent  their  escaping,  when  the  centurion 
"  kept  them  from  their  purpose,"  such  a  strong 
hold  had  the  conduct  of  Paul  taken  of  his  mind. 
So  as  the  wreck  broke  up  all  escaped  to  land, 
which  they  found  was  the  island  of  Melita 
(Malta). 

The  population  of  Melita  (which  see)  was  of 
Phoenician  origin,  speaking  a  mixture  of  Latin 
and  Greek.  They  were  "  barbarians  "  only  in 
the  sense  of  being  foreigners  (Rom.  1.14 ; 
1  Cor.  14.11;  Col.  3.11).  Like  most  of  the 
heathen  they  were  superstitious,  and  saw  in  the 
incident  of  the  viper,  revived  by  the  warmth  of 
the  fire,  a  sign  of  the  vengeance  of  the  gods  for 
some  wrong  committed  by  Paul.  Then  when 
they  saw  that  the  deadly  creature  had  not 
harmed  the  apostle,  they  swiftly  changed  theii 


PAUL] 


371 


[PAVEMENT 


opinions,  and  looked  upon  him  as  a  god  (Acts 
28.3  ff.). 

For  three  months  the  shipwrecked  passengers 
and  crew  were  kept  on  the  island,  hospitably 
entertained  by  the  kindly  people,  especially  by 
a  man  of  note  named  Publius.  This  kind  treat- 
ment Paul  returned,  healing  their  sick  by  prayer 
and  the  laying  on  of  hands.  Then  sailing  by  a 
ship  dedicated  to  Castor  and  Pollux  [Snips]  they 
reached  Syracuse  in  Sicily.  We  know  nothing  of 
what  happened  at  Syracuse,  or  even  if  the  apostle 
was  allowed  to  land.  But  from  the  feelings 
entertained  for  him  by  Julius  it  is  most  likely 
that  he  was  permitted  to  address  the  many  Jews 
and  Jewish  proselytes  sure  to  be  found  in  such 
an  important  place. 

Sailing  past  Ortygia  under  an  adverse  wind 
they  put  into  Khegium  (Reggio),  a  city  whose 
patron  divinities  were  the  very  protectors  of  sea- 
farers after  whom  the  ship  was  named.  The 
next  day,  the  wind  having  taken  a  favourable 
turn  to  the  south,  they  set  sail  once  more, 
and  reached  Puteoli  the  day  following.  Here 
Paul  found  Christians  (Acts  28.14),  who  at  once 
communicated  with  the  brethren  at  Rome. 
Paul  is  now  on  one  of  the  most  crowded 
thoroughfares  of  the  Roman  Empire.  Travel- 
ling along  the  Appian  Way,  after  the  seven 
days  spent  with  the  Christians  of  Puteoli,  he 
would  find  himself  "  in  the  midst  of  praetors 
and  proconsuls,  embassies,  legions  and  turms 
of  horse."  On  the  arrival  of  the  party  at 
Appii  Forum,  they  were  met  by  Christians  who 
had  come  from  Rome.  Ten  miles  farther  on,  at 
a  place  called  the  Three  Taverns,  where  a  road 
from  the  coast  joined  the  great  road  they  were 
on,  another  body  of  Christians  met  them,  to 
honour  "  the  ambassador  in  bonds." 

Paul  remained  under  military  custody  for 
two  years  (Acts  28.16-30)  during  this  First 
Imprisonment  at  Rome.  He  was  permitted  to 
reside  in  his  own  house,  but  was  constantly 
chained  to  a  soldier  of  the  praetorian  guard.  It 
was  this  very  fact  that  enabled  him  to  make  those 
converts  in  the  Imperial  household  to  whom  he 
refers  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Philippians  (1.12  ff., 
4.22). 

Paul's  trial  could  not  take  place  before  the 
arrival  of  his  accusers,  which  was  probably  in 
the  summer  or  autumn  of  61  A.D.,  and  there 
might  be  further  delays,  as  each  of  the  charges 
had  to  be  heard  and  decided  on  separately. 
During  this  time  the  apostle  laboured  with 
great  effect,  aided  by  faithful  attendants  and 
messengers,  who  wrote  from  his  dictation  and 
carried  his  letters.  Among  his  associates  were 
Luke,  Timothy,  Tychicus,  Mark,  Onesimus,  and 
his  "fellow-prisoners"  Aristarchus  and  Epaphras, 
mentioned  in  the  Epistles  of  this  period,  which 
were  written  probably  in  the  following  order, 
Philippians,  and  later  Philemon,  Colossians, 
Ephesians  (Eph.  6.21 ;  Phil  1.1 ;  Col.  1.1,  7, 
4.7, 10, 14 ;  Philem.  1, 10,  23,  24). 

Near  the  beginning  of  this  period  (Phil.  1.25, 
2.24),  and  still  more  clearly  near  its  close  (Philem. 
1, 22),  he  expresses  a  confident  expectation  of 


release.  The  evidence  against  him  was  not  strong 
enough,  and  the  apostle  was  released,  and  once 
more  resumed  his  apostolic  labours.  His  Epistles 
to  Timothy  and  Titus  were  written  at  a  later 
period  than  the  close  of  Luke's  narrative  of  the 
Acts,  while  they  contain  allusions  to  facts  and 
incidents  of  travel  which  cannot  be  harmonised 
with  his  journeys  recorded  there. 

If  we  combine  these,  we  gather  that  after  being 
liberated  in  the  spring  of  61  or  63  A.D.,  and  ac- 
companied by  Luke  and  Timothy,  Paul  proceeded 
first  to  Macedonia  and  Asia  Minor.  Soon  after- 
wards he  visited  Spain,  thus  fulfilling  an  ex- 
pressed wish  (Rom.  15.24-28).  He  then  went  to 
Ephesus,  again  visited  Macedonia,  from  whence 
he  sent  his  First  Epistle  to  Timothy,  to  whose 
oversight  he  had  committed  the  Ephesian 
Church.  After  this  he  went  to  Crete,  leaving 
Titus  there,  to  whom  he  afterwards  wrote  the 
Epistle.  [Trrus.]  Other  places  he  also  visited, 
building  up  weak  Churches,  founding  new,  and 
encouraging  the  strong. 

It  was  perhaps  at  Nicopolis  (Tit.  3.12)  that 
Paul  was  arrested  as  the  leader  of  the  Christian 
sect,  which  the  Roman  authorities  had  since  the 
time  of  the  great  Roman  conflagration  (after- 
wards suspected  to  be  Nero's  own  work)  begun 
to  persecute  severely ;  and  was  sent  a  second 
time  to  Rome  for  trial.  But  this  Second  Im- 
prisonment is  very  different  from  the  former. 
He  is  now  treated  as  a  malefactor  (2  Tim.  2.9) 
and  cast  into  prison,  where  he  is  only  visited 
by  those  bold  enough  to  brave  shame  and 
danger  (2  Tim.  1.16).  He  appears  at  first  to 
hare  defended  himself  successfully  (2  Tim. 
4.16, 17) ;  yet  to  have  had  a  presentiment  of 
approaching  martyrdom  (2  Tim.  4.7).  This 
Second  Epistle  to  Timothy  is  the  apostle's  last 
letter  and  farewell).  He  was  now  alone,  with 
the  exception  of  the  "  beloved  physician  "  Luke, 
though  Timothy  and  Mark  had  been  sent  for. 

The  tradition  of  the  Christian  Church  is  that 
Paul  was  martyred  by  beheading  at  the  close  of 
Nero's  reign  (e.  67  A.D.). 

The  personal  appearance  of  the  apostle  has 
been  preserved  for  us  by  tradition,  and  accords 
with  that  suggested  by  the  reference  to  his 
opponents  at  Corinth  (2  Cor.  10.10).  He  is 
described  as  "  small  in  stature,  bald-headed, 
bow-legged,  stout,  close-browed,  with  a  slightly 
prominent  nose,  and  full  of  grace."  A  pagan 
satirist  also  speaks  of  him  as  "  bald  in  front, 
with  a  slightly  prominent  nose." 

Paulus,  Sergius.— -The  deputy  (R.V.  pro- 
consul) of  Cyprus  when  Paul  visited  the  island 
(Acts  13.7).  He  is  described  as  "  a  prudent  man," 
willing  to  hear  the  apostolic  message,  though 
Elymas  sought  to  turn  him  "  away  from  the 
faith  "  (Acts  13.8).  The  punishment  inflicted  on 
Elymas  appears  to  have  had  much  to  do  with 
the  conversion  of  the  deputy  (Acts  13.12). 

Pavement.— The  "pavement"  mentioned  in 
John  (19.13)  denoted  a  flagged  or  paved  space 
in  Pilate's  palace  on  which  the  tribunal  was 
sometimes  set  up.  [GABBATHA.]  In  the  O.T. 
the  word  used  has  sometimes  the  sense  of 


PAVILION] 


372 


[PELICAN 


building  up  or  putting  together,  in  the  manner 
of  mosaic  (Esth.  1.6). 

Pavilion. — The  word  rendered  "  pavilions  " 
(A.V.  rnarg.  "tents";  R.V.  marg.  "huts") 
is  more  often  translated  "  booth  "  (Gen.  33.17, 
etc.).  Darkness  is  made  the  "  pavilion "  of 
God  (Ps.  18.11,  R.V.).  Another  word  is  trans- 
lated "pavilion "  in  Jer.  43.10,  where  the  reference 
may  be  to  the  glittering  hangings  of  a  canopy. 

Peace-offering,  or  Thank-offering  (which  see). 
— This  offering  consisted  of  the  presentation  of 
a  bullock,  a  sheep,  or  a  goat.  It  was  brought  by 
the  offerer,  with  laying  on  of  hands,  and  was 
slain  by  him  on  the  south  side  of  the  altar.  The 
blood  was  sprinkled  round  the  altar ;  the  fat 
was  burnt.  The  "  heaved  "  breast  and  "  waved  " 
shoulder  belonged  to  the  priest,  and  the  rest 
of  the  animal  was  used  as  a  sacrificial  feast 
(1  Cor.  10.18).  It  was  a  freewill  offering, 
sometimes  offered  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow  (Num. 
6.14-17).  Jehovah  was  regarded  as  present  at 
the  offering,  and  the  offerer  as  in  communion 
with  Hun.  The  peace -offering  succeeded  the 
sin  and  burnt  offerings,  thus  following  up  the 
work  of  atonement  with  a  solemn  thanksgiving 
(Ex.  20.24,  etc.).  [ALTAR,  SACRIFICE.] 

Peacock. — Named  amongst  the  rarities 
brought  to  Solomon  by  the  "  navy  of  Tarshish" 
(1  K.  10.22;  2  Ch.  9.21).  In  Job  39.13  the 
rendering  "  ostrich  "  is  to  be  preferred. 

Pearl.— Mentioned  only  once  in  O.T.  (Job 
28.18) ;  more  frequently  in  N.T.  Esteemed  in 
the  East  above  other  jewels,  the  pearl  was  pro- 
cured chiefly  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  was  well 
known  to  the  Hebrews.  The  shell  of  the  pearl- 
oyster  was  extensively  used  in  ornamentation, 
al  it  is  to-day  (Matt.  7.6, 13.45,  46 ;  Rev.  21.21). 

Peda'hel.— God  hath  redeemed :  a  son  of 
Ammihud  and  a  chief  of  Naphtali.  He  was 
chosen  to  assist  in  the  division  of  the  land 
(Num.  34. 28). 

Pedah'zur. — The  Rock  (God)  hath  redeemed: 
the  father  of  Gamaliel,  who  was  chosen  to 
number  the  people.  He  was  the  chief  of  the 
tribe  of  Manasseh  (Num.  1.10,  2.20,  7.54,59, 
10.23). 

Peda'iah. — Jehovah  hath  redeemed:  1.  Mater- 
nal grandfather  of  King  Jehoiakim  (2  K.  23.36). 

2.  The   father  of   Zerubbabel  (1  Ch.  3.18,19). 

3.  Father    of     a    Manassite    captain    in    the 
time   of   David  (1  Ch.  27.20).     4.  (Neh.  3.25). 
5.  (Neh.  8.4).     6.  (Neh.  11.7).     7.  (Neh.  13.13). 

Pedigree. — Only  found  in  Num.  1.18. 
[GENEALOGY,  GENERATION.] 

Peep. — Imitative  of  the  cry  of  a  young  bird, 
like  cheep  (Isai.  8.19,  10.14). 

PeTcah.— (?)  Open-eyed,  watchful:  the  son  of 
Remaliah,  an  officer  of  the  royal  forces  who 
murdered  Pekahiah,  king  of  Israel,  and  seized 
the  throne,  736  B.C.  He  was  a  man  of  energy 
and  resource,  and  endeavoured  to  restore  the 
fortunes  of  his  country,  which  had  been  much 
weakened  by  the  heavy  tribute  demanded  by 
the  Assyrian  monarchs  (2  K.  15.20),  and  by 
internal  strife.  He  conspired  with  King  Rezin 
cf  Damascus  (2  K.  15.37)  with  the  object  of 


plundering  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  This  he 
afterwards  accomplished  in  part  (2  Ch.  28.6), 
with  terrible  slaughter,  but  was  driven  back 
through  the  help  of  the  king  of  Assyria  (2  A'. 
16.7-9). 

The  results  of  this  war  were  remarkable. 
It  occasioned  the  great  prophecies  of  Isaiah 
(chapters  7  to  9) ;  Elath,  the  only  Jewish  port 
on  the  Red  Sea,  was  taken ;  and  in  the  end 
Pekah  lost  half  of  his  kingdom  to  Tiglath- 
pileser,  the  king  of  Assyria,  who  had  been 
called  to  the  aid  of  Judah  (2  A'.  15.29 ;  1  Ch. 
5. 20).  Pekah,  who  came  to  the  throne  by 
violence,  was  himself  murdered  by  Hoshea,  the 
son  of  Elah,  who  seized  the  throne  (2  K.  15.30). 

Pekahi'ah. — Jehovah  hath  opened  the  eyes 
(mind) :  the  son  of  Menahem  and  seventeenth 
king  of  Israel.  He  was  slain  by  Pekah,  one  of 
his  captains,  in  the  second  year  of  his  reign. 
Pekah,  with  fifty  companions,  Gileadites,  forced 
his  way  into  the  royal  palace,  slew  Pekahiah, 
Argob,  and  Arieh,  and  seized  the  throne.  Like 
his  predecessors,  Pekahiah  was  an  idolater 
(2  K.  15.22-26).  [PEKAH.] 

PeTsod. — (?)  Visitation,  punishment :  a  tribe  in 
south-east  Babylonia  (Jer.  50.21 ;  Ezek.  23.23). 

Pela'iah. — (?)  Jehovah  is  wonderful:  1.  Son  of 
Elioenai,  one  of  the  last  of  the  royal  house  of 
Judah  (1  Ch.  3.24).  2.  A  priest  or  Levite 
(Neh.  8.7, 10.10). 

Pelali'ah. — Jehovah  hath  judged :  the  son  of 
Amzi  (Neh.  11.12). 

Pelati'ah.  —  Jehovah  hath  delivered :  1. 
grandson  of  Zerubbabel  (1  Ch.  3.21).  2.  One 
of  the  band  of  500  Simeonites  who  smote  the 
Amalekites  at  Mount  Seir  (1  Ch.  4.42).  3.  The 
name  of  a  family  sealing  the  Covenant  (Neh. 
10.22).  4.  The  son  of  Benaiah ;  one  of  those 
against  whom  Ezekiel  was  told  to  prophesy. 
He  died  in  consequence  (Ezek.  11.1-13). 

Pe'leg. — Channel  or  division  :  the  son  of  Eber 
and  brother  of  Joktan  (Gen.  10.25,  11.16-19  ; 
1  Ch.  1.19) ;  so  named  because  in  his  time  his 
family  was  divided,  one  branch  migrating  into 
Southern  Arabia,  the  other  remaining  in  Meso- 
potamia. 

Pe'let. — Escape  :  1.  A  descendant  of  Caleb 
(1  Ch.  2.47).  2.  The  son  of  Azmaveth,  a 
Benjamite,  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Ch. 
12.3). 

Pe'leth.— 1.  A  Reubenite  and  father  of  On 
(Num.  16.1).  We  should  perhaps  read  Pallu 
(Gen.  46.9).  2.  Of  Judah  (1  Ch.  2.33). 

Peleth'ites.— A  special  corps  of  David's  army, 
who  were  more  particularly  employed  as  mes- 
sengers and  executioners  to  carry  out  the 
personal  commands  of  the  king  (2  Sam.  8.18), 
and  hence  formed  part  of  his  bodyguard  (1  A'. 
1.38,  44).  [CHERETHITE.] 

Pelican. — One  of  the  unclean  birds  (Lev. 
11.18 ;  Deut.  14.17) ;  belonging  to  the  order 
Steganopodes.  The  ordinary  white  pelican  is 
the  most  common  in  Syria,  though  the  Dalma- 
tian pelican  is  also  found  there. 

The  expression  in  Ps.  102.6,  "  pelican  of  the 
wilderness,"  has  been  cavilled  at,  as  the  pelican 


PELONITE] 


373 


[PENTATEUCH,  THE 


is  a  sea  bird.  But  it  is  the  custom  of  this  bird 
to  resort  to  its  fishing-ground  very  early  in  the 
morning,  returning  regularly  to  its  favourite 
sandbank  or  inland  marsh  before  noon,  to  digest 
its  bagful  of  fish  and  to  feed  its  young,  re- 
peating the  operation  in  the  evening.  The 
appearance  of  the  bird  when  digesting  its  food, 
with  its  head  sunk  on  its  shoulders,  and  its 
bill  resting  on  its  breast,  is  full  of  dejection. 
The  wings  of  the  pelican  are  of  great  power, 
"  the  spread  of  the  wings  reaching  over  twelve 
feet"  (Tristram).  The  Hebrew  name  of  the 
pelican  signifies  "  to  vomit,"  and  refers  to  the 
creature's  habit  of  storing  food  in  the  large 
pouch  attached  to  its  lower  mandible,  for  the 
purpose  of  feeding  its  young.  This  it  emits  by 
pressing  its  beak  against  its  breast  (Lev.  11.18 ; 
Deut.  14.17). 

Pelon'ite. — 1.  Helez,  an  Ephraimite,  one  of 
David's  mighty  men,  was  called  a  Pelonite 
(1  Ch.  11.27,  27.10).  In  2  Sam.  23.26  he  is 
called  "  the  Pallite,"  as  one  corning  from  Beth- 
palet  in  the  south  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.27).  2. 
1  Ch.  11.36  names  "  Ahijah  the  Pelonite  "  as 
among  David's  valiant  men.  Probably  "  the 
Gilonite  "  should  be  read.  [GiLOH.] 

Pen. — For  writing  with  ink  on  papyrus  or 
parchment  the  Hebrews  made  use  of  a  reed 
pen.  The  point  of  this  was  sharpened  by  means 
of  a  special  "  secretary's  knife,"  also  used  for 
cutting  paper  (Jer.  36.23).  It  was  almost 
exactly  the  same  in  form  as  the  reed  pen  used 
by  the  ancient  Romans.  Both  paper  and  pens 
were  borrowed  from  Egypt.  The  "  iron  pen  " 
of  Job  (19.24)  was  a  sharp  graver's  tool  (Judg. 
5.14;  Isai.  8.1;  Jer.  8.8).  [WRITING,  PARCH- 
MENT, INK.] 

Peni'el. — The  face  of  God :  the  name  given 
by  Jacob  to  the  place  where  he  had  wrestled 
with  God  (Gen.  32.30);  elsewhere  written 
Penuel,  which  seems  to  have  been  its  original 
name,  "  u "  marking  an  older  grammatical 
form.  Its  position  was  between  the  Jabbok 
and  Succoth ;  the  way  by  which  Gideon  pursued 
the  Midianites  (Judg.  8.8, 9, 17).  It  was  forti- 
fied by  Jeroboam  (1  K.  12.25).  [PENUEL.] 

Penin'nah.— (?)  Coral :  one  of  Elkanah's  two 
wives  (1  Sam.  1.2). 

Penknife.— [PEN.] 

Penny,  Pence. — A  silver  Roman  coin  in 
most  general  use  throughout  the  Empire  in 
N.T.  times.  Its  Latin  name  was  Denarius,  in 
Greek  Denarion.  The  latter  is  rendered 
"penny"  (Matt.  20.2,  22.19;  Mk.  6.37,  12.15; 
Lk.  20.24;  John  6.7,  12.5;  Rev.  6.6).  The 
denarius,  worth  rather  more  than  eightpence, 
continued  to  be  current  throughout  Europe 
long  after  the  dismemberment  of  the  Empire, 
and  was  a  fair  equivalent  for  a  day's  work. 
The  one  circulating  in  the  time  of  Christ  bore 
on  the  obverse  the  head  of  Tiberius,  with  this 
inscription,  "  Tiberius  Ca-sar  Augustus,  son  of 
the  deified  Augustus"  (Ency.  Bib.).  On  the 
reverse  is  the  Empress  Livia,  with  sceptre  and 
flower.  [MOXEY.] 

Pentateuch,  The.— Five  volumes :   all  com- 


plete copies  of  Holy  Scripture  begin  with  the 
Pentateuch.  It  was  called  by  the  Jews  "the 
Law"  (Torah),  or,  more  fully,  "the  five-fifths 
of  the  Law,"  or  simply  "  the  fifths  "  ;  a  single 
book  being  called  "  a  fifth."  Whether  it  was 
originally  one  is  uncertain.  If  so,  the  division 
may,  or  may  not,  be  due  to  the  Alexandrian 
translators,  but  such  facts  as  the  Jewish 
arrangement  of  the  Psalter  in  five  books,  and 
the  collection  of  the  five  "  Megilloth,"  or  rolls, 
seem  to  indicate  an  early  tradition  in  regard 
to  this  special  number.  Many  modern  critics 
have  proposed  to  amend  this  arrangement  by 
including  the  Book  of  Joshua,  which  has  several 
points  in  common  with  the  Five.  Hence 
the  Hexateuch,  "  the  Six  Volumes."  The  Five 
Books,  moreover,  stand  apart  from  the  rest, 
as  pre-eminently  the  basis  of  the  Hebrew 
Theocracy. 

In  considering  the  Mosaic  origvn  of  these 
books  certain  preliminary  questions  have  to 
be  met. 

1.  It  has  been  said  that  the  arts  of  writing 
and  of  literary  composition  were  not  in   the 
time    of    Moses    equal    to    such    productions. 
Against    this  we    have  the    testimony  of    the 
monuments.    The  Tel  el-Amarna  tablets,  dis- 
covered in  1887  on  the  site  of  an  ancient  royal 
city  in  Middle  Egypt,  have  yielded  to  explorers 
a  long  series  of  inscriptions  belonging  to  about 
the    fifteenth    century  B.C.      Such    testimony 
accumulates.    Still  earlier  are  the   Babylonian 
tablets    of    the    reign    of    Khammurabi    (now 
identified  with  Amraphel,  king  of  Shinar,  Gen. 
14.1),    showing    that    writing    and    literature 
existed  in  the  days  of  Abraham.    This  objec- 
tion is  now  generally  given  up. 

2.  It  has  been  alleged  that  the  books  imply 
a  state  of  religious  culture  inconsistent  with 
the  date  claimed  for  them.     But  this  is  a  mere 
assumption ;  arbitrarily  setting  aside  not  only 
the  internal  marks  of   authenticity  which  the 
history  contains,  but  its  confirmation  from  the 
Israelite    religion    in    subsequent    ages.     That 
religion  has  its  manifest  basis  in  an  early  mono- 
theism, such  as  the  patriarchal  annals  portray. 
The  Pentateuch  accounts  for  the  fabric  of  the 
Jewish    faith ;    without  it    the    whole  system 
becomes  confused  and  unintelligible. 

Coming,  then,  to  the  positive  evidence  for  the 
genuineness  of  the  Five  Books ;  their  Mosaic 
origin  is  attested  by  considerations  such  as  the 
following  : — 

1.  Universal  ancient  tradition,  both  Jewish 
and  heathen,  assigns  the  work  to  Moses.  The 
conviction  of  the  Jewish  people  was  uniform 
and  unquestioning  from  the  first.  Throughout 
the  O.T.,  the  fact  is  taken  for  granted  as  in- 
disputable. See  Josh.  1.7,8,  8.31,34,  23.6; 

1  K.  2.3 ;  2  K.  11.12  ("  the  Testimony  "  :  see 
reff.    R.V.),    14.6,    23.25;    1    Ch.    22.12,13; 

2  Ch.  25.4,  33.8 ;  Ezra  3.2-6,  6.18 ;  Neh.  1.7,  8, 
and    8.     Heathen  testimonies  naturally  follow 
the  Jewish,  which  are  accepted  without  question 
by    Tacitus,    Juvenal,    and    Strabo ;     also   by 
Longinus,  Porphyry,    and  the  Emperor  Julian. 


PENTATEUCH,  THE] 


374 


[PENTATEUCH,  TH£ 


Mohammed  explicitly  recognises  the  inspira- 
tion of  Moses  and  the  Divine  origin  of  the 
Jewish  Law. 

2.  This  testimony  is  sustained  by  the  record 
itself.     The    references    in  the   Pentateuch  to 
"  a  book,"  or  to    "  the  book "  which  was  in 
course   of    preparation,    are   repeated   and   ex- 
plicit.   See    Ex.    17.14,   24.3-7;    Num.    33.2; 
Deut.  28.58,  61,  31.9-12,  24.    It  is  noteworthy, 
however,   that   none   of    the  books,   excepting 
Deuteronomy,  directly  claims  Mosaic  authorship. 

3.  The   remaining  O.T.  books,  especially  the 
Prophets,  abound  in  references,  more  or  less 
explicit,  to  these  Five  Books.     The  laws,  the 
histories,  the  very  phraseology  of  the  Penta- 
teuch,   were   evidently   in    the    minds   of    the 
sacred  writers,  as  familiar   and   authoritative. 
The  evidence  is  cumulative.     A  few  coincidences 
might  conceivably  be  accidental ;   many,  taken 
separately,  would  be  of  little  force  ;  but,  com- 
bined,  they  are   irresistible.     From    Prophets 
of  the  Northern  Kingdom,  the  following  refer- 
ences may  be  given :  HOSEA  1.10  (Gen.  22.17), 
4.10  (Lev.  26.26),  4.13  (Deut.  12.2),  5.6  (Ex.  10.9), 
8.12,    a   remarkable    passage,    which   may   be 
rendered  (as   R.V.  marg.),  "  I  wrote  for  him 
the  ten  thousand  things  of  My  law,  but,"  etc., 
11.1  (Ex.  4.22),  11.3  (Deut.  1.31),  11.8  (Deut. 
29.22,  23),   12.3   (Gen.    25.26,   32.24-28),   12.5 
(Ex.   3.15),    13.6   (Deut.    8.11-14).     AMOS   2.2 
(Num.  21.28),  2.7  (Ex.  23.6,  etc.),  4.4  (Num. 
28.3)  9.13  (Lev.  26.5).    From  Prophets  of  the 
Southern  Kingdom :  JOEL  2.2  (Ex.  10.14),  2.23, 
26, 27    (Lev.     26.4,  5,  11-13).      ISAIAH     11.9 
(Num.  14.21),  12.2   (Ex.  15.2),  and  JEREMIAH 
4.23  (Gen.  1.2),  41.10  (Deut.  31.6-8),  44.2  (Deut. 
32.15,  33.5,26),  52.12  (Ex.   12.33,39,   14.19), 
58.14  (Deut.  32.13). 

See  also  MICAH  5.7  and  HABAKKUK  3.19 
(Deut.  32.8,13);  MICAH  6.5  (Num.  22.5); 
ZEPHANIAH  3.13  (Lev.  26.5,  6).  That  JEREMIAH 
also  abounds  in  references  to  Deuteronomy  is 
admitted  by  alL 

Our  Lord  and  his  apostles  consistently  assume 
and  refer  to  the  Mosaic  origin  of  the  Pentateuch. 
It  is  impossible  to  read  such  passages  as  John 
1.17,  5.45-47,  7.19-23  without  feeling  that  the 
whole  weight  of  N.T.  authority  is  on  the 
"  traditional "  side.  We  cannot  here  discuss 
the  arguments  against  the  force  of  our  Lord's 
testimony. 

5.  The  contents  as  a  whole  are  consistent  with 
Mosaic  authorship.  (1)  The  books  were  written 
by  a  Hebrew  speaking  the  language  and  cherish- 
ing the  sentiments  of  his  nation.  (2)  They 
were  written  by  a  Hebrew  acquainted  with 
Egypt  and  Arabia,  their  customs  and  learning. 
But  Egyptian  learning  was  carefully  concealed 
from  foreigners.  The  priests  alone,  and  the 
royal  family,  who  were  reckoned  as  priests, 
had  access  to  it  (see  Herodotus,  ii.  3, 164, 168, 
etc.).  To  this  class,  therefore,  the  writer  must 
have  belonged.  (3)  There  is,  moreover,  an 
exact  correspondence  between  the  narrative 
and  the  institutions,  showing  that  both  had 
one  author.  The  laws  are  not  given  in  the 


form  of  statutes,  but  are  mixed  with  narrative, 
and  are  inserted  as  the  exigencies  requiring 
them  arose.  They  are  often  briefly  sketched, 
and  afterwards  repeated  at  greater  length,  with 
such  modifications  as  were  demanded  by  altered 
circumstances.  Compare  Ex.  21.27  and  Deut. 
15.12-17  ;  Num.  4.24-33  and  7.1-9  ;  Lev.  17.3,  4, 
and  Deut.  12.5,  6,  21 ;  Ex.  22.26  and  Deut.  24.6, 
10-15. 

6.  The  case  of  Deuteronomy  is  special.    It  is 
probable  that  it  was  "  the  book  "  that  Hilkiah 
the  high-priest  discovered  in  the  Temple  during 
the  repairs  under  King  Josiah  (2  K.  22.10 ;  2  Ch. 
34.14).    Hence  it  has  been  concluded  by  some 
critics  that  Hilkiah  himself  prepared  the  book ; 
while  others,  shrinking  from   this  imputation 
of   literary  forgery,  have   on  various  grounds 
referred  the  book  to  the  time  of  Manasseh,  or 
the  early  days  of  Isaiah.     This  view  has  been 
supported  by  the  alleged  differences  in  some 
important  respects  between  the  Deuteronomic 
and  the  Levitical  legislation;  but  these  might 
naturally  arise  from  the  circumstances  in  which 
the  great  Lawgiver  uttered  his  final  charge  to 
Israel.    The  desert- wandering  was  over,  and  the 
instructions  now  given  were   adapted   to   the 
new  life  on  which   the  people  were  entering. 
The  following  facts  are  of  use  in  determining 
the  question : — 

(1)  The  references  to  Egypt  in  Deuteronomy 
are  such  as  would  be  made  by  one  conversant 
with  the  life  of  that  country,  and  newly  escaped 
from  its  bondage. 

(2)  The  language   of   the   book   corresponds 
with  that  of  the  rest  of  the  Pentateuch,  rather 
than  with  that  of  other  O.T.  books. 

(3)  The  references  already  given  prove  that 
Deuteronomy  was  known  to  the  Prophets  of 
the  Northern  and  the  Southern  Kingdoms. 

(4)  The  whole  tone  of  the  book  is  inconsistent 
with  the  later  date  assigned  to  it.    Had  its 
object  been  to  bring  down  the  provisions  of 
the  Law  to  the  later  times  of  the  monarchy, 
there   are   omissions   and   insertions   alike   in- 
conceivable.    Among  the    omissions    may     be 
mentioned  that  of  the  Service  of  Song  in  the 
House  of  Jehovah ;  among  the  insertions,  the 
decree    for    the    utter    extermination    of    the 
Canaanites.      Had     the     book     been     written 
several    generations    after    the    disappearance 
of  these  tribes,  such  injunctions  would    have 
been,  says  Professor  Green  of  Princeton,  "  as 
utterly  out  of  date  as  a  law  in  New  Jersey  at 
the  present  time  offering  a  bounty  for  killing 
wolves,  or  a  royal  proclamation  in  Great  Britain 
ordering  the  expulsion  of  the  Danes." 

(5)  There  is,  at  the  same  time,  nothing  in  the 
Mosaic  origin  of  the  books  inconsistent  with 
the  view  that  they  were  reduced  to  writing  in 
Canaan,  after  the  conquest. 

The  Mosaic  origin  of  the  Five  Books  implies 
their  essential  unity.  Whatever  the  remoter  or 
later  sources  of  this  or  that  part  of  the  annals, 
the  divinely  inspired  historian  and  lawgiver  of 
the  Hebrew  people  fused  them  into  one. 

7.  But  (1)  the  unity  asserted  does  not  in  any 


PENTATEUCH,  THE] 


375 


[PENTECOST 


way  exclude  the  employment  of  pre-existing 
documents.  Inspiration  does  not  supersede  the 
ordinary  methods  of  the  historian  ;  and  every 
historian  has  recourse  to  his  authorities.  Vitringa 
long  ago  (1707)  remarked  that  Moses  may  have 
had  before  him  "  documents  of  various  kinds, 
coming  down  from  the  times  of  the  Patriarchs, 
and  preserved  among  the  Israelites,  which  he 
collected,  digested,  and  amplified  where 
deficient."  Such  records,  albeit  in  strange 
and  varied  forms,  are  now  known  to  have  been 
preserved  by  different  nations  —  Egyptian, 
Assyrian,  Babylonian;  and  Moses  could  not 
have  been  ignorant  of  them. 

Again  (2)  the  Mosaic  authorship  does  not 
preclude  the  notion  of  editorial  care  in  succeeding 
ages.  We  are  not  to  suppose  that  we  have  in 
our  hands  the  Five  Books,  without  alteration  or 
addition,  as  they  were  written  in  the  wilderness. 
Changes  are  not  indeed  to  be  arbitrarily  assumed ; 
but  the  work  of  later  hands  appears  upon  the 
very  surface.  Thus,  where  we  are  told  (Gen. 
13.7)  "the  Canaanite  was  then  in  the  land," 
we  infer  that  when  that  sentence  was  written 
the  Canaanites  had  been  dispossessed.  In  Gen. 
36.31,  "  These  are  the  kings  that  reigned,  .  .  . 
before  there  reigned  any  king  over  the  children 
of  Israel,"  is  plainly  a  later  addition  to  the 
early  text.  This  is  found  again  in  1  Ch.  1.43,  44. 
In  Ex.  16.35  that  "  the  children  of  Israel  did 
eat  manna  forty  years,  until  they  came  unto 
the  borders  of  the  land  of  Canaan,"  is  a  remark 
most  probably  added  after  their  entrance  into 
Palestine.  See  also  Lev.  18.28.  In  like  manner, 
modern  names  of  places  are  found  in  the  text : 
Dan,  Gen.  14.14;  Deut.  34.1  (see  Josh.  19.47; 
Judg.  18.27, 29) ;  Hebron,  Gen.  13.18,  23.2 
(see  Josh.  14.15 ;  Judg.  1.10) ;  and  perhaps 
Herman,  Num.  14.45  (see  21.1-3 ;  Judg.  1.17). 
Editorial  parentheses  may  also  have  been 
introduced  into  Gen.  13.3,  14.2,  8 ;  Deut.  3.9, 
4.48.  It  is  quite  possible  that  such  alterations, 
with  others,  were  made  by  Ezra  when  he 
issued  "the  Book  of  the  Law"  after  the 
Captivity ;  but  however  this  may  have  been, 
the  isolated  phrases  cannot  be  suffered  to 
weigh  against  the  abundant  evidence  for  the 
earlier  origin  of  the  book  that  contains  them. 
That  the  last  chapter  of  Deuteronomy  was 
added  after  the  death  of  Moses  is,  of  course, 
unquestionable.  On  the  whole,  we  may  safely 
recognise  in  the  Pentateuch  a  pre-Mosaic,  a 
Mosaic,  and  a  post-Mosaic  element,  the  second 
of  these  being  supreme. 

8.  It  is  necessary  to  state  briefly  the  modern 
critical  hypothesis.  About  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  Jean  Astruc,  Professor  of 
Medicine  at  Paris,  and  Court  Physician  to 
Louis  xiv.,  made  the  various  use  of  the  Divine 
names  in  Genesis  and  the  first  six  chapters 
in  Exodus  the  ground  of  "  conjectures  "  as  to 
the  "  original  documents  of  which  Moses  appar- 
ently availed  himself."  Thus  in  Gen.  1.1-2.3 
the  name  Elohim,  "  God,"  is  uniformly  em- 
ployed ;  in  2.4-3  it  is  Jehovah  Elohim  (a  double 
appellation,  it  may  be  remarked,  nowhere  else 


occurring  in  the  Pentateuch,  excepting  Ex.  9.30). 
In  chap.  5  it  is  Elohim  only,  excepting  in  ver.  29, 
where  a  quotation  is  made.  In  chaps.  6-9 
Elohim  and  Jehovah  are  used  indiscriminately 
everywhere,  and  in  11.1-9,  12,  13,  Jehovah 
only.  In  chap.  14  a  new  name  is  introduced, 
El-Elyon  (God  Most  High),  and  is  used  through- 
out the  chapter.  Such  variations  furnished  a 
hint  for  distinguishing  the  documents  employed. 
In  the  view  of  Astruc,  these  were  mainly  two 
— "  Elohist "  and  "  Jehovist,"  with  a  few  un- 
classed  and  subordinate  sections.  The  clue  was 
followed  up  by  others,  and  a  vast  literature  has 
grown  up  around  the  subject.  The  Mosaic 
authorship,  which  Astruc,  Eichhorn,  and 
their  immediate  followers  regarded  as  un- 
questionable, is  now  denied  by  the  critics, 
while  the  hypothesis  of  various  documents  has 
been  extended  from  Genesis  and  Exodus  to  the 
other  books  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  latterly  to 
Joshua. 

It  may  be  convenient  here  to  give  the  latest 
proposed  arrangement  of  the  legislation.  It  can 
hardly  be  regarded,  even  by  its  supporters,  as 
final,  in  view  of  the  many  preceding  schemes 
which  have  had  their  day  and  ceased  to  be. 
The  scheme  is  as  follows : — 

1.  The  two  so-called  Books  of  the  Covenant 
(Ex.  20-23  and  34.10, 14-26),  wrought  together 
from  the  original  sources,  J  E  (Jehovist  and 
Elohist),   which  existed   before   the  prophetic 
writings. 

2.  Deuteronomy  (D). 

3.  The  Priestly  Code  (P  or  P  C),  which,  besides 
a  brief  prefatory  history,  contains  the  injunc- 
tions (Ex.  25-31.17,35-40;  Lev.  1-27;  Num. 
1-10.28,  15,  18,  19,  25.6-31,  33-36)  (only  the 
longer  sections   are   enumerated:    Mb'ller).    R 
stands  for  editor  (redactor)  of  the  whole. 

The  first  of  these  "  is  a  brief  code  dating  from 
an  early  period,  and  designed  to  regulate  the 
life  of  a  community  living  under  simple  con- 
ditions and  devoting  itself  chiefly  to  agriculture." 

The  second  "is  without  doubt  the  Book  of 
th.e  Law,  which  was  found  in  the  Temple  in  the 
eighteenth  year  of  King  Josiah  (621  B.C.),  and 
which  formed  the  prime  factor  in  his  great  re- 
formation" (2  K.  22.8-23.25). 

"  The  last  appears  to  have  grown  up  during 
the  Exile,  and  to  have  attained  its  present  form 
probably  in  the  days  of  Ezra,  about  the  middle 
of  the  fifth  century  B.C."  (Contentio  Veritatis, 
essay  by  C.  F.  Burney,  M.A.,  1902). 

Pentecost.— The  fiftieth  day  from  the  second 
day  of  the  Passover  (16th  Nisan).  The  Hebrews 
call  this  solemn  festival  the  Feast  of  Weeks, 
because  it  was  kept  seven  weeks  after  the 
Passover.  The  offerings  consisted  of  the  first- 
fruits  of  the  wheat-harvest,  which  was  then 
completed  ;  seven  lambs  of  that  year,  one  calf, 
and  two  rams  for  a  burnt-offering ;  two  lambs 
for  a  peace-offering ;  and  a  goat  for  a  sin- 
offering  (Ex.  34.22;  Lev.  23.15,16;  Num. 
28.26  ff. ;  Deut.  16.9,10).  The  feast  was  in- 
stituted to  oblige  the  Israelites  to  repair  to  the 
Tabernacle  or  Temple  (Ex.  34.22) ;  to  acknow- 


PENUEL] 


376 


[PERFECT,  PERFECTION 


ledge  the  absolute  dominion  of  the  Lord  by 
the  freewill  offering  of  first-fruits  (Ex.  23.16) ; 
and  to  commemorate  and  give  thanks  to  God 
for  the  Law  given  upon  Sinai  on  the  fiftieth 
day  after  their  coming  out  of  Egypt.  At  first 
the  freewill  nature  of  the  offering  was  observed ; 
but  gradually  as  the  Law  hardened  it  became 
imperative,  and  the  amount  and  nature  of  the 
offerings  a  fixed  quantity  (Lev.  23.15,  21),  de- 
termined only  by  the  wealth  of  the  individual. 
It  became,  indeed,  a  species  of  taxation. 

It  was  on  the  Feast  of  Pentecost  that  the 
Holy  Ghost  descended  in  the  miraculous  manner 
related  in  Acts  2.1-4.  [FEAST  OF  TABERNACLES, 
HARVEST.] 

Modern  Jews  celebrate  the  Pentecost  for  two 
days.  They  deck  the  synagogues  and  their  own 
houses  with  flowers  ;  they  listen  to  an  oration 
in  praise  of  the  law,  and  read  appointed  lessons 
from  the  Pentateuch. 

Penu'el.— Face  of  God:  1.  The  same  as 
Peniel  (Gen.  32.31 ;  Judy.  8.8-17).  2.  Father  of 
Gedor  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  4.4).  3.  A  Benjamite 
(1  Ch.  8.25). 

Peor. — Opening  :  I.  One  of  a  group  of  moun- 
tains which  includes  Ncbo  and  Pisgah.  Peor  is 
in  Moab,  and  is  the  place  to  which  Balak  con- 
ducted Balaam,  to  curse  the  Israelites  (Num. 
23.28).  Its  exact  position  is  unknown.  2.  The 
Moabite  god  (Num.  25.18,  31.16;  Josh.  22.17). 
In  these  passages  the  word  is  a  contraction 
of  Baal-Peor. 

Ferazim. — [BAAL-PERAZIM.] 

Perdition. — A  term  signifying  the  utter  loss 
of  future  happiness,  and  applied  by  our  Lord 
to  Judas  (John  17.12).  The  same  meaning 
applies  to  the  "  son  of  perdition  "  in  2  Thess.  2.3. 
[MAN  OP  SIN.] 

Pe'res. — From  a  root  meaning  "  break  in 
two."  The  plural  is  found  in  Dan.  5.25,  U 
(and)  pharsin  'pharsin  half-minahs  or  divisions. 
The  singular  comes  in  5.28,  to  suggest  the  name 
of  the  Persians,  whose  empire  was  to  supersede 
that  of  Babylon.  [MENE.] 

Pe'resh. — The  son  of  Machir  of  Manasseh 
(1  Ch.  7.16). 

Pe'rez. — Breaking  through  :  a  family  of  im- 
portance in  Judah,  members  of  which  took 
leading  parts  in  the  national  life  of  the  Jews 
(1  Ch.  27.3  ;  Neh.  11.4-6).  The  same  as  Pharez, 
which  see. 

Pe'rez-uz'za,  Pe'rez-uz'zah.  —  Breach  upon 
Uzzah :  the  name  given  by  David  to  the 
threshing-floor  where  Uzzah  was  slain  (2  Sam. 
6.8;  1  Ch.  13.11).  [UZZAH.] 

Perfect,  Perfection.— The  words,  especially 
the  former,  occur  many  times  in  both 
the  O.T.  and  N.T.  They  are  applied 
sometimes  to  things,  e.g.  the  law  of  the  Lord, 
occasionally  to  God  (Matt.  5.48),  but  most 
often  to  man.  In  the  O.T.  the  attribute  is 
ascribed  to  particular  men  or  denied  to  others  ; 
in  the  N.T.  to  be  perfect  is  generally  a  matter 
of  aim  and  exhortation.  What  is  exactly  meant 
by  perfection  ? 

1.  Present  Meaning. — The  Century  Dictionary 


defines  perfection  as  "  absolute  freedom  from 
defect,  blemish,  weakness,  or  liability  to  err 
or  fail,"  a  definition  which  implies  absolute 
perfection.  Latham's  Johnson  defines  some- 
what differently,  "complete,  finished,  neither 
defective  nor  redundant."  The  latter  is  prob- 
ably the  better  definition,  having  regard  to 
the  derivation  of  the  word,  which  comes  from 
the  Latin,  and  means  "  thoroughly  done," 
"  completed."  At  any  rate,  it  helps  us  to  see 
what  the  word  implies  when  it  is  accurately 
used.  It  implies  that  the  thing  to  which  it 
is  applied  is  of  its  kind  and  according  to  its 
character  complete ;  it  possesses  the  qualities 
that  it  ought  to  possess,  it  has  none  of  the 
defects  which  it  ought  not  to  have.  The 
moss  rose-bud  is  perfect  of  its  kind,  i.e.  as 
a  bud  ;  the  application  of  the  word  to  it  does 
not  deny  that  presently  it  may  reach  a  more 
perfect  development  in  the  flower.  Perfection 
is  always  relative  to  the  nature  and  character 
of  that  to  which  it  is  applied.  Only  as  applied 
to  God  is  it  absolute,  because  God  alone  is 
absolute. 

2.  Bible     Usage.  — The     O.T.     word     for 
perfect  is  tdmim.     It  seems  to  have  originally 
meant  that  which  is  closed  or  finished  off,  and 
thus  to  come  very  near  to  the  English  word.     It 
is  applied  to  the  victim  of  sacrifice,  and  then 
means  without  blemish  (Ex.  12.5) ;  it  is  applied 
to  man,  and  then  means  upright,  men  of  integrity 
(Gen.  6.9,  17.1  ;  Ps.  119.1).     It  is  applied  to 
the  way,  the  word,  the  law  of  God  in  its  largest 
and      fullest     sense.       The      N.T.     word     is 
teleios,  the  root  idea  of  which  is,  "  tdos,"  the 
end.     That  which  is  perfect  is  that  which  reaches 
the  end  for  which  it  was  intended,  that  fulfils 
its  destiny.     And  so  we  see  the  Bible  use  of 
the  word  is  identical  with  the  accurate  modern 
use.     It  is  relative  ;  it  varies  in  meaning  with 
that  to  which  it  is  applied.     Absolute  perfec- 
tion belongs  to  God  alone,  and  is  demanded  of 
none  of  His  creatures.     But  in   their   limited 
relationship   men    and    things    may   have   the 
word  applied  to  them. 

3.  Perfection  and  the  Christian  Character. — 
There   are   certain   passages    in    the    N.T.   in 
which  the  word  is  applied  to  the  disciple  of 
Christ,  of  which  the  most  notable  is  Matt.  5.48, 
"  Ye    shall     be     perfect     as     your    heavenly 
Father    is     perfect."      The    tense    is    future, 
but    it    is    quite    obvious    our    Lord    means 
it  as  a  command.     The  Christian  is  to  fulfil  his 
duty  as  God  fulfils  His  ;  he  is,  as  man,  to  be  like 
Him  in  conduct,  character,  and  life.     It  is  not 
a  command  that  is  impossible,  "  a  counsel  of 
perfection,"  but  a  practical  aim  and  motive  for 
life.     The    Sermon    on    the    Mount    suggests 
the  method.     Whole-hearted  love  to  God ;  the 
manifestation  of  that  same  love  to  their  fellow- 
men  ;  the  cultivation  in  their  OAVTI  character  of 
the  holiness  for  which  love   is    but  a  shorter 
name ;  these   are   the    things    by   which    man 
becomes   perfect,   fulfils   his    end.     The    verse 
under  discussion  is  a  summary  of  the  teaching 
of  the  whole  sermon.     Indeed,  all  teaching,  all 


PERFUMES] 


377 


[PERSECUTE,  PERSECUTION 


Scripture  is  given  "  that  the  man  of  God  may 
be  complete,  furnished  completely  unto  every 
good  work"  (2  Tim.  3.17,  R.V.).  The  atoning 
work  of  Christ  was  carried  out  to  make  it 
possible  for  man  to  live  the  life  which  leads 
to  perfection.  The  Holy  Spirit  is  man's  ever- 
present  helper  ;  and  one  day,  in  His  day, 
it  shall  be  accomplished,  when  the  Christian 
Church  will  fulfil  its  destiny,  "  till  we  all  come 
unto  the  perfect  man"  (Eph.  4.13). 

"  That  ye  may  stand  perfect  and  complete  " 
(Col  4.12).  It  is  not  so  yet.  Occasionally 
unguarded  language  has  been  used  by  Christian 
teachers,  and  has  led  men  to  claim  this  perfect- 
ness  in  this  life.  It  is  clearly  contrary  tc 
the  teaching  of  the  N.T.  St.  Paul  says 
definitely,  "  Not  that  I  have  already  obtained, 
or  am  already  made  perfect "  (Phil.  3.12, 
R.V.),  and  the  whole  teaching  of  Rom.  7  clearly 
indicates  that  the  battle  with  sin  ends  only 
with  life.  The  goal  is  before  us ;  it  is  a  matter 
of  strenuous  aim  and  urgent  prayer  on  our  side, 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  working  on  the  Divine  side, 
and  at  last  it  will  be  reached.  There  is  no 
place  for  presumption,  and  certainly  none  for 
despair. 

Note  (1 ),  (hat  there  are  some  uses  of  the  word 
in  the  N.T.  which  are  clearly  modified  by  the 
context,  as  is  the  case  in  the  O.T.  The  word 
may  mean  mature,  full  grown,  e.g.  Phil.  3.15, 
and  the  cognate  word  used  of  sin  in  Jas.  1.15, 
"  The  sin,  when  it  is  full  grown,  bringeth  forth 
death,"  where  in  St.  James'  picturesque  phrase 
lust  is  represented  as  the  parent  of  sin,  and 
grown-up  sin  as  the  parent  of  death.  And 
(2),  both  in  the  O.T.  and  N.T.  other  words 
than  those  already  noted  are  translated  by  the 
same  English  equivalent,  but  the  idea  behind 
these  words  is  very  much  the  same  as  that 
behind  the  two  words  most  frequently  used. 

(For  further  study  see  Bishop  Moule's  Thoughts 
on  Christian  Sanctity,  and  W.  S.  Bruce,  The 
Formation  of  Christian  Character.) 

Perfumes.— The  use  of  perfumes  was  common 
among  the  Hebrews  and  other  Orientals  before 
it  was  known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 
Moses  speaks  of  the  art  of  the  perfumer  in 
Egypt,  and  gives  the  composition  of  two  per- 
fumes :  one  to  be  offered  on  the  golden  altar, 
the  other  to  be  used  for  anointing  the  high- 
priest  and  his  sons,  the  tabernacle,  and  the 
sacred  vessels  (Ex.  30.23,  25,  34  ft).  Perfumes 
were  also  used  in  embalming,  being  composed 
of  myrrh,  aloes,  and  other  strong  and  astrin- 
gent drugs,  to  prevent  infection  and  corrup- 
tion. Many  perfumes  also  were  used  on  the 
person  (Esih.  2.12).  The  spouse  in  the  Song 
commends  the  perfume  of  her  lover  (Song 
3.6),  and  is  complimented  in  like  terms.  He 
names  particularly  spikenard,  cinnamon,  myrrh, 
and  aloes.  This  proves  that  both  men  and 
women  used  these  scents,  a  practice  just  as 
common  to-day  in  those  countries,  where  the 
heat  of  the  sun  and  the  absence  of  water 
almost  compel  the  use  of  strong-smelling  and 
deodorising  scents  (Esih.  2.12;  Dan.  10.3). 


Perfumes  were  prepared  in  the  forms  of  liquids, 
pomades,  powders;  also  in  concentrated  form 
for  dilution.  It  should  be  observed  that  among 
Orientals  the  sense  of  smell  is  much  more  keenly 
developed  than  among  Europeans.  It  is  said 
that  Arabs  will  often  pass  apples  round  at  a 
feast,  not  to  be  eaten,  but  for  their  scent  to  be 
enjoyed  by  each  guest. 

Per'ga. — A  city  of  Pamphylia;  the  first 
place  in  Asia  Minor  visited  by  Paul  on  his  first 
missionary  tour  (Acts  13.13);  now  known  as 
Eski-Kalesi.  It  is  of  very  ancient  foundation, 
and  was  celebrated  for  the  worship  of  Artemis 
(Diana),  whose  temple  stood  on  a  hill  outside 
the  town.  It  was  built  near  the  river  Cestius, 
60  miles  from  the  sea.  Paul  preached  at  the 
place  on  his  return  (Acts  14.25).  [PAMPHTLIA.] 

Per'gamos,  Pergamum.— A  city  of  Mysia,  now 
Borgama ;  seat  of  one  of  the  seven  Churches  of 
Asia,  to  whom  the  Apocalyptic  letters  were 
addressed  (Rev.  2.12-17).  Its  position  was  close 
to  the  river  Caicus  (now  Bakyr-tchai),  20  miles 
from  its  mouth.  It  is  celebrated  by  the  fact 
that  parchment  was  first  perfected  here.  It  also 
had  a  library  of  200,000  volumes,  which  after- 
wards were  taken  to  Alexandria.  Legend  gives 
Pergamos  a  sacred  character  as  the  birthplace 
of  Zeus.  Under  the  Attalic  kings  Pergamos 
became  a  city  of  temples,  colleges,  and  royal 
residences,  and  took  rank  as  the  first  city  in 
Asia.  One  of  its  chief  features  was  a  temple 
of  ^Esculapius,  who  was  represented  by  the 
figure  of  a  serpent,  from  the  fact  that  the  medical 
practice  of  the  time  included  charms  and  in- 
cantations among  its  agencies.  "  The  throne 
of  Satan"  was  there  (Rev.  2.13),  probably 
indicating  the  fact  that  Pergamos  was  at  that 
time  the  official  capital  of  the  Province  of 
Asia,  and  the  oldest  and  chief  centre  of  the 
worship  of  Csesar. 

There  were  a  number  of  Jews  in  the  city, 
who  farmed  the  tolls  and  held  land,  and  were 
only  excluded  from  public  office  by  their  un- 
willingness to  take  part  in  heathen  religious 
ceremonial.  The  charge  against  the  Church  at 
Pergamos  (Rev.  2.14)  that  some  of  them  were 
of  the  school  of  Balaam,  shows  that  these  had 
become  connected  in  some  way  with  the  Aphro- 
dite worship,  which  was  a  feature  of  the  town, 
Balaam  having  caused  the  Israelites  to  sin  in 
like  manner. 

Peri'da. — Separation  :  a  member  of  Solomon's 
household  whose  descendants  came  back  with 
Zerubbabel  (Neh.  7.57).  In  Ezra  2.55  the 
name  is  spelled  Peruda. 

Perizzites. — Villagers  :  a  pre-Israelitish  tribe 
in  possession  of  the  hill  country  of  Judaea.  Their 
country  was  occupied  after  Judah  and  Simeon 
had  defeated  them  by  the  Ephraimites  (Gen. 
13.7  ;  Judg.  1.4,  5  ;  Neh.  9.8). 

Persecute,  Persecution.— Literally  and  for- 
mally the  equivalent  of  to  pursue  and  pursuit. 
Thus  in  Neh.  9.11,  the  A.V.  rendering,  "  their 
persecutors,"  becomes  in  the  11. V.  "  their 
pursuers."  Persecution  early  befell  the 
Christian  Church.  Our  Lord  had  foretold  it 


PERSIA,  PERSIAN] 


378 


[PERSIA,  PERSIAN 


in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  (Matt.  5.10-12), 
and  in  His  charge  to  the  Twelve  (Matt.  10.17,  18). 
After  our  Lord's  death  persecution  again  and 
again  attended   the  preaching  of  the  Gospel. 
It  varied  in  form  from  the  acts  of  a  ruler  (as 
Herod),  and  regular  legal  proceedings,  to  out- 
breaks of  mob  violence.     After  Peter's  address 
(Acts  3)  the  priests  and  the  Sadducees  seized 
the   two   apostles.      The   ministry   of  Stephen 
led  to  charges  against  him  (Acts  6.11),  to  his 
own  martyrdom  (Acts  7.58),  and  to  a  "  great 
persecution "    of    the    Church    at    Jerusalem 
(Acts  8.1).     Herod  took  up  the  work  (Acts  12.1), 
and  Jews  vied  with  Gentiles  in  resisting  the 
progress   of    the   infant   Church.     If   Gentiles 
persecuted  at  Philippi  and  Ephesus  (Acts  16 
and  19),  Jews  were  the  agressors  at  Pisidian 
Antioch  (Acts  13),  Iconium  and  Lystra  (Acts 
14),  Thessalonica  (Acts  17),  Corinth  (Acts  18). 
The  charges  against   Paul  led   to  his  appeal 
to  Rome  (Acts  25.11),  where  he  was  executed. 
He  himself  wrote  of   persecution  that  should 
befall  others  as  it  had  befallen  him  (2  Tim. 
3.11, 12).     Peter  comforts  his  readers  in  the 
face  of  "  fiery  trial "  (1  Pet.  4.12-19).     John 
in    the    Revelation    (2.10, 13,  etc.)    speaks    of 
persecution  existing  or  to  come.     The  Emperor 
Nero  set  on  foot  a  great  persecution  in  the 
year   64.     The   tortures   of   the   Christians   at 
last  reached  a  point  which,  according  to  the 
Roman  historian  Tacitus,  won  for  them  sym- 
pathy (Ann.  15.24).     From  this  time,  until  early 
in  the  fourth  century,  one  great  persecution 
succeeded    another.     In    modern    history,    the 
persecution  of  Protestants  by  the  Church  of 
Rome  resulted  in  a  greater  loss  of  life  than 
all    the    persecutions    of    Paganism.    Mission 
Churches  have  also  suffered  the  severest  perse- 
cution,  as   in   the   case   of    the   first   Roman 
Catholic  converts  in  Japan,  and,  in  still  more 
recent  times,  the  persecutions  in  Madagascar, 
Uganda,  and  China.     The  Roman  Church  has 
never  disavowed    its   principle    that   what  it 
deems  heresy  should  be  put  down  by  force. 
It  seeks  to  defend  its  position  by  reference  to 
the  Law  of  Moses  (as  in  Deut.  13).     But  there 
the  punishment  is  for  going  after  "  other  gods  " 
— i.e.  for  idolatry.     The  true  Christian  position 
is  stated  by  Paul  in  2  Cor.  10.4. 

Persia,  Persian. — In  its  widest  extent  the 
empire  of  Persia  extended  from  Thrace  and 
Egypt  on  the  west  to  the  Indus  on  the  east, 
from  the  Black  Sea,  the  Caucasus,  the  Caspian 
Sea,  and  the  Oxus  and  Jaxartes  on  the  north  to 
Arabia,  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  the  Indian  Ocean 
on  the  south.  The  chief  cities  were  Babylon 
(conquered  by  Cyrus  in  539  B.C.),  Susa,  Ecbatana 
in  Media  (2  Ch.  36.20-23  ;  Esth.  1.3, 14, 18, 10.2  ; 
Ezek.  27.10,  38.5  ;  Dan.  8.20,  10.1, 13, 20,  11.2). 
The  original  Persia  was  a  comparatively  small 
tract  of  country  on  the  Persian  Gulf,  still  known 
as  Fars,  or  Farsistan.  It  was  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Media,  on  the  west  by  Elam,  on  the  east 
by  Carmania.  It  was  principally  desert,  subject 
to  stormy  winds,  but  in  the  higher  regions  away 
from  the  coast  contained  some  fertile  valleys. 


Vines,  oranges,  and  lemons  are  produced  abund- 
antly in  this  region,  which  is  famous  for  its 
wines  of  Shiraz.  The  northern  parts  are  again 
arid  stretches  of  desert.  There  are  but  two 
references  to  Persia  proper,  as  contrasted  with 
the  empire,  in  Scripture  (Ezek.  27.10,  38.5),  and 
there  perhaps  Pathros  should  be  read. 

The  Persians  belonged  to  the  Aryan  race, 
and  spoke  an  Aryan  or  Indo-European  language. 
The  physical  type  of  the  countrymen  of  Darius 
and  Xerxes,  like  that  of  their  modern  descend- 
ants, was  Aryan  in  all  its  traits.  Travellers 
still  speak  of  the  fair-complexioned,  blue- 
eyed  populations  met  with  in  the  Persian 
highlands,  though  the  mass  of  the  people 
belong  to  the  "  long-headed "  brunette  type, 
with  black  hair  and  eyes;  even  in  the  same 
family  some  members  may  be  of  the  blonde 
and  others  of  the  brunette  type.  The  Persians 
were  at  the  outset  a  Median  tribe,  who  had 
established  themselves  on  the  shores  of  the 
Persian  Gulf.  They  had  pushed  farther  south 
than  the  rest  of  their  kinsmen,  and  established 
themselves  in  the  rear  of  Elam,  on  the  eastern 
shore  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  They  were  then  still, 
it  would  seem,  in  the  Stone  Age,  according 
to  the  testimony  of  graves  that  have  been 
opened.  But  intercourse  with  the  civilised 
kingdom  of  Assyria  soon  introduced  them  to 
the  use  of  bronze  and  iron,  and  even  to  the 
glazed  pottery  of  Nineveh.  From  the  very 
earliest  times  Persia  has  been  noted  for  its  fruit 
and  vegetable  productions.  Most  of  the  fruit 
trees  of  the  temperate  and  sub-tropical  climes 
grow  well,  and  the  care  of  them  forms  a  staple 
industry  of  the  people.  Rice,  wheat,  barley, 
maize,  peas  and  beans  are  easily  grown,  the 
first  named  forming  the  staple  food  of  great 
numbers  of  the  people.  All  garden  vegetables 
are  cultivated  and  greatly  esteemed.  The 
Persians  are  good  gardeners,  and  very  fond  of 
flowers,  especially  roses,  which  excel  in  size, 
beauty,  and  fragrance,  those  of  most  other 
countries.  The  Persians  were  not  great 
traders,  but  they  brought  the  arts  of  husbandry 
to  a  great  state  of  perfection. 

The  government  of  ancient  Persia  was  mon- 
archical, and  the  crown  hereditary.  The  power 
of  the  kings  was  absolute,  and  they  regarded 
the  people  as  slaves.  The  titles  by  which  they 
were  named,  "  the  great  king,"  and  "  the  king 
of  kings,"  show  in  what  reverence  they  were 
held  by  their  subjects,  who  indeed  looked 
upon  their  rulers  as  more  than  mortal,  or  at 
least  as  vicegerents  of  the  Deity,  and  paid  them 
the  compliment  of  prostration.  In  addition  to 
the  king  there  were  seven  state  counsellors, 
always  men  of  high  birth  (Ezra  7.12  3.).  This 
council  did  not  interfere  with  the  king's  ruling ; 
it  existed  but  to  advise. 

The  king  as  judge  was  assisted  by  several 
'*  royal  judges,"  chosen  by  himself,  who  ad- 
ministered justice  at  stated  times  in  the  various 
provinces  of  the  empire.  Ordinary  judges,  who 
were  numerous,  were  selected  from  proved  men 
over  fifty  years  of  age.  The  governors  of  the 


PERSIS] 


379 


[PETEE,  SIMON 


provinces  were  called  satraps,  appointed  by  the 
king  himself.  These  had  no  authority  except 
through  the  king,  who  could  appoint,  punish,  j 
or  reward  them.  For  the  speedy  despatch  of 
public  business  the  provinces  were  connected 
with  the  capital  by  regular  posts  established 
upon  a  plan  devised  by  Cyrus.  These  posts 
travelled  day  and  night  by  means  of  carefully 
placed  relays  (EstJi.  8.10). 

The  Persians  held  an  ancient  belief  in  one 
supreme  God,  but  they  also  worshipped  the 
sun,  moon,  stars.  Their  priests  were  the  Magi, 
who  under  the  Assyrians  and  Medes  had  done 
much  to  obtain  power  over  king  and  people. 
When  the  Persians  triumphed,  this  priestly 
caste  lost  much  of  its  influence,  and  was  perse- 
cuted by  the  monarchs.  Cyrus  adopted  this 
policy,  and  effected  great  changes  in  the  systems 
of  the  Magi.  His  revolution  was  completed  by 
Zoroaster,  whose  system  was  most  striking, 
considering  it  was  but  the  product  of  human 
reason.  "  God,"  he  taught,  "  existed  from  all 
eternity,  and  was  like  infinity  of  time  and  space. 
There  were  two  principles  in  the  universe, 
good  and  evil ;  the  one  was  named  Ormuzd, 
the  presiding  agent  of  all  good ;  and  the  other 
Ahriman,  the  lord  of  evil.  Each  had  the  power 
of  creation,  and  hence  we  find  good  and  evil 
in  all  things.  Light  was  the  type  of  the  good, 
darkness  of  the  evil  spirit."  Hence  the  dis- 
ciple of  Zoroaster  turns  to  the  fire  on  the 
altar,  and  to  the  sun  as  the  noblest  of  all 
lights.  Zoroaster  professed  that  his  book  con- 
tained everything  necessary  for  the  Persians  to 
know,  whether  in  religion,  politics,  literature, 
science,  morality,  or  physics.  There  is  a  re- 
markable verse  in  Isaiah  (45.7),  supposed  to 
contain  a  reference  to  the  Magian  religion, 
which  prevailed  in  Persia  in  the  time  of  Cyrus  :— 
"  I  form  the  light,  and  create  darkness  :  I  make 
peace,  and  create  evil :  I  the  Lord  do  all  these 
things."  In  this  passage  the  Lord  rebukes  the 
worship  of  senseless  substances,  and  draws  atten- 
tion to  Himself  as  the  author  of  them  all,  therefore 
greater.  The  religion  of  the  Persians  permitted 
polygamy  and  incest.  Their  manner  of  dispos- 
ing of  the  dead  was  a  religious  act.  The  body 
was  exposed  on  a  high  tower,  and  wild  beasts 
and  birds  were  permitted  to  devour  it.  This 
was  a  custom  hateful  to  the  people  at  large,  who 
abandoned  it  as  soon  as  opportunity  arose ; 
it  lingers,  however,  among  the  Parsees,  who 
expose  their  dead  to  the  elements  in  "  Towers 
of  Silence." 

The  Bible  references  to  Persia  are  as  follows  : 
2  Ch.  36.20-23;  Ezra  1.1,2,8,  3.7,  4.3,5,7,24, 
6.14,  7.1,  9.9  ;  Neh.  12.22  ;  Esth.  1.3, 14, 18, 19, 
10.2  ;  Eztk.  27.10,  38.5  ;  Dan.  5.28,  6.8, 15, 28, 
8.20,  10.1, 13, 20,  11.2. 

Per'sis.—  A  disciple  at  Rome  to  whom  Paul 
sent  a  salutation,  commending  her  for  the  good 
work  she  had  done  with  diligence  and  care 
(Rom.  16.12). 

Peru'da.  — -[PEBIDA.] 

Pestilence. — The  term  pestilence,  or  plague, 
is  used  by  the  Hebrews  generally  for  all  con- 


tagious complaints,  or  epidemic  diseases.  The 
prophets  usually  connect  together  sword,  pes- 
tilence, and  famine  as  three  of  the  most  grievous 
inflictions  upon  a  disobedient  people  (2  Sam. 
24.12;  also  Ex.  5.3,  9.15;  Lev.  26.25;  Matt. 
24.7 ;  Lk.  21.11).  [PLAQUE.] 

Pestle. — A  heavy  instrument  of  wood  used  to 
pound  grain  into  meal  in  a  mortar.  In  the  houses 
of  the  wealthy  both  mortar  and  pestle  were  of 
metal  (Num.  11.8  ;  Prov.  27.22).  [MOBTAR, 
MILL.] 

-  Peter,  Simon. — The  apostle,  son  of  John 
(John  1.42,  R.V.)  or  Jonah  (Matt.  16.17),  was 
a  fisherman  of  Bethsaida  in  Galilee  (Matt.  4.18 
refi.).  The  temperament  ascribed  to  the  Gali- 
leans is  apparent  in  the  energy,  independence, 
and  outspoken  frankness  of  Peter.  His  speech 
also  was  characteristic  of  his  upbringing 
(Mk.  14.70;  Acts  2.7).  Apparently  he  was 
married  before  his  call  to  follow  our  Lord,  for 
the  healing  of  his  mother-in-law  is  -recorded 
(Matt.  8.14  reft.),  and  he  may  have  taken  his 
wife  with  him  on  his  missionary  journeys 
(1  Cor.  9.5);  but  the  "Marcus  my  son"  of 
1  Pet.  5.13  was,  no  doubt,  John  Mark,  the  title 
"  son  "  being  often  applied  to  disciples. 

When  Christ  was  at  Bethany,  beyond  Jordan 
(John  1.28,  R.V.),  Andrew,  Simon's  brother, 
brought  him  to  Jesus  (John  1.40,  41).  To  him 
our  Lord  then  gave  the  name  Cephas  (John  1.42). 
As  a  disciple  of  Jesus,  Peter  was  with  his  Master 
at  Cana  (John  2.1-11),  and  possibly  accompanied 
Him  on  the  Judaean  tour  (John  2.12,  4.4),  re- 
turning afterwards  to  his  ordinary  occupation 
(John  4.43).  Then  came  the  call  to  definite 
ministry  (Matt.  4.18-22;  Mk.  1.16-20;  Lk. 
5.1-11),  followed  by  Peter's  inclusion  in  the 
number  of  the  Twelve  Apostles  (Matt.  10.2-4 ; 
Mk.  3.13-19 ;  Lk.  6.12-19).  Henceforth  Peter 
is,  in  the  gospel  narratives,  the  most  con- 
spicuous of  the  Twelve.  He  witnessed  the 
raising  of  Jairus'  daughter  (Mk.  5.37 ;  Lk. 
8.51) ;  walked  on  the  water  to  meet  our  Lord 
(Matt.  14.28-31);  confessed  Christ  as  "the 
Christ,  the  son  of  the  living  God,"  and 
was  blessed  by  Him  (Matt.  16.13-20;  Mk. 
8.27-30  ;  Lk.  9.18-21) ;  was  rebuked  by  Christ 
for  deprecating  the  sufferings  our  Lord  foresaw 
for  Himself  (Matt.  16.22,23);  was  a  witness 
of  the  Transfiguration  (Matt.  17.1-4;  Mk. 
9.2-6;  Lk.  9.28-32;  2  Pet.  1.17,18);  found 
the  tribute  money  in  the  fish's  mouth  (Matt. 
17.24-27);  inquired  of  our  Lord  as  to  the 
practice  of  forgiveness  (Matt.  18.21) ;  received 
assurance  as  to  the  future  glory  of  those  who 
had  "left  all  and  followed"  Christ  (Matt. 
19.27-30;  Mk.  10.28-31;  Lk.  18.28-30); 
joined  in  asking  as  to  the  time  of  the  sorrows 
foretold  for  Jerusalem  (Mk.  13.1-4) ;  and  was 
sent  with  John  to  make  ready  the  Passover  (Lk. 
22.8).  At  the  Last  Supper  Peter  at  first  shrank 
from  permitting  our  Lord  to  wash  his  feet  (John 
13.6-9);  he  prompted  John  to  ask  our  Lord 
the  name  of  His  betrayer  (John  13.24);  de- 
clared his  own  unalterable  fidelity  to  Christ,  and 
was  warned  of  his  approaching  fall  (Matt. 


PETER,  SIMON] 


380 


[PETER,  FIRST  EPISTLE  OF 


26.33-35  ;  Mk.  14.29-31 ;  Lk.  22.31-34  ;  John 
13.36-38).  He  accompanied  his  Master  to 
Gethsemane  (Matt.  20.36-46;  Mk.  14.33-42; 
Lk.  22.40-46).  On  the  arrival  of  the  band  sent 
to  apprehend  our  Lord,  he  resisted,  and 
cut  off  the  ear  of  Malchus  (John  18.10,26). 
Peter  followed  his  Master  as  He  was  led  away  ; 
was  brought  by  John  into  the  high-priest's 
palace  ( John  18.16) ;  and  during  the  trial 
thrice  denied  his  Master,  but  repented  (Matt. 
26.69-75  ;  Mk.  14.66-72  ;  Lk.  22.55-62  ;  John 
18.17,18,  25-27). 

After  the  crucifixion,  Peter,  with  John,  visited 
the  sepulchre  (Lk.  24.12;  John  20.2-6),  and 
Peter  received  from  the  risen  Christ  a  message 
which  implied  a  renewal  of  trust  (Mk.  16.7). 
The  risen  Christ  appeared  when  he  was  alone 
(Lk.  24.34;  1  Cor.  15.5);  and  with  other 
disciples  "  at  the  sea  of  Tiberias,"  when  Peter 
was  questioned  and  recommissioned  by  his 
Lord  (John  21.1-23;  2  Pet.  1.14).  He  was 
present  with  the  Church  at  its  gathering  after 
the  Ascension  (Acts  1.13),  and  suggested  the 
appointment  of  an  apostle  in  the  place  of 
Judas  (Acts  1.15-25).  It  was  Peter  who 
explained  the  manifestations  on  the  Day  of 
Pentecost  (Acts  2.14-40).  His  healing  of  the 
lame  man  at  the  Beautiful  Gate  of  the  Temple 
led  to  his  address  to  the  people  and  his  arrest 
(Acts  3,  4.1-22).  Peter  dealt  with  Ananias  and 
Sapphira  (Acts  5.1-11) ;  and,  miracles  being 
wrought  by  the  apostles,  they  were  imprisoned, 
scourged,  and  released  (Acts  5.12-42). 

Soon  afterwards,  Peter  and  John,  as  repre- 
senting the  apostles,  were  sent  to  confirm  the 
converts  at  Samaria  (Acts  8.14),  where  Peter  and 
John,  finding  baptized  Christians  who  had  not 
received  the  Holy  Ghost,  laid  their  hands  upon 
them.  SIMON  MAGUS  brought  a  denunciation 
upon  himself  by  proposing  to  Peter  that  the 
apostles  should  sell  him  the  power  of  giving 
the  Holy  Ghost  by  the  laying  on  of  hands 
(Acts  8).  Three  years  later  occurred  the  first 
recorded  meeting  of  Peter  and  Paul  (Acts 
9.26;  Gal.  1.17,18).  Then  two  miracles  of 
healing  [.ENEAS,  DORCAS]  were  wrought  while 
Peter  was  on  a  general  tour  among  the 
Churches  in  South  Palestine.  A  vision  led 
to  the  conversion  of  Cornelius,  and  to  the 
removal  of  doubts  from  Peter's  mind  as  to  the 
possibility  of  the  heathen  becoming  Christians 
without  first  becoming  Jews  (Acts  10).  The 
household  of  Cornelius  received  the  Holy 
Ghost,  and  were  baptized  by  Peter,  who  thus 
gave  offence  to  his  countrymen  (Acts  11.2). 
His  defence  convinced  them  that  "  God  hath 
also  to  the  Gentiles  granted  repentance  unto 
life"  (Acts  11.18).  Peter's  imprisonment  by 
Herod  Agrippa  i.,  and  miraculous  release, 
followed.  James  the  son  of  Zebedee  had  already 
been  executed  (Acts  12.2).  [JAMES.]  Later  we 
find  him  at  Jerusalem  six  years  afterwards 
discussing  with  the  other  apostles  the  question 
of  circumcision.  But  he  did  not  preside  at  the 
conference ;  nor  did  he  pronounce  its  decisions 
(Acts  15).  It  was  at  Antioch  not  long  after- 


wards, or,  as  some  think,  before  the  council, 
that  the  memorable  collision  between  Peter  and 
Paul  took  place  (Gal.  2.11-14).  Peter  appeared 
to  waver  on  the  question  of  the  equality  of  the 
Gentiles.  Paul  denounced  Peter's  conduct,  but 
the  older  submitted  to  the  younger  apostle,  re- 
maining his  friend  to  the  end  (2  Pet.  3.15). 

Of  the  latter  part  of  Peter's  life  nothing  certain 
is  known.  On  leaving  Antioch  it  is  supposed 
that  he  returned  to  Jerusalem,  and  remained 
there  for  some  years.  Very  early  tradition  says 
that  he  afterwards  went  to  Rome,  and  was 
crucified  there,  head  downwards,  according 
to  the  prediction  of  the  Lord  (John  21.18, 19). 
Another  account  has  it  that  he  died  in  Baby- 
lonia. All  that  is  really  certain  is,  that  he 
was  put  to  death  during  one  of  the  persecu- 
tions of  Nero's  reign,  in  perhaps  67  A.D.  The 
divergence  in  these  traditions  is  due  to  the 
different  opinions  held  as  to  the  meaning  of 
Babylon  in  his  First  Epistle  (1  Pet.  5.13;  see 
the  next  article). 

Peter,  First  Epistle  of. — This  epistle  is  num- 
bered amongst  the  writings  the  authenticity  of 
which  was  unquestioned  in  the  Early  Church. 
The  internal  evidence  also  points  to  the  author- 
ship of  Peter.  Its  date  is  generally  assigned 
to  the  period  between  64  and  67  A.D.  The 
place  of  its  origin  has  been  a  matter  of  some 
dispute.  It  is  given  as  "  Babylon "  (5.13). 
That  Babylon  is  actually  meant  implies,  however, 
conditions  for  which  there  is  no  sufficient 
evidence.  It  is  more  generally  held  that 
"  Babylon  "  is  here  used,  as  in  the  Revelation, 
for  Rome.  Until  the  time  of  Calvin  no  other 
view  was  entertained.  Peter's  connexion 
with  Rome  has,  however,  been  the  subject  of 
much  controversy,  due,  in  part,  to  the  ex- 
travagant claims  made  by  the  Roman  Church. 
By  some,  especially  by  Roman  Catholic 
historians,  it  is  alleged  that  Peter  was  for 
twenty-five  years  in  Rome,  and  that  he  was 
bishop  of  the  Church  there.  By  others  it  is 
denied  that  he  was  ever  at  Rome  at  all.  Others 
held  that  the  apostle  may  have  gone  to  Rome 
a  short  time  before  his  death,  in  the  brief 
interval  between  the  date  of  Paul's  Second 
Epistle  to  Timothy  and  his  martyrdom.  The 
last,  considering  the  weight  of  traditional 
testimony,  seems  to  be  the  most  probable 
opinion.  The  epistle  is  addressed  to  "  the 
elect  who  are  sojourners  of  the  Dispersion " 
(R.V.)  in  the  provinces  of  Asia  Minor,  though 
it  also  includes  references  to  Gentile  converts 
within  their  Churches  (1.14,  4.3). 

The  contents  of  the  epistle  may  be  divided 
into  two  parts,  exclusive  of  the  salutation 
(1.1,2),  introduction  (3-12),  and  conclusion 
(5.13, 14). 

I.  General  exhortations  to  love  and  holi- 
ness (1.13-2.10).  In  this  portion  of  the  epistle 
it  is  especially  shown  how  the  distinctions  and 
privileges  of  the  ancient  Church  are  not  lost, 
but  reproduced  in  a  higher  form,  and  conferred 
upon  all  believers.  They  are  a  chosen  generation, 
and  their  election  is  in  Christ  (1.2) ;  they  have 


PETER,  SECOND  EPISTLE  OF]        381 


[PHALTIEL 


a  land  of  promise,  incorruptible  and  unfading, 
as  their  "  inheritance  "  (1.4) ;  they  are  a  people 
for  God's  own  possession  (2.9) ;  the  Temple 
remains,  a  spiritual  house,  with  Christ  the 
corner-stone  (2.4,  5) ;  they  have  an  Altar  and  a 
Sacrifice,  the  precious  blood  of  Christ  (1.18, 19) ; 
while  they  themselves  are  a  holy  and  royal 
Priesthood  (2.5,  9) ;  and  the  Prophets  themselves 
wrote  and  spoke  for  the  Christian  Church. 

II.  Particular  exhortations  on  specific  duties 
(2.11-5.12).  While  the  epistle  has  thus  a 
practical  design,  it  is  as  evangelical  as  if  it 
had  been  chiefly  doctrinal.  It  points  every- 
where to  Christ ;  to  His  atonement,  foretold  by 
prophets,  contemplated  by  angels  appointed 
before  the  foundation  of  the  world ;  to  His 
resurrection,  ascension,  and  gift  of  the  Spirit ; 
His  example  as  a  suffering  Saviour,  and  the 
awful  solemnities  of  the  last  judgment.  Like 
Paul,  he  urges  the  doctrines  of  the  gospel  as 
the  great  motives  to  holiness  and  patience ; 
like  him  he  descends  to  the  enforcement  of 
every  relative  duty,  while  giving  the  most 
exalted  view  of  our  privileges  as  believers  in 
Christ. 

Peter's  honourable  notice  of  Paul  (2  Pet.  3.15), 
who  had  publicly  reproved  him,  and  recorded 
that  reproof  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  to 
whom  Peter  himself  was  now  writing  (Gal.  2.11 ; 
1  Pet.  1.1  ;  2  Pet.  3.1),  is  a  manifestation  of 
true  humility.  He  illustrates  in  this  way  his 
own  precept  (1  Pet.  5.5),  and  had  clearly  not 
forgotten  the  lessons  of  the  last  days  of  our 
Lord.  His  explicit  reference  to  Christ  as  the 
true  corner-stone  of  the  Church  (2.4-7)  may 
contain  an  allusion  to  the  name  which  had 
been  conferred  upon  him,  and  by  anticipation 
to  refute  the  inference  drawn  from  it  that  Peter 
is  the  foundation. 

Some  characteristics  of  the  epistle  are  its 
emphasis  on  hope  founded  on  the  Resurrec- 
tion (1.3,  6,  7,  9, 11, 13,  etc.) ;  the  duty  of 
patience  under  suffering  and  trial  (1.6, 7, 
2.19-21,  3.13-18,  4.12,13,19);  and  the  use 
of  the  term  grace  for  the  whole  Christian 
revelation  (1.10, 13,  3.7,  4.10,  5.12).  The  title 
"  chief  Shepherd  "  (5.4)  applied  to  our  Lord  is 
peculiar  to  this  epistle. 

Peter,  Second  Epistle  of.— This  epistle  was 
not  generally  accepted  as  canonical  by  the 
Early  Church.  Eusebius  places  it  amongst 
the  disputed  books.  But  the  authorship  is 
definitely  claimed  for  Peter  in  the  book  itself 
(1.1,  3.2).  The  author  writes  as  an  old  man 
nearing  his  end  (1.14),  who  had  already 
addressed  a  prior  letter  to  the  same  readers 
(3.1).  The  language  of  the  epistle,  especially 
in  the  first  chapter,  as  compared  with  that 
of  the  speeches  of  Peter  in  the  Acts,  and  with 
that  of  the  First  Epistle,  is  in  agreement  with 
this  claim.  The  date  of  the  book  may  be 
placed  near  the  end  of  the  apostle's  life 
(1.14).  If  we  accept  the  traditional  belief 
that  he  died  in  Rome,  we  may  place  the  date 
not  later  than  70  A.D.  or  earlier  than  64.  The 
contents  of  the  epistle  may  be  summarised 


thus:  The  apostle,  after  his  address  and 
salutation,  exhorts  his  readers  to  perseverance 
in  truth  amidst  prevailing  error  and  practical 
infidelity.  The  best  preservative  is,  he  tells 
them,  progressive  piety  (1.3-11) ;  decisive  evi- 
dence of  the  truth  of  Scripture  doctrine  being 
given  also  by  irrefragable  testimony  and  ful- 
filled prophecy  (1.16-21).  He  warns  false 
teachers,  and  those  who  were  beginning  to 
yield  to  their  seductions,  of  their  guilt  and 
danger  (2.1-22) ;  and  assures  them  that  the 
second  coming  of  the  Lord,  though  delayed, 
through  long-suffering,  is  as  certain  as  the 
fact  of  the  Deluge  (3.1-3).  He  then  bids 
Christians  be  diligent  and  holy  (3.14-18). 
Appealing  to  Paul's  teaching,  in  confirmation 
of  his  views,  he  marks  how  men  had  wrested 
his  teaching  so  as  to  make  it  countenance  most 
pernicious  practices,  an  evil  to  be  remedied 
not  by  neglecting  those  Scriptures,  but  by  in- 
creased teachableness  and  humility  (3.5, 16). 

Certain  marked  correspondences  between 
this  epistle  and  the  epistle  of  Jude  (cf.,  e.g., 
2.4  and  Jude  6;  2.6  and  Jude  7;  2.11  and 
Jude  9 ;  2.17  and  Jude  12)  suggest  a  relation 
between  the  two.  [JUDE,  EPISTLE  OP.] 

"  Knowledge  "  is  the  keynote  of  the  epistle. 
But  it  is  more  interesting  to  note,  as  identifying 
the  authorship  of  this  and  the  First  Epistle, 
the  recurrence  of  the  words  "  holy,"  "  conversa- 
tion "  (i.e.  manner  of  life),  and  the  remarkable 
term  "virtue"  applied  to  God  (1  Pet.  2.9, 
" praises"  A.V.;  "  excellencies "  R.V. ;  2  Pet.  1.3). 
There  are  other  striking  duplications  of  terms 
in  the  two  epistles.  What  have  been  called  the 
"retrospective  allusions"  in  the  language  of 
the  epistle  should  be  noted  as  quite  in  accord 
with  the  simple,  outspoken  character  of  Peter. 
Thus  he  uses  the  expression  "  to  catch  with  a 
bait";  of  "beguiling"  (2.14)  (literally,  "lay- 
ing a  bait  for ") ;  "  they  allure  (set  a  bait) 
through  the  lusts  of  the  flesh  "  (2.18). 

Pethahi'ah. — Jehovah  has  opened:  1.  A 
priest  (1  Ch.  24.16).  2.  A  Levite  who  had 
married  a  foreign  wife  (Ezra  10.23),  who  regu- 
lated the  service  after  Ezra  had  read  the  Book 
of  the  Law  to  the  people  (Neh.  9.5).  3.  A  son 
of  Meshezabeel  of  Judah,  employed  by  Darius, 
the  king  of  Persia,  to  report  to  him  matters 
affecting  the  returned  exiles  (Neh.  11.24). 

Pe'thor. — (?)  Interpretation  of  dreams  :  a  town 
of  Mesopotamia  and  the  residence  of  Balaam. 
The  Assyrian  name  was  Pitru,  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Upper  Euphrates  (Num.  22.5;  Deut. 
23.4). 

Pethu'eL — Father  of  the  prophet  Joel  (Joel 
1.1). 

Peul'thai  (R.V.  Peull'ethai).— A  Levite  (ICh. 
26.5). 

Pha'lec.— Division  (Lk.  3.35).     [PELEO.] 

Phalti. — Jehovah  delivers :  a  Benjamite,  to 
whom  Saul  gave  his  daughter  Michal,  who  was 
David's  wife  (1  Sam.  25.44).  In  2  Sam.  3.15 
he  is  called  Phaltiel,  and  then  disappears  aftei? 
restoring  Michal. 

Phalti'el—  (2  Sam.  3.15). 


PHANUEL] 


382 


LPHAKAOH'S  DAUGHTER 


Phanu'el. — Face  of  Ood:  the  same  word  as 
Penuel.  Father  of  Anna  the  prophetess  (Lk. 
2.36). 

Pharaoh. — The  Great  House :  originally  of  the 
palace,  afterwards  of  the  king  himself.  The 
title  of  the  monarch  of  Egypt.  With  the  ex- 
ceptions of  Pharaoh-nechoh  (2  K.  23.29)— whose 
march  eastward  to  Carchemish  was  resisted 
by  Josiah — and  Pharaoh-hophra — who  tempted 
Zedekiah  to  resist  Nebuchadnezzar  (Jer.  44.30) 
— no  Pharaoh  of  Scripture  can  be  identified 
'.vith  certainty.  When  Abraham  (Gen.  12.15  fi.) 
went  to  Egypt,  Amenemhet  m.  of  the  12th 
dynasty  was,  according  to  some  authorities, 
Pharaoh.  He  was  the  first  king  that  took 
measures  to  provide  a  regular  water-supply 
to  prevent  the  terrible  famines,  which  were 
frequent.  He  built  the  huge  reservoir  called 
Lake  Moeris,  and  distributed  the  water  by  a 
splendid  series  of  dykes  and  canals.  So  well 
was  the  work  conceived  and  executed  that 
modern  engineers  say  that  it  would  be  well 
worth  repairing  the  works  and  restoring  the 
lake.  Joseph's  Pharaoh  (Gen.  37.28  ff.)  was  one 
of  the  early  Hyksos  or  shepherd  kings.  We 
have  many  particulars  of  this  ruler,  but  not 
his  name.  He  reigned  somewhere  about  1700 
B.C.  His  sudden  advancement  of  Joseph  to  a 
place  next  himself  shows  his  absolute  power, 
which  he  exercised  on  behalf  of  his  favourite 
minister  and  his  family.  The  oppression  did 
not  begin  in  Joseph's  lifetime ;  but  by  a 
Pharaoh  belonging  to  a  dynasty  that  "knew 
not  Joseph"  (Ex.  1.8).  The  Pharaohs  of  the 
oppression  (19th  dynasty)  were  Egyptians,  who 
had  driven  out  the  shepherd  kings  and  returned 
to  power.  The  Pharaoh  who  died  while  Moses 
was  in  Midian  is  thought  to  have  been 
Rameses  n. 

Both  tradition  and  the  monuments  prove 
that  Rameses  n.  set  the  foreigners  in  his 
land  hard  and  difficult  tasks,  and  this  fact  he 
inscribed  in  each  of  his  buildings,  boasting 
that  not  a  single  native  Egyptian  was  employed 
on  the  work.  He  also  set  up  a  brick-field  of  his 
own.  By  employing  the  labour  of  captives  he 
was  enabled  to  sell  his  bricks  below  the  market 
price  (Wilkinson,  Ancient  Egyptians,  i.  p.  343). 
All  of  Rameses  n.'s  bricks  were  impressed  with 
his  own  stamp.  Some  of  these  may  be  seen  in 
the  British  Museum. 

The  persecution  begun  by  Rameses  n.  was 
continued  with  increased  vigour  by  Meneptah, 
who  made  the  Israelites'  lives  so  hard  to  bear 
that  their  groans  mounted  up  to  the  throne 
of  God.  Not  much  is  known  of  this  Pharaoh 
of  the  EXODUS.  What  is  shown  of  him  in 
Scripture  reveals  him  as  superstitious,  and 
vacillating  in  purpose.  His  vacillation  cost 
him  his  army,  drowned  in  the  Red  Sea.  His 
mummy  has  been  discovered,  and  is  exhibited 
in  the  Cairo  Museum  of  Egyptian  Antiquities. 
The  account  in  Exodus  does  not  say  that  he 
was  drowned  with  his  army  (though  see  Ps. 
136.15). 

Both  Solomon's  and  David's  enemy  the  Edom- 


ite  King  Hadad,  had  married  daughters  of  a 
Pharaoh  of  the  21st  dynasty  (1  K.  3.1, 11.18-20). 
Towards  the  end  of  the  20th  dynasty  the  high- 
priests  of  Amen,  the  god  of  Thebes,  gained  great 
power,  and  succeeded  in  overthrowing  the  power 
of  the  Rameses  family  in  Upper  Egypt.  At 
the  same  time  a  line  of  Tanite  kings  ruled  in 
Lower  Egypt.  There  were  then  two,  some 
think  three,  rulers  in  Egypt  at  the  same  time 
until  the  Bubasites  of  the  22nd  dynasty,  of 
whom  Shishak  of  the  Bible  was  the  first,  com- 
bined the  two  crowns  in  his  own.  Shishak 
began  to  reign  about  the  twenty-fifth  year  of 
Solomon  (990  B.C.).  Hadad  was  received  with 
favour  at  the  Egyptian  court.  He  was  given 
the  Pharaoh's  daughter  in  marriage  and  a 
secure  place  to  dwell  in  (1  K.  11.18-20). 
[HADAD,  TAHPENES.] 

The  Pharaoh  of  Solomon's  time  led  an  ex- 
pedition into  Palestine,  seized  Gezer,  and 
gave  it  to  his  daughter,  Solomon's  wife  (1  K. 
9.16).  Solomon's  kingdom  was  still  of  small 
extent,  as,  according  to  this  account,  it  did  not 
include  even  the  whole  of  Palestine.  [PALES- 
TINE.] This  alliance  was  a  disastrous  one 
for  the  Hebrews,  for  it  brought  them  into 
friendly  relations  with  idolaters,  a  fact  which 
subsequently  led  to  the  captivities  and  final 
dispersion. 

During  Rehoboam's  reign  Shishak  brought  an 
army  against  him  (2  Ch.  12.2-4).  On  a  wall 
at  Thebes  is  a  list  of  the  towns  captured 
by  this  king— Bethhoron,  Ajalon,  Megiddo, 
Edom,  and  "  Judah-melek,"  which  Dr.  Birch 
(Hist,  of  Egypt,  p.  157)  considers  to  be  the 
royal  city  of  Judah,  i.e.  Jerusalem.  But  as 
some  cities  in  the  northern  kingdom  of  Israel 
are  also  mentioned,  it  is  clear  that  he  did  not 
attack  Judah  only. 

Pharaoh-necho  and  Pharaoh-hophra  are  the 
only  other  Pharaohs  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 
The  first  met  Josiah,  king  of  Judah,  in  battle 
at  Megiddo.  He  was  afterwards  so  severely 
beaten,  however,  by  Nebuchadnezzar  n.  that 
he  remained  for  the  rest  of  his  life  in  his  own 
land  (2  K.  24.7).  Pharaoh-necho  is  the  first 
Pharaoh  mentioned  in  the  Bible  who  bears  a 
proper  name. 

The  second,  Pharaoh  -  hophra,  helped 
Jehoiakim  and  Zedekiah  to  rebel  against 
Nebuchadnezzar.  The  result  was  disastrous 
to  all  the  allies  (Jer.  27.5-8;  Ezek.  17.11-18). 
Hophra  came  to  the  throne  about  590  B.C., 
and  ruled  nineteen  years.  Ezekiel  describes 
Hophra  as  a  great  crocodile  lying  in  his  rivers, 
and  boasting  they  were  his  own  (Ezek.  29.3). 
But  Ezekiel  prophesied  disaster,  as  did  Jeremiah, 
who,  with  other  Jews,  had  taken  refuge  in 
Egypt  (Jer.  44.30,  46.25,26).  The  prophecies 
were  fulfilled  to  the  letter.  His  palace  at 
Memphis  was  excavated  by  Prof.  Petrie  in  the 
winter  of  1908-9.  It  covered  two  acres,  and  in 
parts  was  fifty  feet  high. 

Pharaoh's  Daughter  (Ex.  2.5).— Two  other 
daughters  of  Pharaohs  were  married  to  Bible 
characters.  [PHARAOH.] 


PHARES] 


383 


[PHILEMON 


Phares. — Breach :  the  same  as  Pharez  and 
Perez  (which  see)  (Matt.  1.3  ;  Lk.  3.33). 

Pharez  (R.V.  Perez). — Son  of  Judah  and 
Tamar,  his  daughter-in-law  (Gen.  38).  Pharez 
obtained  the  right  of  primogeniture  over  his 
brother  and  founded  a  numerous  family,  the 
fertility  of  which  is  alluded  to  in  Ruth  (4.12). 
From  him  sprang  two  new  chief  houses,  Hezron- 
ites  and  Hamulites.  From  Hezron  came  the 
House  of  David,  and  eventually  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ.  In  David's  time  the  house  of  Pharez 
was  particularly  distinguished  (2  Sam.  23.8 ; 
cf.  1  Ch.  11.11  with  27.2,3),  the  royal  family 
itself  being  at  the  head.  The  family  was  still 
numerous  after  the  Captivity,  for  of  the  sons 
of  Perez,  or  Pharez,  alone  468  were  living  at 
Jerusalem,  Zerubbabel  himself  being  included 
(Neh.  11.4-6).  In  all  the  important  affairs  of 
the  nation,  and  in  times  of  national  crisis,  the 
descendants  of  Pharez  are  prominent,  the  Books 
of  Chronicles  and  Nehemiah  being  full  of  refer- 
ences to  individuals  among  them.  [PHARES.l 

Pharisees. — Separated  :  the  most  important 
of  the  Jewish  schools  of  thought  which  sprang 
up  after  the  spirit  of  prophecy  had  ceased, 
about  a  century  and  a  half  before  the  birth  of 
the  Saviour.  They  received  their  name  because 
they  separated  themselves  from  all  other  Jews, 
aiming  at  more  than  ordinary  sanctity  and 
strictness  in  religion ;  but  their  separation  con- 
sisted chiefly  in  certain  distinctions  respecting 
food  and  religious  ceremonies.  This  was  too 
often  but  outward  show  (Matt.  23.25-28),  though 
as  a  whole  they  did  not  lack  sincerity,  but  rather 
depth  of  religion.  The  party  soon  obtained 
great  reputation  and  power  with  the  people, 
and  it  was  a  proverbial  saying,  that  if  but  two 
persons  entered  heaven,  one  of  them  would  be 
a  Pharisee.  They  alone  survived  after  the  de- 
struction of  the  Jewish  state,  and  stamped  their 
doctrines  on  all  later  Judaism.  The  Talmudic 
literature  is  solely  Pharisaic. 

Their  principal  doctrines  were  as  follows  :  the 
oral  law,  which  they  supposed  God  delivered  to 
Moses  by  an  angel  on  Mount  Sinai,  and  was  pre- 
served and  developed  by  traditional  teaching, 
was  of  equal  authority  with  the  written  law.  By 
observing  both  these  laws,  a  man  might  not  only 
obtain  justification  with  God,  but  might  perform 
meritorious  works  of  supererogation.  Fasting, 
almsgiving,  ablutions,  and  confessions,  were  a 
sufficient  atonement  for  sin.  Thoughts  and 
desires  were  not  sinful,  unless  carried  into  action. 
They  believed  in  predestination,  acknowledged 
the  immortality  of  the  soul,  future  rewards  and 
punishments,  the  existence  of  good  and  evil 
angels,  and  the  resurrection  of  the  body. 
[RESURRECTION.] 

The  state  of  future  felicity  in  which  some  of 
the  Pharisees  believed  was  very  gross.  They 
imagined  that  men  in  the  next  world  were  to 
eat,  drink,  and  enjoy  the  pleasures  of  love,  each 
being  reunited  to  his  former  wife.  Hence  the 
shrewd  question  of  the  Sadducees,  who  believed  in 
no  resurrection,  when  they  asked  whose  wife  the 
woman  would  be  who  had  had  seven  husbands. 


In  their  dress,  the  Pharisees  affected  many 
peculiarities.  Their  phylacteries  (pieces  of 
parchment  with  texts  written  on  them,  and 
worn  on  the  forehead  or  on  the  arm)  were  made 
broader  than  other  people's  (Deut.  6.8) ;  they 
enlarged  the  borders  of  their  garments  (Matt. 
23.5) ;  the  fringes  (Num.  15.38,  39)  were  made 
larger ;  and  they  adopted  peculiar  dress  and  head- 
gear when  performing  a  vow. 

Phar'par. — Swift :  a  river  flowing  southwards 
from  Hermon  past  Damascus  (2  K.  5.12) ;  either 
the  stream  Awaj,  or  perhaps  the  Taura. 

Phar'zites. — Descendants  of  Pharez  (Perez) 
(Num.  26.20). 

Phete  (R.V.  Phoe'be).— • Shining :  a  Christian 
woman  mentioned  in  Epistle  to  Romans  (16.1, 2). 
Perhaps  officially  a  deaconess  of  her  Church, 
that  of  Cenchrese,  who  was  going  to  Rome,  for 
what  reason  we  know  not.  Her  wealth  and  in- 
dependent state  enabled  her  to  be  particularly 
useful  to  the  young  Church  and  its  ministers. 
[DEACOENSS,  PAUL.] 

Pheni'ce,   Phcenix.— • Country  of  palm  trees: 

1.  A  town  and  harbour  on  the  south-east  coast 
of  Crete  (Acts  27.12).    It  was  the  haven  towards 
which  Paul  was  sailing  when  he  was  wrecked. 

2.  (Acts  11.19,  15.3).     The  same  as  Phoenicia 
(which  see). 

Phenicia  (Phoenicia),  Phenice.— Country  of 
palm  trees  :  the  country  between  the  west  base 
of  Lebanon  and  the  Mediterranean.  It  varied 
in  extent  from  time  to  time.  Its  farthest  limits 
were  Aradus  and  Antaradus  on  the  north,  and 
Dor,  below  Carmel,  on  the  south.  At  no  time 
was  it  more  than  20  miles  broad.  It  was  the 
scene  of  the  labours  of  the  first  Christian  Evangel- 
ists (Acts  11.19, 15.3, 21.2).  The  name  Phoenicia 
was  given  it  by  the  Greeks,  and  the  palm  tree 
can  be  seen  as  an  emblem  on  the  coins  of  Tyre 
and  Sidon,  the  chief  cities  of  the  district.  The 
native  name  was  Canaan  (low-land),  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  adjoining  highland  Aram, 
the  Hebrew  name  of  Syria.  [PHCENICIANS, 
TYRE,  SIDON.] 

Phi'chol,  Phi'col. — Chief  captain  of  Abimelech 
(Gen.  21.22,  32,  26.26). 

Philadelphia.— Brotherly  love :  a  city  of  Lydia, 
the  seat  of  one  of  the  seven  Churches  of  Asia 
to  whom  the  Apocalyptic  letters  were  addressed 
(Rev.  1.2,  3.7).  It  is  now  known  as  Allah 
Sheher  (city  of  God),  and  has  a  considerable 
population,  including  many  Christians. 

The  city  was  founded  by  Attalus  Philadelphus 
(138  B.C.)  as  a  market  and  storehouse  for  the 
wine  produced  in  the  surrounding  district, 
which  is  described  as  being  wonderfully  fertile, 
though  subject  to  earthquake  shocks.  In 
Roman  times  it  was  of  some  importance,  but 
attached  to  the  jurisdiction  of  Sardis.  It  lay 
on  the  direct  route  between  Smyrna  and  the 
highlands  of  Central  Asia  Minor,  and  the  Church 
there  appears  to  have  used  its  opportunities  for 
spreading  the  gospel. 

Philemon.— A  Christian  of  Colossse  to  whom 
Paul  wrote  on  behalf  of  his  slave  Onesimus 
(Col.  4.9).  His  wife  was  Apphia,  and  his  son 


PHILEMON,  EPISTLE  TO] 


384 


[PHILIPPIANS,  EPISTLE  TO 


Archippus.  From  the  narrative  it  is  evident 
that  Philemon  was  a  man  of  substance,  and 
hospitable,  and  grateful  to  Paul  as  his  spiritual 
father.  He  was  full  of  good  works  and  faith 
(Philem.). 

Philemon,  Epistle  to.— The  purpose  of  the 
epistle  is  clearly  shown.  Onesimus,  an  absconded 
slave  of  Philemon,  had  succeeded  in  getting 
to  Rome,  and  while  there  had  been  brought 
under  the  power  of  the  gospel  through  the 
preaching  of  Paul.  The  apostle  appreciated 
his  character,  and  would  gladly  have  retained 
him  in  his  own  service,  had  he  not  thought  it 
better  the  runaway  should  return  to  his  master. 
Onesimus  was  sent  with  Tychicus  to  Colossoe 
(60,  61  or  62,  63  A.D.)  with  a  special  commenda- 
tion in  the  words  of  this  letter,  which  intimates 
in  a  delicate  manner  the  duty  of  a  Christian 
master  towards  a  slave  who  had  now  become 
a  "beloved  brother"  (10,17).  The  letter  is  a 
model  of  courtesy  and  freedom  in  the  inter- 
course of  Christian  friendship. 

Phile'tus. — Beloved :  one  who,  with  Hymenseus, 
was  condemned  by  Paul  for  teaching  that 
"  the  resurrection  is  past  already,"  and  so 
destroying  the  faith  of  some  (2  Tim.  2.17, 18). 

Philip. — Lover  of  horses :  1.  The  apostle, 
a  native  or  resident  of  Bethsaida,  the  city  of 
Andrew  and  Peter,  called  by  our  Lord  early 
in  His  ministry  (John  1.43, 44).  Philip  in 
turn  brought  in  Nathanael,  who,  like  himself, 
may  have  dwelt  much  on  the  O.T.  promises 
of  a  Messiah  (John  1.45).  He  was  one  of  the 
twelve  apostles  (Matt.  10.3;  Mk.  3.18;  Lk. 
6.14 ;  Acts  1.13),  and  was  questioned  by  our 
Ixjrd  at  the  miracle  of  feeding  the  5000  (John 
6.5-7).  With  Andrew  he  brought  to  Jesus 
towards  the  close  of  our  Lord's  life  "  certain 
Greeks,"  who  desired  to  see  Him  (John  12.20- 
22) ;  and  at  the  Last  Supper  he  addressed  to 
our  Lord  the  plea,  "  Show  us  the  Father,  and 
it  sufficeth  us"  (John  14.8).  Philip  is  found 
amongst  the  apostles  assembled  in  the  upper 
room  after  the  Ascension,  but  is  not  subsequently 
named  in  the  N.T. 

2.  The  second  of  the  seven  deacons  (Acts  6.5). 
He  perhaps  belonged  to  Csesarea  in  Palestine, 
where  afterwards  he  and  his  daughters 
lived  (Acts  21.8,  9).  After  the  stoning  of 
Stephen,  Philip  preached  at  Sebaste  or 
Samaria,  where  he  worked  several  miracles, 
and  converted  many.  He  baptized  them ;  but 
when  the  apostles  at  Jerusalem  heard  that 
Samaria  had  received  the  word  of  God,  they 
sent  Peter  and  John,  who  came  and  prayed  that 
the  Holy  Ghost  might  come  upon  them.  It 
was  while  Philip  was  here  that  an  angel  com- 
manded him  to  take  the  road  from  Jerusalem 
to  old  Gaza.  He  obeyed,  and  met  with  and 
baptized  an  Ethiopian  eunuch  in  the  service 
uf  Queen  Candace.  Philip  continued  his  work 
at  Azotus  (Ashdod),  and  made  his  way  along 
the  coast  to  Csesarea  (Acts  8).  Nothing  more 
is  known  of  him  for  about  twenty  years,  when 
Paul  and  his  companions  took  shelter  in  his 
house  where  he  lived  with  his  four  daughters, 


who  all  had  the  gift  of  prophecy.  He  was 
still  known  as  "  one  of  the  seven,"  and  as 
"the  Evangelist"  (Acts  21.8).  3.  Son  of 
Herod  the  Great  (Matt.  14.3).  [HEROD.]  4. 
Another  son  of  Herod  the  Great,  who  was 
tetrarch  of  Iturea  (Lk.  3.1). 

Philippi. — Belonging  to  Philip :  a  city  of 
Macedonia,  originally  Crenides,  which  was 
renamed  by  Philip,  king  of  Macedonia,  and 
father  of  Alexander  the  Great,  who  rebuilt  and 
beautified  it  (about  350  B.C.).  The  ancient 
Philippi,  which  was  9  miles  from  the  coast,  is 
no  more  than  ruins,  but  its  old  port  of  Neapolis 
is  now  known  as  Kavalla.  Between  Philippi 
and  the  sea  was  a  range  of  steep  hills,  up  and 
down  which  passed  the  ancient  paved  road, 
constructed  for  the  traffic  to  and  from  the 
mines  of  the  interior.  It  was  at  Philippi  that 
Paul  first  preached  the  gospel  in  Europe  in  the 
course  of  his  second  missionary  tour,  when  Lydia 
and  the  jailer  were  converted  (Acts  16.12-40 ; 
1  Thess.  2.2).  The  apostle  twice  revisited 
the  place  (Acts  20.1-6),  strengthening  the 
Church  there,  which  was  under  the  care  of 
Luke  for  many  years.  The  Christians  at 
Philippi  were  always  full  of  gratitude  for  the 
faith  they  had  received  through  Paul.  They 
assisted  him  on  several  occasions  (Phil.  4.16) ; 
sent  him  money  while  in  Achaia ;  and  being 
informed  that  he  was  a  prisoner  at  Rome,  they 
sent  a  gift  to  him  by  Epaphroditus,  61,  62  A.D. 
(Phil.  2.25-30,  4.10-20). 

Philippians,  Epistle  to  the. — The  authorship 
of  this  epistle  was  by  the  unvarying  voice  of 
the  Early  Christian  Church  ascribed  to  Paul. 
There  is  direct  testimony  from  the  second 
century  (Polycarp,  Irenseus,  and  Clement  of 
Alexandria)  onwards.  The  date  and  place  of 
writing  may  be  inferred  with  some  confidence. 
It  was  evidently  prepared  at  Rome,  probably 
during  the  earlier  part  of  Paul's  first  captivity 
in  that  city,  or  say  61  or  62  A.D.  (1.12-14,  25,  27, 
2.23,  24,  4.22).  It  was  written  when  Epaph- 
roditus was  sent  with  assistance  from  his  grate- 
ful disciples  at  Philippi.  Epaphroditus  was 
taken  ill  at  Rome,  and  the  Philippians  were  so 
distressed  that  Paul  was  induced  to  send  him 
back  sooner  than  he  had  intended  (2.24-30). 

The  contents  of  the  epistle  may  be  divided 
into  three  parts — 

1.  After  an  introduction,  Paul  expresses  his 
gratitude    to  God   for   the    Philippians   whose 
conduct  had  been  so  exemplary  (1.1-11).      He 
reassures    them    regarding    his    imprisonment. 
If  Christ  be  preached  and  magnified,  whether 
it  be  by  Paul's  labours  or  by  his  martyrdom, 
he    himself    is    more   than    content   (1.12-30). 
He   encourages   the    Philippians  to  be   strong 
and    united    (2.1-11),   and    promises    to    send 
Timothy  (2.12-24),  as  he  is  sending  Epaphroditus 
(2.25-30). 

2.  The   writer   bids   the    Philippians   be   on 
their  guard  against  Judaising  teachers,  and  to 
strive  after  perfection,  as  he  himself  was  doing ; 
contrasting  with  this  the  conduct  of  false  pro- 
fessors (3.2-4.1). 


PHILISTIA] 


385 


[PHINEHAS 


3.  He  administers  admonitions  to  individual 
members  of  the  Church  ;  followed  by  exhorta- 
tion to  holy  joy,  moderation,  prayer,  and  thanks- 
giving ;  and  to  the  study  of  all  praiseworthy 
qualities  (4.2-9).  The  epistle  concludes  with 
grateful  thanks  and  the  benediction  (4.10-23). 

A  connexion  between  this  epistle  and  those 
to  the  Ephesians  and  Colossians  is  traceable 
in  certain  ideas  (such  as  the  view  of  the  Church 
as  a  city  or  commonwealth,  cf.  Phil.  3.20  with 
Eph.  2.12,  19),  phrases  (as  "  preach  Christ," 
Phil  1.16, 18  and  Col  1.28),  and  words  (as 
"  lowliness  of  mind " — in  Greek  one  word, 
Eph.  4.2;  Phil  2.3;  Col  3.12). 

Philistia.— Palestine  (Ps.  60.8,  87.4,  108.9). 
[PALESTINE,  PHILISTINES.] 

Philistim.  —  The  same  as  Philistines  (Gen. 
10.14). 

Philistines. — Meaning  unknown,  possibly 
immigrants  :  the  Philistines  inhabited  the  low- 
lands of  Judah  along  the  sea  from  Joppa  to 
the  desert  of  Gaza.  The  district  had  five 
divisions,  each  with  its  chief  town — Ashdod  or 
Azotus,  Gaza,  Askelon,  Gath,  and  Ekron,  the 
last  two  being  inland.  These  five  principalities 
formed  a  confederacy  of  which  Ashdod  was 
chief  (1  Sam.  6.17),  for  it  was  here  that  the 
Ark  was  brought  (1  Sam.  5.1).  The  date  of 
their  settlement  in  Canaan  is  very  uncertain, 
but  they  supplanted  the  Avvim,  having  come 
from  Caphtor  (which  see)  (Deut.  2.23 ;  Jer. 
47.4;  Amos  9.7). 

The  Israelites,  on  their  entry  into  the  country, 
soon  came  into  conflict  with  the  Philistines, 
who  stubbornly  resisted  the  invaders,  and 
indeed  compelled  a  portion  of  the  tribe  of 
Dan  to  migrate  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Mount 
Hermon  (Judg.  18).  The  power  of  the  Philis- 
tines increased  throughout  the  rule  of  the 
Judges  and  Saul,  until,  after  the  death  of  the 
latter,  David  united  the  tribes  and  signally  de- 
feated them.  [SAMSON.] 

The  upper  part  of  the  territory  of  the  Philis- 
tines was  claimed  by  Ephraim  (1 K.  15.27, 16.15), 
who  could  not,  however,  drive  the  inhabitants 
out.  Philistia  was  at  no  time  ever  part  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Israel  (2  K.  1.3,  8.2) ;  but,  on  the 
contrary,  its  people  continued  to  harass  the 
Israelites  by  fierce  forage,  seizing  the  inhabit- 
ants and  selling  them  into  slavery  (1  Sam.  10.5, 
13.3,17,  14.21,  23.1,  28.1,  29.11,  31.1-12). 
This  condition  of  things  lasted  until  Tiglath- 
pileser  (734  B.C.)  overran  the  whole  country, 
incidentally  subduing  the  Philistines  as  far  as 
Gaza.  A  few  years  afterwards  they  revolted 
against  Sargon  (Isai.  20)  and  Sennacherib. 
Hezekiah  was  involved  by  receiving  into  his 
care  the  king  of  Ekron,  who  had  before  been 
friendly  to  Assyria.  Hezekiah  had  re-estab- 
lished the  hold  over  Philistia  that  Solomon 
had  acquired  (2  K.  18.8).  In  this  action 
he  was  assisted  by  the  Egyptians,  who  seized 
the  lower  parts  of  the  country  (Isai.  19.18). 
But  Sennacherib  on  his  way  against  the 
Egyptians  took  Ashkelon.  Other  Philistine 
cities  submitted  to  the  Assyrians,  and  were 


given  portions  of  Hezekiah's  country.  For  a 
long  time  the  Assyrians  held  Ashdod,  until  the 
Egyptians,  under  Psammetichus  i.,  finally  re- 
duced it  (Jer.  25.20).  Neco  (Necho),  the  next 
Egyptian  monarch,  on  his  return  from  the 
battle  of  Megiddo  [MEGIDDO]  captured  Gaza. 
Once  again  the  Philistines  fell  between  the 
struggle  of  two  great  powers,  Egypt  and  Chaldea, 
Nebuchadnezzar  sweeping  the  country,  slaying 
and  taking  captive  almost  the  whole  of  the 
population  (Jer.  47).  The  old  hatred  that  the 
Philistines  bore  to  the  Jews  was  exhibited 
during  the  Captivity  (Ezek.  25.15-17).  From  the 
time  of  the  return,  however,  the  history  of  the 
Philistines  is  absorbed  in  the  struggles  of  the 
neighbouring  kingdoms. 

Beyond  the  fact  that  the  Philistines  seem 
to  have  been  a  Semitic  race,  and  so  kindred 
to  the  Jews,  scarcely  anything  is  known  about 
them.  They  were  idolaters ;  wore  charms 
against  disaster ;  carried  their  idols  to  battle 
with  them  (2  Sam.  5.21);  and  had  priests  and 
diviners  (1  Sam.  6.2). 

Philol'ogus. — Friend  of  learning  :  a  Christian 
at  Rome  whom  Paul  greeted  together  with 
Julia  (Rom.  16.15).  It  was  a  common  slave- 
name,  and  the  holder  may  have  been  connected 
with  the  Imperial  household. 

Philosopher,  Philosophy.— The  former  (Acts 
17.18  only)  is  used  of  Stoics  and  Epicureans 
(which  see),  i.e.  Greek  thinkers,  representative 
of  what  is  still  called  philosophy.  The  latter 
(Col.  2.8  only)  does  not  refer  to  Greek  philo- 
sophy, but  rather  to  that  special  system  of 
thought  and  practice  taught  by  the  false  teachers 
among  the  Colossians,  whatever  it  was.  Perhaps 
it  dealt  chiefly  with  rules  of  conduct  and  cere- 
monial observance. 

Phin'ehas. — Probably  an  Egyptian  word 
meaning  the  negro:  1.  Son  of  Eleazar,  son  of 
Aaron  (Ex.  6.25).  Whilst  young,  Phinehas 
displayed  great  zeal  in  suppressing  the  licentious 
idolatry  that  was  spreading  among  his  people 
(Num.  25.7  ff.).  For  his  action  on  this  occasion 
he  was  promised  that  the  priesthood  should 
remain  in  his  family  for  ever  (Num.  25.10-13). 
He  was  present  when  the  Midianites  were 
routed  (Num.  31.6),  and,  a  long  while  after- 
wards, he  headed  an  important  deputation 
sent  to  admonish  the  trans-Jordanic  tribes 
against  the  erection  of  an  altar  (Josh.  22.13-32). 
At  the  division  of  the  land  his  share  was  a  hill 
on  the  Ephraim  range  (Gibeath-Pinhas).  On 
Eleazar's  death,  Phinehas  became  high-priest, 
and  as  such  gave  the  oracle  to  his  people  in  the 
matter  of  Gibeah  (Judg.  20.28).  [ORACLE.] 
His  reputed  tomb  is  pointed  out  at  Awertah, 
4  miles  south-east  of  Nablous,  and  tradition 
has  it  that  the  hill  on  which  Awertah  is  built 
is  the  original  "  Hill  of  Phinehas." 

2.  A  younger  son  of  Eli  and  a  judge  of  Israel 
(1  Sam.  1.3,  2.34).  This  Phinehas  belonged  to 
the  family  of  Ithamar.  He  was  killed  with 
his  brother  at  the  capture  of  the  Ark  by  the 
Philistines.  3.  A  priest  or  Levite  whose  son, 
Eleazar,  returned  with  Ezra  (Ezra  8.33). 


PHLEGON] 


386 


[PHYSICIAN 


Phleg'on.  —  Zealoug,  turning  :  a  Roman 
Christian  greeted  by  Paul  (Rom.  16.14). 
Phoebe.— [PHEBE.] 
Phoenicia.— [PHENICIA.] 
Phoenicians. — The  Phoenicians  were  traders, 
and  settled  a  colony  at  Carthage,  which  became 
a  serious  obstacle  to  Rome  in  its  conquering 
progress.  Their  language  was  Semitic,  and 
closely  allied  to  Hebrew,  and  Aramaic,  the 
common  speech  of  Palestine  in  the  time  of 
Christ,  and  to  Arabic.  Greek  and  Roman 
writers  are  agreed  that  letters  were  first  com- 
municated to  the  Greeks  by  the  Phoenicians. 
Indeed,  it  was  the  ancient  belief  that  they  in- 
vented the  alphabet,  a  statement  that  remains 
to  be  proved.  In  the  time  of  Solomon  the  Jews 
and  Phoenicians  together  carried  on  the  foreign 
trade  of  the  country  (1  K.  10.22).  A  closer 
union  of  the  two  peoples  was  prevented  by  the 
disastrous  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes,  though  an 
attempt  was  made  by  Ahaziah  to  restore  the 
trade  formerly  carried  on  in  conjunction  with 
the  Phoenicians  in  the  Red  Sea  (1  K.  22.48,  49). 
The  friendly  covenant  was  not  renewed,  and  sub- 
sequently the  Phoenicians  made  great  profits  by 
buying  captive  Hebrews  and  selling  them  again. 
The  religion  of  the  Phoenicians  was  a  poly- 
theism, in  which  the  forces  of  Nature  and  the 
male  and  female  principles  of  reproduction  had 
their  place.  The  sun,  moon,  and  planets  were 
worshipped  as  intelligent  powers,  controlling 
human  destinies.  Among  their  gods  were  Baal, 
Ashtaroth,  and,  as  it  seems,  Asherah,  deities 
which  had  an  evil  influence  on  the  Hebrews, 
chiefly  because  they  were  worshipped  by  a 
people  of  a  higher  culture  than  themselves. 
The  worship  of  Baal  by  the  Phoenicians  was 
accompanied  by  the  horrible  sacrifice  of  sons 
by  fire  [MOLOCH]  (Jer.  19.5). 
Phoenix.— [PHEXICE.] 

Phrygia. — An  inland  district  of  Asia  Minor 
(Acts  2.10,  16.6,  18.23).  At  one  time  it  in- 
cluded nearly  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor,  but 
was  afterwards  divided  into  Phrygia  Major  in 
the  south  and  Phrygia  Minor  in  the  north-west. 
The  greater  part  of  it  was  in  the  Roman  Province 
of  Asia,  and  it  is  probable  that  whenever 
Phrygia  is  mentioned  in  the  N.T.  the  part  that 
was  in  "  Asia"  is  always  intended,  though  some 
scholars  think  that  Acts  16.6  refers  to  part  in 
the  Province  of  Galatia.  Towns  of  Phrygia 
named  in  the  N.T.  are  Laodicea,  Hierapolis, 
and  Colossse.  The  country  lies  high  above  the 
sea,  and  shows  considerable  diversity  of  soil 
and  climate.  Jews  have  resorted  thither  from 
early  times  for  purposes  of  trade,  and  in  the  time 
of  the  apostles  were  pretty  numerous. 

Phu'rah  (R.V.  Purah).  —  Gideon's  servant 
(Judg.  7.10, 11). 

Phut,  Put.— The  third  of  the  sons  of  Ham 
(Gen.  10.6;  1  Ch.  1.8).  He  peopled  Lybia. 
His  descendants  in  the  time  of  the  prophets 
(Ezek.  27.10)  hired  themselves  as  mercenaries 
to  Tyre.  [LYBIA,  TYRE.]  Nahum  (3.9)  and 
Jeremiah  (46.9)  mention  the  Phut  as  mercenary 
soldiers.  In  Isai.  66.19  it  is  misspelt  Pul. 


Phu'vah.— A  son  of  Issachar  (Gen.  46.13). 
Pua  (Num.  26.23)  and  Puah  (1  Ch.  7.1)  are 
other  forms  of  the  same  name.  In  Judg.  10.1 
he  is  said  to  be  the  father  of  Tola,  elsewhere  his 
brother.  [PUAH.] 

Phygel'lus  (R.V.  Phygelus).— (?)  Fugitive  : 
one  who  deserted  Paul  in  Asia,  or  perhaps  in 
Rome  during  his  last  imprisonment  (2  Tim. 

1.15).      [HERMOaENES.] 

Phylactery.— A  mulet  or  charm :  certain 
verses  from  the  Law  were  written  in  very  small 
Hebrew  characters  upon  four  pieces  of  parch- 
ment, and  these  were  placed  in  a  square  leather 
case  with  four  divisions.  The  little  parch- 
ments were  folded  and  packed  tightly  in  the 
cells  with  the  hairs  of  clean  animals.  The 
box  was  then  placed  on  three  thicknesses  of 
leather,  to  form  the  base  which  rests  upon  the 
forehead,  and  these  pieces  were  stitched  to  the 
box  with  twelve  stitches,  to  represent  the 
twelve  tribes,  three  in  each  side.  Instead  of 
thread,  fine  sinews  from  the  foot  of  a  clean 
animal  were  used.  Leathern  thongs  were 
attached  to  the  frontlet  to  fasten  it  upon 
the  forehead. 

In  the  arm  phylactery  the  box  is  not  divided 
into  sections,  but  inside  it  is  placed  one  piece 
of  parchment,  containing  the  appointed  verses 
of  Scripture,  written  in  four  columns.  This  is 
tied  upon  the  left  arm  near  the  heart. 

Phylacteries  are  worn  by  every  pious  male  Jew 
of  the  age  of  thirteen  and  upwards  on  every  week- 
day in  the  year  during  morning  prayer,  and  used 
to  be  worn  (as  it  seems)  throughout  the  day. 
They  are  not  worn  on  Sabbaths  and  holy  days, 
for  these  are  enough  "  signs "  in  themselves. 
Our  Lord  condemned  the  ostentatious  wearing 
of  phylacteries  by  the  Pharisees  (Matt.  23.5). 
The  custom  appears  to  be  as  old  as  the  third 
or  even  the  fourth  century  B.C. 

Besides  the  phylacteries  worn  on  the  person 
there  is  another  called  "  mezuzah "  (doorpost), 
which  is  fixed  to  the  right-hand  post  of  every 
doorway  in  a  Jewish  house.  The  pious  Jew 
touches  this  whenever  he  passes  it,  and,  kissing 
his  two  fingers,  repeats  in  Hebrew,  "  The  Lord 
shall  preserve  thy  going  out  and  thy  coming 
in  "  (Ps.  121.8). 

The  verses  invariably  placed  within  the 
phylacteries  are  Ex.  13.1-16 ;  Deut.  6.4-9, 13-21. 
The  raised  figure  on  the  outside  of  the  case  is 
the  Hebrew  letter  Shin,  the  initial  letter  for 
Shaddai  (Almighty). 

The  explanation  of  this  custom  is  found  in 
Ex.  13.9;  Deut.  6.6-8,  where  Moses  tells  the 
people  that  they  should  show  reverence  to 
and  obey  God's  commands,  adding,  "  And  thou 
shalt  bind  them  for  a  sign  upon  thine  hand, 
and  they  shall  be  as  frontlets  between  thine 
eyes."  The  direction  was,  of  course,  intended 
to  be  obeyed  spiritually. 

Physician. — Physicians  are  mentioned  not 
only  in  the  Egyptian  inscriptions,  but  also  in 
the  Code  of  Khammurabi,  the  contemporary  of 
Abraham.  Later,  Alexandria  became  the  store- 
house of  the  medical  learning  of  the  world.  But 


PI-BESETH] 


387 


[PILEHA 


it  was  the  Greeks  who  made  a  science  of  the 
art.  Specialisation  was  as  much  practised  then 
as  now,  and  Herodotus  says  that  every  part  of 
the  body  was  studied  by  a  distinct  practitioner. 
Midwifery  was  a  separate  occupation,  and  in 
Egypt,  at  least,  was  in  the  hands  of  women  (Ex. 
1.15).  The  Egyptian  physicians  had  salaries 
from  the  public  treasuries,  and  treated  always 
according  to  formula.  When  science  failed 
magic  was  called  in. 

The  ceremonial  law,  and  their  horror  of 
41  uncleanness,"  prevented,  with  a  few  ex- 
ceptions, the  Jews  from  practising  surgery,  but 
as  physicians  many  of  them  were  skilled  and 
in  request  among  neighbouring  nations.  What 
medical  skill  the  Hebrews  had  was  doubtless 
first  obtained  from  the  Egyptians.  Moses 
had  all  the  learning  of  the  Egyptians,  doubtless 
including  medicine,  and  this  knowledge  had 
perhaps  much  to  do  with  the  suggestion  of 
sanitary  laws. 

Under  the  Law,  God  Himself  was  the  physi- 
cian. Hence  allusions  to  God's  "  healing 
mercy  "  (Ex.  15.26 ;  Ps.  103.3 ;  Jer.  17.14, 30.17). 
Any  one  might  practise  medicine  (Ex.  21.19  ; 
2  K.  8.29),  but  only  the  priest  could  pro- 
nounce upon  the  cure  (2  Ch.  16.12 ;  Jer.  8.22). 
What  is  remarkable  about  the  Hebrew  healing 
arts,  is  the  absence  of  sorcery,  charms,  and 
spells,  so  common  among  all  other  peoples. 
This  in  itself  was  enough  to  elevate  the  standard 
of  Jewish  medical  art  above  the  Egyptian. 
Ecclesiasticus  shows  familiarity  with  the  heal- 
ing art  (10.10,  38.1-15),  and  Jewish  tradition 
ascribes  to  Solomon  a  "  volume  of  cures."  The 
large  number  of  Jews  scattered  over  the  Roman 
Empire,  and  established  in  Rome  itself,  led  to 
many  of  them  taking  to  the  arts  of  healing,  so 
that  even  among  the  heathen  they  had  great 
reputation.  Luke's  medical  knowledge  must 
have  been  from  a  Greek  source — perhaps  from 
Tarsus.  Greek  schools  of  medicine  were  well 
known  at  that  time,  and  were  attended  by 
students  from  distant  parts.  [MEDICINE.] 

Pi-beseth,  or  Bubastis. — The  house  of  Ubasti, 
who  was  an  Egyptian  goddess.  It  is  the  modern 
Tel  Basta,  about  30  miles  north-east  from  Cairo 
(Ezek.  30.17). 

Picture. — Framed  pictures  as  we  have  them 
were  unknown  to  the  ancients,  but  sculptured 
pictures  in  low  relief,  or  fresco  paintings  in 
clear  tone,  on  the  walls  of  temples  and  royal 
palaces,  were  numerous  (Ezek.  23.14).  In  Egypt, 
mummy  cases  were  adorned  with  coloured 
portraits  of  the  dead,  and  elaborate  inscriptions 
covered  all  available  space.  The  "  pictures  of 
silver  "  (Prov.  25.11)  were  carved  ornaments  of 
fruit  and  foliage.  [POMEGRANATES.] 

Piece  of  Silver.— (1  Sam.  2.36).  In  this 
passage  the  reference  is  clearly  to  wages  for 
services  rendered.  In  Lk.  15.8, 9  the  pieces 
of  silver  on  the  woman's  head-dress,  one  of 
which  she  had  lost  [HEAD-DRESS],  were 
small  Greek  silver  coins,  equivalent  in  value 
to  the  Roman  denarius.  [PENNY.]  The  thirty 
pieces  of  silver  for  which  our  Lord  was  be- 


trayed (Matt.  26.15,  27.3, 5,  6,  9)  were  most 
likely  shekels.  [SHEKEL,  JUDAS.]  Though 
shekels  were  not  current  coin  in  our  Lord's 
time,  yet  there  was  an  equivalent  in  the  stater 
or  tetradrachm  (2s.  8d.).  [MONEY.] 

Pigeon.—  [DOVE.] 

Pi-hahi'roth.— The  site  of  an  Israelite  en- 
campment on  the  Red  Sea,  and  the  end  of  the 
third  march  from  Rameses  (Ex.  14.2, 9 ;  Num. 
33.7,  8) ;  possibly  the  same  as  "  Pikerehet,  not 
far  from  Pithom,  at  the  foot  of  the  present 
Djebel  Mariam"  (Naville).  The  first  part  of 
the  word  is  the  definite  article,  and  is  omitted 
in  Num.  33.8.  [EXODUS.] 

Pilate,  Pontius. — Procurator,  or  governor,  of 
Judaea,  under  the  Roman  Emperor  Tiberius, 
26-36  A.D.  His  birthplace  is  unknown. 
History  gives  him  an  unfavourable  character  as 
an  official ;  but  it  is  urged  by  some  that  his 
complicity  in  the  crucifixion  of  our  Lord  may 
have  led  to  an  exaggerated  statement  of  his 
defects.  It  would  appear  that  Pilate  was  of 
impetuous  temper,  an  unjust  judge,  and  ready 
to  sell  justice  for  gold.  In  public  and  private 
he  excelled  in  cruelty  (cf.  Lk.  13.1),  and 
during  the  whole  ten  years  of  his  government 
he  was  the  chief  occasion  of  continual  troubles 
and  revolts.  Pilate  made  some  attempts  to 
deliver  our  Lord  because  he  knew  the  cause  of 
the  hostility  to  Him  (Matt.  27.18),  and  because 
his  wife  had  been  troubled  by  a  dream.  He  was 
at  the  time  anxious  to  preserve  the  public  peace, 
and  so  tried  to  appease  the  Jews  by  scourging 
Jesus  (Matt.  27.26 ;  John  19.1),  whilst  offering 
to  release  Him  on  the  day  of  the  Passover. 
Lastly,  to  save  himself,  he  sent  Jesus  to  Herod, 
hoping  he  would  pronounce  judgment  (Lk. 
23.7,  8).  All  these  expedients  proving  futile, 
and  fearing  he  might  offend  both  Jews  and 
the  Emperor  (John  19.12-15),  Pilate  delivered 
Jesus  to  death,  first  publicly  washing  his  hands, 
to  show  his  own  innocence  of  the  crime  (Matt. 
27.23,  24).  That  Pilate  repented  the  action  he 
felt  it  necessary  to  take  is  seen  by  the  inscrip- 
tion he  placed  over  the  crucified  victim  (John 
19.19).  Pilate's  last  act  recorded  in  the  N.T. 
was  the  placing  a  guard  over  the  tomb  where 
the  body  of  Jesus  lay  (Matt.  27.65). 

Pilate  had  disturbed  Judaea  for  ten  years, 
when  he  was  at  length  deposed  by  Vitellius,  the 
proconsul  of  Syria,  36  A.D.,  and  sent  to  Rome, 
to  give  an  account  of  his  conduct  to  the 
Emperor.  While  on  his  way  to  Rome,  Tiberius 
died,  but  his  successor,  Caligula,  banished  Pilate 
to  Vienne  in  Gaul,  where  he  was  reduced  to 
such  extremity  that  he  laid  violent  hands  upon 
himself.  There  is  a  beautiful  legend  in  the 
Acts  of  Pilate  (Gospel  of  Nicodemus)  that  so 
long  as  Pilate  had  upon  him  the  robe  without 
seam  which  had  belonged  to  our  Lord,  Caesar's 
wrath  melted  into  tenderness,  and  he  could  not 
condemn  him. 

Pil'dash. — Son  of  Nahor  and  nephew  of 
Abraham  (Gen.  22.22). 

Pil'eha  (R.V.  Pilha).—  A  chief  or  family  who 
signed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  10.24). 


PILLAR] 


388 


[PITHOM 


Pillar. — In  very  early  times  rough  upright 
stones  were  used  for  votive  and  monumental 
purposes,  sacrifices  being  often  made  near  them. 
We  see  this  in  Jacob's  pillars  (Gen.  28.18, 
31.45,51,52,  35.14),  in  the  pillars  set  up  by 
Moses  on  Sinai  (Ex.  24.4),  the  twenty-four 
stones  at  Jordan,  and  that  in  Shechem  (Josh. 
4.8,9,  24.26,27).  Such  pillars  often  became 
the  scene  of  idolatrous  worship.  Pillars  were 
also  set  up  as  landmarks  and  waymarks  (1  Sam. 
20.19).  [EzEL.] 

The  term  also  occurs  in  a  metaphorical  sense. 
Thus  we  have  a  pillar  of  cloud,  of  fire,  of  smoke, 
etc.  (Ex.  13.21 ;  Judg.  20.40).  Job  speaks  of 
the  pillars  of  heaven  and  of  the  earth  (9.6,  26.11), 
as  though  the  heavens  and  the  earth  were  an 
edifice  raised  by  the  hand  of  the  Creator.  Paul 
speaks  of  the  Christian  Church  as  a  pillar  or 
column,  on  which  the  truth  of  the  gospel  is 
inscribed  (1  Tim.  3.15).  In  2  Sam.  (18.18)  we 
find  Absalom  erecting  one  in  the  valley  of 
Jehoshaphat  to  himself,  that  his  name  might 
not  be  forgotten.  So  the  believer  shall  have  a 
place  of  permanence  and  usefulness  in  the  Divine 
temple,  with  the  name  of  God  and  His  city 
inscribed  upon  him  (Rev.  3.12). 

Pillar,  Plain  of  the.— (Judg.  9.6).  More  cor- 
rectly "  Oak  of  the  Pillar."  It  was  a  tree  near 
Shechem,  where  Abimelech  was  crowned. 

Pillar  of  Salt.— [SALT,  LOT'S  WIFE.] 

Pilled.— Equivalent  to  peeled  (Gen.  30.37). 

Pillow.— 1.  [BOLSTER.]  2.  In  1  Sam.  19.13 
perhaps  a  quilt  or  a  mosquito-net.  3.  In  Ezek. 
13.18  perhaps  bands  placed  on  the  joints  of  the 
hands  of  those  who  came  to  consult  the  diviners. 
4.  In  Mk.  4.38  the  wooden  head-rest  at  the 
stern  of  the  boat,  or  possibly  a  rower's  cushion. 

[HOTJSB.] 

Pilot. — [SAILING.] 

Pil'tai.— Delivered  by  Jehovah :  head  of  the 
priestly  house  of  Moadiah  (Neh.  12.17). 

Pine  Tree.— In  Isai.  41.19,  60.13  this  is 
probably  an  elm.  In  Neh.  8.15  it  is  an  olive 
or  a  wild  olive. 

Pinnacle  of  the  Temple.— The  pinnacle  in 
Matt.  4.5  is  sometimes  thought  to  have  been  the 
gallery,  or  parapet,  on  the  top  of  the  buttresses 
which  surrounded  the  roof  of  the  Temple,  or 
else  the  top  of  the  Royal  Portico  on  the  edge  of 
the  Temple  area  near  the  ravine.  More  probably 
it  was  the  extreme  corner  of  the  "  winglike  " 
porch  which  led  into  the  sanctuary. 

Pi'non. — Founder  of  a  tribe  of  Edomites 
(Gen.  36.41  ;  1  Ch.  1.52).  The  seat  of  the  family 
was  between  Pelra  and  Zoar,  a  copper-mining 
district.  [PUNON.] 

Pipe,  Piper. — The  Hebrew  word  is  derived 
from  a  root  meaning  to  bore  or  perforate, 
and  is  well  translated  '*  pipe,"  an  old  English 
\vord  for  flute.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  musical 
instruments,  and  the  pipe  of  the  Hebrews 
differed  little  from  that  of  the  Egyptians  and 
Greeks.  It  was  used  at  all  festive  occasions  in 
public  and  in  private  life  (Isai.  5.12;  Lk.  7.32), 
at  banquets,  at  weddings,  and  at  certain  religious 
services  and  public  processions  (1  Sam.  10.5  ; 


1  K.  1.40;    Isai.  30.29);    as  also  at  funerals 
(Matt.  9.23),  and  on  occasions  of  public  mourn- 
ing (Jer.  48.36). 

Pi'ram. — A  king  of  the  Amorites  who  was 
slain  by  Joshua  (Josh.  10.3).  [JARMUTH.] 

Pira'thon. — (?)  Height:  the  home  of  Abdon 
the  judge,  and  of  Benaiah,  one  of  David's  guard 
(Judg.  12.13,15;  2  Sam.  23.30;  1  Ch.  11.31, 
27.14).  Perhaps  the  modern  Farata,  6  miles 
south-west  of  Nablus. 

Pis'gah. — (?)  Cleft :  a  ridge  in  the  mountainous 
regions  of  Abarim,  in  the  land  of  Moab  (Num. 
21.20;  Dent.  4.49).  It  was  here  that  Balak 
brought  Balaam  to  curse  the  Israelites  (Num. 
23.14),  and  from  this  height  that  Moses  viewed 
the  Promised  Land  (Deut.  3.27,  34.1).  [NEBO.] 

Pishon  —  [PisoN.] 

Pisid'ia. — A  mountainous  district  of  Asia 
Minor,  surrounded  by  Lycaonia  on  north  and 
east,  Pamphylia  on  the  south,  and  the  province 
of  Asia  on  the  north  and  west.  In  Paul's  time 
it  formed  part  of  the  province  of  Galatia, 
where  Paul  preached  (Acts  13.14,  14.24;  cf. 

2  Tim.  3.11).     [PAUL.] 

Pi'son  (R.V.  Pishon). — One  of  the  four 
great  rivers  that  watered  Paradise  (Gen.  2.11). 
[EDEN.] 

Pis'pah.— A  man  of  Asher  (1  Ch.  7.38). 

Pit. — A  word  used  often  in  Holy  Scripture 
with  varying  significance. 

Gen.  14.10. — Slime-pits.  The  bituminous  lake 
which  covers  the  lower  part  of  the  Jordan 
valley.  [SLIME.] 

Gen.  37.20.— A  dry  well,  bottle-shaped, 
into  which  Joseph  was  cast  by  his  brethren. 
[WELLS.] 

Ex.  21.33. — Storehouse  for  grain,  sometimes 
excavated  in  the  living  rock.  [CORN.] 

Num.  16.30;  Job  17.16.— Sheol,  or  Hades. 
The  "  bars  of  the  pit  "  are  the  bars  of  the  gates 
of  Sheol.  [HELL.]  See  also  Job  33.18  ff. ; 
Ps.  9.15,  etc. 

Ps.  7.15. — An  allusion  to  the  method  of  catch- 
ing wild  beasts  by  digging  pits  and  lightly  cover- 
ing them  with  branches  or  soil.  [HUNTING.] 

Rev.  9.1,  2. — "  The  bottomless  pit."  Liter- 
ally "  the  pit  of  the  abyss,"  the  abode  of  evil 
spirits.  See  also  Lk.  8.31,  where  "  the  deep  " 
has  the  same  meaning.  [HELL.] 

Pitch.  —  Bitumen  and  vegetable  resins. 
Eruptions  of  bitumen  are  frequent  along  the 
shores  of  the  Dead  Sea,  which  has  been  called 
"  Lake  of  Asphaltites."  It  was  used  largely 
in  building,  and  quantities  of  it,  dry  and  hard, 
have  been  found  amongst  the  larger  ruins,  as  at 
Babylon  (Gen.  6.14  ;  Ex.  2.3  ;  Isai.  34.9). 

Pitcher.— (Gen.  24.14  ff.).  An  earthenware 
vessel  with  two  handles  was  generally  used 
to  raise  water  from  wells.  [RACHEL.]  Full  or 
empty  it  was  carried  on  the  head,  giving  the 
bearer  a  graceful  upright  bearing.  [POTTERY, 
BOTTLE.] 

Pi'thom. — House  of  (the  god)  Atum :  an 
Egyptian  treasure  city  (Ex.  1.11)  in  Goshen,  oast 
of  the  Nile,  near  the  present  Lsmailia.  The 
"  treasure  "  was  most  probably  corn,  or  other 


PITHON] 


389 


[PLAGUES,  THE  TEN 


stores ;  not  likely  of  precious  metals  or  jewels. 
It  was  built  by  the  enslaved  Israelites  under 
Rameses  n.  The  Romans  built  Heroopolis  on 
the  edge  of  its  site.  It  was  rediscovered  by 
Naville  at  Tel-el-Mashkuta.  [GosHEN.] 

Pi'thon. — Harmless  :  grandson  of  Jonathan, 
son  of  Saul  (1  Ch.  8.35,  9.41). 

Plague. — A  deadly  contagious  disease,  very 
prevalent  over  the  East  from  time  immemorial, 
and  the  most  dreaded  scourge  of  Egypt  and 
Syria.  The  term  is  used  metaphorically  to 
express  a  special  visitation  or  punishment  for 
wrong-doing  (Ex.  9.14;  Lev.  26.21 ;  1  K.  8.37  ; 
see  also  the  next  article) ;  also  to  denote 
calamity  (Mk.  5.29,  34  ;  Lk.  7.21). 

Several  Hebrew  words  are  translated 
"  plague,"  which  is  used  to  denote  various 
malignant  diseases,  as  well  as  moral  and  physical 
evils.  In  modern  speech  the  plague  is  the 
''  bubo-plague,"  which  can  be  traced  back 
certainly  as  far  as  the  third  century  B.C.,  and 
probably  existed  in  Egypt  even  in  the  time  of 
the  Exodus,  and  perhaps  was  one  of  the  ten 
plagues  that  afflicted  Pharaoh  and  his  people. 

"  The  leading  characteristics  of  true  or  bubo- 
plague  may  be  briefly  stated  as  a  highly  con- 
tagious, malignant  fever,  attended  by  sudden 
and  extreme  prostration  of  all  the  powers,  a 
leaden,  sunken  look  of  the  eyes,  erysipelatous 
inflammation  of  the  skin,  buboes,  carbuncles, 
and  pet echial  patches,  with  diarrhoea"  (Diseases 
of  the  Bible,  p.  Gl).  Some  of  these  symptoms 
are  plainly  seen  in  the  plague  on  the  Philistines 
in  1  Sam.  5  and  6,  where  notice  also  the  mention 
of  mice  (or  rats),  for  the  connexion  of  these  with 
plague  is  now  well  known.  It  has  also  been 
suggested  that  the  curtains  of  the  Ark  might 
have  carried  the  infection  by  fleas,  and  given 
it  to  the  men  of  Bethshemesh  when  they  looked 
into  the  Ark  (1  Sam.  6.19). 

The  plague  that  followed  the  eating  of  the 
quails  was  evidently  ptomaine  poisoning  (Num. 
11.31  ff.).  The  sudden  advent  of  vast  numbers 
might  well  cause  the  flesh  to  be  more  or  less 
putrid  when  eaten.  The  nature  of  the  plague 
that  in  a  short  time  carried  off  14,700  of  the 
people  (Num.  16.41-50)  is  uncertain,  but  the 
account  of  its  miraculous  stoppage  is  remark- 
able, as  foreshadowing  modern  ideas  about 
isolation  and  fumigation. 

Plagues,  The  Ten. — The  design  of  these  awful 
visitations  was  to  make  Pharaoh  know  and  con- 
fess that  the  God  of  the  Hebrews  was  supreme, 
even  over  the  power  of  the  greatest  nation, 
as  Egypt  then  was  (Ex.  9.16 ;  1  Sam.  4.8,  etc.) ; 
to  execute  judgment  upon  the  Egyptians  for 
their  cruelty,  and  their  gross  idolatry.  They 
were  in  most,  if  not  in  all,  cases  unusual  examples 
of  natural  calamities. 

1.  Turning  the  Nile  into  Blood. — The  Egyptians 
paid  divine  honours  to  the  Nile,  and  revered  it 
as  the  first  of  their  gods.  They  declared  him 
to  be  the  rival  of  heaven,  since  he  watered  the 
land  without  the  aid  of  clouds  and  rain.  The 
turning  of  their  sacred  river  into  blood  for  seven 
days  was  a  calamity  that  caused  consternation 


and  dismay  (Ex.  7.14  H).  It  is  said  that  some- 
times a  red  fungus  grows  over  the  Nile  which 
looks  like  blood;  but  it  does  not  injure  the 
water. 

2.  The  Plague  of  Frogs. — In  the  plague   of 
frogs  the  sacred  river  itself  was  made  an  active 
instrument  of  punishment,  together  with  another 
of  their  gods.     The  frog  was  a  sacred  animal, 
consecrated  to  the  sun,  and  considered  an  em- 
blem   of    divine    inspiration    in    its    inflations. 
The  sudden  removal  of  the  plague  was  as  strong 
a  proof  of  God's  power  as  its  infliction  (Ex. 
8.1  ff.).    [FROGS.] 

3.  Lice. — The  plague  of  lice   was  peculiarly 
offensive  to  a  people  so  scrupulously  neat  and 
cleanly  as  the  Egyptians.     The  priests,  especi- 
ally, shaved  their  whole  bodies  every  third  day, 
that  no  vermin  might  be  found  upon  them  while 
they  served  their  gods.     This  plague  reflected 
on  the  magicians  themselves,  because  from  the 
minuteness  of  the  objects  they  could  not  produce 
them  by  sleight-of-hand,  and  they  were  forced 
to  confess  the  "  finger  of  God  "  (Ex.  8.19)  in  the 
miracle. 

4.  Flies. — The  three  first  plagues  were  borne 
by    Egyptian    and   Israelite    alike,   but  in  the 
fourth  God  specially  separated  His  people  from 
their  oppressors   (Ex.  8.20-23).     This  miracle 
would  be  in  part   against  the   sacred  beetles 
worshipped  in  Egypt. 

5.  Murrain  of  Cattle. — A  fifth  plague   broke 
out  on  the  morrow,  according  to  Divine  threaten- 
ing (Ex.  9.1  ff.).     Again  a  distinction  is  made 
between    the    Egyptians    and    their    captives. 
The  cattle  of  the  former  are  all  destroyed,  that 
of   the   Israelites  escaping.     This  miracle   was 
directly  from  the  hand  of  God  without  the  inter- 
vention of  Aaron,  though  Moses  was  sent  to 
Pharaoh  with  the  usual  warning. 

6.  Boils  and  Blains.—(Ex.  9.8  ff.). — The  sixth 
plague  marked  an  increasing  severity  in  God's 
dealings  with  the  obdurate  and  false-hearted 
monarch.     A  new  feature  also  was  that  Moses 
appeared  personally  as  the  executor  of  the  Divine 
commands.     As,  in  the  presence  of  Pharaoh,  he 
threw  ashes  into  the  air,  a  plague  of  boils  fell  on 
the  people.    It  was  a  significant  act.   The  scatter- 
ing of  the  ashes  would  remind  the  Egyptians  of 
their  custom  in  the  sacrifice  of  human  victims, 
and  another  of  their  deities,  the  air,  was  made 
to  disseminate  the  disease. 

7.  The  Hail.— In  the  tremendous   plague   of 
hail,  the  united  elements  of  air,  water,  and  fire 
were  employed.     Evidently  there  had  been  some 
interval  between  this  plague  and  No.  6,  for  the 
Egyptians  had  had  time  to  procure  more  cattle 
from  the  land  of  Goshen,  where  the  Israelites 
dwelt.     Also  it  is  evident  that  the  Egyptians  had 
by  this  time  a  wholesome  dread  of  the  God  of 
Israel,  and  took  timely  shelter  from  the  terrible 
lightning  and  hail  of  ice  that  rained  upon  the 
land  (Ex.  9.20). 

8.  The   Locusts. — This   plague   attacked   the 
vegetable    kingdom.     It    was    a   more   terrible 
punishment  than  the  others,  because  the  p-eople's 
food  was  almost  entirely  vegetable.     This  time 


PLAISTER,  PLASTER] 


390 


[POETRY  OF  THE  HEBREWS 


Pharaoh's  advisers  urged  him  to  comply  with 
the  demand  of  God's  messengers,  pointing  out 
that  the  country  had  already  suffered  as  much 
as  it  could  bear  (Ex.  10.7).  Pharaoh  yielded 
so  far  that  he  permitted  men  to  go  (10.7-11), 
but  even  this  concession  was  made  with  a  bad 
grace,  and  he  "  drives  "  Moses  and  Aaron  out  of 
his  presence.  So  once  more  Moses  stretched 
out  his  hand  at  the  command  of  God,  and  the 
land  was  covered  with  locusts,  which  destroyed 
all  such  vegetation  as  had  escaped  the  hail. 
Again  the  monarch  promised  to  let  the  Israelites 
go,  and  again  refused  to  keep  his  word  when  the 
plague  was  removed.  The  word  "  coast "  in  this 
narrative  is  an  old  English  word  for  district. 

9.  Three  Days  of  Darkness. — The  plague  of 
darkness  would  show  the  powerlessness  of  the 
God  of  the  Sun  whom  the  Egyptians  worshipped. 
The  ninth  plague   came  upon  the   Egyptians 
without  warning,  bringing  darkness,  gross  and 
palpable,  over  the  land  for  three  days  (10.21  ff.). 
But  the  Israelites  had  light  in  their  dwellings. 
Pharaoh  now  consented  that  all  the  people  shall 
go,  leaving  their  cattle  behind.    The  offer  was 
rejected  by  Moses,  who  announces  the  last  and 
most  dreadful  plague,  the  destruction  of  all  the 
first-born  of  Egypt  (10.24-11.8).    He  departs  in 
anger  from  the  presence  of  Pharaoh,  whose  heart 
is  still  hardened  (11.9, 10).    This  visitation  is 
connected  by  many  with  the  sirocco,  or  Chasmin, 
a  hot,  scorching  wind  from  the  desert  of  Sahara, 
sometimes    accompanied   with  dense  darkness, 
owing  to  the  atmosphere  being  filled  with  fine 
sand.     The  sirocco  did  not  extend  to  the  district 
of  Goshen,  being  miraculously  withheld  or  turned 
aside.    [DARKNESS.] 

10.  Death  of  the  First-born.— This  was  the  last 
and  decisive  plague  (Ex.  11.1  ff.).     It  was  also 
the  one  most  plainly  inflicted  by  direct  Divine 
interposition,    not    only   not   bearing   any   re- 
semblance  to   any   natural    phenomenon,    but 
occurring  without  the  intervention  of  any  known 
agency.     Even  the  childless  were  smitten,  in 
the  destruction  of  the  first-born  of  the  beasts. 
The  Israelites  were  protected  from  the  destroy- 
ing angel  by  obeying  the  special  commands  of 
God. 

Plaister,  Plaster.— In  Deuteronomy  (27.2)  the 
uneven  surface  of  the  stones  was  to  be  smoothed 
over  with  a  cement,  capable  of  resisting  the  action 
of  the  air  in  a  dry  climate,  and  then  engraved  or 
painted  with  the  words  of  the  Law.  Such  plaster 
inscriptions  are  found  among  the  antiquities  of 
Egypt.  In  Leviticus  (14.43)  the  plastering  of  a 
house  that  had  been  infected  with  a  fungus  was 
an  act  of  sanitation.  Theplaister  of  Isaiah  (38.21) 
was  a  poultice  of  figs,  to  draw  out  the  matter 
from  the  boil.  [MORTAR.] 

Plane.— [CARPENTER,  TOOLS.] 

Planets.— (2  K.  23.5).  In  this  passage  the 
Hebrew  word  means  "  the  resting-places  "  of 
the  sun,  i.e.  the  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac. 

Plat.— Plot,  i.e.,  of  ground  (2  K.  9.26). 

Pledge. — A  security  given  for  the  perform- 
ance of  a  contract  (Deut.  24.10-13).  So  Judah 
gave  pledges  to  Tamar  (Gen.  38.17).  Under  the 


Jewish  law  the  taking  of  pledges  was  regulated : 
the  millstone  was  not  to  be  taken  in  pledge 
(Deut.  24.6),  nor  was  a  person  taking  a  pledge  to 
enter  a  house  to  fetch  it  (the  sacredness  given 
to  the  poor  man's  home  strikingly  illustrates 
the  refined  and  humane  spirit  of  these  laws), 
nor  to  detain  necessary  raiment  after  sunset, 
nor  was  a  widow's  raiment  to  be  taken  in 
pledge  (Deut.  24.17).  In  Job  (22.6)  some  are 
reproached  because  they  have  taken  their 
brother's  pledge,  and  in  Job  (24.3,9)  because 
they  have  taken  the  widow's  ox.  It  has  gener- 
ally been  the  case  in  all  countries  that  the  legis- 
lature has  enacted  laws  to  protect  the  poor  debtor 
from  the  oppressive  creditor.  House  and  land, 
or  even  sons  and  daughters,  could  be  given  in 
pledge  (Neh.  5.5),  in  which  case  they  became 
slaves  to  the  creditor.  Sometimes  the  law 
about  keeping  the  Sabbath  was  evaded  by  the 
purchaser  giving  a  pledge  instead  of  money  (Ex. 
22.26 ;  Prov.  20.16 ;  Amos  2.8).  In  1  Sam. 
17.18  "  take  their  pledge  "  means  "  bring  back 
a  token  of  their  welfare."  [SLAVERY.] 

Pleiades. — A  group  of  stars,  seven  of  which 
are  larger  than  the  others,  in  the  neck  or  near 
the  shoulder  of  Taurus  (the  bull)  (Job  9.9,  38.31 ; 
Amos  5.8). 

Plough. — The  Syrian  plough,  used  in  all  the 
regions  around,  was  a  very  simple  contrivance, 
and  so  light  that  a  man  might  carry  it  in  one 
hand.  Sometimes,  indeed,  it  was  nothing  more 
than  the  branch  of  a  tree,  cut  below  the  bifurca- 
tion, and  used  without  wheels.  With  such  an 
imperfect  machine  it  was  impossible  to  do 
more  than  scratch  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
Even  the  ploughs  furnished  with  shares  and 
coulters  were,  and  are  still,  very  light,  com- 
pelling the  ploughman  to  lean  his  whole  weight 
on  it  to  produce  any  effect  (Lk.  9.62).  Some- 
times the  end  of  the  shaft  was  shod  with  iron, 
which  is  of  such  a  shape  that  the  prophecies  of 
Isai.  2.4  and  Joel  3.10  can  easily  be  fulfilled. 
Ploughs  were  generally  drawn  by  asses  and  cows, 
seldom  by  oxen ;  sometimes  one  or  more  of  a 
kind  being  used,  the  yoking  together  of  beasts 
of  unequal  size  and  step  produced  too  jerky  a 
motion  for  an  operation  requiring  regularity, 
besides  being  cruel  to  the  beasts  themselves 
(Deut.  22.10). 

Ploughshare.— [PLOUGH.] 

Plower,  Plowman.— [HUSBANDMAN.] 

Plumbline,  Plummet. — The  use  of  this  was 
well  known  to  the  Hebrews,  the  English  trans- 
lation representing  three  words  in  the  original. 
The  first  of  these  ('anaq)  in  Amos  7.7,  8  suggests 
a  weight  of  metal ;  while  the  second  (eben  bedil) 
in  Zech.  4.10  points  to  this  being  made  of  tin. 
The  third  (mishqoleth,  or  mishqeleth),  in  2  K. 
21.13 ;  Isai.  28.17,  is  a  more  general  term  for 
a  weight. 

Poche'reth of  Zebaim  (K. V.  Pochereth-hazze- 
baim). — Binder  of  gazelles:  a  servant  of  Solo- 
mon. His  descendants  returned  with  Zerubbabel 
(Ezra  2.57  ;  Neh.  7.59). 

Poetry  of  the  Hebrews,  The.— I.  Its  Form. 
— It  is  probable  that  in  the  very  earliest  times, 


POETRY  OP  THE  HEBREWS] 


391 


[POETRY  OF  THE  HEBREWS 


when  history  and  doctrine,  and  even  rules  for 
ritual  and  conduct,  began  to  be  handed  down, 
poetry  became  used  as  a  ready  means  for 
making  an  impression  upon  the  memory.  But 
it  is  even  more  probable  that  such  poetry  was 
in  the  most  rudimentary  form,  rhyme  and  metre 
belonging  to  a  later  stage  of  its  history.  If 
this  be  so,  Hebrew  poetry,  as  regards  its  form, 
represents  an  early  period  of  poetical  expression. 
For,  as  far  as  we  are  able  to  determine  the 
character  of  the  poetry  of  the  Bible,  metre 
seems  to  have  been  absent  from  it,  save  in  one 
well-marked  instance,  and  rhyme  to  have  been 
used  very  rarely.  In  one  instance,  as  has 
been  said,  metre  can  be  clearly  traced,  namely,  ' 
in  the  wailing  songs  used  by  women  at  funerals, 
and  in  poems  of  the  same  character.  Such,  for 
example,  are  the  words  put  into  the  mouths 
of  the  mourning  women  in  Jer.  9.18-20,  and 
the  lamentation  of  Amos  5.1,  sqq.,  and  the 
elaborate  example  of  Lam.  1-4.  In  this  metre,  a 
verse  is  in  two  parts,  the  proportion  of  which 
is  as  3  to  2,  with  a  sharp  ccesura  between  them, 
"  giving  rise  to  a  peculiar  limping  rhythm, 
in  which  the  second  member,  as  it  were,  dies 
away  and  expires."  It  is  called  the  Kinah 
or  Lamentation  metre. 

Numerous  attempts  have  been  made  to  trace 
other  metres,  but  so  far  with  little  success. 
The  authors  of  the  various  theories  of  Biblical 
metres  are  compelled  to  make  innumerable 
changes  in  the  Massoretic  text,  in  order  to  pro- 
duce consecutive  examples  which  fit  their 
system.  They  urge  in  favour  of  their  attempts 
that  we  must  expect  difficulties  in  recognising 
metres,  when  there  is  so  often  doubt  about  the 
exact  vocalisation  of  the  Hebrew  consonants, 
and  when  the  nature  of  the  musical  melodies 
to  which  the  words  were  set  is  quite  unknown 
to  us.  But  the  non-specialist  in  such  studies 
can  only  reply  that  there  are  limits  to  the 
alteration  of  the  traditional  text,  and  that 
discoverers  of  Hebrew  metres  can  hardly  claim 
that  they  have  made  any  disciples  to  their 
several  systems. 

Wherein,  then,  is  Hebrew  poetry  to  be  distin- 
guished by  its  form  ?  The  answer  is,  by  its 
Rhythm.  A  piece  of  Hebrew  prose  may  be 
very  charming,  as  is,  for  example,  the  English 
prose  of  Ruskin ;  but  it  lacks  a  rhythm  which 
is  distinctive  of  poetry.  In  Hebrew  poetry 
the  rhythm  has  a  balance  not  merely  of  form, 
but  also  of  meaning.  This  is  technically  called 
'parallelism,  and  in  all  introductions  to  the 
Book  of  Psalms,  the  various  kinds  of  parallelism 
are  given  at  length.  It  is  sufficient  here  to  say 
that  it  is  evident  that  the  second  half  of  a  verse 
can  either  agree  with  the  statement  of  the  first 
(Ps.  19.1),  or  can  show  the  opposite  side  of 
truth  (Ps.  1.6),  and  again  that  such  parallelisms 
can  be  double  (Ps.  103.11,  12).  The  technical 
names  of  these  varieties  of  parallelism  are  of 
no  importance  ;  the  facts  represented  by  the 
names  are. 

There  are  also  some  "  minor  embellish- 
ments "  in  Hebrew  poetry  which  should  be 


mentioned.  Some  poets,  particularly,  as  it 
would  seem,  those  of  later  ages,  liked  to  begin 
each  line  of  a  poem  with  a  fresh  letter  of  the 
alphabet  (e.g.  Ps.  25),  and  in  one  case  (Ps.  119) 
each  of  the  stanzas  begins  with  the  same  letter, 
until  all  the  twenty-two  letters  of  the  Hebrew 
alphabet  are  exhausted.  Modern  Hebrew  poets 
are  very  fond  of  making  the  lines  of  poems 
begin  or  end  with  the  letters  of  their  own  name, 
or  of  the  name  of  a  famous  person  connected 
with  their  poem.  But  there  is  no  certain,  or 
even  probable,  example  of  this  in  the  O.T. 
Other  marks  of  poetry  are  archaistic  terms 
and  figures  of  speech,  but  these  need  no  explan- 
ation, for  such  are  employed  by  poets  of  all 
ages  and  countries. 

II.  Its    Character.  —  The     more    important 
poems  in  the  O.T.  are  Lamech's  Song  of  the 
Sword  (Gen.  4.23,  24),  Miriam's  song  on  crossing 
the  Red  Sea  (Ex.  15),  the  well  song  (Num. 
21.17,  18),  Moses'  Song  in  Deut.  32,  Deborah's 
Song  (Judg.  5),  the  extracts  from  the  Book  of 
Jasher,  Josh.  10.12,  13  (the  battle  of  Gibeon 
under  Joshua),  and  2  Sam.  1.19-27  (David's 
lamentation  over  Saul  and  Jonathan),  David's 
Song  (2  Sam.  22),  poems  contained  in  the  Book 
of   Isaiah    (e.g.  5.1-7,   26),  Psalms,  Proverbs, 
Job,  the  Song  of  Songs,  Lamentations.     Besides 
these,  many   prophecies   approach  the   poetic 
form,  but  are  not  poems,  in  the  strict  sense  of 
the  word.     It  will  be  observed   that  none  of 
the  poems  is  purely  secular,  although  naturally 
there  must  have  been  many  secular  songs  among 
the  Hebrews  (cf.  Isai.  23.15,  24.9).     Part  of  a 
vintage  song  is  given  in  the  Talmud.     Even 
Lamech's   is   the   song   of   a   typical  heathen 
boasting  of  his  sword,  of  the  material  against 
the    spiritual.     The    Song    of    Songs,    though 
properly  a  collection  of  odes  sung  during  the 
marriage  week,  is  hardly  an  exception,  because, 
as  the  collection  stands,  it  was  probably  under- 
stood from  the  very  first  to  signify  the  relation 
of  God  to  Israel. 

Thus  all  that  survives  deals,  more  or  less 
directly,  with  the  communion  of  the  individual 
soul  with  God,  or  with  the  close  relation  in 
which  the  nation  stands  to  God.  In  not  a  few 
of  the  poems  it  is  difficult  to  decide  which  of 
these  two  subjects  is  described,  for  the  language 
may  fairly  be  applied  to  either.  Even  the 
"  I "  of  the  writer  may  represent  the  soul  of 
the  nation  addressing  itself  to  God.  [PSALMS.] 
But,  even  if  many  commentators  were  right  in 
making  this  identification,  as  often  as  they  do, 
there  would  still  remain  enough  passages  to 
indicate  a  very  advanced  sense  of  the  personal 
relationship  between  the  Psalmist  himself  and 
God.  The  deep  spiritual  experience  of  these 
poets  is  very  remarkable.  Hence  it  is  that  the 
Psalms  have  been  transferred  in  their  entirety 
to  the  worship  of  Christians,  who  find  in  them 
the  expression  of  that  fellowship  with  God 
to  which  their  own  souls  would  fain  attain. 

III.  The    Poetry    of    the    N.T.  —  This    can 
hardly  be  altogether  omitted  under  the  title 
of  the  poetry  of  the  Hebrews,  for  all  the  writers 


POISON] 


392 


[PONTUS 


of  the  N.T.  were  Jews,  save  St.  Luke,  and  he, 
curiously  enough,  is  the  one  who  has  preserved 
for  us  the  greater  part  of  the  poems.  This 
poetry  of  the  N.T.  represents  two  stages.  First, 
that  of  devout  Jews  at  the  time  when  Christ 
was  born.  The  Magnificat  (Lk.  1.46-55),  the 
Benedictus  (Lk.  1.68-79),  the  Nunc  Dimiitis 
(Lk.  2.29-32)  were  doubtless  originally  Hebrew 
or  Aramaic  poems,  and  are  marked  by  the  form 
and  character  of  Hebrew  poetry,  the  chief 
difference  from  the  Psalms  lying  in  their  subject 
— that  the  Messiah  is  at  hand,  yea,  has  come. 
Secondly,  we  might  have  expected  that  the 
realisation  of  peace  and  joy  through  the  Gospel, 
together  with  the  outpouring  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
would  soon  cause  the  formation  of  Christian 
hymns.  This  seems  in  fact  to  have  been  the 
case,  for  we  find  fragments  of  such  hymns  quoted 
by  St.  Paul  to  illustrate  his  own  words  in 
Eph.  5.14,  and  1  Tim.  3.16.  These  are  only 
fragments,  but  they  illustrate  both  the  ethical 
and  the  doctrinal  side  of  the  revelation  of 
Christ,  and  also  two  of  the  great  functions  of 
sacred  poetry,  viz.  to  help  the  memory  to 
preserve  truths,  and  to  awaken  the  soul  to  such 
close  communion  with  God  that  it  may  receive 
the  full  light  which  He  is  willing  to  impart. 

Poison. — The  Bible  mentions  the  poison  of  asps 
(Job  20.16),  serpents  (Deut.  32.24),  and  dragons 
(Deut.  32.33).  [GALL,  HEMLOCK.]  Evil  conduct 
and  language  are  likened  to  poison  or  venom, 
hurtful  and  deadly  to  men's  souls  and  bodies 
(Deut.  32.33  ;  Ps.  58.4  ;  Rom.  3.13  ;  Jas.  3.8). 
The  destructive  judgments  of  God  are  also 
compared  to  poison  (Job  6.4,  20.16).  Poisoned 
arrows  have  been  used  from  very  ancient  times, 
and  Job  (6.4)  seems  to  refer  to  this  custom. 
Poisoning  in  any  form  was  not  a  vice  of  the 
Jews,  though  their  herbalists  were  skilled 
chemists,  and  must  have  been  familiar  with 
many  poisonous  substances.  [Asp,  ADDER, 
DEATH.] 

Poll. — The  head,  especially  the  back  of  the 
head  (Num.  1.2, 18,  20,  3.47  ;  1  Ch.  23.3,  24). 
To  poll  is  to  cut  the  hah-  (2  Sam.  14.26).  In  the 
visions  of  Ezekiel  the  godly  priests  would  poll, 
or  cut  short,  the  hair  of  their  heads,  but  not 
shave  them,  as  both  a  mark  of  manliness  and 
an  avoidance  of  the  customs  of  heathen  priest- 
hood (Ezek.  44.20).  [HAIB.] 

Pollux. — In  heathen  mythology,  the  twin 
brother  of  Castor.  The  vessel  which  carried 
Paul  to  Rome  had  the  sign  (figurehead)  of 
Castor  and  Pollux  (Acts  28.11). 

Polygamy.— Polygamy  was  a  recognised  in- 
stitution amongst  the  Hebrews ;  but  "  from  the 
beginning,"  as  our  Lord  reminded  His  hearers, 
"it  was  not  so"  (Matt.  19.8).  Polygamy 
early  appeared  amongst  the  family  of  Cain 
(Gen.  4.23) ;  it  was  the  custom  with  the  Patri- 
archs (Gen.  16.3,  25.1,  29.29,  30),  though,  as 
in  the  case  of  Abraham  and  Jacob,  reasons 
are  assigned  ;  it  existed  amongst  the  Judges 
(Judg.  8.30) ;  in  the  case  of  David  there  is 
indirectly  express  sanction  (2  flam.  12.8) ; 
and  amongst  the  kings  (2  Sam.  5.13),  though 


there  were  restrictions  on  royal  license  (Deut. 
17.17),  and,  as  in  tha  case  of  Solomon,  evil 
results  are  traced  to  the  influence  of  the 
many  wives  (1  K.  11.4).  The  existence  of 
polygamy  was  closely  related  to  that  of 
domestic  slavery ;  and  the  rights  of  the 
woman  sold  into  slavery  by  her  father,  and 
married  by  her  master  or  his  son,  were  defined 
(Ex.  21.7-11).  In  the  N.T.  monogamy  has 
become  the  rule,  though  polygamy  is  not 
expressly  repudiated.  In  the  mission-field 
the  policy  adopted  in  dealing  with  polygamy 
varies.  By  some  missions  a  polygamist  is  not 
admitted  to  baptism — he  must  put  away  all 
his  wives  save  one.  By  others  a  polygamist 
is  baptized,  but  must  not  take  more  wives  ; 
nor  must  a  Christian  with  one  wife  take  another. 
The  wife  of  a  polygamist  is  sometimes  admitted 
even  when  the  husband  is  not. 

Pomegranate. — A  low,  bush-like  tree  common 
in  Palestine  and  the  East  generally.  Its 
branches  are  very  thick  and  bushy,  some  being 
armed  with  sharp  thorns.  The  leaves  are 
spear-shaped,  the  flowers  red.  The  fruit,  con- 
sisting of  a  hard  rind  enclosing  red  grains  of 
pulp-covered  seeds,  ripens  in  October,  and 
has  a  considerable  quantity  of  sweetish-acid 
juice,  very  refreshing  in  a  hot  climate,  though 
rather  thin  to  northern  palates.  The  high 
estimation  in  which  the  pomegranate  was  held 
by  the  Jews  may  be  inferred  by  its  being 
one  of  the  fruits  brought  by  the  spies  from 
Eshcol  (Num.  13.23,  20.5),  and  by  its  being 
specified  by  them  as  one  of  the  greatest  luxuries 
they  had  left  behind  in  Egypt.  To  Moses  the 
fruit  was  one  of  the  chief  recommendations  of 
the  Promised  Land  (Deut.  8.8).  Its  form,  also, 
was  so  admired,  and  so  clear  a  figure  of  fruitful- 
ness,  that  it  was  much  used  in  ornamentation, 
being  honoured  with  a  place  at  the  bottom  of 
the  high-priest's  robe  (Ex.  28.33),  and  was 
chosen  by  Solomon  as  the  principal  ornament 
of  his  Temple.  The  rind  is  used  for  tanning 
Morocco  leather,  and  also  medicinally. 

Pommel. — Projections  from  the  capitals  of 
pillars  (2  Ch.  4.12,13).  The  same  word  is 
translated  "  bowls  "  in  1  K  7.41. 

Pontius  Pilate.— [PILATE.] 

Fontus. — Country  by  the  sea  :  the  north-east 
district  of  Asia  Minor,  bordering  on  the  Black 
Sea.  It  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  Cappa- 
docia ;  on  the  east  by  Colchis ;  by  Paphlagonia 
and  Galatia  on  the  west.  It  was  formerly  part 
of  Cappadocia,  when  this  was  a  satrapy  of  Persia. 
In  480  B.C.  it  contributed  100  ships  to  the  fleet 
of  Xerxes.  Nearly  four  hundred  years  later, 
Mithridates  the  Great  extended  its  borders,  and 
assisted  the  Greeks  against  the  Scythians,  his 
influence  reaching  to  the  Danube.  Within  a  few 
years,  however,  he  lost  the  greater  part  of  his 
territory,  and  Pontus  became  a  Roman  province 
about  64  B.C.  In  the  latter  part  of  Paul's  time 
the  north-east  part  was  made  into  the  province 
of  Bithynia  and  Pontus,  while  the  rest  of  it 
was  included  in  the  huge  province  of  Galatia. 

It    was   the   residence   of   Jews   present    at 


POOE] 


393 


[POTTER'S  FIELD 


Jerusalem  on  the  great  day  of  Pentecost,  of 
Aquila,  and  of  Christians  addressed  by  Peter 
(Acts  2.9,  18.2  ;  1  Pet.  1.1). 

Poor.— [POVERTY.] 

Poplar. — In  the  two  passages  where  this  word 
occurs  (Gen.  30.37;  Eos.  4.13)  the  original  is 
from  a  root  signifying  "  to  be  white."  The  white 
poplar,  so  plentiful  in  our  own  country,  is  also 
common  in  Palestine,  and  fulfils  the  conditions 
of  the  two  passages  of  Scripture  where  it  occurs. 
It  was  planted  for  its  shade,  and  its  wood  was 
used  for  making  household  utensils.  Peeled 
rods  of  poplar  were  put  by  Jacob  before  Laban's 
ring-streaked  sheep  (Gen.  30.37). 

Po'ratha. — Given  by  lot,  or  fate :  one  of 
Haman's  ten  sons  killed  in  Shushan  by  the 
Jews  (Esth.  9.8).  [HAMAN.] 

Porch. — Five  different  words  have  been  trans- 
lated "  porch."  In  1  Kings  (6.3,  7.6  ff.),  Ezekiel 
(8.16),  etc.,  read,  arch  or  colonnade ;  in  Judges 
(3.23),  a  verandah  ;  in  Mark  (14.68),  a  passage 
or  corridor  uniting  an  outer  court  with  the 
house  door ;  in  Matthew  (26.71),  the  passage  or 
gateway  from  the  street ;  in  John  (5.2,  10.23), 
Acts  (3.11,  5.12),  a  portico  or  cloister. 

Porcius  Festus. — [FESTUS.] 

Porter. — In  every  case  where  this  word  is 
used  it  signifies  a  doorkeeper  (2  Sam.  18.26  ; 
1  Ch.  16.42 ;  Ezra  2.42 ;  John  10.3).  The 
porters  of  the  Temple  were  a  distinct  class,  and 
were  on  duty  day  and  night,  having  regular 
reliefs.  They  also  had  the  care  of  the  treasure 
and  offerings.  They  were  a  semi-military  body, 
"  the  soldiers  of  the  Lord,"  guarding  His  house, 
to  the  several  entrances  and  courts  of  which 
they  were  appointed  by  lot,  serving  in  turn 
("  courses  ")  (1  Ch.  26.1, 13,  19  ;  2  Ch.  8.14, 
35.15).  It  was  their  duty  to  keep  order,  prevent 
unlawful  entrance  of  unclean  or  excommuni- 
cated persons.  There  were  twenty-four  in 
number  on  duty  always,  under  a  superior  officer, 
who  made  the  rounds  at  irregular  intervals. 

Possession. — [DEVIL,  POSSESSED  OP  A.] 

Posts. — Messengers  or  couriers  (2  Ch.  30.6 ; 
Esth.  3.13,15,  8.10, 14 ;  Job  9.25  ;  Jer.  51.31). 
The  establishment  of  regular  posts,  with  relays 
of  runners  on  foot  or  on  horseback,  is  generally 
ascribed  to  the  Persians.  The  speed  with  which 
messages  could  be  sent  on  is  almost  incredible, 
the  postmen  having  authority  to  press  into  their 
service  men,  animals,  or  indeed  anything  that 
could  help  them  on  their  way  (cf.  Matt.  5.41). 
Sometimes  messages  were  passed  on  by  the 
voices  of  men  stationed  on  eminences  at  some 
distance  apart. 

Pot. — The  Hebrews  had  many  forms  of  pots. 
Besides  the  pot  or  ordinary  vessel  used  for  boil- 
ing (Judg.  6.19),  we  meet  with  the  sir,  a  vessel 
or  pan  chiefly  employed  in  cooking  flesh  (Ex. 
16.3).  This  was  a  large  open  vessel,  also  used 
for  washing  (Ps.  60.8).  Another  word  rendered 
"  pot  "  was  the  cheres,  which  was  used  for  stew- 
ing or  baking  (Ezck.  4.9).  The  dud  was  another 
cooking  vessel  (1  Sam.  2.14).  The  pots  of  Jer. 
35.5  should  be  described  as  bowls.  The  water- 
pots  of  stone  (John  2.6)  at  Cana  were  amphorae, 


holding  about  twenty  gallons  each.  These  large 
jars  were  often  made  of  earthenware  or  metal, 
as  well  as  of  stone,  pointed  or  rounded  at  the 
bottom,  and  supported  by  specially  constructed 
stands.  The  saph  (Ex.  12.22)  was  used  to  contain 
the  blood  with  which  the  doorposts  were 
sprinkled ;  the  Jciyyor  (Ex.  30.18)  was  a  wash- 
ing-pot ;  but  this  and  the  saph  were  both  terms 
to  designate  vessels  employed  in  religious  ritual. 
[BOWL,  PAN,  POTTERY.] 

Poti'phar. — The  gift  of  Ra  (the  noonday  sun) : 
Pharaoh's  chief  executioner,  or  butcher,  who 
bought  Joseph  from  the  travelling  merchants 
(Gen.  37.36,  39.1).  From  his  position  he  prob- 
ably had  charge  of  the  prison,  and  lived  in 
official  quarters  within  it.  His  private  pro- 
perty consisted  of  land,  the  charge  of  which  was 
given  to  Joseph  (Gen.  39.4-6).  The  movements 
of  Egyptian  women  of  all  classes  was  that  of 
absolute  freedom,  and  there  was  therefore  full 
opportunity  for  Joseph's  temptation.  That 
Potiphar  did  not  slay  his  servant  on  the  spot 
seems  to  show  that  he  valued  him  highly,  and 
that  he  had  some  suspicion  of  the  genuineness  of 
the  charge  brought  against  him.  [JOSEPH.] 

Potiphe'rah. — He  whom  Ea  gave :  a  priest 
of  On,  and  father  of  Asenath,  the  wife  of  Joseph 
(Gen.  41.45, 50,  46.20).  [ON.] 

Potsherd. — A  piece  of  broken  pottery  (Job 
2.8).  Such  pieces  were  largely  used  in  Egypt 
as  cheap  and  handy  writing  materials,  and  these 
ostraca  have  supplied  much  information  with 
regard  to  the  everyday  language  and  customs 
of  the  times  when  they  were  inscribed. 

Pottage. — Something  prepared  in  a  pot :  a 
dish  of  red  lentils  (Gen.  25.29-34)  which  Jacob 
gave  to  Esau  in  return  for  the  birthright.  This 
food,  when  cooking,  has  a  very  appetising  odour. 

Potter. — Though  the  art  of  pottery  is  one  of 
the  most  ancient  of  all  industries,  yet  it  is  hardly 
mentioned  among  the  Hebrews  until  the  times 
of  Saul  and  David  (2  -Sam.  17.28  ;  1  Ch.  4.23). 
In  the  early  or  nomadic  stages  of  their  life  the 
needs  of  the  Israelites  were  few,  and  earthen- 
ware utensils  would  be  very  simple,  especially 
as  every  animal  they  killed  gave  them  a  skin 
to  make  into  a  receptacle  for  water,  milk,  or 
wine.  The  prophets,  however,  make  frequent 
mention  of  the  potter  and  his  art  (Isai.  29.16, 
30.14,  41.25,  64.8  ;  Jer.  18.2-6,  19.1-11). 

Potter's  Clay.— (Isai.  29.16).  Potter's  clay 
was  a  comparatively  rare  substance,  especially 
in  Palestine,  and  valued  accordingly.  Its  pre- 
paration entailed  much  laborious  kneading  and 
treading  under  water,  to  get  it  perfectly  smooth 
and  free  from  impurities  (Isai.  41.25).  Then, 
in  its  soft  state,  it  was  absolutely  obedient  to 
the  will  and  hand  of  the  potter,  who  could 
make  it  into  whatever  form  he  liked ;  or  break 
it  down  and  make  it  up  again  into  some  other 
shape  (Isai.  64.8  ;  Jer.  18.4). 

Potter's  Field.— It  is  thought  that  this  place 
received  its  name  from  the  land  connected  with 
pottery  established  at  Jerusalem  (Isai.  30.14), 
or  perhaps  from  the  potter's  house  of  Jer.  18.2. 
It  was  this  piece  of  ground  that  was  bought 


POTTER'S  WHEEL] 


394 


[PREDESTINATION 


with  the  betrayal  money  which  Judas  returned 
to  the  Sanhedrin,  who  converted  it  into  a  burial- 
ground  for  stranger  Jews  (Matt.  27.7, 10). 

Potter's  Wheel.— In  Eastern  lands  this  is  of 
either  wood  or  stone,  turned  sometimes  by 
hand  or  the  foot,  and  sometimes  by  an  assistant. 

Pound. — [WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES,  MONEY.] 

Poverty. — The  Jewish  law  was  mindful  of 
the  poor.  They  had  the  right  of  gleaning  in 
the  cornfields,  in  the  vineyards,  and  olive- 
orchards  (Lev.  19.9, 10  ;  Deut.  24.19,  21 ;  Ruth 
2.2).  In  the  sabbatical  year  the  poor  were 
entitled  to  a  share  in  the  crops  (Ex.  23.11 ; 
Lev.  25.6) ;  and  if  they  had  parted  with  land 
or  personal  freedom,  these  were  to  be  restored  hi 
the  year  of  Jubilee  (Lev.  25.25  ff . ;  Deut.  15.12  ff.). 
In  addition,  they  were  protected  from  usury 
(Lev.  25.35,37;  Deut.  15.7,8,  24.10-13),  re- 
ceived a  portion  of  the  tithes  (Deut.  26.12, 13), 
and  were  to  be  considered  in  other  ways  also 
(Lev.  19.13 ;  Deut.  16.11, 14).  [ALMS,  LOANS, 
TITHES.] 

Powder. — In  Deut.  28.24  a  storm  of  dust 
instead  of  rain.  In  Song  of  Sol.  3.6  "  powders 
of  the  merchant  "  are  perfumes. 

Power  on  her  Head.— (1  Cor.  11.10).  A  veil 
or  covering,  such  as  ensures  respect  for  an 
Eastern  woman  passing  through  the  streets. 
Here  perhaps  the  apostle  means  that  both  men 
and  angels  would  be  shocked  at  seeing  a  woman 
unveiled  at  Divine  worship. 

Prsetorium. — The  residence  of  the  Roman 
Governor  at  Jerusalem,  formerly  the  palace  of 
Herod  the  Great  (Mk.  15.16) ;  and  at  Csesarea, 
where  it  had  also  been  Herod's  palace  (Acts 
23.35).  In  Phil.  1.13  the  same  Greek  word  is 
translated  "  praetorian  guard,"  i.e.  the  guard 
whose  duty  it  was  to  take  care  of  the  Emperor. 

Prayer. — Christian  prayer  is  based  on  the 
conviction  that  a  Heavenly  Father,  Whose 
providential  care  is  over  us  (Matt.  6.26, 30, 
10.29,  30),  Who  is  "  very  pitiful,  and  of  tender 
mercy"  (Jas.  5.11),  will  hear  and  answer  the 
petitions  of  His  children  in  such  a  way  and  at 
such  a  time  as  He  may  deem  best.  Prayer, 
then,  can  be  made  in  all  confidence  (Phil.  4.6), 
though  God  "  knoweth  what  things  "  we  "  have 
need  of  "  before  we  ask  Him  (Matt.  6.8,  32). 
His  answer  may  be  delayed  (Lk.  11.5-10) ; 
it  may  be  needful  that  prayer  should  be 
importunate  (Lk.  18.1-8)  and  repeated,  as  in 
the  case  of  our  Lord  (Matt.  26.44) ;  and  the 
answer  may  not  be  of  the  nature  asked  for 
(2  Cor.  12.7-9) ;  but  the  believer  can  lay  all 
over-anxiety  aside,  resting  in  the  peace  of  God 
(Phil.  4.6,  7).  Apart  from  prayer  associated 
with  worship,  or  prayer  at  stated  periods 
(Ps.  55.17 ;  Dan.  6.10),  prayer  was  made 
where  and  as  occasion  required  it — within  the 
"  great  fish  "  (Jon.  2.1) ;  on  mountains  (1  K. 
18.42;  Matt.  14.23);  on  the  housetop  (Acts 
10.9) ;  in  an  inner  chamber  (Matt.  6.6) ;  in 
prison  (Acts  16.25) ;  on  the  seashore  (Acts  21.5). 
The  Temple  was  pre-eminently  a  "  house  of 
prayer  "  (Lk.  18.10),  and  those  who  could  not 
join  in  ita  worship  turned  towards  it  in  their 


prayers  (1  K.  8.38;  2  Ch.  6.34;  Dan.  6.10). 
Various  attitudes  in  prayer  are  noted  both  in  the 
O.T.  and  in  the  N.T.— Standing  (1  Sam.  1.26  ; 
Mk.  11.25) ;  kneeling  (Dan.  6.10  ;  Lk.  22.41) ; 
bowing  the  head  and  bowing  to  the  ground 
(Ex.  12.27,  34.8) ;  prostrate  (Num.  16.22  ;  Matt. 
26.39).  In  standing  or  kneeling  in  prayer  the 
hands  were  spread  out  (Ezra  9.5),  or  raised 
(Ps.  28.2;  cf.  1  Tim.  2.8).  Manifestations  of 
contrition  and  distress  sometimes  accompanied 
prayer  (Ezra  9.5;  Lk.  18.13).  Intercessory 
prayer  (Jas.  5.16-18)  is  enjoined  both  in  O.T. 
and  N.T.  (Num.  6.23  ;  Job  42.8  ;  Isai.  62.6,  7  ; 
Matt.  5.44;  1  Tim.  2.1).  Examples  of  inter- 
cessory prayer  are  seen  in  the  case  of  Moses 
(Ex.  32.31,  32),  David  (2  Sam.  24.17 ;  1  Ch. 
29.18),  Stephen  (Acts  7.60),  Paul  (Rom.  1.9). 
Requests  for  intercessory  prayer  may  be  found 
in  Ex.  8.8;  Num.  21.7;  1  K.  13.6;  Acts 
8.24;  Rom.  15.30-32;  and  answers  to  inter- 
cessory prayer  in  Ex.  8.12, 13  ;  Num.  21.8, 9 ; 
1  K.  13.6  ;  Acts  12.5-8  ;  and  cf.  2  Cor.  12.8. 

Our  Lord's  own  example  as  to  prayer  is  de- 
cisive. He  indicated  the  foundation  on  which 
belief  in  prayer  rests — the  providential  care  of 
an  all-wise  Father  in  Heaven  (Matt  7.7-11) ;  He 
taught  His  disciples  how  to  pray,  and  how  not 
to  pray  (Matt.  6.5-15;  Lk.  11.1-13);  He  as- 
sured them  of  the  certainty  of  God's  answer  to 
right  prayer  (Matt.  7-7, 18.19,  21.22  ;  John  15.7, 
16.23,  24) ;  He  associated  prayer  with  the  life 
of  obedience  (Mk.  14.38 ;  Lk.  21.36) ;  He  en- 
couraged persistence  and  importunity  in  prayer 
(Lk.  11.5-8,  18.1-7);  He  sought  privacy  for 
prayer  (Matt.  14.23,  26.36-46;  Mk.  1.35; 
Lk.  5.16) ;  He  used  intercessory  prayer  in  the 
supplication  known  as  His  High  Priestly  Prayer 
(John  17) ;  He  prayed  during  the  agony  of  the 
Cross  (Matt.  21 AQ  ;  Mk.  15.34 ;  Lk.  23.34, 46). 
Prayer  in  the  name  of  Christ  is  authorised  by 
our  Lord  Himself  (John  14.13, 14,  15.16),  and 
by  St.  Paul  (Eph.  5.20;  Col.  3.17).  The 
Holy  Spirit  also  "  maketh  intercession  for  us  " 
(Rom.  8.26). 

Precious  Stones. — See  under  separate  titles, 
JACINTH,  RUBY,  etc. 

Predestination.— The  English  word  "  pre- 
destinate "  in  the  A.V.  is  rendered  "  fore- 
ordain "  in  the  R.V.  Both  express  the  Greek 
word  proorizo  (cf.  our  horizon),  which  means, 
defining  or  delimiting  beforehand  (Acts  4.28; 
Rom.  8.29,  30 ;  1  Cor.  2.7 ;  Eph.  1.5, 11).  It  is 
thus  concerned  with  God's  purpose  and  plan. 
It  will  help  us  to  understand  the  meaning  of 
the  Divine  purpose  when  applied  to  spiritual 
religion,  if,  first  of  all,  we  consider  it  on  a  very 
much  wider  scale.  God's  eternal  purpose  is 
not  confined  to  Christianity,  or  even  to  religion ; 
it  is  involved  in  the  very  constitution  of  the 
universe.  His  purpose  may  be  said  to  embrace 
everything  and  everybody.  This  is  really 
what  we  mean  by  Divine  providence.  Such 
a  purpose  of  God  has  been  seen  again  and  again 
in  the  course  of  history.  Why  was  Israel 
chosen  out  of  the  nations  to  be  God's  witness 
to  the  world  ?  Why  do  we  find  such  frequent 


PREDESTINATION] 


395 


[PREDESTINATION 


instances  of  younger  sons  being  chosen,  instead 
of  elder  sons?  Why  are  Englishmen  higher 
in  the  scale  of  nations  than  Kaffirs  ?  Why 
has  civilisation  been  in  existence  in  the  West 
for  centuries,  while  it  has  not  yet  affected  many 
of  the  nations  of  the  East  ?  How  is  it  that 
individuals  differ  in  bodily  strength,  mental 
power  and  moral  capacity  ?  With  every 
consideration  of  what  are  regarded  as  secondary 
forces  and  influences,  including  man's  freedom, 
these  difficulties  are  not  explicable,  apart  from 
God's  inscrutable  and  eternal  purpose.  The 
primary  cause  must  rest  in  the  will  of  God. 
History  constantly  shows  the  over-ruling 
providence  of  God  working  by  certain  plans 
for  His  own  Divine  purpose.  We  must  not  be 
surprised,  therefore,  if  we  find  something  in 
Christianity  answering  to  this  great  fact  in 
nature  and  history.  The  problem  is  just  as 
acute  when  associated  with  external  and 
temporal  blessing  as  it  is  when  associated  with 
spiritual  things,  for  the  underlying  cause, 
God's  eternal  purpose,  is  the  same  in  both 


When  we  look  at  the  narrower  idea  of  God's 
predestination,  or  foreordination,  in  regard  to 
religion,  we  are  still  face  to  face  with  Divine 
purpose  ;  and  at  this  point  the  doctrine  of 
predestination  may  be  said  to  be  associated  with 
that  of  election  ;  the  only  difference  is  that 
election  refers  to  the  act  of  choice,  and  pre- 
destination to  the  purpose  or  aim  of  that  choice. 
In  the  great  passage  Eph.  1.4-14,  the  blessings 
of  the  Gospel  are  associated  with  (a)  the  eternal 
purpose  of  the  Father  (vers.4-6a),  (6)  the  histori- 
cal revelation  of  the  Son  (vers.  66-12),  and  (c) 
the  personal  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit  (vers.  13.14). 
Predestination  is  connected  with  the  first  of 
these.  The  Christians  referred  to  in  the  epistle 
were  the  subjects  of  God's  love  and  pre- 
destinating purpose,  which  manifested  itself 
in  due  course  in  the  work  of  Christ,  and  then 
became  applied  personally  in  individual  lives 
by  the  Holy  Spirit.  Scripture  teaches  first 
of  all  God's  predestination,  in  the  sense  of  His 
general  purpose  to  provide  salvation.  This, 
in  the  O.T.,  is  seen  in  the  form  of  Israel's 
election  to  national,  temporal  and  spiritual  privi- 
leges. But  in  the  N.T.  election  it  is  associated 
with  spiritual  realities,  whether  they  are  present 
opportunities  and  possessions,  or  future  pro- 
spects and  certainties.  Yet  all  the  while  the 
N.T.  is  equally  insistent  on  the  human  response 
to  this  Divine  attitude,  and  on  the  human  re- 
sponsibility to  hear,  accept  and  obey,  in  order 
to  enjoy  these  blessings.  There  is  thus  a  clear 
emphasis  on  the  two  great  factors,  Divine 
sovereignty  and  human  responsibility,  with 
no  attempt  whatever  to  reconcile  these  two 
apparently  opposite,  but  really  complementary, 
factors  of  the  universe.  God's  purpose  is  to 
save  man  from  sin  by  the  provision  of  Christ 
and  of  grace  in  Him.  This  purpose  is  shown 
in  God  taking  the  initial  step  in  providing 
salvation,  and  then  offering  and  bestowing  it. 
Yet  Scripture  is  equally  clear  that  Divine  grace 


works  through  men's  willingness  to  receive  it, 
and  teaches  that  a  man  cannot  be  saved  unless 
he  does  receive  it.  These  two  sides  thus 
definitely  taught,  and  never  reconciled,  must 
be  held  fast,  without  any  attempt  at  full 
explanation ;  for,  with  our  present  limited 
faculties,  reconciliation  is  obviously  impossible. 
The  two  sides  are  like  parallel  lines  which 
never  meet,  but  are  equally  and  absolutely 
necessary.  We  must  be  careful  to  hold  all  that 
Scripture  teaches,  and  also  to  hold  it  in  the 
way  Scripture  presents  it  to  us.  Predestination 
is  always  associated  (1)  with  union  with  Christ 
(Eph.  1.4);  (2)  with  God's  foreknowledge 
(1  Pet.  1.2) ;  (3)  with  God's  purpose  of  service 
for  others  (Eph.  2.10) ;  and  (4)  with  His  Divine 
requirement  of  holiness  (Rom.  8.28-30;  Eph. 
1.4;  2  Thess.  2.13).  When  the  doctrine  is  kept 
in  close  association  with  these  aspects  of  truth, 
and  emphasis  is  constantly  placed  on  its  spiritual 
reality,  and  not  merely  on  its  intellectual  aspect, 
there  will  be  no  practical  difficulty.  When 
we  begin  the  Christian  life  through  simple  faith 
in  Christ,  we  soon  realise  something  of  the 
Divine  purpose  concerning  us,  and  are  able  to 
enter  more  deeply  into  God's  provision  and 
plans,  as  the  Spirit  of  God  works  in  our  hearts. 

Connected  with  this  doctrine  is  the  great 
question  whether  believers  can  fall  away  from 
grace,  and  be  lost  for  ever.  This  problem  should 
not  be  faced  precisely  in  this  way.  It  is  no 
question  of  abstract  possibility.  The  real 
problem  is  not,  can  they,  but  will  they,  fall  away, 
that  is,  will  those  who  have  tasted  the  sweetness 
and  satisfaction  of  Divine  grace  leave  Him  whose 
presence  provides  it  ?  From  the  first  moment 
of  our  Christian  life  we  are  surrounded  by 
God's  protecting  and  preserving  grace,  and  with 
all  the  safeguards  of  these  privileges.  The 
real  question  should  be  faced  on  moral  and 
spiritual  grounds,  and  when  so  considered  it 
will  lead  to  the  assurance  that  the  believer 
will  not  depart  from  so  gracious  and  wonderful 
a  spiritual  atmosphere  and  home.  It  is  for 
this  reason  that  the  two  sides  of  Divine  truth 
are  always  balanced  in  Scripture.  The  phrase, 
"  Final  Perseverance  "  emphasises  the  human 
side ;  and  is  balanced  by  the  phrase,  "  Final 
Preservation,"  which  emphasises  the  Divine 
side ;  and  in  almost  every  passage  in  which 
this  subject  is  dealt  with,  these  two  sides  are 
kept  clearly  before  us  ( John  6.44,  45,  10.27,  28  ; 
Eph.  1.4,  5 ;  2  Tim.  2.19).  We  must  therefore 
hold  fast  to  both  aspects  of  truth,  and  refuse 
to  speculate  or  attempt  reconciliation.  If 
a  believer  reaches  heaven,  it  will  only  be  by 
the  predestinating  love  and  sovereign  grace 
of  God  ;  and  yet  love  and  grace  always  work 
through  means.  Inasmuch  as  no  one  is  able 
to  read  his  own  name  in  the  Book  of  Life,  and 
thereby  to  become  assured  of  final  salvation 
as  an  individual,  the  only  possible  attitude  is 
one  of  strong  faith  and  confident  hope,  founded 
on  the  written  Word  of  God  and  on  witness  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  in  the  heart.  Kept  humble 
by  the  grace  of  God,  and  inspired  by  the  great 


PREPARATION] 


396 


[PRIEST 


and  precious  promises,  the  believer  rests  on  the 
faithfulness  of  God  for  everlasting  salvation. 

Preparation. — "  The  day  of  the  preparation  " 
(Matt.  27.62),  the  day  before  the  Sabbath ;  in 
John  19.14  "  the  preparation  of  the  passover," 
the  day  before  the  Sabbath  which  occurred 
during  the  Passover  festival  of  eight  days. 

Presbytery.— In  1  Tim.  4.14,  Paul  bids 
Timothy  "  neglect  not  the  gift  that  is  in  thee, 
which  was  given  thee  .  .  .  with  the  laying  on  of 
the  hands  of  the  presbytery."  In  2  Tim.  1.6,  he 
speaks  of  "  the  gift  of  God  which  is  in  thee  by 
the  putting  on  of  my  hands."  "  Presbytery  " 
was  the  body  of  presbyters  (cf.  Acts  13.1-3). 
[BISHOP,  CHURCH.] 

President.— Head  or  chief  (Dan.  6.2,  3,  4,  6, 7 
only). 

Press. — The  press  for  making  wine  or  oil 
(Isai.  16.10),  or  the  vat  in  which  the  liquid  was 
collected  (Hag.  2.16). 

Pricks.— (Acts  9.5,  26.14).    [GOAD.] 

Priest.— The  English  word  "priest"  is 
ambiguous,  and  has  to  do  duty  for  two  quite 
different  words  in  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin. 
It  is  used  to  translate  both  kohen  (Hebrew), 
hiereus  (Greek),  and  sacerdos  (Latin),  and  also 
zaqen  (Hebrew),  presbuteros  (Greek),  and  pres- 
byter (Latin).  It  is  the  contraction  of  the 
Latin  word  presbyter  (prester,  priest).  But  in 
the  O.T.  and  N.T.  the  English  word  "  priest " 
is  always  used  for  the  former  series  of  words, 
and  never  for  the  latter. 

Before  considering  the  various  Bible  aspects 
of  priesthood,  it  is  necessary  to  discover  what 
are  the  essential  characteristics  of  priesthood. 
What  did  the  priest  do,  as  a  priest,  which  no 
one  else  could  do  under  any  circumstances  ? 
The  most  accurate  definition  of  a  priest  is 
found  in  Heb.  5.1.  The  priest  was  "  appointed 
for  men  in  things  pertaining  to  God."  That 
is,  he  presented  things,  gifts  and  sacrifices 
from  man  to  God  :  and  as  such,  his  work  was 
the  opposite  of  that  of  the  prophet,  which  is 
to  represent  God  to  man.  Thus  the  fundamental 
idea  of  a  priest  is  that  of  a  mediator  between 
man  and  God.  The  priest  comes  between  man 
and  God,  just  as  the  prophet  comes  between  God 
and  man.  If  the  priest  ever  did  any  other 
work,  he  did  it,  not  as  a  priest,  but  only  as 
performing  the  functions  of  other  men.  This 
Godward  act  of  priesthood  is  always  emphasised 
in  Scripture;  Ex.  28.1;  Ezek.  4416;  Heb.  7.25. 
In  patriarchal  times  the  head  of  the  family  or 
tribe  acted  as  priest,  representing  his  family 
before  God.  Such  were  Noah,  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob.  At  the  time  of  the  Exodus 
there  were  Israelites  who  possessed  this  right 
of  priesthood,  and  were  exercising  it ;  but 
it  became  necessary  to  appoint  a  special  order 
to  undertake  the  duties,  and  so  the  tribe  of 
Levi  was  selected  for  this  purpose.  Out  of 
this  tribe  came  the  Aarom'c  priests,  who  hence- 
forth were  the  mediators  between  man  and  God, 
and  representatives  of  the  people  in  all  worship. 
All  the  sons  of  Aaron  were  priests,  unless  de- 
barred by  some  legal  disqualification.  This 


arrangement  continued  in  the  Southern  kingdom 
all  through  the  history,  arid  the  action  of  Jero- 
boam, in  appointing  his  own  priesthood,  bears 
testimony  to  the  essential  need  of  mediation. 
Priesthood  thus  witnessed  to  the  sinfulness  of 
man,  to  the  holiness  of  God,  and  to  the  need 
of  certain  conditions  of  approach  to  God. 
Man  must  draw  near  to  God  by  an  offering, 
and  be  near  to  God  for  intercession.  At  the 
return  from  captivity,  Ezra  reconstructed  the 
Levitical  arrangements,  and  this  continued  in 
substance  until  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
in  A.I>.  70. 

In  the  N.T.  the  few  passages  in  the  Gospels 
where  the  word  "  priest "  occurs  refer  solely 
to  the  Jewish  priesthood.  And  in  relation 
to  Christianity  the  singular  term  "  priest "  is 
never  applied  to  any  one  but  our  Lord.  While 
priestly  functions  connected  with  sacrifice  and 
intercession  are  frequently  found  in  the  N.T. 
associated  with  Christ  (Matt.  20.28;  Rom.  8.34; 
•Rev.  1.5),  it  is  only  in  Hebrews  that  these 
functions  are  attributed  to  Him  as  Priest. 
Christ's  priesthood  is  the  keynote  of  Hebrews, 
and  it  is  used  to  show  the  difference  between 
spiritual  immaturity  and  maturity.  Those 
who  know  Christ  as  Saviour  have  an  elementary 
knowledge  of  Him  as  Redeemer  ;  but  those 
who  know  Him  as  Priest  are  regarded  as  more 
mature  in  knowledge  and  experience.  Re- 
demption is  mainly  negative,  implying  deliver- 
ance from  sin  ;  but  priesthood  is  wholly  positive, 
involving  access  and  nearness  to  God.  The 
Hebrew  Christians  knew  Christ  as  Redeemer, 
but  they  were  to  know  Him  also  as  Priest, 
with  the  opportunity  of  free,  courageous  access 
to  God  at  all  times.  This  priesthood  of  Christ 
is  associated  with  that  of  Melchizedek,  a 
mysterious  priesthood  mentioned  in  Gen. 
14,  and  hinted  at  ages  afterwards  in  Ps.  110. 
The  argument  of  Hebrews  is  that  the  very  men- 
tion in  that  Psalm  of  another  priesthood,  not 
Aaron's,  was  a  proof  that  something  superior 
to  the  Aaronic  priesthood  was  necessary. 
Melchizedek's  priesthood  is  used  to  illustrate 
the  Divine  Person  of  the  priest,  while  his  work 
is  illustrated  from  the  Aaronic  priesthood, 
since  there  was  no  actual  priestly  work  con- 
nected in  Gen.  14  with  Melchizedek.  The 
priesthood  of  Christ  is  regarded  as  abiding 
and  eternal,  never  delegated  to  any  one  else 
(Heb.  7.24).  And  this  character  of  the  priest- 
hood is  due  to  the  fact  that  our  Lord's  sacrifice 
is  superior  to  the  sacrifices  of  the  O.T.,  because 
it  is  complete,  spiritual  and  efficacious  for  re- 
demption (Heb.  9.12-14,  10.11-14).  Thus  the 
priesthood  of  Christ  teaches  the  great  truth 
that  Christianity  is  "  the  religion  of  access  "  ; 
and  can  be  summed  up  in  the  exhortation, 
"  Draw  near." 

In  Christ  all  believers  are  regarded  as  priests, 
and  the  Christian  minister,  as  distinct  from  the 
layman,  is  never  spoken  of  in  the  N.T.  as  a 
priest.  He  is  a  presbyter  or  elder,  an  en- 
tirely difTerent  word  and  idea.  Even  the 
priesthood  of  believers  is  never  associated  with 


PRINCE] 


397         [PROPHECY  AND  PROPHETS 


individual  Christians,  but  only  with  believers 
in  their  corporate  capacity  ;  "  a  holy  priest- 
hood "  (1  Pet.  2.5).  The  fundamental  truth 
concerning  priesthood  in  the  N.T.  is  that 
Christianity  is,  not  has,  a  priesthood. 

Prince. — The  word  is  used  of  the  head  or  chief 
person  of  the  family  (Gen.  17.20,  23.6),  or  of  the 
tribe  (Gen.  25.16) ;  of  the  princes  of  the  syna- 
gogue, or  assembly  (Num.  16.2) ;  of  the  princes 
of  the  children  of  Reuben,  of  Judah,  etc.  (Num. 
1.16,  34.18  if.),  and  of  others.  It  is  also  applied 
to  the  sovereign  of  a  country  and  his  principal 
officers  (Gen.  12.15).  Jesus  Christ  is  the  "  Prince 
of  the  kings  of  the  earth,"  because  in  His  person 
He  surpasses,  and  bestows  authority  as  He 
sees  fit  (Rev.  1.5).  He  is  the  "  Prince  of  life," 
because  supreme  over  life  and  the  Giver  of  it 
(Acts  3.15) ;  and  He  is  the  "  Prince  of  peace," 
because  under  His  rule  is  perfect  peace  (Isai. 
9.6).  The  "  prince  of  this  world  "  is  the  Devil, 
who  boasts  of  having  all  the  kingdoms  of  the 
world  at  his  disposal  (John  12.31,  14.30,  16.11). 

Pris'ca,  Priscil'la. — A  Christian  Jewess  whom 
Paul  first  met  at  Ephesus  (Acts  18.2, 18,  26  ; 
1  Cor.  16.19).  She  was  the  wife  of  Aquila,  whom 
she  helped  in  the  instruction  of  Apollos.  She 
afterwards  went  back  to  Rome  (Rom.  16.3),  and 
later  again  to  Ephesus  (2  Tim.  4.19).  From  the 
way  in  which  her  name  is  mentioned  before  her 
husband's,  it  has  been  thought  that  she  was  of 
better  birth.  It  has  also  been  suggested  that 
she,  with  the  help  of  her  husband,  wrote  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  because  chap.  11  refers 
so  often  to  women ;  but,  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
in  the  Greek  of  11.32  the  participle  translated 
"  tell  "  is  in  the  masculine  singular,  this  seems 
to  be  a  very  improbable  theory.  [AQUILA.] 

Prison. — Imprisonment,  as  a  punishment, 
though  early  in  use  among  the  Egyptians  (Gen. 
39,  40.3,  42.17),  was  not  directed  by  Jewish  law, 
though  the  accused  was  kept  in  prison  until  his 
trial  (Lev.  24.12;  Num.  15.34).  During  the 
period  of  the  conquest  and  settlement,  indeed, 
until  the  time  of  Saul,  there  is  no  indication  that 
the  Hebrews  had  prisons.  Then  the  prison  was 
part  of  the  royal  palace  (1  K.  22.27).  This  was 
complying  with  the  custom  of  the  surrounding 
nations  (2  K.  25.27  ;  Neh.  3.25 ;  Jer.  32.2). 
There  was  another  form  of  prison,  in  which  a 
private  individual  kept  a  house  for  the  safe 
custody  of  the  accused,  being  answerable  only 
for  their  persons  (Jer.  37.15).  In  these  the 
prisoners  were  maintained  at  their  own  cost, 
faring  accordingly.  In  the  time  of  Christ  each 
palace  or  fortress  had  its  prison,  generally 
dungeons  (Lk.  3.20  ;  Acts  12.4-10).  The 
Sanhedrin  also  had  its  prison  (Acts  5.18-23,  8.3). 
In  all  prisons,  fetters  and  stocks  were  used  as 
extra  safeguards,  the  Romans  even  chaining  the 
prisoners  to  soldiers.  Generally,  as  in  Paul's 
case,  friends  had  access  to  prisoners  (Matt.  11.2, 
25.36,39;  Acts  24.23).  In  addition  to  the 
recognised  prisons,  any  convenient  place  would 
be  used  as  a  place  of  confinement  (Gen.  37.24 ; 
Jer.  38.6-11). 

Metaphorically,  a  low  and  afflicted  condition 


is  a  prison  (Eccles.  4.14) ;  as  is  also  the  state  in 
which  God  keeps  Satan  (Rev.  20.7).  The  state  of 
spiritual  thraldom  in  which  sinners  are  kept  by 
Satan  and  their  own  evil  deeds  and  desires 
(Isai.  42.7,  53.8).  Hell  is  likened  to  a  prison 
(1  Pet.  3.19).  Captives,  bondmen,  etc.,  are 
called  prisoners  (Job  3.18 ;  Ps.  63.33 ;  Isai. 
49.9). 

Pro'chorus. — Leader  of  the  "  dance  "  :  one  of 
the  seven  deacons  chosen  to  attend  the  poor 
(Acts  6.5).  Nothing  more  that  is  certain  is  known 
of  him. 

Proconsul.— "  Deputy "  in  A.V.  The  chief 
Roman  official  of  such  provinces  as  were  governed 
directly  by  the  Senate.  The  term  is  used  of 
Sergius  Paulus  in  Cyprus  (Acts  13.7,  8, 12),  and 
of  Gallic  in  Achaia  (Acts  18.12).  The  plural  is 
found  once  used,  as  it  seems,  rhetorically  by 
the  "  town-clerk  "  of  Ephesus  (Acts  19.38). 

Procurator. — Steward:  "Governor"  in  A.V. 
and  R.V.  The  chief  Roman  official  of  such 
provinces  as  were  governed  directly  by  the 
Emperor.  Such  were  Pilate,  Felix,  and  Festus. 

Prognosticators.— Used  only  once  (Isai.  47.33). 
In  this  passage,  "  monthly  prognosticates  "  are 
classed  with  astrologers,  etc.,  as  futile  forecasters 
of  the  future.  As  a  class  their  business  would 
be  that  of  making  almanacs,  in  which  events, 
supposed  to  be  predicted  by  the  stars,  would  be 
classed  under  the  months  of  the  year. 

Prophecy  and  Prophets.— I.  ~The  Meaning  of 
the  Words. — Once  in  the  Authorised  Version 
"  prophecy "  represents  the  Hebrew  word 
Massa  (Prov.  30.1),  which  properly  means 
"oracle"  [BURDEN],  and  once  "prophet"  re- 
presents the  Hebrew  word  chozeh  (Isai.  30.10), 
which  properly  means  "  seer,"  and  refers  to 
the  prophet  as  one  who  sees  visions.  But 
always  elsewhere  in  the  O.T.  "  prophecy " 
stands  for  nebua,  and  "  prophet "  for  nabi 
The  original  meaning  of  this  root  (NB')  is  not 
certain.  It  is  generally  understood  to  be  con« 
nected  with  a  root  that  is  more  similar  when 
rendered  in  English  signs  (NB")  than  it  is  in 
reality,  for  the  last  consonant  of  this  other  root 
is  a  hard  guttural,  often  pronounced  like  "  ng." 
This  root  (NBf)  means  to  bubble  up,  and  nabi, 
therefore,  is  supposed  to  mean  one  who  bubbles 
up  with  the  Divine  inspiration  or  message.  It 
is,  however,  more  probable  that  nabi  is  rather 
to  be  connected  with  an  Assyrian  and  Arabian 
root,  meaning  to  utter,  proclaim,  utter  as  a 
message.  In  this  case  the  nabi  is  regarded  as 
the  commissioned  speaker.  This  suits  Ex.  7.1, 
where  we  read  :  "  The  Lord  said  unto  Moses, 
See,  I  have  made  thee  a  god  to  Pharaoh :  and 
Aaron  thy  brother  shall  be  thy  prophet." 
Hence  it  is  probable  that  "  prophet "  as  used 
in  the  Bible  generally  means  one  who  speaks 
as  the  accredited  messenger  of  Almighty  God. 
It  will  be  observed  that  nothing  in  the  term 
implies  telling  beforehand.  A  prophet  may,  or 
may  not,  do  this,  according  to  the  message  that 
God  gives  him.  So  the  Greek  word  prophetes 
(the  original,  of  course,  of  our  English  word), 
found  in  the  Septuagint  version  of  the  O.T-, 


PEOPHECY  AND  PROPHETS]         398         [PROPHECY  AND  PROPHETS 


and  in  the  N.T.,  means  "  he  who  speaks  forth." 
The  abstract  substantives  nebu'a  and  propheteia 
("prophecy")  have  a  corresponding  meaning. 

II.  The  State  of  the  Prophets  when  receiving 
their  message. — It  is  most  important  that  we 
should  form  a  right  conception  as  to  this,  so 
far  as  we  are  able  to  penetrate  into  the  secrets 
of  the  intercourse  of  man  with  God.  The 
heathen  conception  of  prophecy  was  that  a 
prophet  should  be  absolutely  passive,  that  the 
more  unconscious  he  was,  the  better  he  was 
fitted  to  receive  the  Divine  message.  This 
notion  still  prevails  largely  in  the  East,  where 
an  idiot  is  regarded  as  being  specially  near  to 
God,  and  the  utterances  of  him  or  a  madman 
are  reverenced  as  inspired  (compare  the  story 
of  the  poor  girl  in  Acts  16.16,  sqq.).  Dervishes 
will  work  themselves  into  a  frenzy,  in  order  that 
when  they  are  prostrate  in  mind  and  body  they 
may  receive  communications  from  God.  Some- 
thing of  this  kind  is  to  be  seen  in  the  history  of 
the  Israelites.  The  sacred  dance  of  the  prophets 
of  Baal,  in  which  they  lashed  themselves  to 
fury,  cutting  themselves  with  knives,  that  they 
might  receive  a  visible  sign  of  Divine  approval 
(1  K.  18.26-28),  was  typical ;  and  it  is  probable 
that  the  false  prophets  of  later  times  took 
similar  measures  to  make  themselves  give  forth 
ecstatic  utterances.  But  the  heathen  idea  of 
prophecy  is  most  clearly  seen  in  Balaam.  His 
will  and  his  very  thoughts  are  overcome  by  the 
Divine  afflatus,  and  he  pours  forth  God's  message 
in  spite  of  himself  (Num.  22-24). 

In  the  time  of  Samuel  we  see  the  beginning 
of  a  better  system.  He  gathered  into  com- 
munities those  who  seemed  to  have  gifts  of 
prophecy,  disciplining  them,  training  them  by 
music,  and,  as  it  would  seem,  study  of  history 
and  religion,  that  so  they  might  be  the  better 
fitted  to  receive  God's  words  (1  Sam.  10.10-13, 
19.18-20).  One  can  understand  that  music 
may  quiet  the  mind  (1  Sam.  16.14-23),  and 
prepare  it  for  communications  from  God  (2  K. 
3.15).  Whether  these  were  written  down  by  the 
prophet  or  not  probably  depended  upon  the 
particular  function  which  each  utterance  was 
intended  to  perform.  But  in  any  case  we  must 
assume  that  many  such  were  written  before 
those  which  have  come  down  to  our  own  time 
as  the  works  of  the  writing  prophets,  of  whom 
Amos  is  probably  the  earliest. 

These  works,  it  should  be  observed,  are  the 
very  opposite  of  merely  ecstatic  utterances. 
They  are  written  with  great  choice  of  language, 
revealing  the  previous  life  and  interests  and 
occupations  of  the  prophet,  and  represent  in 
various  degrees  the  culture  and  the  circum- 
stances of  the  time  in  which  each  was  written. 
The  prophecies  of  an  Amos,  a  Micah,  an  Isaiah, 
a  Jeremiah,  are  removed  from  those  of  Balaam 
as  far  in  spiritual  vision  as  in  conscious  thought 
and  deliberate  study.  Prophets  had  learned 
that  God  could  use  every  power  they  possessed, 
and  make  it  an  instrument  for  declaring  His 
truth. 

But,  in  fact,  if  we  would  form  the  highest 


conception  of  the  state  of  the  Prophet  when 
receiving  Divine  communications,  we  must  find 
it  in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  He  had  continual 
intercourse  with  His  Father,  handing  on  to  men 
what  He  heard  and  saw  (John  8.26-40,  15.15, 
17.8),  and  with  Him  there  was  no  ecstasy,  but 
open,  clear  relation  of  mind  to  mind,  every 
power  alert,  receptive  and  active.  In  propor- 
tion as  the  prophets  attained  to  this  standard 
were  they  able  to  receive  and  transmit  the 
Divine  message  in  its  perfection. 

III.  The  Function  of  the  Prophets. — We  cannot 
learn  either  from  the  words  translated  "  pro- 
phecy "  or  "  prophets,"  or  from  the  state  in 
which  the  prophets  received  their  messages,  the 
kind  of  messages  that  they  received.  Their 
function,  that  is  to  say,  is  to  be  learned  only  by 
a  study  of  what  they  actually  said  and  did. 

1.  Some  forms  of  their  activity  appear  to  us 
to  be  hardly  worthy  of  the  prophetical  office. 
Samuel  describes  to  Saul  the  discovery  of  his 
father's  asses  (1  Sam.   10.2).     Ahijah,  though 
blind  with  age,  recognises  the  wife  of  Jeroboam, 
and  foretells  the  fatal  issue  of  the  illness  of  her 
son  Abijah    (1  K.  14.1-13).     Elisha  performs 
miracles  that  to  some  seem  trivial.     Yet  even 
in  these  cases  we  can  see  a  connexion  between 
the  events  and  the  furtherance  of  the  cause  of 
God. 

2.  Examining  their  words  more  broadly,  and 
taking    into    consideration    the    work    of    the 
prophets  as  a  whole,  we  observe  that  one  of 
their  most  important  functions  was  the  inter- 
pretation of  past  or  present  facts.     As  they 
studied  events  in  the  presence  of  God  He  showed 
these  to  them  in  His  light,  and  thus  they  came 
to  understand  them  in  their  true  bearing  and 
significance.     Hence  the  prophets  became  not 
merely  historians   (such  as  the  writer  of  the 
Books  of  Kings),  but  sometimes  active  political 
as  well  as  religious  leaders.     Among  these  may 
be  placed  not  only  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah,  -but 
also  Elisha,  when  he  sent  one  of  the  sons  of  the 
prophets  to  anoint  Jehu,  and  thus  effect  the 
destruction  of  the  Baal-worshipping  dynasty  of 
Omri  (2  K.  9). 

Again,  their  perception  of  the  meaning  of  past 
or  present  events  enabled  the  prophets  to  see 
the  issues  of  personal  and  national  lines  of 
conduct,  and  to  enunciate  principles  which  had 
a  much  wider  and  more  far-reaching  tendency 
than  they  could  possibly  have  supposed.  So 
that  when  the  same  kinds  of  forces  are  at  work 
in  ages  and  places  very  far  distant  from  those 
contemplated  by  the  prophets  themselves, 
their  words  of  warning  or  comfort  find  a  fulfil- 
ment, not,  perhaps,  only  once  or  twice,  but 
again  and  again.  It  is  to  this  power,  inherent 
in  a  truly  inspired  outlook,  to  which  reference 
seems  to  be  made  in  2  Pet.  1.20,  "  no  prophecy 
of  scripture  is  of  private  interpretation,"  i.e. 
its  meaning  and  reference  are  not  to  be  limited 
to  any  one  event  or  occasion. 

Again,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  special 
sphere  of  their  predictions,  as  well  as  of  their 
teachings,  generally  is  conditioned  by  the  fact 


PROPHECY  AND  PROPHETS] 


399 


[PROPHECY  AND  PROPHETS 


that  they  considered  everything  with  reference 
to  God.  To  predict  an  event  which  had  (if 
such  were  possible)  no  relation  to  the  cause  of 
God  would  be  out  of  keeping  with  their  thoughts 
and  spiritual  preparation.  Rather,  as  they 
thought  over  the  position  of  righteousness  in 
its  warfare  with  sin,  God's  past  actions  told 
them  that  He  was  on  the  side  of  righteousness, 
and  ordered  affairs  accordingly.  Hence  the 
prophets  were  assured  that  righteousness  was 
to  triumph,  and  further,  as  they  bore  in  mind 
the  effect  of  personal  influence,  it  was  an  easy 
step  to  expect  the  coming  of  a  Person  who 
should  be  a  great  leader  in  righteousness, 
practising  it  perfectly  Himself,  and  winning 
others  to  it.  The  doctrine  of  a  personal  Messiah 
was  closely  connected  with  the  expectation  of 
the  final  triumph  of  good  over  evil.  But  which 
was  the  earlier,  the  hope  of  the  Messiah  or  that 
of  the  triumph  of  good,  it  is  impossible  to  say. 

IV.  The  Value  of  the  Prophecies.— I.  To  the 
generation  in  which  each  prophet  lived.  This 
has  already  been  partly  indicated.  For  it  is 
impossible  that  the  presence  of  men  living  in 
such  close  touch  with  God  as  the  prophets  lived, 
and  the  utterance  of  their  words  of  warning  or 
encouragement,  should  not  have  enabled  many 
of  their  contemporaries  to  learn  the  way  of  God 
more  perfectly.  There  was,  it  is  true,  much 
ritual  of  religious  observance  apart  from  pro- 
phecy, and  there  were  many  religious  laws 
affecting  the  social  life  which  in  no  way  owed 
their  existence  to  prophets  usually  so-called 
(even  the  Higher  Critics  would  grant  this  much), 
but  the  spiritual  and  higher  moral  teaching  of 
O.T.  times  appears  to  have  rested  chiefly  with 
the  prophets.  The  priests  were  concerned  with 
ritual,  or  at  best  with  liturgical  prayers  and 
sacred  song.  In  the  prophets  there  is  a  wider 
outlook,  and  a  fuller  realisation  of  God  in  daily 
life,  private  and  national.  Perhaps  if  we  are 
to  sum  up  in  one  word  the  effect  of  the  teachings 
of  the  prophets  upon  their  contemporaries — 
whether  persons  or  nations — it  is  that  of  hope, 
that,  in  spite  of  the  past,  stained  by  sin,  and 
the  present,  threatened  by  punishment,  yet 
above  all  and  through  all  God  is  working  His 
purpose  out  in  mercy  and  blessing.  No  non- 
Jewish  or  pre-Christian  religion  can  show  a 
body  of  teaching  marked  by  such  an  expecta- 
tion. In  it  no  doubt  lies  one  of  the  great 
secrets  of  the  reason  for  the  unique  success  of 
the  religion  of  Israel. 

2.  But  if  the  contemporaries  of  the  prophets 
gained,  or  were  in  a  position  to  gain,  much 
from  them,  we  ought  to  gain  more.  For  we 
are  now  able  to  trace  the  effect  of  their  teaching 
and  predictions,  and  see  the  eternal  truth  on 
which  they  relied.  In  particular,  of  course,  we 
can  appreciate  at  an  approximately  true  value 
their  statements  about  the  great  Person  through 
whom  they  expected  deliverance  should  come. 

It  is  not  proposed  in  this  article  to  enumerate 
the  various  prophecies  of  Christ.  The  majority 
are  well  known.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  that 
though  the  prophets  probably  did  not  grasp  the 


full  meaning  of  their  own  words,  they  were 
expecting  One  who  was  to  be  ideally  perfect, 
as  King  to  rule,  Prophet  to  teach,  and  Priest 
to  reconcile  ;  who  was  to  be  Man,  yet  more 
than  man,  even  God  Himself ;  who  was  to 
suSer,  even  to  death,  and  yet  to  reign  for  ever 
in  glory. 

It  must  have  been  impossible  to  reconcile 
these  various  utterances  before  Christ  came. 
But  His  birth,  life,  death,  resurrection,  ascension, 
fitted  in  with  them  all,  and  we  praise  God  who 
gave  such  insight  unto  His  servants  as  to  make 
them  capable  of  receiving  and  transmitting 
statements  of  great  principles  which  found  their 
uniting  point  when  the  Saviour  came. 

V.  Prophecy  and  Prophets  in  the  N.T.— There 
had  been  a  pause.  God  had  not  spoken  by  men 
for  three  hundred  years.  But  now  John,  the 
son  of  Zacharias,  surnamed  the  Baptist,  ap- 
peared, "  a  prophet,"  and  "  more  than  a 
prophet "  (Matt.  11.9),  revealing  to  the  throng- 
ing multitudes  the  will  of  God  for  them,  and 
telling  them  that  the  time  was  at  hand  when 
the  predictions  of  the  coming  of  the  Deliverer 
were  to  be  fulfilled.  And  then  He  came,  the 
ideal  Prophet,  who  more  than  satisfied  the 
words  of  Moses  (Deut.  18.18  ;  Acts  3.22),  and 
revealed  in  deed  and  word  the  mind  of  His 
Father  who  was  in  heaven. 

It  is  no  wonder  that  the  prophetical  activity 
did  not  cease  with  the  Lord  Jesus,  but  rather 
began  in  a  fresh  way  when  the  Holy  Spirit  was 
poured  out  by  Him  at  Pentecost.  Then  the 
words  of  Joel  received  part  of  their  fulfilment, 
"  your  sons  and  your  daughters  shall  prophesy  " 
(Joel  2.28 ;  Acts  2.17),  and  believers  were 
accustomed  once  more  to  hear  prophets  address- 
ing them  in  the  name  of  the  Lord.  Among 
these  are  mentioned  :  Agabus  and  other  prophets 
from  Jerusalem  (Acts  11.27,  28,  21.10),  prophets 
at  Antioch  (Acts  13.1),  Judas  and  Silas  (Acts 
15.32),  the  four  daughters  of  Philip  the  Evan- 
gelist (Acts  21.9).  St.  Paul  also  refers  to 
Christian  prophets  in  1  Cor.  12.28  f.,  14.29,32,37  ; 
Eph.  3.5,  4.11,  from  which  passages  we  learn 
that  they  took  a  prominent  part  in  Christian 
meetings  for  worship,  and  were  sometimes 
inclined  to  think  that  they  could  not  restrain 
the  impetus  to  speak.  There  was,  that  is  to 
say,  a  tendency  to  fall  back  into  the  heathen 
conception  of  a  prophet  mentioned  in  §  II. 
The  Book  of  the  Revelation  also  refers  fre- 
quently to  Christian  prophets,  whom  the  writer 
reckons  as  his  brethren  (Rev.  22.9;  see  also 
10.7,  11.10-18,  16.6,  18.20-24,  22.6).  There  is 
much  on  the  subject  in  the  Didache,  or  Teaching 
of  the  Apostles,  dating  from  about  100  A.D.,  in 
which  they  are  spoken  of  as  travelling  from 
place  to  place,  without,  as  it  seems,  much  dis- 
cipline, and  in  some  cases  discrediting  their  pro- 
fession by  allowing  unworthy  motives  to  influ- 
ence their  words.  In  the  middle  of  the  second 
century  the  heresy  of  Montanus,  who  laid  too 
much  stress  on  the  freedom  of  Christian  prophecy 
in  contrast  to  the  more  settled  government,  and 
perhaps  the  increasing  world liness  of  the 


PROPHETS,  FALSE] 


400 


[PROVERBS,  THE  BOOK  OF 


Church,  led  to  excesses  on  the  part  of  so-called 
prophets,  and  prophecy  as  such  ceased  to  have 
any  recognition  as  a  present  force  among 
Christians. 

Prophets,  False.— Both  in  O.T.  and  N.T. 
times  there  were  those  who  claimed  to  speak 
in  the  name  of  God,  and  yet  had  no  authority 
or  message  from  Him.  Isaiah  denounces  "  the 
prophet  that  teacheth lies"  (7sai.  9.15) ;  Jeremiah 
complained  that  "  the  prophets  prophesy 
falsely"  (Jer.  5.31),  and  described  their  mis- 
leading counsels  (Jer.  14.13-15).  See  also 
Eos.  9.8;  Mic.  3.5;  Zeph.  3.4;  ZecTi.  13.3. 
Our  Lord  warned  His  disciples  against  false 
prophets  (Matt.  7.15,  24.24).  The  prophets  of 
1  K.  22.6  may  have  been  prophets  attached 
to  Baal-worship  (cf.  1  K.  18.40),  or  of  the 
groves  (1  K.  18.19),  or  of  the  calf-worship  of 
Rehoboam.  They  were  the  ministers,  not  of 
Jehovah-worship,  but  of  paganism. 

Propitiation. — Propitiation  is  something  that 
causes  or  enables  some  one  to  pardon  an  offence 
or  to  act  mercifully  towards  the  offender.  Our 
Lord  is  twice  called  by  St.  John  (1  John  2.2, 4.10) 
"  the  propitiation  for  our  sins "  ;  whilst  St. 
Paul  (using  another  word)  speaks  of  "  the 
redemption  that  is  in  Christ  Jesus  :  whom  God 
hath  set  forth  to  be  a  propitiation  "  (Rom.  3.24, 
25).  Thus  the  propitiation  required  by  the 
justice  of  God  is  supplied  in  Christ  Jesus  by  the 
mercy  of  God.  The  word  used  in  Bom.  3.25 
signifies  a  "  place  or  instrument  of  propitiation," 
and  in  Eeb.  9.5  is  rendered  "  mercy-seat  "  (R.V. 
margin,  "  Gr.  the  propitiatory  ").  In  the  LXX 
it  is  commonly  used  of  the  lid  of  gold  above  the 
ark.  [MERCY-SEAT.] 

Proselyte. — A  stranger,  a  foreigner  :  the  name 
given  by  the  Jews  to  those  not  Jews  by  birth 
who  came  to  live  in  their  country,  and  be  under 
the  protection  of  Jehovah,  or  who  embraced 
their  religion  in  other  lands.  In  the  N.T.  they 
are  sometimes  called  proselytes,  and  sometimes 
"Gentiles,  fearing  God"  (Act*  2.10,  10.2,22, 
13.16,  43). 

The  later  Jews  distinguished  two  kinds  of 
proselytes:  Proselytes  of  the  Gate,  who  dwelt  in 
the  Holy  Land,  or  even  out  of  it ;  who,  without 
circumcision,  or  any  ceremony  of  the  Law,  feared 
and  worshipped  God,  observing  the  rules  im- 
posed on  Noah.  These  rules  of  Noah  were — 
(1)  to  abstain  from  idolatry ;  (2)  from  blasphemy ; 
(3)  from  murder ;  (4)  from  adultery ;  and 
(5)  from  theft ;  (6)  to  appoint  just  and  upright 
judges ;  (7)  not  to  eat  the  flesh  of  any  animal 
cut  off  while  it  was  alive.  The  privileges  of 
proselytes  of  the  gate  were,  that  through 
holiness  they  might  have  hope  of  eternal  life ; 
and  they  might  dwell  in  Palestine  and  share  in 
its  prosperity.  Proselytes  of  justice  or  righteous- 
ness were  those  converted  to  Judaism,  after  a 
careful  examination,  who  were  circumcised,  and 
observed  the  whole  law  of  Moses.  They  were 
admitted  to  all  the  prerogatives  of  the  Israelites. 
After  circumcision,  they  were  baptized  by  im- 
mersion, receiving  a  new  birth,  so  that  those 
who  were  before  their  parents  were  no  longer 


regarded  as  such,  and  those  who  before  were 
slaves  now  became  free. 

According  to  Josephus,  proselytes  were  made 
after  the  restoration,  to  recruit  the  exhausted 
nation,  which,  later,  compelled,  at  the  point 
of  the  sword,  Idumseans,  Ituraeans,  and  many 
cities  in  Eastern  Palestine  to  embrace  Judaism. 
Another  large  body  of  proselytes  became  such 
through  self-interest,  rather  than  from  piety. 

Proverbs. — A  name  given  by  the  Hebrews  to 
moral  sentences,  maxims,  pithy  comparisons, 
or  summings-up  of  sayings,  and  enigmas. 
Solomon  called  those  men  wise  who  studied 
proverbs  (Prov.  1.6).  The  word  in  its  simplest 
meaning  stands  for  illustrations  of  life  and 
truth  drawn  from  material  things  (Prov.  10.15, 
22.1). 

Proverbs,  The  Book  of.— This  book  is  an 
example  of  the  Hebrew  literature  dealing  with 
Wisdom,  or,  as  we  should  say,  philosophy.  To 
the  same  class  belong  Ecclesiastes,  Job  (though 
this  is  in  some  respects  unique),  and  certain  of 
the  Psalms;  also  the  apocryphal  books  of  the 
Wisdom  of  Solomon  and  Ecclesiasticus-  These 
books  are  clearly  distinguished  from  the  pro- 
phetic literature  of  Israel.  They  are  practical 
rather  than  speculative ;  they  express  the 
philosophy  of  reflective  minds  rather  than  the 
express  messages  of  Jehovah.  There  is  no 
"  Thus  saith  the  Lord  "  in  their  dealing  with 
human  experience  and  the  problems  of  exist- 
ence. Their  outlook  is  wider  than  that  of  the 
Jewish  race ;  they  are  human,  cosmopolitan, 
rather  than  national.  They  deal  with  all  sides 
of  human  life.  But  the  Divine  Spirit  that 
prompted  them  made  their  thoughts  subservient 
to  the  highest  purposes.  They  often  uttered, 
like  the  prophets,  truths  deeper  than  they 
knew,  and  words  which  awaited  the  interpreta- 
tion of  time. 

The  word  proverb,  as  applied  to  the  contents 
of  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  must  be  taken  in  a 
comprehensive  sense,  including  the  introductory 
discourse  (chaps.  1-9)  and  a  parable  or  allegory 
(24.30-34).  In  form,  the  proverbs  are  mostly 
presented  in  couplets,  arranged  according  to  the 
various  methods  of  parallelism  characteristic  of 
Hebrew  poetry. 

The  authorship  of  the  book  was  early  ascribed 
to  Solomon.  The  introduction  is  prefaced 
by  the  words,  "  The  proverbs  of  Solomon  the 
son  of  David,  king  of  Israel"  (1.1);  the  section 
beginning  with  10. 1  has  the  title,  "  The  proverbs 
of  Solomon " ;  and  that  opening  with  25.1 
begins,  "  These  are  also  the  proverbs  of  Solomon, 
which  the  men  of  Hezekiah,  king  of  Judah, 
copied  out."  But  other  sections  are  ascribed 
to  different  sources  :  "  The  words  of  the  wise  " 
(22.17) ;  "  Sayings  of  the  wise  "  (24.23) ;  "  The 
words  of  Agur,  the  son  of  Jakeh  "  (30.1) ;  "  The 
words  of  king  Lemuel"  (31.1).  It  may  be, 
therefore,  that  the  main  collection  (10.1-22.16) 
and  the  section  25-29,  with  the  introduction, 
were  the  work  of  Solomon  himself — a  part  only 
of  the  "  three  thousand  proverbs "  ascribed  to 
him  in  1  K.  4.32 — and  that  other  collections 


PSALMS,  THE] 


401 


[PSALMS,  THE 


were  added.  The  time  of  Hezekiah  has  been 
suggested  as  the  date  of  the  last  addition. 
Most  scholars,  however,  think  that  10.1-22.16  is 
the  oldest  part  of  the  book,  and  is  not  earlier 
than  the  reign  of  Jehoshaphat,  and  that  the 
book  was  not  completed  until  after  the  Exile. 

The  contents  may  be  divided  into  five  parts  : 
1.  A  connected  discourse  on  the  value  and 
attainment  of  true  wisdom  (1-9).  2.  Proverbs, 
strictly  so  called,  expressed  in  couplet  form,  with 
much  force  and  simplicity  (10-22.16).  Headed, 
"  The  Proverbs  of  Solomon."  3.  Renewed 
admonitions  on  the  study  of  wisdom,  as  in 
part  1  (22.17-24).  Headed,  "The  Words  of 
the  Wise."  4  Proverbs  of  Solomon,  selected 
by  "  the  men  of  Hezekiah  "  (25-29).  5.  The 
wise  instructions  of  Agur,  the  son  of  Jakeh,  to 
his  pupils  Ithiel  and  Ucal,  and  lessons  taught 
to  King  Lemuel  by  his  mother  (30,  31).  The 
proverbs  of  chap.  30  are  chiefly  enigmatical,  and 
chap.  31,  vers.  10-31,  an  alphabetical  acrostic, 
gives  a  picture  of  female  excellence  adapted  to 
that  age  and  country.  Though  most  of  Solomon's 
rules  are  based  chiefly  on  considerations  of 
prudence,  strictly  religious  motives  are  either 
presupposed  or  expressly  enjoined.  The  descrip- 
tions of  Wisdom  in  1.20-33,  8,  and  9.1-6  apply 
emphatically  to  the  wisdom  of  God,  revealed 
and  embodied  in  His  Son,  and  to  the  Son  Him- 
self, as  the  eternal  Word.  Cf.  chap.  8  with 
John  1.1, 14.10.  Pre-intimations  of  immortality 
are  also  given  in  4.18,  12.28, 14.32, 15.24.  The 
nature  and  consequences  of  sin  are  implied  in 
the  very  terms  which  describe  holiness  (1.20 
with  9.3, 14) ;  and  that  holiness  is  a  Divine  gift 
is  plainly  implied  in  1.23. 

Psalms,  The. — No  part  of  Holy  Scripture 
has  been  the  subject  of  more  inquiry  and  more 
comment  than  the  Psalms.  From  the  letter  of 
Athanasius  on  the  Interpretation  of  the  Psalms, 
the  Homilies  of  Chrysostom  on  the  Psalms,  and 
the  Enarrationes  in  Psalmos  of  Augustine,  down 
through  the  works  of  learned  Jews  in  the  Middle 
Ages — such  as  Aben  Ezra  and  David  Kimchi ; 
of  great  Reformers — such  as  Luther  and  Calvin ; 
to  those  of  modern  scholars  like  Delitzsch, 
Perowne,  and  Kirkpatrick,  there  has  been  a 
stream  of  comment  and  of  criticism.  This 
interest  witnesses  to  the  almost  unique  position 
of  the  book  as  an  aid  to  devotion.  The  eulogium 
of  Hooker  (Eccles.  Pol.  bk.  v.  §  37)  is  amply 
justified :  "  Heroical  magnanimity,  exquisite 
justice,  grave  moderation,  exact  wisdom,  re- 
pentance unfeigned,  unwearied  patience,  the 
mysteries  of  God,  the  sufferings  of  Christ,  the 
terrors  of  wrath,  the  comforts  of  grace,  the 
works  of  Providence  over  this  world,  and  the 
promised  joys  of  that  world  which  is  to  come  ; 
all  good  necessarily  to  be  either  known,  or  done, 
or  had,  this  one  celestial  fountain  yieldeth. 
Let  there  be  any  grief  or  disaster  incident  into 
the  soul  of  man,  any  wound  or  sickness  named, 
for  which  there  is  not  in  this  treasure-book  a 
present  comfortable  remedy  at  all  times  ready 
to  be  found." 

The  title  of  the  collection  is  given  as  "  the 


book  of  Psalms  "  in  LJc.  20.42 ;  Acts  1.20,  and 
"  the  Psalms "  simply  in  Lk.  24.44.  The 
Hebrew  title  (tehillim)  means  "  praises  "  ;  the 
English,  taken  from  the  LXX,  denotes  odes 
adapted  to  music.  In  individual  Psalms,  the 
title  generally  employed  is  mizmor,  "  a  song  with 
musical  accompaniment "  (fifty-seven  times). 
Shir,  "  song  "  or  "  ode,"  is  prefixed  to  45,  46  ; 
and  in  combination  with  mizmor  to  30,  48 ;  as 
well  as  with  hammaaloth,  "  the  steps,"  to  120- 
134  ("  Songs  of  Degrees").  To  five  Psalms  (17, 
86,  90,  102,  142)  the  word  tephillah,  "  prayer," 
is  prefixed ;  and  the  same  word,  in  the  plural, 
is  used  in  the  postscript  to  72. 

The  arrangement  in  five  books,  followed  by  the 
R.V.,  is  that  of  the  Hebrew  and  the  LXX.  The 
division  is  as  follows  : — 

1.  Ps.  1-41.— With  four  exceptions  (1,  2,  10, 
33),   of   Psalms   attributed   by   their   titles   to 
David.     This  book  is  marked  by  the  use  of  the 
name  Jehovah  (Lord),  the  Covenant  God. 

2.  Ps.  42-72. — Psalms  of  "  the  sons  of  Korah," 
42-47,  of  "  David,"  51-65,  68-70 ;   possibly  a 
compilation    for    the    Tabernacle    and   Temple 
services.    The  name  Elohim  (God)  predominates 
in  one  Psalm  (53),  being  altered  from  Jehovah 
(14). 

3.  Ps.  73-89.— Psalms  of  "  Asaph,"  73-83, 
and  "  Korah,"  84-89,  mostly  supplemental  to 
the  Second  Book.     Only  one  Psalm  in  this  book 
(86)  is  attributed  to  David.    The  names  of  the 
Deity  are  here  equally  employed. 

4.  Ps.  90-106.— The  first  attributed  to  Moses, 
two  to  David  (101,  103),  the  rest  anonymous. 
Jehovah  the  prevailing  Divine  name. 

5.  Ps.    107-150.  —  Liturgic,    including    the 
Hallelujah  Psalms  and  the  Songs  of  Degrees ; 
perhaps  collected  for  the  service  of  the  second 
Temple.    Jehovah  is  the  predominant  name. 

The  authorship  of  Ps.  110  is  ascribed  to 
David  by  our  Lord  (Mk.  12.36,37;  Lk. 
20.42,  44) ;  and  so  other  passages  in  Acts  1.16, 
2.25,  4.25  ;  Rom.  4.6, 11.9  ;  Heb.  4.7).  To  him 
Jewish  tradition  ascribed  the  greater  part  of  the 
collection.  That  he  was  a  poet  is  clear  from 
other  passages  (2  Sam.  1.19-27,  3.33) ;  Ps.  18 
is  quoted  in  2  Sam.  22.2-51,  and  in  2  Sam.  23.1 
David  is  called  "  the  sweet  psalmist  of  Israel "  ; 
he  founded  the  services  of  the  sanctuary  (2  Ch. 
29.27,30);  he  was  a  musician  himself,  and 
careful  of  the  development  of  religious  music 
(1  Sam.  16.17, 18;  Amos  6.5).  But  not  all  the 
Psalms  are  referred  to  David.  In  the  Hebrew 
his  name  is  prefixed  to  seventy-three,  and  in  the 
LXX  to  twelve  more.  The  name  of  Asaph, 
David's  chief  musician,  or  of  his  descendants,  is 
connected  with  twelve — Ps.  50,  73-83.  To  the 
Sons  of  Korah,  another  family  of  choristers, 
eleven  more  are  attributed  or  inscribed  ;  to  this 
family,  Heman,  the  Ezrahite,  and  grandson  of 
Samuel,  belonged  (Ps.  88 ;  cf.  1  Sam.  8.2 ; 
1  Ch.  6.33) ;  and  Ethan  is  named  as  the  author 
of  89.  Solomon's  name  is  connected  with  Ps.  72 
and  127 ;  but  probably  he  is  rather  the  subject 
than  the  author  of  the  former.  Moses  is  reputed 
to  be  the  author  of  Ps.  90,  and  the  following 


PSALTERY] 


402 


[PUBLICAN 


ten  are  ascribed  to  him  by  Jewish  critics,  but 
without  good  ground ;  see  97.8  and  99.6.  The 
anonymous  Psalms  have  b^en  ascribed  to  various 
authors.  The  LXX  mentions  Jeremiah  as  the 
author  of  Ps.  137,  and  Haggni  and  Zechariah  as 
the  authors  of  Ps.  146, 147.  Some  of  the  Psalms 
were  written  after  the  Exile  ;  and  endeavours 
have  been  made  to  prove  that  some  are  as  late 
as  the  oppression  under  Antiochus  Epiphanes. 
It  may,  however,  be  affirmed  with  some  certainty 
that  the  collection  of  Psalms  was  complete  soon 
after  the  days  of  Malachi.  The  additions  made 
from  time  to  time  were  naturally  associated  with 
the  older  material,  and  known  by  the  name  of 
the  chief  author. 

The  Psalms  have  been  classified  in  many 
ways.  The  following  arrangement  (from  E. 
Bickersteth)  may  be  useful  for  devotional 
purposes  : — 

1.  Didactic  Psalms  :  on  the  character  of  good 
and  bad  men,  their  happiness  and  misery,  1,  5,  7, 
9-12,  14,  15, 17, 24, 25, 32, 34,  36,  37,  50,  52,  53, 
58,  73,  75,  84,  91,  92,  94, 112, 119, 121, 125, 127, 
128,  133  ;  on  the  excellency  of  the  Divine  Law, 
19, 119 ;  on  the  vanity  of  human  life,  39,  49,  90 ; 
on  the  duty  of  rulers,  82, 101 ;  on  humility,  131. 

2.  Psalms  of  Praise  and  Adoration  :   acknow- 
ledgments of  God's  goodness  and  mercy,  and 
particularly  of  His  care  of  good  men,  23,  34,  36, 
91,  100,  103,  107,  117,  121,  145,  146;  acknow- 
ledgments of   His  power,  glory,  and  attributes 
generally,  8,  19,  24,  29,  33,  47,  50,  65,  66,  76,  77, 
93,  95-97,  99,  104,  111,  113-115,  134,  139,  147, 
148,  150. 

3.  Psalms  of  Thanksgiving  :    for  mercies  to 
individuals,  9,  18,  22,  30,  34,  40,  75,  103,  108, 
116,  118,  138,  144;  for  mercies  to  the  Israelites 
generally,  46,  48,  65,  66,  68,  76,  81,  85,  98, 105, 
124,  126,  129,  135,  136,  149. 

4.  Devotional  Psalms  :  expressive  of  penitence, 
called,     emphatically,     the     Seven     Penitential 
Psalms,  6,  32,  38,  51,  102,  130,  143 ;  expressive 
of  trust  under  afflictions,  3, 16,  27,  31,  54,  56,  57, 
61,  62,  71,  86 ;  expressive  of  extreme  dejection, 
though  not  without  hope,  13,  22,  69,  77,  88,  143. 
Prayers  in  time  of  severe  distress,  4,  5,  11,  28, 
41,  55,  59,  64,  70,   109,   120,   140,  141,   143. 
Prayers  when  deprived  of  public  worship,  42, 
43,  63,  84.     Prayers  asking  help  in  considera- 
tion of  the  uprightness  of  his  cause,  7,  17,  26,  35. 
Prayers  in  time  of  affliction  and  persecution,  44, 
60,  74,  79,  80,  83,  89,  94,  102,  129, 137.    Prayers 
of  intercession,  20,  67,  122,  132,  144. 

5.  Psalms  eminently  prophetical,  2,  16,  22,  40, 
45,  68,  69,  72,  97,  110,  118,  mostly  Messianic. 

6.  Historical  Psalms,  78,  105,  106. 

N.T.  quotations  from  and  references  to  the 
Psalms  are  frequent.  The  following  is  a  list 
of  passages  applied  to  our  Lord  and  His  work  : — 

Ps.  2,  Messianic  Psalm  :  predicting  the  con- 
quests and  sovereignty  of  the  Divine  Son, 
repeatedly  quoted  in  the  N.T.,  Acts  4.25,  13.33  ; 
Heb.  1.5,  5.5  ;  Rev.  2.26,  27,  12.5— in  the  first 
of  these  passages  attributed  by  the  apostles  to 
David.  Ps.  16,  the  Kesurrection  of  the  Holy 
One,  Acts  2.27  (Peter),  13.35  (Paul). 


Ps.  8.5,  7,  Man  the  lord  of  creation,  an  ideal 
realised  only  in  Christ,  Heb.  2.5-9. 

Ps.  22.7,8,18,  An  innocent  Sufferer,  Mail. 
27.35,  46. 

Ps.  22.22,  Testimony  of  the  Saviour  to  His 
own  work,  Heb.  2.11. 

Ps.  31.5,  Jesus  commends  His  departing 
spirit  to  God,  Lk.  23.46. 

Ps.  35.19,  Hated  without  a  cause,  John  15.25. 
Ps.  40.6,  Incarnation,  obedience,  and  sacrifice, 
Heb.  10.5-10. 

Ps.  41.9,  The  traitor  amid  professed  friends, 
John  13.18. 

Ps.  45.6,  Messianic  Psalm  :  The  Son's  eternal 
throne,  Heb.  1.8,  9. 

Ps.  68.18,  His  Descent  and  Ascension,  Eph.  4.8. 
Ps.  69.9,  Zeal  for  His  Father's  House,  John 
2.17. 

Ps.  69.21-25,  Christ  and  His  enemies,  Matt. 
27.14,  48  ;  Rom.  11.9, 10  (Matt.  23.37,  38). 

Ps.  110,  Messianic  Psalm :  attributed  by 
Christ  Himself  to  David,  Christ  the  Conqueror, 
and  Priestly  King,  Matt.  22.43,  etc.,  Acts  2.34 ; 
1  Cor.  15.25  ;  Heb.  1.13,  5.6,  7.17. 

Ps.  118.22,  23,  The  Stone  which  the  builders 
rejected,  Matt.  21.42,  etc.,  Eph.  2.20. 

Ps.  132.11,  The  Inheritor  of  David's  throne, 
Acts  2.30. 

[For  the  headings  and  musical  directions 
attached  to  the  Psalms  (e.g.  "  Higgaion," 
"  Michtam,"  "  Alamoth  "),  see  the  articles  under 
the  respective  titles.] 

Psaltery. — A  stringed  instrument  to  accom- 
pany the  voice  (Ps.  33.2,  144.9).  It  was  a 
species  of  lute,  resembling  the  guitar,  though 
triangular  in  form.  The  number  of  its  strings 
varied  from  six  to  twelve.  These  were  stretched 
over  a  tightly  drawn  skin  fastened  to  the  frame- 
work, and  were  played  by  the  fingers,  like  the 
harp  (2  Sam.  6.5  ;  1  K.  10.12). 

Ptolema'is.— City  of  Ptolemy  (Acts  21.7):  a 
town  on  the  coast  between  Carmel  and  Tyre. 
It  was  anciently  called  Accho  (which  see),  and 
received  its  name  of  Ptolemais  in  Greek  and 
Roman  times.  Paul  called  here  on  his  way 
home  from  his  third  missionary  journey.  After- 
wards the  town  was  known  as  Acre.  It  is  now 
Akka. 

Puah.— 1.  A  midwife  in  Egypt  (Ex.  1.15;  1 
Chr.  7.1).  2.  Also  Pua  (Numb.  26.23;  Judg. 
10.1).  [PHUVAH.] 

Publican. — A  revenue  officer,  employed  in  the 
collection  of  the  taxes.  Among  the  Romans 
there  were  two  sorts  of  tax  receivers:  general 
receivers,  who  had  deputies  in  each  province, 
and  were  accountable  to  the  Emperor  for 
the  revenues  of  the  Empire.  These  had  con- 
siderable weight  in  the  government,  and  were 
generally  members  of  great  families ;  but  the 
deputies,  the  under-farmers,  the  publicans  of 
the  lower  orders,  for  their  rapine  and  extortion 
were  looked  upon  as  so  many  thieves  and 
pickpockets.  The  tax-gatherer's  duties  were 
much  more  comprehensive  than  with  us,  for 
he  charged  on  every  article  of  merchandise 
that  was  carried  along  the  road.  [MATTHEW.] 


PUBLIUS] 


403 


[PUNISHMENT,  FUTURE 


Theocritus  being  asked,  "  Which  was  the  most 
cruel  of  all  beasts  ?  "  replied,  "  Among  the 
beasts  of  the  wilderness,  the  bear  and  the 
lion  ;  among  the  beasts  of  the  city,  the  publican 
and  the  parasite."  Among  the  .Tews  also  the 
name  and  profession  of  a  publican  were  odious. 
The  Galileans,  especially,  submitted  to  them 
with  the  greatest  impatience,  even  to  the  extent 
of  considering  the  payment  of  tribute  unlawful 
(cf.  Matt.  22.17).  Those  of  their  own  nation  who 
became  publicans  they  considered  little  better 
than  heathen  (Matt.  18.17).  The  publicans  of  the 
N.T.  were  looked  upon  as  traitors  and  .apostates, 
willing  tools  of  the  oppressor,  and  classed  with 
the  vilest  characters  (Matt.  9.11,  11.19,  18.17, 
21.31,  32),  their  only  friends  being  outcasts.  It 
was  no  wonder,  therefore,  that  the  finger  of  scorn 
should  be  pointed  at  One  Who  could  eat  and 
drink  with  publicans  (Matt.  9.11 ;  Lk.  15.1, 19.2), 
with  people  whose  very  alms  were  refused  for  the 
Synagogue  poor-box.  One  virtue  at  least  they 
possessed.  They  were  not  hypocritical.  The 
publican  who  cried,  "  God  be  merciful  to  me  a 
sinner"  (Lk.  18.13)  showed  that  some  of  this 
despised  class  had  been  stirred  by  the  preach- 
ing of  John  the  Baptist  (Matt.  21.32).  The 
publican  Matthew  was  appointed  by  our  Lord 
one  of  the  Twelve. 

Pub 'lias. — Common  :  the  governor  of  Melita 
when  Paul  was  shipwrecked  there  (Acts  28.7). 
Paul  miraculously  healed  the  father  of  Publius 
of  a  fever,  and  this  becoming  known,  other  sick 
were  brought  to  him  to  be  healed.  [PAUL.] 
Melita  was  under  the  Roman  praetor  of  Sicily, 
and  Publius,  as  the  chief  landowner  on  the 
island,  was  probably  made  his  local  representa- 
tive. He  is  said  to  have  been  made  first  bishop 
of  the  island,  and  to  have  suffered  martyrdom. 

Pudens. — Shamefast :  Pudens  is  mentioned 
(with  Claudia)  by  Paul  as  a  Christian  in  Rome 
who  greets  Timothy  (2  Tim.  4.21).  Nothing 
whatever  is  known  of  him.  But  because  the 
Roman  poet,  Martial,  about  80  A.D.,  speaks  of 
the  marriage  of  Pudens  and  Claudia,  and  also 
says  that  a  Claudia  came  from  Britain,  a  fanciful 
theory  has  been  framed  identifying  Martial's 
and  St.  Paul's  names. 

Pu'hites  (R.V.  Puthites).  —  Descendants  of 
Caleb  in  Kirjath-jearim  (1  Ch.  2.53). 

PuL— 1.  The  Babylonian  name  for  Tiglath- 
pileser  m.  (iv.),  the  king  of  Assyria  (2  K. 
15.19),  who  appeared  against  Menahem,  king 
of  Israel,  who  had  neglected  to  pay  him  tribute 
as  vassal.  [ISRAEL.]  Menahem  was  successful 
for  awhile  in  his  rebellion,  and  even  extended 
his  borders  to  what  it  had  been  under  Solomon 
(1  K.  4.24).  But  Pul  marched  to  Palestine, 
and  Menahem  only  escaped  destruction  by  pay- 
ing a  thousand  talents  of  gold,  collected  by 
means  of  a  poll-tax  (1  Ch.  5.26).  2.  [PHUT.] 

Pulse. — Seeds  which  grow  in  pods,  as  beans, 
peas,  lentils,  etc.  The  Hebrews  of  old  took 
parched  peas  with  them  when  on  a  campaign 
(2  Sam.  17.28).  The  pulse  on  which  "  the  four 
children"  (Dan.  1.12, 16)  throve  for  ten  days  is 
pot  to  be  taken  literally  as  meaning  seeds  from 


pods  only,  but  as  including  vegetable  diet 
generally,  including  grain. 

Punishment.— Capital  punishment  was  carried 
out  in  various  ways.  Hanging  (Josh.  8.29 ; 
2  Sam.  21.12;  Esth.  7.10);  stoning,  the  usual 
method  (Ex.  17.4;  Lk.  20.6;  John  10.31; 
Acts  14.5) ;  by  fire  or  burning  (Gen.  38.24 ; 
Lev.  20.14,  21.9) ;  the  rack,  or  bastinado  (Heb. 
11.35) ;  precipitation,  or  throwing  persons  head- 
long from  a  rock,  sometimes  with  a  stone  tied 
round  the  neck  (2  Ch.  25.12 ;  Lk.  4.29);  decapita- 
tion (Gen.  40.19  ;  Judg.  9.5  ;  2  K.  10.7  ;  Matt. 
14.8) ;  sawing  asunder  (Heb.  11.37),  adopted  from 
Persia;  crucifixion.  [CROSS.]  Offences  punished 
with  death  were  numerous.  Dishonouring  a 
parent  (Ex.  21.15-17);  breaking  the  Sabbath  (Ex. 
31.14 ;  Num.  15.35) ;  blasphemy  (Lev.  24.14, 16 ; 

1  K.   21.10;    Matt.   26.65,66);    adultery  and 
unchastity  (Lev.  20.10,  21.9  ;  Deut.  22.21,  22,  25 ; 
John  8.5) ;  incest,  etc.  (Ex.  22.19 ;  Lev.  20.11, 
14,16);      idolatry    (Lev.     20.2;    Num.    25.8; 
Deut.  13.6  ff.,  17.2,  7 ;  Josh.  22.20).    The  lighter 
punishments  of  the  Jews  were  imposed  on  the 
principle  of  "  an  eye  for  an  eye  "  (Ex.  21.24,  25). 
Amongst  those  noted  are  cutting  off  the  hands 
and  feet  (Judg.  1.5-7  ;   2  Sam.  4.12) ;  stripes,  a 
common  punishment,  and  scourging  (Deut.  25.3  ; 

2  Cor.  11.24  ;  Judg.  8.16) ;  stocks  (Jer.  20.2). 
Restitution  and  compensation  were  imposed 

for  various  offences,  such  as  theft,  burglary, 
firing  ricks,  losing  a  pledge,  slandering  (Ex. 
21,  22;  Lev.  24.18-21;  Deut.  19.21,  22.18). 
Many  of  the  Jewish  punishments  were  borrowed 
from  Egypt,  where  the  power  of  life  and  death 
and  imprisonment  was  vested  in  the  monarch 
and  certain  high  officials  (Gen.  40.3,  22,  43.13). 

Punishment,  Future.— There  is  perhaps  no 
subject  as  to  which  it  is  more  necessary  to  keep 
strictly  to  the  exact  words  and  meaning  of 
Holy  Scripture,  without  attempting  to  draw 
any  inferences  beyond  those  which  strict 
exegesis  allows.  We  must  proceed  carefully 
to  examine,  first,  the  language,  and  then  the 
teaching  of  Scripture,  in  order  that  we  may  be 
able  to  draw  any  conclusions  which  arise  out 
of  them. 

I.  The  Terms  used. — It  is  important  to 
study  the  various  words  and  phrases  connected 
with  future  punishment.  In  the  O.T.  the  word 
"  Sheol "  occurs  65  times,  and  is  rendered  in 
the  A.V.  by  "  Hell  "  31  times,  by  "  grave  " 
31,  and  by  "  pit "  3  times.  In  the  R.V.  the 
rendering  "  the  grave  "  or  "  the  pit "  is  found 
in  the  historical  books,  to  show  that  the  word 
does  not  signify  "  the  place  of  burial."  In 
the  poetical  books  "  Sheol  "  is  usually  found 
in  the  text,  and  "  the  grave  "  in  the  margin. 
It  is  quite  clear  from  a  careful  study  of  all  the 
passages,  that  Sheol  is  to  be  distinguished  from 
the  grave  (Gen.  37.35;  Ps.  16.10).  In  the 
N.T.  "  Hades  "  occurs  11  times,  in  10  of  which 
it  is  rendered  "  Hell,"  and  once  "  grave."  The 
R.V.  has  "  Hades  "  for  these  10  cases.  The 
word  means  generally  "  the  unseen  place," 
and  is  equivalent  to  the  O.T.  Sheol,  as  a  general 
term  for  the  place  in  the  next  world  for  both 


PUNISHMENT,  FUTUEE] 


404 


[PUNON 


good  and  bad.  The  word  "  Tartarus  "  occurs 
in  a  verbal  form  once  (2  Pet.  2.4),  and  is  rendered 
in  A.V.  and  R.V.  by  "  Hell."  The  word 
"  Gehenna  "  is  always  "  Hell  "  in  the  A.V. 
and  occurs  12  times.  The  R.V.  adds  a  marginal 
note  where  it  occurs,  indicating  the  Greek  word. 
In  the  O.T.  the  phrase  merely  signifies  the  name 
of  a  place,  the  Valley  of  Hinnom,  near  Jerusalem. 
In  the  N.T.  wherever  Gehenna  occurs,  it  is 
used  to  imply  the  place  of  final  punishment  of 
the  wicked.  No  indication  is  found  there  of 
its  use  as  applied  to  the  polluted  valley  of 
Hinnom.  But  if  that  valley  was  used  as  a  place 
of  refuse,  which  was  always  burning,  we  can 
readily  see  how  appropriate  was  the  symbolical 
application  of  the  term  by  our  Lord.  The  word 
"  eternal "  (Greek  aidnios),  is  rendered  in- 
discriminately in  the  R.V.  by  "  eternal "  and 
"  everlasting,"  though  there  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  any  intention  to  indicate  a  funda- 
mental difference  between  the  two  words.  In 
many  passages  the  Greek  must  mean  "  end- 
less "  ;  but  usage  alone  can  settle  the  matter. 
It  occurs  71  times  in  N.T. ;  44  of  eternal  life, 
3  times  of  God,  3  times  of  the  blessings  of 
the  Gospel  and  our  future  glory,  and  4  times 
of  punishment  and  judgment.  "  Of  the  future 
it  is  nowhere  used  in  the  N.T.  except  of  eternal 
life  or  punishment." 

II.  The   Teaching  Given.— The  truth  of   the 
N.T.  in  regard  to  future  punishment  may  be 
summed  up  along  the  following  lines :  (a)  there 
will  be  a  day  of  judgment  (Amos  5.18-20  ;  Matt. 
16.27,  25.31 ;  2  Cor.  5.10) ;  (b)  every  man  will 
be  rewarded  according  to  his  works  (Rom.  2.16 ; 
Rev.  20.12);  (c)  the  punishment  of  the  wicked 
is  certain  (Matt.  13.36-43,  25.30  ;  Mk.  9.43-48). 
(d)  There  will  be  degrees  of  punishment  (Matt. 
16.27  ;    Lk.  12.47,  48) ;    (e)  the  punishment  of 
the  wicked  will  be  everlasting  (Matt.   25.46  ; 
Mk.  9.48;    Rev.  14.11);    (/)   there  will   be  a 
resurrection  of  the  unjust  as  well  as  of  the  just 
( John  5.29). 

III.  Theories    Advocated. — There    are    three 
usual  lines  of  interpretation  of  the  N.T.  teaching. 
(a)     Universalism. — Some    hold     dogmatically, 
others  only  in  hope,  that  there  will  be  a  uni- 
versal restitution  of  all  men.     But  the  very 
grave  warnings  seem  too  strong  for  this  to  be 
the    true    interpretation    (Matt.    5.22,    18.9 ; 
Mk.    9.45 ;     Lk.  12.5 ;    Jas.    3.6).     (b)  Anni- 
hilation.— This    teaches    that   the   wicked   will 
be  destroyed,  and    that  only  those  who  are  in 
Christ  will  have  eternal  life.     This  interpreta- 
tion is  based  on  the  thought  of  death  as  destruc- 
tion ;  but  the  Greek  word  rendered  "  destroy  " 
does    not    always    denote    annihilation    (Matt. 
27.20;    Lk.   19.47).      The  root  idea  of  death 
does  not  seem  to  be  destruction,  but  separation 
(Eph.  2.1 ;    1  Tim.  5.6),  just  as  the  root  idea 
of  life  is  not  mere  existence,  but  union  (John 
15.4).     As  the  soul  is  to  survive  death  (John 
5.28),  it  may  perhaps  be  assumed  to  be  able  to 
survive    anything.     Immortality   is   taken    for 
granted  in  the  N.T.,  and  if  1  Tim.  1.17  and  6.16 
are   pressed,   they   make   God   only  immortal, 


and  no  one  else  in  the  universe.  It  hardly 
seems  likely  that  the  wicked  will  be  raised  only 
to  be  destroyed ;  nor  does  it  seem  just  to 
deal  with  every  degree  of  sin  exactly  in  the 
same  way — by  annihilation.  To  expel  sin 
by  destroying  the  sinner,  would  almost  appear 
like  a  confession  of  failure.  Punishment  is 
said  to  be  "  for  ever  "  (Rev.  14.11),  and  the 
Divine  Wrath  is  said  to  "  abide  on  "  the  un- 
believer (John  3.36).  (c)  Everlasting  Punish- 
ment.— This  view  is  certainly  closest  to  the 
exegesis  of  Scripture.  It  has  the  advantage  of 
connecting  sin  with  its  penalty,  by  showing 
that  the  doom  of  the  sinner  is  self-chosen,  and 
that  punishment  comes  from  within,  not  arbi- 
trarily from  without.  Character  tends  to  per- 
manence, and  this  view  of  the  future  supports 
the  well-known  truth  of  the  fixity  and  per- 
sistence of  personal  character.  While  judg- 
ment is  God's  strange  work,  in  which  He  has  no 
pleasure  (Isai.  28.21  ;  Matt.  25.41),  everything 
we  know  tends  to  show  that  the  principle 
of  punishment  is  not  exhausted  in  the  idea 
of  reformation.  Human  justice  demands 
righteous  retribution ;  the  words  of  Christ 
and  His  disciples  clearly  indicate  a  feeling  of 
deep  horror  at  the  fate  of  the  wicked,  and  the 
power  of  will  shows  that  any  one  can  resist 
God's  grace,  and  sin,  in  spite  of  everything  God 
may  do.  Modern  science  with  its  emphasis 
on  law,  tends  to  support  the  principle  of  punish- 
ment for  ever.  The  weak  point  of  this  theory 
seems  to  lie  in  its  implication  of  the  eternity 
of  sin  in  the  universe  of  God.  Will  God  allow 
evil  to  go  on  for  ever  ?  Is  sin  never  to  be 
finally  dispossessed  ?  If  God  is  to  be  "  all  in 
all,"  is  the  presence  of  sin  compatible  with  this 
purpose?  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  there  are 
two  lines  of  scriptural  teaching.  One  starts 
from  God,  and  tends  in  the  direction  of  the  final 
consummation  of  all  things,  when  "  God  will 
be  all  in  all."  The  other  line  starts  from  man. 
with  his  freedom  of  will,  and  tends  towards 
the  solemn  possibilities  of  "  an  eternal  sin  " 
(Mk.  3.29  R.V.).  Scripture  does  not  seem  to 
reconcile  these  apparently  opposite  positions. 
It  is  the  old  problem  of  Divine  sovereignty 
and  human  freedom.  Perhaps,  if  sin  is  not 
to  last  for  ever,  there  may  be  found  a  solution 
by  which  those  who  have  sinned  will  remain  for 
ever  as  they  are,  not  finally  impenitent,  but 
permanently  bearing  the  consequences  of  their 
former  sin.  They  will  realise  their  loss,  and  will 
always  recall  what  might  have  been,  and  yet 
will  never  be  able  to  remove  the  incapacities 
of  their  former  evil,  even  though  they  are  no 
longer  to  go  on  sinning  for  ever.  But  punish- 
ment is  not  synonymous  with  "  torment,"  as  is 
sometimes  alleged.  We  must  wait  for  the  next 
life  before  we  can  obtain  any  reconciliation  of 
the  two  aspects  of  truth  which  are  so  manifestly 
set  before  us  in  Holy  Scripture. 

Pu'nites.— Descendants  of  Pua  (Num.  26.23). 
[PHUVAH.] 

Pun 'on. — Site  of  Israelite  encampment  towards 
the   close   of    the  wandering   (Num.   33.42,43) 


HJRAH] 


405 


[PUTEOLI 


between  Petra  and  Zoar.  It  was  three  days' 
journey  from  boundary  of  Moab,  but  the  site 
has  not  been  found. 

Purah.— - [PHUEAH.] 

Pur,  Purim. — Lot,  lots :  a  feast  of  the  Jews, 
instituted  to  commemorate  the  lots  cast  by 
Haman,  the  enemy  of  the  Jews  (Esth.  3.7). 
These  lots  were  cast  in  the  first  month  of  the 
year,  and  gave  the  thirteenth  day  of  the  twelfth 
month  (Adar)  of  the  same  year  for  the  execu- 
tion of  Hainan's  design  to  destroy  all  the  Jews 
in  Persia.  The  superstition  of  Haman  in  credit- 
ing these  lots  caused  his  own  ruin  and  the 
preservation  of  the  Jews,  who  thus  had  time  to 
seek  the  aid  of  Esther.  The  Jews  keep  the 
festival  on  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  of  Adar, 
as  days  of  thanksgiving  to  God  (Esth.  9.14). 

It  is-  said  that  there  is  a  proverb  that  "  The 
Temple  may  fall,  but  the  Purim  never,"  so 
powerfully  did  this  deliverance  affect  the 
national  imagination.  [ESTHER,  HAMAN,  MOE- 
DECAI.] 

Purgatory. — A  supposed  place  of  suffering, 
in  which  holy  souls  are  cleansed  and  purified 
between  death  and  judgment.  The  chief  texts 
upon  which  Roman  Catholics  base  belief  in 
Purgatory  are :  Ps.  38.1,  66.12  ;  Isai.  4.4,  9.18 ; 
Mic.  7.8,  9 ;  Zech.  9.11 ;  Mai  3.3;  Matt.  5.  22, 25, 
26,  12.32;  1  Cor.  3.12-15.  The  last  alone 
presents  difficulty  ;  but  "  the  day  "  must  refer 
to  the  day  of  judgment,  which  comes  after 
Purgatory,  on  the  Roman  theory.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  whole  tenor  of  N.T.  teaching 
negatives  Purgatory.  There  is  no  such  state 
for  the  thief  on  the  cross  (Lk.  23.43) ;  nor  for 
Paul  (2  Cor.  5.8  ;  Phil.  1.23).  Note  also  that 
the  Roman  theory  is  directly  contradicted  by 
Wisdom  3.1-3  (which  Rome  includes  in  the 
Canon  of  Holy  Scripture) :  "  The  souls  of  the 
righteous  are  in  the  hands  of  God,  and  there 
shall  no  torment  touch  them  .  .  .  they  are  in 
peace."  The  doctrine  of  Purgatory  was  first 
clearly  laid  down  by  Pope  Gregory  i.  (590-604), 
though  the  idea  had  long  been  known  in  pagan 
literature  (see,  for  example,  Virgil,  2Ln.  v. 
739).  It  was  one  of  the  doctrines  most  plainly 
repudiated  by  the  Reformers,  especially  as  the 
Romanists  connected  it  with  Indulgences,  and 
other  superstitious  means,  by  which  it  was 
thought  that  the  time  of  souls  in  Purgatory 
was  shortened. 

Purification. — The  purifications  enjoined  by 
the  Jewish  law  were  often  observed  by 
the  performance  of  vows  (Acts  21.23, 24). 
[NAZABITE.]  Ceremonial  washings  or  ablu- 
tions are  among  the  most  ancient  religious  rites  ; 
but  the  simplicity  of  the  rites  of  purification 
directed  by  Divine  Law  was  well  calculated 
to  guard  the  Israelites  against  the  use  of  the 
superstitious  and  often  barbarous  rites  practised 
by  the  heathen  for  lustrations.  No  one  was 
permitted  to  approach  God  without  undergoing 
the  double  purification  of  the  altar  and  the 
laver  —  which  we  may  perhaps  spiritualise  as 
typifying  the  blood  and  the  spirit  of  Jesus 
(Ex.  30.18  ff. ;  Heb.  10.19,  22). 


There  was  a  washing  of  the  whole  body,  used 
at  the  admission  of  Jewish  proselytes  in  later 
times,  and  in  some  ablutions  commanded  by  the 
law  (Ex.  29.4;  Lev.  14.8).  There  was  also  a 
pouring  of  water  on  the  feet  and  hands,  or  a 
sprinkling  (Num.  8.7,  19.18;  Deut.  21.6).  In 
the  solemn  sacrifices  sprinkling  the  blood  was 
an  indispensable  ceremony,  typifying  Christ's 
shedding  His  blood  for  our  sins  (Lev.  1.5 ; 
1  Pet.  1.2).  Also  anointing  with  oil  was  some- 
times used  (Ex.  30.26-28  ;  Lev.  14.27-29). 

Purple. — The  famous  Tyrian  dye  ;  extracted 
from  the  purpura  or  murear,  a  species  of  shell- 
fish belonging  to  the  Mediterranean.  Phoenicia 
was  celebrated  for  the  manufacture  of  the  dye, 
and  Tyrian  purple  was  of  world-  wide  fame .  E  ach 
shell  yielded  but  a  single  drop  of  the  colouring 
matter,  which  was  consequently  very  valuable, 
and  used  by  the  Jews  as  an  emblematic  colour 
of  royalty  and  high  office,  as  it  was  also  among 
the  Greeks.  The  art  of  making  the  dye  has 
been  lost,  as  has  also  the  exact  shade  of  purple. 
It  is  thought  to  have  been  nearer  to  our 
scarlet  than  to  what  we  know  as  purple.  With 
reference  to  the  purple  vestment  (Lk.  16.19), 
it  may  be  observed  that  although  this  colour  was 
not  always  a  royal  one,  and  was  also  used  by 
people  of  high  rank,  in  our  Lord's  case  it  was 
doubtless  meant  to  be  a  gibe  on  His  claim  to 
royalty  (Ex.  25.4 ;  2  Ch.  2.7  ;  Ezek.  27-7  ;  Mk. 
15.17,  20  ;  John  19.2,  5  ;  Acts  16.14).  [LYDIA, 
SCARLET,  COLOURS.] 

Purse. — A  bag  of  skin  or  knitted  silk  suspended 
to  the  waist  by  a  girdle.  It  was  used  by 
travellers  and  merchants,  the  latter  carrying 
not  only  their  money  in  it,  but  their  weights. 
Those  used  by  women  were  sometimes  highly 
ornamented  (Isai.  3.23).  Another  kind  of  purse 
was  a  long  woven  sash  of  wool.  One  end  of  this 
was  of  double  material,  forming  a  bag.  This  was 
put  round  the  waist  and  then  buckled,  the 
remainder  of  the  sash  being  wound  round  and 
round  until  the  waist  was  covered  with  several 
folds,  the  end  being  secured  by  being  tucked 
under  (Prov.  1.14 ;  Matt.  10.9 ;  Mk.  6.8 ;  Lk.  10.4, 
22.35,  36).  [BAG,  MONET.] 

Pursuer.— (Josh.  2.16,22,  8.20;  Lam.  1.6). 
[CITIES  OF  REFUGE,  ATENGER.] 

Purtenance.  —  Ex.  12.9,  A.V. ;  "Inwards" 
R.V.,  i.e.  intestines. 

Put.— [PHUT.] 

Pute'oli. — Wetts,  springs :  a  seaport  town  of 
Italy  on  the  north-east  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Naples, 
where  Paul  remained  a  week  on  his  way  to  Rome 
(Acts  28.13).  Its  modern  name  is  Pozzuoli.  At 
one  time,  when  the  southern  half  of  Italy 
belonged  to  the  Greeks,  Puteoli  was  called 
Dicaearchia ;  its  name  of  Puteoli  (so  called 
from  its  natural  hot  baths)  was  given  to  it  by 
the  Romans.  As  a  seaport,  it  became  a  place  of 
great  importance,  for  here  came  the  Alexandrian 
grain  ships,  and  here  landed  most  of  the  travellers 
for  Rome.  For  two  hundred  years  before  Christ 
Puteoli  was  also  the  chief  port  used  by  the 
Roman  army.  Puteoli  has  suffered  from  earth- 
quakes, and  is  now  not  of  great  importance. 


PUTHITES] 


406 


[RABBI 


Puthites.— [PUHITBS.] 

Putiel. — (?)  He  whom  God  has  given  :  father- 
in-law  of  Eleazar,  son  of  Aaron  (Ex.  6.25). 

Puvah.— [PHUVAH.] 

Pygarg. — A  species  of  antelope.  The  pygarg 
was  one  of  the  clean  animals  permitted  for  food 
(Deut.  14.5).  It  has  been  identified  with  the 
addax  (Antelope  addax)  of  North  Africa  and 
Arabia.  The  Greek  name  (Pygarg)  it  bears 
signifies  an  animal  with  a  "  white  rump."  It 
may  be  supposed  that  the  term  represents  any 
of  the  large,  white-tailed  antelopes ;  but  as  the 


addax  is  the  only  antelope  with  this  special 
feature  left  in  Palestine,  it  is  probably  the 
animal  intended  by  the  writer  of  the  passage. 

The  addax  is  characterised  by  the  posses- 
sion of  horns  in  both  sexes,  by  the  body  being 
peculiarly  deep  at  the  shoulder,  arid  by  its  long 
tail.  Its  horns  are  twisted  and  curved  backwards. 
Its  coat  is  nearly  white,  with  black  front. 

Python.— (Acts  16.16,  R.V.  marg.).  A  sooth- 
saying spirit,  so  called  from  the  fact  that  the 
famous  oracle  of  Delphi  was  in  the  district  of 
Pytho. 


Q 


Qoheleth.— [ECCLESTASTES.] 

Quail. — A  small  bird  of  the  partridge  family. 
The  Israelites  were  miraculously  supplied  with 
quails  in  the  wilderness  of  Zin  (Ex.  16.13),  and 
at  Kibroth  Hattaavah  (Num.  11.31-34).  It  has 
been  suggested  that  the  quails  which  supplied  the 
Israelites  were  driven  in  their  annual  migration 
by  a  south-westerly  wind  sweeping  from  Ethi- 
opia and  Egypt  over  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea. 

Quarries.— Only  in  Judg.  3.19,  26,  where  A.V. 
and  R.V.  margins  have  "  or;  graven  images," 
sculptured  stones. 

Quarry.— Occurs  also  in  1  K.  6.7,  R.V.,  in  the 
ordinary  sense  of  a  stone-quarry. 

Quartus. — A  Christian  of  Corinth,  whose 
salutations  Paul  sends  to  the  brethren  at  Rome 
(Rom.  16.23). 

Quater'nion. — A  guard  of  four  soldiers,  two 
of  whom  were  attached  to  the  person  of  a 
prisoner,  while  the  other  two  kept  watch  outside 
the  door  of  his  cell.  Peter  was  "  delivered  to 
four  quaternions  of  soldiers,"  each  of  which  took 
charge  of  him  for  a  watch  of  the  night  (Acts 
12.4-6). 

Queen. — Of  the  words  rendered  "  Queen  "  in 
the  A.V.,  one,  signifying  a  queen-regnant,  is  used 


of  the  Queen  of  Sheba  (1  K.  10.1) ;  but  also  of 
Vashti  and  Esther  (Esth.  1.9,  2.22),  and  of  the 
consort  of  Belshazzar  (Dan.  5.10).  A  second 
(Neh.  2.6  ;  Ps.  45.9)  implies  a  queen- consort.  A 
third  (1  K.  11.19  ;  2  K.  10.13,  etc.)  was  used  of 
the  queen-mother,  who,  conformably  to  Oriental 
custom,  exercised  great  authority. 

Queen  of  Heaven.— The  title  given  to  the 
goddess  to  whom  the  Hebrew  women,  with  the 
connivance  of  their  husbands,  offered  cakes, 
poured  out  drink-offerings,  and  burnt  incense  in 
the  streets  of  Jerusalem  (Jer.  7.18,  44.17-25). 
The  most  probable  identification  of  this  goddess 
is  with  the  Babylonian  Istar,  either  the  planet 
Venus  or  the  moon.  [ASHTORETH.] 

Quicksands.— Only  hi  Acts  27.17,  where  R.V. 
reads  "  lest  they  should  be  cast  upon  the  Syrtis  " 
— the  African  coast  between  Carthage  and 
Cyrene,  dreaded  by  sailors  because  of  its  shifting 
sands  and  perplexing  currents. 

Quiri'nius.— R.V.  Lk.  2.2.    [CYEENIUS.] 

Quiver. — The  receptacle  in  which  arrows  were 
carried  (Job  39.23).  The  word  is  used  meta- 
phorically in  Ps.  127.5.  In  Gen.  27.3  the  word 
rendered  quiver  may  imply  a  sword  or  other 
weapon  suspended  from  the  shoulder. 


R 


Raa'mah  (R.V.  Raama,  1  Ch.  1.9).— (?)  Thun- 
der :  son  of  Cush,  son  of  Ham.  The  tribe  of 
Raamah  became  renowned  as  traders  (Gen.  10.7  ; 
Ezek.  27.22) ;  settled,  it  is  believed,  on  the  shores 
of  the  Persian  Gulf,  or  near  Mein  in  South- West 
Arabia. 

Raami'ah.— (?)  Thunder  of  Jehovah:  one  of 
the  chiefs  who  returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh. 
7.7).  In  Ezra  2.2  he  is  called  Reelaiah. 

Raam'ses.— (Ex.  1.11).    [RAMESES.] 

Rab'bah,  Bab 'bath. — -Greatness  :  1.  Metropolis 
and  very  strong  fortress  of  the  Ammonites, 
19  miles  south-east  from  Ramoth-gilead,  in  a 
broad  valley  on  a  head  stream  of  the  Jabbok  ; 


not  included  in  the  territory  of  the  Israelites 
(Josh.  13.25);  taken  by  David  (2  Sam.  11.1, 
12.26-29,  17.27 ;  1  Ch.  20.1) ;  subject  of  pro- 
phetic denunciation  (Jer.  49.2,  3  ;  Ezek.  21.20, 
25.5  ;  Amos  1.14).  It  is  now  known  as' Amman. 
Ar  of  Moab  is  now  called  Rabbah. 

2.  Town  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.60) ;  the  modern 
Rubbah,  2  miles  south-west  of  Adullam. 

Rabbi. — A  title  of  respect,  signifying  Master 
or  Teacher,  employed  by  the  Jews,  and  often 
applied  to  our  Lord  (Matt.  23.7,  8,  26.25,  49 ; 
Mk.  9.5,  11.21,  14.45;  John  1.38,49,  3.2,26, 
4.31,  6.25,  9.2,  11.8).  Bab,  signifying  great, 
enters  into  the  composition  of  many  names  of 


RABBITH] 


407 


[RAKKATH 


dignity  and  office.  [RABBONI,  RAB-MAG,  RAB- 
SARIS,  RAB-SHAKEH.] 

RabTnth.— Now  Raba ;  a  town  of  Issachar, 
south-east  of  Jenln  (Josh.  19.20). 

Rabbo'ni.— My  master',  a  kindred  term  to 
Rabbi  (John  20.16). 

Bab-mag. — Possibly  the  chief  of  the  Magi 
(Jer.  39.3, 13),  but  more  probably  the  chief  of 
the  commanders. 

Rab-sa'ris. — (?)  Chief  eunuch :  1.  An  officer 
of  Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria,  sent  up  against 
Jerusalem  in  the  time  of  Hezekiah  (2  K.  18.17). 
2.  The  title  of  two  princes,  Sarsechim  and 
Nebushasban,  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of 
Babylon.  The  first  was  present  at  the  capture 
of  Jerusalem  when  Zedekiah,  after  endeavouring 
to  escape,  was  taken  and  blinded  and  sent  in 
chains  to  Babylon.  The  second  is  mentioned 
among  the  other  princes  sent  to  deliver  Jeremiah 
out  of  prison  (Jer.  39.3, 13). 

Rab-sha'keh. — An  Assyrian  military  title  of 
high  rank,  the  exact  meaning  being  unknown. 
An  envoy  of  Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria, 
known  to  us  only  by  his  title,  sent  to  persuade 
the  people  of  Jerusalem  to  surrender,  while 
his  master,  having  taken  other  large  cities  of 
Judah,  was  besieging  Lachish.  Rab-shakeh, 
who  was  familiar  with  Hebrew,  spoke  to  the 
people  in  their  own  tongue,  maintaining  that 
the  expedition  of  Sennacherib  had  the  sanction 
and  command  of  Jehovah.  The  reference  may 
have  been  to  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah  concern- 
ing the  desolation  of  Judah  and  Israel  by  the 
Assyrians,  which  may  have  come  to  his  know- 
ledge in  some  way  (2  K.  18.19  ;  Isai.  8.7,  8, 
10.5,  6,  chaps.  36  and  37). 

Ra'ca. — A  popular  term  of  reproach  signifying 
"  worthless  "  (Matt.  5.22).  It  is  closely  con- 
nected with  the  word  (rekim)  translated  "  vain 
fellows"  in  Judg.  11.3  (R.V.).  The  Rabbis  taught 
that  the  use  of  such  an  expression  was  almost 
as  great  a  crime  as  murder. 

Race.— [GAMES.] 

Ra'chab.— Rahab  the  harlot  (Matt.  1.5). 

Ra'chal  (R.V.  Racal).— (?)  Trader  :  one  of 
David's  haunts  when  fleeing  from  Saul  (1  Sam. 
30.29).  It  should  perhaps  be  read  "  Carmel." 

RacheL — Ewe :  the  wife  of  Jacob,  who,  to 
win  her,  served  Laban,  her  father  and  his  uncle, 
fourteen  years.  Her  theft  of  her  father's  images 
shows  that'  she  was  not  free  from  the  supersti- 
tions and  idolatry  which  prevailed  in  the  land 
whence  Abraham  had  been  called  (Josh.  24.2, 
14).  She  was  the  sister  of  Leah,  and  the  mother 
of  Joseph  and  Benjamin.  Rachel  died  in  giving 
birth  to  Benjamin,  and  was  buried  "  on  the  way 
to  Ephrath  "  or  Bethlehem.  Her  tomb  —  the 
first  Bible  example  of  the  setting-up  of  a  sepul- 
chral monument — is  still  shown  there  (Gen. 
35.19).  But  in  1  Sam.  10.2  her  tomb  is  placed 
on  the  northern  border  of  Benjamin,  at  Ramah 
(Jer.  31.15).  It  has  been  suggested  that  while 
Rachel's  real  tomb  was  at  Bethlehem  in  Judah, 
a  representation  of  her  tomb  was  placed  at 
Ramah,  a  place  in  the  territory  of  her  son 
Benjamin,  from  which  the  real  tomb  could 


be  seen.  The  incidents  of  her  life  are 
described  in  Gen.  29-33,  35.  Jeremiah  (31.15) 
and  Matthew  (2.18)  have  put  Rachel  for  the 
tribes  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  the  children 
of  Joseph.  The  prophecy  was  fulfilled  when 
these  two  tribes  were  carried  into  captivity 
beyond  the  Euphrates ;  and  Matthew  uses  it  to 
illustrate  what  happened  in  Bethlehem,  when 
Herod  put  to  death  the  children  of  two  years 
old  and  under.  Then  Rachel,  who  was  buried 
there,  might  be  said  to  make  her  lamentations 
for  the  death  of  so  many  innocent  children. 

Rad'dai. — One  of  David's  brothers  (1  Ch. 
2.14). 

Ra'gau  (R.V.  Reu). — An  ancestor  of  Jesus 
(Lk.  3.35). 

Ragu'el  (R.V.  Reuel).— The  father-in-law  of 
Moses,  also  called  Reuel  or  Jethro.  He  was 
a  prince-priest  of  Midian  (Num.  10.29).  Moses 
invited  him  to  offer  sacrifices  to  the  Lord,  on  his 
arrival  in  the  camp  of  Israel,  as  one  who  adored 
the  same  God  (Ex.  18.11,12).  [HOBAB, 
JETHKO,  REUEL.] 

Ra'hab. — Fierceness,  insolence,  pride :  a 
poetical  name  of  Egypt  (Ps.  87.4,  89.10; 
Isai.  51.9),  based,  it  would  seem,  on  an  old 
mythological  tale,  in  which  it  was  the  name  of 
a  sea-monster. 

Ra'hab,  Ra'chab.— A  harlot  of  Jericho  who 
concealed  the  spies  sent  by  Joshua.  As  a 
recompense,  her  life  was  spared  when  the  city 
was  captured  (Josh.  2  and  6.25).  She  married 
Salmon,  a  prince  of  Judah,  and  was  an  ances- 
tress of  David  and  of  our  Lord  (Matt.  1.5).  The 
writer  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  magni- 
fies her  faith  (11.31),  and  St.  James  mentions 
her  as  an  example  of  faith  producing  works 
(2.25). 

Raliam.— (?)  Gentle  :  a  descendant  of  Caleb 
(1  Ch.  2.44). 

RaTiel  (R.V.  Rachel).— Jer.  31.15.   [RACHEL.] 

Rain. — There  are  references  in  Scripture 
to  the  "early"  and  the  "latter"  rain  (Deut. 
11.14 ;  Jer.  5.24;  Eos.  6.3  ;  Joel  2.23  ;  Jas.  5.7). 
The  former  fell  about  October  or  November 
(not  long  after  the  beginning  of  the  civil  year), 
and  the  latter  in  the  spring.  In  Palestine, 
the  time  of  the  year  during  which  rain  falls, 
generally  speaking,  lies  between  these  dates. 
Thunder  and  rain  in  wheat  harvest  was  a 
miracle  which  filled  the  people  with  fear  and 
wonder  (1  Sam.  12.16-18) ;  and  Solomon  could 
speak  of  "  rain  in  harvest  "  as  the  most  forcible 
expression  for  conveying  the  idea  of  something 
utterly  out  of  place  and  unnatural  (Prov.  26.1). 
The  rains  came  mostly  from  the  west  and 
south-west  (Lk.  12.54). 

Rainbow. — The  right  interpretation  of  Gen. 
9.13  is  not  that  the  rainbow  then  for  the  first 
time  made  its  appearance,  but  that  God  con- 
secrated this  phenomenon  as  the  sign  of  His 
love  and  the  v.  itness  of  His  promise. 

Raisins.— [VINE.] 

Ra'kem. — A  descendant  of  Manasseh,  on  the 
east  of  Jordan  (1  Ch.  7.16). 

Rak'kath.— A    fortified    town    of    Naphtali 


EAKKON] 


408 


[EEAIA,  REAIAH 


(Josh.  19.35),  said  in  the  Jerusalem  Talmud 
to  be  the  same  as  Tiberias. 

Rak'kon. — Probably  a  repetition  of  the  name 
Me-jarkon  (Josh.  19.46). 

Ram. — 1.  Brother  of  Jerahmeel  and  father 
of  Amminadab,  ancestor  of  David  (Ruth  4.19  ; 

1  Ch.  2.9,  10, 25  ;  Matt.  1.3, 4 ;  Lk.  3.33).     2. 
Son  of    Jerahmeel   (1   Ch.    2.25, 27).     Perhaps 
a  confusion  in  the  description  of  1.     3.  Elihu 
is  described  as  of  "the  kindred  of  Ram"  (Job 
32.2) ;  possibly  the  same  as  Aram  (which  see). 

Ram. — [SHEEP,  SACRIFICE.] 

Ram,  Battering. — This  instrument  of  war 
(referred  to  in  Ezek.  4.2,  21.22)  was  so  called 
either  because  the  head  of  it  was  shaped  like 
that  of  a  ram,  or  because  the  motion  resembled 
the  butting  of  a  ram.  Sometimes  the  battering- 
ram  formed  part  of  a  very  tall  structure  with 
warriors  on  the  summit,  and  was  as  high  as  the 
M-alls  of  a  city,  or  even  as  the  city  towers.  The 
battering-ram  was  moved  on  four  or  six  wheels. 

Ra'ma.— (Matt.  2.18).    Same  as  Raman  1. 

Ra'mah.— High  flace:  1.  A  town  of  Ben- 
jamin, now  Er-Ram  (Josh.  18.25  ;  Judg.  4.5, 
19.13),  on  the  summit  of  a  round  hill  commanding 
the  great  north  road,  5  miles  from  Jerusalem,  as 
a  frontier  fortress  frequently  taken  and  retaken 
(1  Sam.  22.6  ;  1  K.  15.17-22  ;  2  Ch.  16.1,  5,  6  ; 
Isai.  10.29  ;  Hoi.  5.8) ;  a  scene  of  slaughter 
(Jer.  31.15;  Matt.  2.18);  and  of  Jeremiah's 
imprisonment  (Jer.  40.1) ;  reoccupied  after  the 
return  from  captivity  (Ezra  2.26;  Neh.  7.30, 
11.33).  The  present  ruins  of  the  place  indicate 
its  former  importance.  2.  A  town  of  Mount 
Ephraim,  the  birthplace,  home,  and  burial- 
place  of  Samuel  (1  Sam.  7.17,  8.4,  15.34, 16.13, 
19.18,  25.1,  28.3).  The  fuller  name  of  the  place 
is  Ramathaim-zophim.  It  has  been  identified 
with  Neby  Samwil,  a  lofty  eminence  4  miles  to 
the  north-west  of  Jerusalem.  Here  the  alleged 
tomb  of  the  prophet  is  shown.  3.  Now  Er- 
Rameh ;  2  miles  north-west  of  Ain-Hazor. 
Fenced  town  in  south  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  19.36). 
4.  Now  Ramia ;  3  miles  from  Tyre.  Boundary 
town  of  Asher  (Josh.  19.29).  5.  2  K.  8.29  and 

2  Ch.  22.6  ;  the  same  as  Ramoth-gilead. 
Ramatha'im-zo'phim. — The  same  as  Ramah  2. 
Ra'mathite. — An  inhabitant  of  Ramah,  but 

of  which  Ramah  is  not  known  (1  Ch.  27.27). 

Ra'math-leTu.— High  place  of  the  jawbone: 
name  given  by  Samson  to  the  scene  of  his 
slaughter  of  the  Philistines  with  a  jawbone 
(Judg.  15.17). 

Ra'math-miz'peh. — High  place  of  the  watch- 
tower  :  a  place  in  Gad  (Josh.  13.26) ;  the  same 
as  Ramoth-gilead. 

Ra'math  of  the  South.— High  place  of  the 
south  (Josh.  19.8).  Same  as  Baalath-beer. 

Ra'meses,  or  Ra'amses. — Ba  (the  sun-god)  has 
lorne  him :  a  city  of  Egypt  occupied  by  Joseph's 
brethren  (Gen.  47.11);  one  of  the  stone  cities 
built  (or  rebuilt)  for  Pharaoh  by  the  oppressed 
Israelites  (Ex.  1.11),  and  the  starting-point  of  the 
Exodus  from  Egypt  (Ex.  12.37  ;  Num.  33.3,  5). 
It  was  situated  in  the  western  part  of  the  land  of 
Goshen,  not  far  from  Pithom  (which  see). 


Rami'ah. — An  Israelite,  a  son  of  Parosh.  He 
put  away  his  foreign  wife  at  Ezra's  command 
(Ezra  10.25). 

Ra'moth. — 1.  One  of  the  four  Levitical  cities 
of  Issachar,  given  to  the  Gershonites  (1  Ch. 
6.73).  The  name  appears  as  Jarmuth  in  Josh. 
21.29,  and  Remeth  in  Josh.  19.21.  2.  An 
Israelite  who  put  away  his  foreign  wife  at  Ezra's 
command  (Ezra  10.29).  But  "  and  Ramoth  " 
should  perhaps  be  read  as  "  Jeremoth,"  with 
the  R.V. 

Ra'moth-gi'lead. — Heights  of  Gilead  :  a  town 
of  Gad,  and  city  of  refuge ;  given  to  the  Merarites 
(Dent.  4.43  ;  Josh.  20.8,  21.38).  It  was  one  of 
Solomon's  commissariat  districts  (1  K.  4.13) ; 
was  taken  by  the  king  of  Syria ;  in  the  attempt 
to  recover  it  Ahab  lost  his  life  (1  K.  22  ;  2  Ch. 
18) ;  was  recovered  by  Joram  (2  K.  8.28,  29, 
9.14 ;  2  Ch.  22.5,  6),  and  there  Jehu,  one  of 
his  captains,  was  anointed  and  proclaimed  king 
in  his  stead  (2  K.  9.1-14). 

Ramoth  in  Gilead.— [RAMOTH-GILEAD.] 

Ransom. — A  price  paid  to  obtain  a  person  or 
thing  from  one  who  keeps  that  person  or  thing 
in  captivity.  Whatever  is  substituted  or  ex- 
changed, in  compensation  for  the  person,  is  his 
ransom.  A  man  is  said  to  ransom  his  life 
(Ex.  21.30),  to  substitute  a  sum  of  money  instead 
of  his  life  (Ex.  30.12  ;  Job  36.18  ;  Ps.  49.7),  and 
some  kinds  of  sacrifices  might  be  regarded  as 
ransoms,  that  is,  as  substitutes  for  the  offerer. 
In  like  manner,  Christ  is  said  to  "  give  His  life 
a  ransom  for  many  "  (Matt.  20.28 ;  M k.  10.45 ; 
1  Tim.  2.6),  a  substitute  for  them,  bearing 
sufferings  in  their  stead,  undergoing  the  penalty 
which  would  otherwise  attach  to  them  (see  also 
Bom.  3.24  ;  1  Cor.  1.30 ;  Eph.  1.7,  4.30  ;  Heb. 
9.15;  1  Pet.  1.18).  [ATONBMENT.] 

Ra'pha.— 1.  A  son  of  Benjamin  (1  Ch.  8.2). 
2.  A  Benjamite  and  a  descendant  of  Saul 
(1  Ch.  8.37) ;  called  Rephaiah  in  1  Ch.  9.43. 
[RAPHAIAH  4.] 

Ra'phu. — The  father  of  Palti,  who  was 
selected  as  the  spy  from  the  tribe  of  Benjamin 
(Num.  13.9). 

Raven. — The  first  bird  mentioned  by  name  in 
the  Bible  (Gen.  8.7).  Ravens  were  the  means, 
under  the  command  of  God,  of  supporting  the 
prophet  Elijah  at  the  brook  Cherith  (1  K.  17.4,  6). 
The  reference  in  Prov.  30.17  is  to  a  well-known 
custom  of  the  raven,  which  invariably  first 
attacks  the  eyes  of  young  or  sickly  animals.  The 
raven  is  quoted  as  illustrating  the  care  with 
which  God  watches  over  His  creatures,  for  it 
lives  in  desolate  places  where  food  is  very  scarce, 
and  yet  finds  sustenance  somehow  (Job  38.41 ; 
Ps.  147.9;  Lk.  12.24).  Birds  of  the  raven 
kind  are  abundant  in  Palestine ;  they  feed  more 
or  less  upon  carrion,  and  therefore  they  were 
pronounced  unclean  and  forbidden  for  food 
(Lev.  11.15  ;  Deut.  14.14), 

Reai'a,  Reai'ah.— The  Lord  hath  seen  :  1.  A 
descendant  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  4.2).  2.  A  Reuben- 
ite  (1  Ch.  5.5).  3.  The  children  of  Reaiah 
were  a  family  of  Nethinim  who  returned  from 
Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Eera  2.47 ;  Neh.  7.50). 


REBA] 


409 


[BED  SEA 


Be'ba. — A  Midianite  king  slain  by  the  Israel- 
ites (Num.  31.8  ;  Josh.  13.21). 

Rebecca.— (Rom.  9.10).    [REBEKAH.] 

Rebe'kah. — The  daughter  of  Bethuel,  found  at 
the  city  of  Nahor  in  Padan-aram  by  Abraham's 
servant  and  brought  away  to  become  the 
wife  of  Isaac  (Gen.  24).  After  nineteen  years 
of  childlessness  she  became  the  mother  of  Esau 
and  Jacob  (Gen.  25.20-26).  Rebekah  favoured 
the  younger  son,  abetted  him  in  his  deceit  upon 
his  father  (Gen.  27),  and,  when  she  feared  the 
consequences  of  Esau's  anger,  persuaded  Isaac 
to  send  Jacob  to  Padan-aram,  to  her  own 
kindred.  Rebekah  is  not  mentioned  when 
Jacob  returns  to  his  father,  and  accordingly  it  is 
conjectured  that  she  died  during  her  son's  stay 
in  Padan-aram.  Paul  refers  to  Rebekah  as 
being  made  acquainted  with  the  purpose  of  God 
regarding  her  children  before  they  were  born 
(Rom.  9.10). 

Recall.— [RECHAH.] 

Re'chab.— (?)  Band  of  riders  :  1.  Father  of 
Jehonadab  (2  K.  10.15,  23  ;  Jer.  35.6-19) ;  con- 
nected with  the  Kenites  (1  Ch.  2.55).  [RECHAB- 
ITES.] 2.  A  warrior  who,  with  his  brother 
Baanah,  assassinated  Ishbosheth,  son  of  Saul. 
They  were  put  to  death  by  David  for  doing  so 
(2  Sam.  4.2).  3.  The  father  or  ancestor  of 
Malchiah,  ruler  of  part  of  Beth-haccerem  (Neh. 
3.14),  named  as  repairing  the  dung-gate  in 
the  fortifications  of  Jerusalem  under  Nehemiah ; 
perhaps  the  same  as  1. 

Rechabites.— A  sect  or  religious  order  originat- 
ing with  Jehonadab  or  Jonadab,  the  son  of 
Rechab.  The  tenets  of  the  Rechabites  were  a 
reaction  and  a  protest  against  the  luxury  and 
licence  which,  under  Jezebel  and  Ahab,  threat- 
ened to  destroy  altogether  the  simplicity  of  the 
ancient  nomadic  life  of  Israel.  Accordingly, 
the  Rechabites  drank  no  wine,  nor  built  houses, 
nor  sowed  seed,  nor  planted  vineyards,  nor  had 
any.  They  dwelt  in  tents,  as  remembering 
that  they  were  strangers  in  the  land.  For  two 
centuries  and  a  half  they  adhered  faithfully  to 
their  rules.  The  invasion  of  Judah  by  Nebuch- 
adnezzar in  607  B.C.  drove  the  Rechabites  from 
their  tents.  The  Rechabites,  on  account  of  the 
purity  and  austerity  of  their  lives,  were  recog- 
nised as  incorporated  into  the  tribe  of  Levi. 
There  is  evidence  which  seems  to  point  to  the 
existence  of  the  Rechabites  as  a  recognised  body 
up  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  sharing 
in  the  ritual  of  the  Temple,  partly  descended 
from  Jehonadab,  partly  recruited  from  the 
devotees  of  austerity.  As  late  as  the  middle 
of  last  century  there  was  a  tribe  near  Mecca 
which  claimed  to  be  descended  from  Jonadab, 
and  to  be  the  fulfilment  of  the  prophetic  words, 
"  Jonadab,  the  son  of  Rechab,  shall  not  want  a 
man  to  stand  before  Me  for  ever  "  ( Jer.  35.19). 

Re'chah  (R.V.  Recah).— (1  Ch.  4.12). 
Reconcile,  Reconciliation. — In  the  O.T.  the 
word  rendered  "  reconcile  "  in  Lev.  6.30,  16.20  ; 
Ezek.  45.20  ;  and  "  to  made  reconciliation  "  in 
Lev.  8.15 ;  Ezek.  45.15, 17,  is  in  the  R.V.  ren- 
dered by  "  atone  "  and  "  make  atonement." 


In  1  Sam.  29.4  another  word  is  employed  ;  and  in 
2  Ch.  29.24  a  third,  which  is  rendered  by  R.V. 
"  make  a  sin-offering."  In  the  N.T.  the  words 
used  (except  in  Heb.  2.17,  where  R.V.  reads 
"propitiation")  imply  a  change  or  changing 
from  enmity  to  friendship.  God  is  said  to  re- 
concile man,  "  all  things,"  "  the  world,"  unto 
Himself  (2  Cor.  5.18,19;  Col.  1.20,21)  by 
Jesus  Christ  (2  Cor.  5.18)  in  His  death  (Rom. 
5.10).  So  Christ  is  said  to  reconcile  both  Jews 
and  Gentiles  to  God  (Eph*  2.16) ;  and  the  task 
of  proclaiming  to  others  the  reconciling  work  of 
our  Lord  is  called  "  the  ministry,"  "  the  word," 
of  reconciliation  (2  Cor.  5.18, 19).  [ATONE- 
MENT, PBOPITIATION.] 

Recorder.— An  officer  who  perhaps  originally 
reminded  the  king  of  duties  and  persons,  and 
afterwards  looked  after  the  national  records, 
and  presided  in  the  king's  privy  council.  The 
position  was  one  of  importance  (2  Sam.  8.16, 
20.24;  1  K.  4.3  ;  2  K.  18.18,  37 ;  1  Ch.  18.15  ; 
2  Ch.  348). 

Redeem,  Redeemer,  Redemption.— To  resume 
possession  of,  to  buy  back,  a  person  or  thing,  to 
resume  a  claim,  are  acts  provided  for  in  much 
detail  under  the  Mosaic  Law.  The  redemption 
of  land  and  houses  (Lev.  25.23,  24,  29)  of  an 
Israelite  (Lev.  25.48),  of  property  vowed  or 
"  sanctified "  to  God  (Lev.  27.9-27),  is  thus 
legalised.  As,  however,  the  person  who  had 
sold  house  or  land  or  himself  was  hardly  likely 
to  have  the  means  to  redeem  that  which  had  been 
alienated,  the  right  of  redemption  was  secured 
to  his  kinsmen  (Lev.  25.48, 49).  Thus  the 
Hebrew  go  el,  "  redeemer,"  came  to  mean 
"  kinsman,"  and  is  so  rendered  (Num.  5.8 ; 
Ruth  2.20,  etc.).  This  goel  exercised  the  right 
of  the  Avenger  of  Blood  (Num.  35.19,21,27; 
Dent.  19.12).  Another  Hebrew  word  is  used  for 
the  redemption  of  the  first-born  (Ex.  13.13, 15). 
In  the  N.T.  of  the  two  ideas  suggested  by  the 
words  rendered  "  redeem  "  and  "  redemption  " 
are  (1)  purchase  (Gal.  3.13, 45  ;  Rev.  5.9),  and  (2) 
loosing  or  setting  free  (Lk.  1.68,  24.21 ;  Rom. 
3.24 ;  Eph.  1.7  ;  Tit.  2.14 ;  1  Pet.  1.18,  etc.). 
[ATONEMENT,  AVENGES  OF  BLOOD,  PBOPITIA- 
TION.] 

Red  Heiler.— [SIN-OFFEBENG.] 

Red  Sea.— Generally  in  Scripture  called  Tarn 
Suph,  signifying  "  sea  of  weeds."  It  separates 
Egypt  from  Arabia ;  in  the  north  part  divided 
into  two  arms  by  the  Sinaitic  peninsula ;  the 
western  arm,  the  larger,  is  now  called  the  Gulf 
of  Suez,  while  the  eastern  arm  is  the  Elanitic 
Gulf  or  Gulf  of  Akaba.  The  head  of  the  Gulf  of 
Suez  has  gradually  risen  since  the  Christian  era 
(Isai.  11.15, 19.5),  and  the  tongue  of  the  Red  Sea 
has  dried  up  for  a  distance  of  at  least  50  miles, 
hence  increased  difficulty  in  determining  where 
the  Israelites  crossed  it ;  but  probably  it  was 
somewhere  about  the  present  Bitter  Lakes.  At 
the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Akaba  were  the  only  two 
ports  of  the  Red  Sea  mentioned  in  the  Bible, 
Elath  and  Ezion-geber.  The  greatest  width  of 
the  Red  Sea  from  the  south  to  where  it  splits 
into  two  gulfs  is  200  miles,  and  the  narrowest 


REED,  RUSH] 


410 


[REGENERATION 


part  about  100  miles  ;  the  Gulf  of  Suez  has  an 
average  width  of  about  18  miles,  and  the  Gulf 
of  Akaba  considerably  less.  The  former  is  con- 
nected with  the  Mediterranean  by  the  Suez 
Canal.  It  is  probable  that  the  Israelites  crossed 
the  Red  Sea  at  a  point  about  30  miles  to  the 
northward  of  the  present  head  of  the  Gulf  of 
Suez,  that  is,  near  the  northern  extremity 
of  the  Red  Sea  as  it  then  was.  As  the  whole 
Egyptian  army  perished,  the  Red  Sea  at  this 
point  must  have  been  several  miles  broad,  at 
least  12.  The  deliverance  of  Israel  at  the  Red 
Sea  became,  in  the  mind  of  the  Jewish  nation, 
the  greatest  fact  in  their  history. 

Reed,  Rush. — The  Hebrew  words  rendered 
"  reed "  are  as  general  in  their  application  as 
the  English  word  itself,  which  is  applied  to  a 
large  variety  of  reeds,  rushes,  sedges,  etc.  The 
"paper  reeds "  of  Isai.  19.7  are  meadows.  The 
flags  (in  which  Moses  was  laid)  of  Ex.  2.3  were 
simply  "  weeds,"  a  word  which  includes  alike 
sea-weeds  (Jon.  2.5)  and  those  growing  in  fresh 
water.  The  flag  of  Job  8.11,  "  Can  the  flag  grow 
without  water?"  means  "marshy  vegetation." 
In  Job  41.2,  20  for  "  hook  "  and  "  caldron  "  read 
"  rope  (of  rushes) "  and  "  (burning)  rushes." 
There  is  no  doubt  that  in  some  cases  the 
papyrus  is  specially  meant.  More  than  twenty 
species  of  rushes,  and  nearly  thirty  of  sedges, 
grow  in  Palestine,  including  the  papyrus,  which 
is  a  tall  green  sedge,  with  a  large  and  drooping 
panicle  or  tuft  of  florets  springing  from  a  sheath 
at  the  top.  It  reaches  a  height  of  from  ten  to 
fifteen  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  from  two  to 
three  inches  at  the  base.  To  make  paper  from 
papyrus,  the  rind  was  removed,  the  pith  cut 
in  strips  and  laid  lengthwise  on  a  flat  board, 
with  other  strips  across,  the  two  largest  united 
by  some  glue  or  cement,  and  the  whole  sub- 
jected to  pressure,  compacting  the  several  parts 
into  one  fabric. 

Reelai'ah.— [RAAMIAH.] 

Refiner. — The  Jewish  method  of  refining 
metals  was  as  follows  :  the  metal  was  reduced 
to  a  liquid  state  by  heat,  then  alkali  or  lead 
was  applied,  which  amalgamated  with  the  dross, 
and  then  the  pure  metal  was  run  off  (Isai.  1.25 ; 
Jer.  6.29).  The  process  of  refining  is  employed 
figuratively  in  Zech.  13.9  and  Mai.  3.2,  3.  In 
the  East,  a  refiner  of  silver  often  tests  the 
quality  of  the  molten  metal  by  seeing  whether 
it  reflects  his  face. 

Refuge,  Cities  of.— [CITY  OP  REFUGE.] 

Re'gem. — (?)  Friend:  a  son  of  Jahdai ;  appar- 
ently a  descendant  of  Caleb  (1  Ch.  2.47). 

Re'gem-me'lech. — (?)  Friend  of  the  king  :  one 
of  two  persons  who  were  sent  on  behalf  of 
the  captivity  to  make  inquiries  at  the  Temple 
concerning  fasting  (Zech.  7.2). 

Regeneration.— The  word  translated  "re- 
generation "  is  found  only  twice  in  the  N.T. 
(Matt.  19.28;  Tit.  3.5).  The  former  text 
refers  to  the  new  state  or  condition  of  things 
which  will  be  ushered  in  by  Christ's  coming. 
The  latter  refers  to  the  present  spiritual  life 
of  the  believer,  and  is  stated  to  be  the  first  of 


two  means  by  which  the  mercy  of  God  saves 
us :  (a)  "  by  the  washing  of  regeneration,"  and 
(b)  "renewing  of  the  Holy  Ghost."  By  dis- 
tinction from  (b),  (a)  would  seem  to  suggest  a 
sphere  or  condition  in  which  the  Holy  Spirit 
does  His  work  of  renewal,  and  if  so,  the  word 
will  mean  in  relation  to  the  present  what  Matt. 
19.28  means  in  relation  to  the  future.  Cognate 
words  are  found  in  several  passages.  In  John 
1.121.  believers  are  said  to  be  "  born  ...  of 
God  " ;  in  John  3.3  "  born  again  "  (or  "  from 
above  "),  and  3.5  "  born  of  water  and  the  Spirit." 
In  1  John  there  are  several  marks  descriptive 
of  him  who  is  born  of  God  (2.29,  3.9, 10, 14, 
4.7,  5.1,4,18).  Other  parallel  phrases  are 
"a  new  creation"  (2  Cor.  5.17),  "passed  out 
of  death  into  life  "  (John  5.24),  and  "  children 
of  God."  But  the  phrases  rendered  "  born 
again "  would  be  more  accurately  rendered 
"  begotten  again,"  as  in  1  Pet.  1.3.  It  would 
have  helped  to  clearness  if  begetting  and  birth 
could  have  been  carefully  distinguished,  for 
as  physical  birth  is  not  the  commencement  of 
life,  so  regeneration  in  the  sense  of  new  birth  is 
not  the  commencement  of  spiritual  life.  In  both 
cases  life  is  presumed  to  exist  before  birth, 
and  birth  is  the  introduction  of  life  into  a 
new  sphere.  Much  confusion  aiises  from  re- 
garding regeneration  in  the  sense  of  new  birth 
as  the  commencement  or  first  bestowal  of 
new  life.  This  latter  idea  is  not  new  birth, 
but  new  begetting.  Birth  is  the  entrance  of 
a  living  being  (of  one  already  begotten),  into 
a  new  world  in  which  the  life  can  grow,  ful- 
filling its  functions  and  enjoying  its  privileges. 
This  is  clearly  the  meaning  of  "  regeneration  " 
in  Matt.  19.28  ;  it  refers  to  that  sphere  or  state 
into  which  hereafter  the  disciples  of  Christ 
shall  enter.  So  with  birth  when  applied  to  the 
present ;  it  is  not  life,  but  the  introduction 
of  life  to  a  new  sphere.  Life  is  bestowed 
on  the  soul  by  the  Spirit  of  God  through  the 
Word  (Jas.  1.18;  1  Pet.  1.23),  and  then  the 
soul,  thus  begotten  or  made  alive,  is  admitted 
into  the  new  sphere  of  the  Christian  community 
by  birth  or  regeneration.  Christ's  words  in 
John  3.3  clearly  refer  to  birth  as  distinct  from 
life  or  conception,  as  may  be  seen  from  Nico- 
demus'  reply  (ver.  4,  "  can  he  ...  a  second  time 
...  be  born  ").  So  in  Matt.  2.2,  "  where  is  He 
that  is  born  "  (cf.  John  16.21,  "  that  a  man  is 
born  ").  The  very  idea  of  birth  is  not  secret,  or 
hidden,  or  dormant  life,  but  life  visible  and 
manifested.  "  In  this  the  children  of  God  are 
manifest"  (1  John  3.10).  God's  bestowal  of 
life  is  hidden  and  secret  between  Him  and  the 
soul;  but  birth  is  visible  to  all.  So  we  must 
carefully  distinguish  between  God's  implantation 
of  spiritual  life,  and  the  bringing  forth  (birth) 
of  that  life  for  human  observation.  The  term 
"  regeneration "  in  Tit.  3.5,  and  our  Lord's 
words  "  born  from  above  "  (John  3.3),  describe 
nativity  (Latin,  nativitas),  not  generation  (Latin, 
generatio).  The  newly  begotten  soul  is  newly 
born,  but  re-birth  (Latin,  renatus)  always 
presupposes  a  re-begetting  (Latin,  regeneratio). 


REHABIAH] 


411 


[KEMMON-METHOAR 


The  Holy  Spirit,  who  bestows  life  through  the 
Word  (Jas.  1.18),  is  also  the  Divine  agent  of 
new  birth  (John  3.3,  5,  6,  8  "  born  from  above, 
born  ...  of  the  Spirit"),  for  it  is  He  who  unites 
us  to  the  spiritual  community  in  which  our  life 
is  to  grow  (Acts  2.47:  "the  Lord-  added  "). 
On  the  earthly  side  the  newborn  soul  is  intro- 
duced into  the  visible  community  of  Christians 
by  baptism  (Acts  2.41),  into  that  sphere  in 
which  its  already-existing  life  is  to  grow  and 
work.  Thus,  on  the  spiritual  side  the  Holy 
Spirit,  and  on  the  temporal  or  earthly  side,  the 
ordinance  of  baptism,  are  regarded  as  intro- 
ducing the  new  life  respectively  into  the  spiritual 
and  into  the  earthly  spheres  of  the  Church. 
These  two  sides  may  be  coincident  or  separate, 
for  the  birth  of  the  Spirit  is  not  tied  to  the 
time  of  baptism.  As  we  can  only  judge  of  the 
presence  of  physical  life  by  its  manifestations, 
so  we  can  only  detect  the  existence  of  spiritual 
life  by  its  proofs.  Baptism  in  the  N.T.  is 
never  an  ordinance  of  life,  but  only  of  birth, 
and  when  this  is  clearly  realised  it  will  guard 
us  against  all  mechanical  and  superstitious 
ideas  of  that  rite,  and  enable  us  to  preserve  and 
emphasise  its  true  place  and  value.  Baptism 
is  not  life-giving,  but  life-expressing,  and, 
normally,  it  is  never  the  occasion  of  life's 
bestowal,  but  simply  of  its  introduction. 
The  requirements  of  repentance  and  faith 
prior  to  baptism  prove  this,  for  they  imply 
already  the  presence  of  spiritual  life  before 
Baptism,  i.e.  life  before  birth.  Regeneration, 
whether  as  re-begetting  or  as  re-birth,  is  to  be 
carefully  distinguished  from  Conversion.  Re- 
generation is  a  Divine  work  ;  Conversion  is  the 
corresponding  human  response  to  it.  It  is 
the  turning  of  the  soul  to  God,  as  the  result  of 
the  gift  of  life.  The  word  rendered  "  con- 
verted "  in  Matt.  18.3  ;  Lk.  22.32  ;  Acts  3.19 
should  be  translated  "  turn/'  thus  emphasising 
the  active,  not  the  passive  side. 

Rehabi'ah.— A  grandson  of  Moses  (1  Ch.  23.17, 
24.21,  26.25). 

Re'hob.— Breadth  :  1.  The  farthest  place  in 
the  north  visited  by  the  spies  (Num.  13.21) ;  the 
same  as  Beth-rehob.  2.  A  town  of  Asher,  near 
Sidon  (Josh.  19.28).  3.  Another  town  of  Asher 
(Josh.  19.30).  Either  (2)  or  (3)  was  allotted  to 
the  Gershonites,  and  from  either  (2)  or  (3)  the 
Canaanites  were  not  expelled  (Josh.  21.31  ; 
Judg.  1.31  ;  1  Ch.  6.75).  It  is  possible  that 
(2)  and  (3)  are  identical.  4.  The  father  of 
Hadadezer  (2  Sam.  8.3, 12).  5.  A  Levite,  or 
family  of  Levites,  who  sealed  the  covenant  with 
Nehemiah  (Neh.  10.11). 

Rehobo'am. — The  son  and  successor  of 
Solomon  (1  K.  11.43).  He  was  forty-one  years 
of  age  when  he  ascended  the  throne.  His 
refusal  to  remit  any  of  the  taxes  imposed  by 
his  father,  and  his  bravado  answer  to  the  petition 
for  redress,  led  to  the  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes  and 
the  establishment  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  under 
Jeroboam.  Rehoboam  assembled  an  army  of 
180,000  men  to  take  the  field  against  the  in- 
surgents ;  but  the  expedition  was  forbidden  by 


the  prophet  Shemaiah,  who  declared  that  the 
separation  of  the  kingdoms  was  in  accordance 
with  God's  will  (1  K.  12.24).  The  worship  of 
Jehovah  without  images  of  Him  was  main- 
tained in  Judah,  and  many  Levites  and  pious 
Israelites  removed  from  the  northern  kingdom 
into  the  southern  in  disgust  at  the  calf-worship 
introduced  by  Jeroboam  at  Dan  and  Bethel. 
[JEROBOAM  1.]  Rehoboam,  however,  did  not 
remove  the  elements  of  lascivious  idolatry 
which  had  been  introduced  by  his  father  (1  K. 
14.22-24).  This  wickedness  was  punished  by  an 
invasion  from  Egypt,  and  Rehoboam  was  com- 
pelled to  purchase  peace  by  the  surrender  of 
his  father's  treasure  (1  K.  14.25-28).  Rehoboam 
reigned  seventeen  years.  He  bequeathed  his 
kingdom  to  Abijah,  his  son  by  Maachah. 

Re'hoboth. — Broad  spaces  :  1.  A  city  built  by 
Asshur  (Gen.  10.11,  Rehoboth-Ir,  R.V.) ;  possibly 
it  was  a  suburb  of  Nineveh,  especially  as  its  full 
title  is  Rehoboth-Ir,  i.e.  broad  places  of  the  city. 

2.  A  town  on  the  Euphrates,  the  residence  of 
Shaul,  one  of  the  early  kings  of  the  Edomites 
(Gen.  36.37 ;    1  Ch.  1.48).    The  name  still  re- 
mains attached  to  two  spots  on  the  Euphrates. 

3.  The  name  given  to  a  well  dug  by  Isaac  when 
he  secured  room  enough  from  the  herdmen  of 
Gerar   (Gen.    26.22) ;     now   existing   near   the 
ruins  of  Ruheibeh. 

Re 'hum. — (?)  Compassion  :  1.  One  who  re- 
turned with  Zerubbabel  from  Babylon  (Ezra  2.2) ; 
called  Nehum  in  Neh.  7.7.  2.  A  Persian  official 
in  Judah,  who  wrote  to  his  master  Artaxerxes 
urging  him  to  stop  the  rebuilding  of  the  walls 
and  temple  of  Jerusalem  (Ezra  4.8,  9, 17,  23). 
3.  A  Levite  who  assisted  in  rebuilding  the  walls 
of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  3.17).  4.  One  of  the  chiefs 
of  the  people  who  signed  the  covenant  with 
Nehemiah  (Neh.  10.25).  5.  A  priestly  family 
at  the  head  of  a  priestly  house,  who  went  up 
with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  12.3).  [HAEIM.] 

Re'i. — (?)  Friendly  :  one  who  remained  faith- 
ful to  David  when  Adonijah  rebelled  (1  K.  1.8). 
Perhaps  the  passage  should  be  read  Shimei 
and  his  friends. 

Reins. — In  Isai.  11.5  the  loins ;  but  elsewhere 
the  word  employed  means  the  kidneys.  These 
are  represented  in  the  O.T.  as  the  seat  of  all 
moral  sentiment  and  the  emotions  (Job  16.13 ; 
Ps.  7.9, 26.2;  Prov.  23.16,  etc. ;  and  cf.  Rev.  2.23). 

ReTsem.— 1.  A  king  of  Midian  slain  by  the 
Israelites  (Num.  31.8;  Josh.  13.21).  2.  The 
father  of  Shammai  of  Hebron  (1  Ch.  2.43,  44). 
3.  A  town  of  Benjamin  (Josh.  18.27).  [RAKEM.] 

Remali'ah.— (?)  The  Lord  hath  adorned: 
father  of  Pekah,  king  of  Israel  (2  K.  15.25-37, 
16.1,  5;  2  Ch.  28.6;  Isai.  7.1-9,  8.6). 

Re'meth.— Height :  a  town  of  Issachar 
(Josh.  19.21),  among  the  hills  between  Jenln 
and  Samaria.  It  is  now  called  Er-Rameh.  The 
same  as  Ramoth  1. 

Rem'mon    (R.V.    Rimmon).— (Josh.    19.7). 

[RlMMON.] 

Rem'mon-metho'ar.— (Josh.  19.13).  An  inac- 
curate rendering  for  Rimmon.  Methoar  is 
translated  in  the  R.V.  "  which  stretcheth  out." 


EEMPHAN] 


412 


[BESURRECTION 


Remphan. — This  represents  in  the  Septuagint 
and  Stephen's  quotation  in  Acts  7.43  the  word 
Chiun  of  Amos  5.26.  It  is  probably  an  error  of 
the  Greek  copyist  for  Kewan,  the  Assyrian  god 
resembling  Saturn.  [CHIUN.] 

Repent,  Repentance.— To  repent  is  to  feel 
sorrow  for  a  thing  done.  In  this  sense  it  is  used 
of  God  (Gen.  6.6  ;  1  Sam.  15.11,  etc.),  just  as  His 
actions  are  in  other  ways  represented  by  terms 
properly  applied  to  man  (Gen.  8.1,  11.5).  The 
appeal  for  repentance  of  sin  and  turning  from 
it  is  heard  throughout  the  Prophets  (Isai.  55.7  ; 
Jer.  3.12-14  ;  Ezek.  14.6  ;  Joel  2.12, 13).  For 
some  O.T.  examples  of  repentance  and  confession 
of  sin,  see  Num.  12.11 ;  1  Sam.  15.24-31 ;  2  Sam. 
12.13 ;  1  K.  21.27-29 ;  2  Ch.  12.6,  7.  In  the 
N.T.  one  word  rendered  "  repentance  "  denotes 
regret  for  a  thing  done  (Matt.  21.29),  and  is 
used  of  Judas  (Matt.  27.3).  Another  word  (both 
in  its  verbal  and  substantival  forms)  expresses  a 
change  of  mind  issuing  in  a  change  of  life  and 
purpose.  It  is  the  word  used  of  the  preaching 
of  our  Lord  (Matt.  4.17,  etc.),  of  the  Apostles 
(Acts  2.38,  5.31,  etc.),  in  the  Epistles  (Bom. 
2.4,  etc.),  and  in  Revelation  (2.5,  etc.). 

Repha'el.— God  healeth :  a  gatekeeper  of  the 
Tabernacle  (1  Ch.  26.7). 

Re'phah. — An  ancestor  of  Joshua*(l  Ch.  7.25). 

Rephai'ah.  —  (?)  The  Lord  healeth:  1.  A 
descendant  of  David  (1  Ch.  3.21).  2.  A 
Simeonite,  who  led  an  expedition  of  500  men 
against  the  Amalekites  of  Mount  Seir,  and  drove 
them  out  (1  Ch.  4.42).  3.  A  son  of  Tola  of 
Issachar  (1  Ch.  7.2).  4.  A  descendant  of  Saul 
(1  Ch.  9.43) ;  called  Rapha  in  1  Ch.  8.37.  5.  One 
who  helped  to  rebuild  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
under  Nehemiah  (Neh.  3.9). 

Re'phaim.— 1.  A  race  of  giants  (Gen.  14.5, 

15.20).      [GIANTS.] 

2.  The  valley  of  Rephaim;  now  El-Bukeia. 
Fertile  plain,  shut  in  on  all  sides  by  rocky  hilltops 
and  ridges,  which  descends  gradually  south-west 
from  Jerusalem  for  more  than  a  mile,  when  it 
contracts  into  a  narrow  valley,  the  Wady 
el-Werd.  It  was  the  boundary  between  Judah 
and  Benjamin  (Josh.  15.8,  18.16),  and  the 
scene  of  conflicts  between  David  and  the 
Philistines  (2  Sam.  5.18,  22,  23.13 ;  1  Ch.  11.15, 
14.9, 13). 

Rephan.— - (Acts  7.43,  R.V.).    [REMPHAN.] 

Rephi'dim. — (?)  Supports  :  the  first  long  halt- 
ing-place of  the  Israelites  in  the  Exodus,  where 
they  murmured  and  the  rock  was  smitten  for 
water.  Here  Jethro  visited  Moses,  and  here 
the  Amalekites  were  defeated  (Ex.  17.8,  19.2 ; 
Num.  33.14, 15).  Perhaps  the  modern  Wady 
Feiran. 

Re 'sen.— (?)  Halter:  a  city  built  by  Asshur 
(Gen.  10.12),  between  Nineveh  and  Calah.  The 
ruins  of  Nineveh  and  Calah  have  been  discovered, 
and  Resen  has  been  identified,  conjecturally, 
with  the  modern  village  of  Selamiyeh. 

Re'sheph.— Flame,  fire-bolt :  a  son  of  Ephraim 
(1  Ch.  7.25). 

Resurrection. — The  resurrection  of  the  dead, 
as  understood  in  Holy  Scripture,  is  to  be  dis- 


tinguished from  resuscitation,  or  renewal  of 
ordinary  human  life.  Resuscitation  is  restora- 
tion to  the  life  laid  down.  Resurrection  is  the 
entry  upon  a  new  state  of  existence.  There 
are  three  narratives  of  resuscitation  in  the 
O.T.  and  five  in  the  N.T.,  viz. :— Elijah's 
restoration  of  the  widow's  son  of  Zarephath 
(1  K.  17.17-23);  Elisha's  restoration  of  the 
Shunammite's  son  (2  K.  4.18-36) ;  the  revival 
of  the  man  cast  into  the  sepulchre  of  Elisha 
(2  K.  13.20, 21) ;  our  Lord's  raising  of  the 
daughter  of  Jairus  (Mk.  5.35-42 ;  LJc.  8.49-56), 
the  widow's  son  at  Nain  (Lk.  7.11-15),  and 
Lazarus  (John  11.1-44) ;  and  two  in  the  Acts — 
the  case  of  Tabitha  (9.36-42)  and  of  Eutychus 
(20.9-12). 

Intimations  of  a  belief  in  a  resurrection  are, 
in  the  O.T.,  few  ( Job  14.13-15  ;  Ps.  49.15,  73.24  ; 
Isai.  26.14, 19  ;  Dan.  12.2) ;  it  was  not  for  the 
enemies  of  God  (Ps.  49.14 ;  cf.  Isai.  26.14) ;  but 
the  hope  was  applied  symbolically  to  the  nation 
(Ezek.  37.1-14 ;  Hos.  6.2).  The  belief  grew  in  the 
Jewish  Church,  gathering  in  distinctness  as  we 
approach  the  time  of  our  Lord. 

Its  development  may  be  seen  in  the  Apoc- 
rypha. The  bodily  resurrection  of  the  righteous 
is  definitely  stated  in  2  Mace.  7.8, 11,  23, 14.46  ; 
Wisd.  2.23,  3.1-5,  8.13,17.  A  general  resur- 
rection to  judgment  appears  in  the  Apocalypse 
of  Baruch  (50.3,4,  51.1-6;  2  Esd.  7.32-35). 
Elsewhere  the  dead  are  represented  as  only  at 
rest  in  Sheol  (Ecclus.  17.27-30,  44.9-15). 

In  the  time  of  our  Lord  the  general  resurrection 
was  a  widely  accepted  doctrine,  though  the 
Sadducees,  adhering  to  the  view  of  Ecclesiasticus, 
denied  it.  So  Martha,  when  assured  by  our  Lord, 
"  Thy  brother  shall  rise  again,"  answered,  "  I 
know  that  he  shall  rise  again  in  the  resurrection 
at  the  last  day  "  (John  11.23,  24 ;  and  cf.  Acts 
24.15).  When  our  Lord  dealt  with  the  rising 
from  the  dead,  He  did  not,  however,  declare  it 
as  recognised  by  the  Law  or  the  Prophets; 
but  stated  that  the  doctrine  was  implied  in  the 
words  of  God  to  Moses  at  the  burning  bush, 
adding,  "  He  is  not  the  God  of  the  dead,  but 
of  the  living  "  (Mk.  12.27). 

But  He  clearly  taught  a  general  resurrection 
of  the  just  and  the  unjust  (Matt.  22.23-33  ;  Mk. 
12.18-27 ;  Lk.  20.27-38 ;  John  5.28).  The  resur- 
rection to  life  our  Lord  definitely  associated 
with  His  own  atoning  work  for  His  people  ( John 
6.39,  44,  54, 11.25,  26, 14.19).  This  also  was  the 
apostolic  doctrine  (Acts  4.2  ;  Rom.  6.5,  8  ;  1  Cor. 
15.20-22  ;  1  Pet.  1.3,  4).  But  in  Rom.  8.11  we 
find  "shall  quicken  also  your  mortal  bodies 
through  his  Spirit  that  dwelleth  in  you"  (R.V.). 
The  resurrection  is  in  the  N.T.  ascribed  to  God 
in  general,  to  the  Father  or  to  the  Son  (John 
5.21,  6.39, 11.25 ;  2  Cor.  4.14),  but  not  to  the 
Holy  Spirit  alone  (in  1  Pet.  3.18  the  R.V.  should 
be  followed — "  quickened  in  the  spirit,"  i.e.  as 
Christ  died  in  body,  so  life  was  quickened,  or 
brought  to  new  life  in  His  spirit). 

In  regard  to  the  resurrection  body,  the  argu- 
ment of  Paul  in  1  Cor.  15.35-53  shows  (a)  that 
it  is  real ;  (&)  that  it  is  mtich  higher  in  quality 


RESURRECTION  OF  CHRIST]         413       [REVELATION,  BOOK  OF  THE 


and  power  than  the  earthly  body;  (c)  that  it 
H  in  some  way  the  result  of  this.  [RESUR- 
RECTION OF  JESUS  CHRIST,  IMMORTALITY  OP  THE 
SOUL.] 

Resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ.— In  the  history 
of  our  Lord's  earthly  life  no  part  is  treated  in 
so  much  detail  either  by  the  Evangelists  or  by  the 
authors  of  Acts  and  the  Epistles  as  His  resur- 
rection. This  treatment  corresponds  with  the 
position  assigned  to  the  resurrection  in  St. 
Paul's  arguments  (1  Cor.  15.14),  and  warrants 
the  conclusion  of  Bishop  Westcott  that  "  taking 
all  the  evidence  together  .  .  .  there  is  no 
single  historic  incident  better  or  more  variously 
supported  than  the  resurrection  of  Christ " 
(Gospel  of  the  Resurrection,  2nd  ed.,  p.  133). 

Intimation  of  the  resurrection  may  be  seen  in 
Ps.  16.9,  10  (Acts  2.31)  and  Isai.  26.19 ;  but 
there  is  no  indication  that  these  were  understood 
before  the  event ;  indeed,  the  evidence  points 
in  the  other  direction  (Mk.  9.10).  Our  Lord 
Himself,  however,  foretold  His  resurrection  not 
less  plainly  than  His  death  (Matt.  12.40,  16.21, 
17.23,  20.19,  26.32,  27.63;  Mk.  9.9,  14.28; 
Lk.  24.7  ;  John  2.19,  21).  The  action  of  Peter 
(Matt.  16.22)  indicates  the  spirit  in  which  these 
warnings  were  received. 

The  facts  of  the  resurrection  are  recorded  by 
the  Evangelists  in  Matt.  28  ;  Mk.  16  ;  Lk.  24  ; 
John  20,  21.  These  narratives  record  appear- 
ances of  the  risen  Lord  to  Mary  Magdalene  at 
the  garden  (Mk.  16.9,  10  ;  John  20.14,  17) ;  to 
the  women  returning  from  the  tomb  (Matt.  28.9) ; 
to  the  disciples  on  the  way  to  Emmaus  (Mk. 
16.12, 13 ;  Lk.  24.13-35) ;  to  Peter  at  Jerusalem 
(Lk.  24.34 ;  1  Cor.  15.5) ;  to  the  ten  apostles  in 
the  upper  room  (Lk.  24.36  ;  John  20.19) ;  to  the 
eleven  apostles  in  the  upper  room  (Mk.  16.14 ; 
John  20.26);  to  the  disciples  at  the  Sea  of 
Tiberias  (John  21.1-24) ;  to  the  eleven  apostles 
on  a  mountain  in  Galilee  (Matt.  28.16) ;  to 
the  apostles  at  the  Ascension  (Mk.  16.19 ; 
Lk.  24.50,  51 ;  Acts  1.4-10).  In  addition  to 
these,  St.  Paul  records  appearances  to  five 
hundred  brethren  at  once,  to  James,  and  to 
himself  (1  Cor.  15.6-8).  The  language  of 
Acts  1.3  suggests  that  these  lists  are  not  ex- 
haustive. The  manifestations  recorded  are 
clearly  distinguished  from  anything  in  the 
nature  of  vision  or  hallucination.  The  risen 
Lord  talked  with  His  disciples,  ate  with  them, 
was  touched  by  them.  The  circumstances 
varied ;  and  the  appearances  were  both  to  those 
unprepared  for  the  fact  and  to  those  prepared 
for  it. 

The  resurrection  of  Christ  from  the  first 
stood  in  the  forefront  of  apostolic  teaching. 
A  successor  to  Judas  in  the  ranks  of  the  apostles 
was  chosen  "  to  be  a  witness  ...  of  His  resur- 
rection "  (Acts  1.22).  The  first-hand  nature  of 
the  apostolic  testimony  was  insisted  on  (Acts 
2.32,  3.15,  10.41,  13.31).  It  was  the  theme  of 
apostolic  discourse  (Acts  4.2,33,  17.18,  23.6). 
Alike  in  the  Acts  and  in  the  Epistles  the 
teaching  of  the  Apostles  is  that  of  men  who 
recognised  the  importance  of  the  resurrection 


to  those,  once  dead  in  trespasses  and  sins,  who 
found  themselves  "  begotten  .  .  .  again  unto  a 
lively  hope  by  the  resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ 
from  the  dead  "  (1  Pet.  1.3).  That  resurrection 
is  declared  to  be  "  for  our  justification  "  (Rom. 
4.25) ;  we  shall  be  "  saved  by  His  life  "  (Rom. 
5.10) ;  confession  of  the  Lord  and  belief  in  the 
resurrection  are  joined  as  grounds  of  salvation 
(Rom.  10.9) ;  and  His  resurrection  is  the  pledge 
of  our  own  (1  Cor.  15.20-23).  The  change  in 
the  apostles  when  they  became  assured  of  the 
resurrection,  and  their  confident  declaration  of 
the  fact,  are  not  more  remarkable  than  the 
reliance  of  the  Church  of  Christ  thereafter  upon 
a  risen  and  ascended  Lord.  The  history  of 
the  Church  of  Christ  is  only  explicable  because 
of  its  belief  in  and  dependence  upon  the  One 
who  said,  "  I  am  He  that  liveth,  and  was  dead  ; 
and,  behold,  I  am  alive  for  evermore,  Amen  " 
(Rev.  1.18).  [ATONEMENT.] 

Re'u. — Son  of  Peleg  and  an  ancestor  of 
Abraham,  who  lived  239  years  (Gen.  11.18, 19, 
20,  21 ;  1  Ch.  1.25). 

Reuben.— Behold  a  son!  the  eldest  son  of 
Jacob  and  Leah  (Gen.  29.32).  As  the  result  of 
misconduct  he  lost  his  birthright  and  all  the 
privileges  of  primogeniture  (Gen.  35.22).  He 
delivered  Joseph  from  death  at  the  hands  of  his 
brethren  (Gen.  37.22).  At  the  Exodus  the  tribe  of 
Reuben  contained  46,500  men  above  twenty-one 
years  of  age  and  fit  for  service  (Num.  1.20,  21, 
2.11),  and  was  in  strength  sixth  on  the  list. 
Some  died  in  the  conspiracy  of  Korah  (Num.  16.1 ; 
Deut.  11.6).  Their  inheritance  was  on  the  east 
side  of  the  Jordan,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
brook  Jazer,  on  the  south  by  the  brook  Arnon, 
on  the  west  by  the  Jordan,  and  on  the  east  by 
the  mountains  of  Gilead.  This  territory  under 
its  modern  name  of  the  Belka  is  "  still  esteemed 
beyond  all  others  by  the  Arab  sheep-masters. 
It  is  well  watered,  coveredjwith  smooth  short  turf, 
and  losing  itself  gradually  in  these  illimitable 
wastes  which  have  always  been  and  always  will  be 
the  favourite  resort  of  pastoral  nomad  tribes." 
The  Reubenites  gradually  lost  all  community 
of  feeling  or  of  interest  with  the  Western  tribes, 
departing  from  the  worship  of  Jehovah,  and 
vanish  from  history  when  carried  off  by  Tiglath- 
pileser  to  Mesopotamia  (1  Ch.  5.26).  We  have 
no  record  of  any  judge,  prophet,  or  hero 
belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Reuben. 

Reu'eL — 1.  A  son  of  Esau  and  "  duke " 
of  Edom  (Gen.  36.4,  10, 13,  17 ;  1  Ch.  1.35,  37). 
2.  The  father-in-law  of  Moses,  called  also 
Jethro  and  Raguel  (Ex.  2.18).  3.  The  father 
of  Eliasaph  of  Gad  (Num.  2.14).  4.  A  Ben- 
jamite  (1  Ch.  9.8). 

Reu'mah. — The  concubine  of  Nahor,  Abra- 
ham's brother  (Gen.  22.24). 

Revelation.— {BIBLE,  INSPIRATION.] 

Revelation,  The  Book  of  the.— This  book  is 
called  the  Revelation  or  Apocalypse,  as  contain- 
ing matters  revealed  to  its  author  by  Jesus 
Christ.  Its  authorship  is  by  the  book  itself 
ascribed  to  "  John  "  (1.1,  4,  9,  22.8).  He  was 
"  the  servant "  of  Jesus  Christ  (1.1),  one  who 


REVELATION,  BOOK  OF  THE]       414       [REVELATION,  BOOK  OF  THE 


"bare  witness  of  the  word  of  God,  and  of  the 
testimony  of  Jesus  Christ"  (1.2,  R.V.).  The 
almost  universal  testimony  of  the  Early  Church 
identified  this  John  with  the  apostle,  the  son 
of  Zebedee,  the  author  of  the  Fourth  Gospel. 
The  date  of  the  book  has  been  much  disputed. 
The  main  question  has  been  whether  John's 
banishment  to  Patmos,  a  small  island  in  the 
^Egean  Sea,  occurred  under  the  Roman  Emperor 
Nero  (54-68  A.D.)  or  under  the  Emperor 
Domitian  (81-96).  The  testimony  of  the  Early 
Church  is  divided.  In  favour  of  the  earlier 
date  it  is  urged  (1)  that  there  is  a  marked 
difference  in  language  between  the  Revelation 
and  the  Gospel  of  John  ;  that  the  language 
of  the  Revelation  is  admittedly  rugged  ;  that 
Greek  and  Hebrew  constructions  are  strangely 
intermingled ;  that  in  literary  form  it  is  very 
unlike  the  smooth  Greek  of  the  gospel  and 
epistles  written  by  John  after  living  twenty-five 
or  more  years  in  Ephesus  amid  the  influences  of 
Greek  culture  and  civilisation.  (2)  The  con- 
tents of  the  Revelation,  in  many  of  the  symbolical 
expressions  and  allusions,  agree  with  the  sorrows 
of  Jerusalem  at  the  great  Jewish  revolt,  and 
with  those  of  the  persecutions  under  Nero.  The 
references  to  Jerusalem  and  the  Temple  in 
chap.  11  seem  clearly  to  imply  that  the  siege 
had  not  occurred  at  the  time  the  book  was 
written.  The  prominence  given  to  the  expecta- 
tion of  Christ's  speedy  second  coming  suggests 
an  early  date.  In  favour  of  the  later  date  it  is 
held  that  the  ecclesiastical  organisation  of  the 
Churches  addressed,  their  state  of  spiritual 
declension,  as  compared  with  the  commenda- 
tion in  Ephesians,  the  use  of  the  expression 
"  the  Lord's  Day,"  instead  of  the  earlier  and 
current  phrase  "  the  first  day  of  the  week," 
and  of  the  "  synagogue  of  Satan,"  and  the  in- 
dications of  a  more  wide  persecution  than  that 
of  Nero,  all  point  to  the  time  assigned  to  the 
book  by  Irenaeus,  somewhere  about  95-96  A.D. 
It  has  been  attempted  to  reconcile  the  two  hypo- 
theses by  holding  that  the  book  was  added  to 
by  later  writers  ;  that  what  was  written  under 
the  Emperor  Galba,  68  A.D.,  was  revised  under 
Vespasian  about  75-79,  and  perhaps  in  Domi- 
tian's  reign  of  terror  about  95-96. 

In  its  character  the  book  belongs  to  the  same 
order  as  Daniel  and  in  part  Ezekiel.  This 
apocalyptic  literature  [NON-CANONICAL  BOOKS] 
was  always  intended  to  encourage  and  stimulate 
the  people  in  times  of  national  distress  by  the 
assurance  of  a  glorious  future  in  the  triumph 
of  Israel's  long-wished-for  Deliverer. 

The  contents  may  be  divided  as  follows: 
I.  (1-3)  relating  to  "  the  things  which  are  "  ; 
comprising  a  preparatory  vision  of  the  Divine 
perfections  and  the  human  sympathy  of  the 
Redeemer,  and  the  addresses  or  epistles  to  the 
"angels,"  personifications  of  the  spirit  or 
"  genius  "  of  each  of  the  Seven  Churches ;  each 
of  which  consists  of  three  parts  :  (1)  the  Intro- 
duction, referring  in  each  case  to  some  of  the 
attributes  of  Him  who  addresses  the  Church, 
taken  from  the  preceding  vision,  in  which  a 


progressive  order  is  observable,  and  an  ap- 
propriateness to  the  general  tenor  of  the 
epistle  which  follows;  (2)  a  description  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  Church,  with  suitable  en- 
couragement, admonition,  or  reproof ;  and  (3) 
promises  of  reward  to  those  who  overcome, 
which  are  addressed  to  all  the  Churches.  II. 
(4-22)  occupied  with  the  prophecy  of  "  the  things 
which  shall  be  hereafter  "  ;  a  series  of  visions, 
showing  by  symbolical  imagery  and  figurative 
language,  the  conflicts  and  sufferings  of  the  people 
of  God,  and  His  judgments  upon  their  enemies  ; 
ending  with  representations  of  the  downfall  of 
the  mystic  Babylon,  type  of  antagonism  to  the 
truth,  and  the  triumph  of  the  New  Jerusalem, 
the  Church  perfected. 

Or,  a  sevenfold  arrangement  may  be  adopted, 
thus:  After  the  Prologue  (1.1-8)  — 1.  Seven 
epistles  to  the  Seven  Churches  (1-3) ;  2.  Seven 
seals  (4.1-8.1) ;  3.  Seven  trumpets  sounded 
(8.2-11);  4.  Seven  Mystic  Figures,  (1)  The 
Sun-clothed  Woman,  (2)  The  Red  Dragon, 
(3)  The  Man-child,  (4)  The  First  Wild  Beast, 
from  the  Sea,  (5)  The  Second  Wild  Beast,  from 
the  Land,  (6)  The  Lamb  on  Mount  Sion,  (7) 
The  Son  of  Man  on  the  Cloud  ;  5.  Seven  vials 
poured  out  (15, 16) ;  6.  The  enemies  of  the 
Church  overthrown  (17-20);  7.  The  Glories 
of  the  Holy  City,  the  New  Jerusalem  (21-22.5) ; 
Epilogue  (22.6-21). 

The  interpretation  of  the  prophecies  has  been 
a  matter  of  much  dispute.  The  theories  may  be 
stated  as  follows  :  (1)  The  Praterist  interpreta- 
tion, which  considers  the  greater  part  of  the 
prophecies  to  have  had  their  fulfilment  in  the 
early  ages  of  the  Church.  Those  who  take  this 
view  regard  a  large  portion  of  the  Revelation 
as  referring  to  the  Neronian  persecution  and  the 
Jewish  rebellion.  The  seven  kings  (Rev.  17.10) 
are  identified  with  the  emperors  Augustus, 
Tiberius,  Gaius  Caligula,  Claudius,  Nero,  Galba, 
and  Otto.  What  is  said  in  13.18  regarding  the 
"  number "  of  the  beast,  666,  is  found  to 
correspond  with  the  numerical  value  of  the 
letters  in  the  words  Neron  Caesar  in  Hebrew 
characters.  That  the  writer  set  forth  his 
great  secret  according  to  the  numerical  value 
of  the  Hebrew  letters,  while  the  book  is  written 
in  Greek,  may  certainly  appear  strange,  until  it 
is  remembered  that  while  with  Jewish  fellow- 
Christians  the  secret  would  be  safe,  to 
treacherous  Gentile  informers  the  more  difficult 
its  discovery  was  made  the  better.  (2)  The 
Historical  school  of  expositors  regard  these 
prophecies  as  a  delineation  of  the  great  features 
in  the  history  of  the  world,  or  of  the  Church, 
from  the  apostolic  age  to  the  end  of  time.  (3)  The 
Futurist  view  regards  the  greater  part,  if  not 
the  whole,  of  this  series  of  prophecies  to  represent 
events  which  are  to  take  place  shortly  before 
the  second  advent  of  Christ.  The  antichrist 
or  apocalyptic  beast  is,  according  to  this  theory, 
a  personal  infidel  antichrist  who  is  to  reign  over 
the  whole  extent  of  the  old  Roman  Empire 
and  to  persecute  and  triumph  over  the  saints 
for  just  three  years  and  a  half,  until  Christ's 


415 


[RINNAH 


coming  to  destroy  him.  (4)  The  system  of 
interpretation,  known  as  the  Spiritual  or  Ideal, 
regards  the  Revelation  as  the  pictorial  unfolding 
of  great  principles  in  constant  conflict,  though 
under  various  forms  and  eclectic  in  its  char- 
acter. 

It  may  be  convenient  to  note  some  corre- 
spondences of  language  between  the  Gospel 
according  to  St.  John  and  the  Apocalypse  : — 

1.  The  application  of  the  title  The  Word  of 
God  given  to    our    Lord    (19.13).     This   name 
"  the  Word "    is   found   in   the    N.T.  only   in 
John's  writings  (John  1.1  ;  1  John  1.1). 

2.  The  idea  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  as  a 
Lamb    occurs    in    the    Revelation    twenty-five 
times,  and  only  elsewhere  in  John  1.29,  36. 

3.  The  use  of  the  term  to  conquer,  in  the  sense 
of   overcoming   the   evil   of  the   world,   occurs 
repeatedly  in  the  letters  to  the  Seven  Churches 
(2,  3,  also  in  12.11,  15.2,  17.14,  21.7  ;  cf.  1  John 
2  13,  14,  4.4,  5.4,  5). 

4.  The  word  "  true,"  in  the  sense  of  real, 
genuine,  contrasted  with  fictitious,  pretended, 
is  found  thirteen  times  in  the  gospel  and  epistles, 
and  ten  times  in  the  Revelation  (3.7, 19.11  ; 
cf.  John  1.14, 15.1 ;  1  John  5.20). 

5.  The  statement   in  Rev.    1.7,   "  and   they 
which  pierced  Him,"  is  found  only  in  John  19.37, 
and   is   there   also   connected   with    the   same 
translation   of    Zech.    12.10,    which   differs   in 
rendering  from  that  of  the  Septuagint. 

6.  A  prominent  idea  of  John  in  the  Gospel, 
expressed  by  the  Greek  noun  variously  rendered 
"  witness,"    "  testimony,"   "  record,"   and   the 
corresponding  verb,  in  the  sense  of  declaration 
respecting  Jesus  Christ,  of  public  profession  of 
belief,  is  prominent  also  in  Revelation  (1.2,  9, 
6.9, 12.11,  17,  19.10,  20.4,  22.18,  20). 

Re'zeph. — (?)  Burning  :  a  city  subdued  by 
Assyrians  (2  K.  19.12;  Isai.  37.12).  Now 
Rusafa,  between  Palmyra  and  the  Euphrates. 

Ee'zia  (R.V.  Rizia).— An  Asherite,  a  son  of 
Ulla  (1  Ch.  7.39). 

Re'zin. — 1.  A  king  of  Damascus  who  alh'ed 
himself  with  Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  against 
Jotham  and  Ahaz,  successive  kings  of  Judah. 
The  combined  armies  laid  unsuccessful  siege  to 
Jerusalem  (2  K.  15.37,  16.5 ;  Isai.  7.1).  Rezin, 
however,  secured  possession  of  Elath,  a  cele- 
brated town  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Akaba, 
which  commanded  an  important  line  of  trade 
(2  K.  16.6).  Rezin  was  afterwards  defeated 
and  slain  by  Tiglath-pileser  in.  (iv.),  king  of 
Assyria  (2  K.  16.9).  2.  One  of  the  families  of 
the  Nethinim  who  returned  with  Zerubbabel 
(Ezra  2.48  ;  Neh.  7.50). 

Re'zon. — The  captain  of  a  band  of  freebooters 
who  established  himself  at  Damascus  and 
harassed  the  kingdom  of  Solomon  during  his 
whole  reign  (1  K.  11.23). 

Rhe'gium. — Now  Reggio ;  town  of  Italy 
passed  by  Paul  on  his  voyage  to  Rome  (Acts 
28.13).  It  is  situated  at  the  point  of  the  toe 
of  the  Italian  peninsula. 

Rhe'sa. — Apparently  a  son  of  Zerubbabel, 
an  ancestor  of  Jesus  (Lk.  3.27),  but  it  may 


be  only  a  title  of  Zerubbabel,  meaning  "  the 
Prince." 

Rho'da. — Rose  :  the  maid  who  announced 
Peter's  arrival  at  the  door  of  the  house  of  Mary 
(the  mother  of  John  Mark)  after  his  miraculous 
release  from  prison  (Acts  12.13). 

Rhodes. — Rose :  the  island  near  south-west 
angle  of  Asia  Minor,  touched  at  by  Paul  on  his 
return  voyage  from  his  third  missionary  tour 
(Acts  21.1). 

Riba'i.— (?)  Contention  of  the  Lord  :  the  father 
of  Ittai,  one  of  the  thirty  (2  Sam.  23.29 ;  1  Ch. 
11.31). 

Rib'lah. — 1.  Now  Ribleh ;  a  town  in  the  land 
of  Hamath,  on  east  bank  of  the  Orontes  (el-Asy), 
on  the  great  road  between  Palestine  and  the 
Eastern  empires ;  site  of  military  encampments  ; 
where  Pharaoh-necho  imprisoned  Jehoahaz  and 
Nebuchadnezzar  gave  judgment  upon  Zedekiah 
(2  K.  23.33,  25.6,  20,  21 ;  Jer.  39.5,  6,  52.9-27). 
2.  A  town  within  the  north  boundary  of  Israel, 
but  unidentified  (Num.  34.11). 

Rie.— {RYE.] 

Righteousness. — [JUSTIFICATION.] 

Rim'mon.  —  Pomegranate  :  1.  Now  Umm 
Er  -  Rumamin ;  a  town  of  Judah,  allotted 
to  Simeon,  reoccupied  after  the  return  from 
captivity  (Josh.  15.32,  19.7;  1  Ch.  4.32; 
Neh.  11.29;  Zech.  14.10).  2.  Now  Rummon; 
a  white  chalk  cliff  overhanging  the  Jordan 
wilderness  (Midbar) ;  an  inaccessible  fastness 
where  the  remnant  of  the  Benjamites,  after  the 
slaughter  of  the  tribe,  took  refuge  for  four 
months  (Judg.  20.45,  47,  21.13).  Its  position, 
as  the  crow  flies,  is  3  miles  east  of  Bethel  and 
7  miles  north-east  of  Gibeah.  3.  The  father  of 
Rechab  and  Baanah,  the  murderers  of  Ish- 
bosheth  (2  Sam.  4.2,  5,  9).  4.  The  god  of  wind, 
storm,  and  rain,  worshipped  at  Damascus,  where 
there  was  a  house  or  temple  of  Rimmon  (2  K. 
5.18).  5.  Now  Rummaneh,  north  of  Nazareth ; 
a  town  of  Zebulun,  assigned  to  the  Merarites 
(1  Ch.  6.77,  Rimmono,  R.V.);  the  same  as 
Remmon-methoar  (Josh.  19.13,  A.V.). 

Rimmon-parez  (R.V.  Rimmon-perez). — High 
place  of  the  breach:  the  site  of  an  Israelite 
encampment  (Num.  33.19,  20). 

Ring. — In  ancient  as  in  modern  times  the 
fingers  were  adorned  with  rings.  Indeed,  these 
had  an  official  significance.  Thus  Pharaoh 
presented  Joseph  with  a  ring  when  he  was 
invested  with  authority  (Gen.  41.42),  and 
Ahasuerus  gave  a  ring  to  Haman  (Esth.  3.10). 
The  reason  for  this  was  that  the  ring  was  used 
as  a  seal,  and  seals  have  always  been  very 
common  in  the  East,  the  impression  being  equiva- 
lent to  our  signature.  It  was  also  frequently 
inscribed  with  the  name  of  the  owner,  and  was 
worn  on  the  right  hand  (Jer.  22.24).  The  father 
of  the  prodigal  put  a  ring  upon  his  finger  as  a 
mark  of  the  latter's  restoration  to  favour  and 
power  (Lk.  15.22). 

Ringstraked. — Streaked  with  rings,  but  the 
Hebrew  word  means  only  striped  or  streaked 
(Gen.  30.35). 

Rin'nah.— A  descendant  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  4.20). 


RIPHATH] 


416          [ROMANS,  EPISTLE  TO  THE 


Ri'phath. — The  second  son  of  Gomer  (Gen. 
10.3  ;  1  Ch.  1.6),  said  by  Josephus  to  denote  the 
Paphlagonians.  [DIPHATH.] 

Ris'sah. — The  site  of  an  Israelite  encampment 
(Num.  33.21,  22). 

Rith'mah. — Broom  plant :  the  site  of  an 
Israelite  encampment  (Num.  33.18,  19). 

River. — The  rivers  of  Palestine,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Jordan,  are  either  entirely 
dried  up  in  the  summer  months,  and  converted 
into  hot  lanes  of  glaring  stones,  or  else  reduced 
to  very  small  streamlets,  deeply  sunk  in  a 
narrow  bed  and  concealed  from  view  by  a  dense 
growth  of  shrubs.  The  Arabic  word  Wady,  so 
often  occurring  in  the  modern  geography  of 
Palestine,  signifies  a  dry  valley  or  the  stream 
which  occasionally  flows  through  it.  The  word 
commonly  translated  "  brook  "  signifies  a  Wady. 
Elijah  was  commanded  to  hide  himself  in 
(not  by)  the  Cherith  (1  K.  17.3). 

River  (R.V.  Brook)  o!  Egypt.— In  Gen.  15.18 
the  Nile  is  so  designated,  meaning  the  Pelusiac 
or  easternmost  branch.  In  other  passages  the 
reference  is  to  a  desert  stream  on  the  border  of 
Egypt,  still  flowing  occasionally  in  the  Wady 
El-Arish,  from  the  heart  of  the  peninsula  of 
Sinai  towards  the  Mediterranean. 

Rizia.— [REZIA.] 

Riz'pah.— Glowing  stone :  a  concubine  of  king 
Saul.  The  accusation  made  by  Ishbosheth 
against  Abner,  in  conversation  with  Rizpah 
(2  Sam.  3.7),  amounted  to  an  insinuation  that 
Abner  was  about  to  make  an  attempt  on  the 
throne.  Rizpah  was  the  mother  of  Saul's  sons, 
Armoni  and  Mephibosheth.  David  handed  over 
these  two  sons  and  five  grandsons  of  Saul  to  the 
Gibeonites  as  an  atonement  for  Saul's  slaughter 
of  the  latter.  The  Gibeonites  crucified  these 
victims,  whose  bodies  hung  upon  the  crosses 
from  the  beginning  of  barley-harvest  in  spring, 
right  through  the  blazing  summer  till  the  fall 
of  the  periodical  rain  in  October.  Rizpah 
during  the  whole  of  that  time  sat  by,  to  suffer 
neither  the  birds  of  the  air  by  day,  nor  the  beasts 
of  the  field  by  night,  to  prey  upon  the  bodies 
(2  Sam.  21.1-11). 

Road.— In  1  Sam.  27.10  old  English  for 
"  raid." 

Robbery. — The  Mosaic  Law  on  the  subject  of 
theft  is  contained  in  Ex.  22.1-15.  Man-stealing 
was  punishable  with  death  (Ex.  21.16;  Deut. 
24.7). 

Roboam  (R.V.  Rehoboam).  —  (Matt.  1.7). 
[REHOBOAM.] 

Rod.— [SHBPHEED .] 

Rodanim.— [DODANIM.] 

Roe,  Roebuck. — The  roe  of  Scripture  is  the 
gazelle ;  it  was  permitted  for  food  and  provided 
for  the  royal  table  (Deut.  12.15,  22, 14.5, 15.22  ; 
1  K.  4.23).  The  Dorcas  gazelle  is  very  common 
in  Palestine,  especially  in  the  Judaean  wilderness 
and  the  Arabah.  Between  Beersheba  and  Gaza 
herds  of  gazelle,  from  twenty  to  fifty  or  sixty  in 
number,  are  frequently  seen.  They  are  graceful, 
gentle,  timid,  beautiful,  and  swifter  than  the 
fleetest  horse  or  greyhound.  "Roe"  iji  Prov. 


5.19,  A.V.,  but  "  doe  "  R.V.,  is  the  female  ibex. 

[GOAT.] 

Roge'Iim. — Fullers :  the  residence  of  Bar- 
zillai,  the  Gileadite  (2  Sam.  17.27,  19.31). 

Roh'gah.— An  Asherite  (1  Ch.  7.34). 

RolL — A  book  in  ancient  times  consisted  of  a 
single  long  strip  of  paper  or  parchment,  which 
was  usually  kept  rolled  up  on  two  sticks,  and  was 
unrolled  when  a  person  wished  to  read  it.  The 
"  roll "  of  /sat.  8.1  more  correctly  means 
"  tablet."  [PAPER,  PAECHMENT.] 

Romam'ti-e'zer.— - 1  have  made  lofty  help  : 
a  son  of  Heman.  He  held  an  office  in  connec- 
tion with  the  musical  part  of  the  Temple  service 
(1  Ch.  25 A,  31). 

Roman  Empire.  —  The  association  of  the 
Roman  Empire  with  Hebrew  history  may  be 
dated  from  about  the  year  161  B.C.  Judas 
Maccabaeus  (representing  the  oldest  branch  of 
the  family  of  Aaron),  who  by  patriotic  revolt 
against  the  Syrians  had  won  the  independence 
of  the  Jews  and  become  their  ruler,  concluded 
a  defensive  alliance  with  the  Roman  senate. 
In  63  B.C.,  however,  Pompey  marched  an  army 
into  Judaea  and  took  Jerusalem.  From  this  time 
the  Jews  were  practically  under  the  government 
of  Rome,  though  Hyrcanus — of  the  same  family 
as  Judas  Maccabaeus — retained  a  nominal  sove- 
reignty. The  minister  of  Hyrcanus  was  Anti- 
pater,  whose  son — to  be  known  to  history  as 
Herod  the  Great — was  made  king  by  Antony's 
interest  in  40  B.C.,  and  confirmed  in  his  position 
by  Augustus.  The  Jews,  however,  were  all  this 
time  tributaries  of  Rome,  and  their  princes  were 
Roman  procurators.  Roman  soldiers  were 
quartered  at  Jerusalem  in  Herod's  time.  On  the 
banishment  of  Archelaus,  6  A.D.,  Judaea  became 
an  appendage  of  the  province  of  Syria,  and  was 
governed  by  a  Roman  procurator  who  resided 
at  Caesarea.  Galilee  and  the  adjoining  districts 
were  left  under  the  government  of  Herod's 
sons  and  other  petty  princes.  Such  were  the 
relations  of  the  Jewish  people  to  the  Roman 
government  when  the  N.T.  history  begins. 
Some  of  the  cities  in  the  conquered  or  annexed 
provinces  were  "  free  " — that  is,  governed  by 
their  own  magistrates  and  exempted  from 
occupation  by  a  Roman  garrison.  Such  were 
Tarsus,  Antroch  in  Syria,  Athens,  Ephesus, 
Thessalonica.  Other  cities  were  "  colonies," 
i.e.  communities  of  Roman  citizens  trans- 
planted, like  garrisons  of  the  imperial  city, 
into  a  foreign  land.  Such  were  Philippi, 
Corinth,  Troas,  the  Pisidian  Antioch.  The 
provinces  were  heavily  taxed  for  the  benefit 
of  Rome  and  her  citizens.  The  taxes  were 
"  farmed,"  the  "  farmers  "  paying  a  fixed  sum 
to  Rome,  and  wringing  out  of  the  provincials 
as  much  as  they  could.  The  collectors  were 
of  the  lowest  class — the  publicans  of  the  N.T. 
The  Roman  Empire  had  its  part  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  world  for  Christ,  and  in  assisting  the 
spread  of  Christianity.  [JESUS  CHRIST.] 

Romans,  The  Epistle  to  the.  — This  letter 
is  addressed  "  to  all  that  be  in  Rome,  beloved 
of  God,  callei  to  be  saints  "  (1.7).  The  origin 


ROMANS,  EPISTLE  TO  THE] 


417 


[ROMANS,  EPISTLE  TO  THE 


of  the  Church  is  uncertain.  The  Jews,  as 
classical  literature  shows,  were  familiar  figures 
in  the  life  of  Rome.  Commerce  may  have 
led  some  there  ;  slavery  after  war,  especially 
after  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Pompey 
in  63  B.C.,  many  others.  They  were  en- 
couraged by  some  Emperors,  banished  by 
others.  [ROME.]  Who  first  preached  the  gospel 
to  this  community,  or  amongst  the  Gentiles  of 
Rome,  is  unknown.  Some  of  the  "  strangers 
of  Rome,  Jews  and  proselytes,"  witnesses  of 
the  events  at  Pentecost  (Acts  2.10),  may  have 
carried  back  the  faith.  Certain  of  the  Early 
Fathers  attributed  the  foundation  of  the  Church 
to  the  ministry  of  Peter  and  Paul ;  and  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  is  pledged  to  the 
establishment  of  the  Church  by  Peter,  who  is 
alleged  to  have  presided  over  it  as  bishop.  The 
theory  as  to  Peter  is  inconsistent  with  the 
contents  of  the  epistle,  as  well  as  with  Acts, 
which  shows  him  to  have  been  at  Jerusalem 
at  the  very  time  when  he  is  said  to  have  been 
at  Rome.  In  this  epistle  there  is  no  mention  of 
Peter  as  ever  having  been  at  Rome.  Now,  if 
Peter  had  not  only  been  there,  but  had  actually 
founded  the  Church,  and  had  presided  over  it,  it 
is  impossible  to  suppose  that  Paul  could  have 
failed  to  notice  the  fact.  And,  further,  had 
Peter  been  at  Rome  when  Paul  wrote  this 
epistle,  he  would  certainly  have  been  one  of 
those  to  whom  salutations  were  sent  in  chap. 
16.  As  to  Paul,  there  is  nothing  in  Acts  28  to 
compel  the  belief  that  there  were  no  Christians  in 
Rome  until  his  arrival.  The  "  brethren "  of 
28.15  would  naturally  appear  to  be  Christians, 
and  are  not  identical  with  "  the  chief  of  the 
Jews"  (28.17).  The  evidence  of  the  epistle 
itself  is  against  the  Pauline  origin  of  the 
Church,  suggesting  its  existence  when  Paul 
•had  a  visit  to  it  in  mind.  Nor  is  support  to 
be  derived  from  his  other  'etters.  Nowhere 
does  he  call  the  Romans  his  sons  or  children 
(cf.  1  Cor.  4.14 ;  Gal.  4.19).  In  regard  to  the 
constitution  of  the  Roman  Church  when  the 
apostle  wrote,  it  is  uncertain  whether  the 
majority  of  the  Christians  in  Rome  had  been 
proselytes,  or  only  Jews,  or  direct  converts  from 
heathenism.  Some  were  Jewish  Christians  in 
belief,  but  Gentiles  in  origin  ;  others  Jewish, 
for  the  apostle  everywhere  argues  with  them  as 
Jews;  others  again  Gentiles,  for  he  expressly 
addresses  them  as  Gentiles  (cf.  2.17,  4.16,  7, 
etc.,  with  1.13, 15,  11.13,  14.15,  etc.). 

The  authorship  of  the  epistle  was  from  the 
first  attributed  to  Paul  the  Apostle,  and  no 
doubt  seems  to  have  been  raised  until  the 
year  1792.  The  place  and  date  of  writing  are 
determined  in  the  following  way :  Paul  had 
not  yet  been  to  Rome  (1.11, 13, 15) ;  but 
was  intending  to  visit  it,  after  first  visiting 
Jerusalem  (15.23-28).  This  was  his  purpose 
during  his  residence  at  Corinth  (Acts  19.21). 
He  was  about  to  carry  a  collection  from  Mace- 
donia and  Achaia  to  Jerusalem  (15.26-31)  ;  and 
this  he  did  from  Corinth  to  Jerusalem  at  the 
close  of  his  visit  (Acts  24.17).  When  he  wrote 
27 


the  epistle,  Timothy,  Sosipater,  Gaius,  and 
Erastus  were  with  him  (16.21,  23).  Gaius  ua^ 
his  host,  and  resided  at  Corinth  (1  ('•/•  11 
Erastus  was  himself  a  Corinthian,  and  ha. I  '••' 
sent  shortly  before  from  Ephesus  with  Tin:.>n._ 
on  their  way  through  Corinth  to  Macedonia 
(Acts  19.22  ;  1  Cor.  16.10,  11)  ;  and  the  first 
three  are  expressly  mentioned  in  Acts  20.4  as 
being  with  Paul  at  Corinth.  Phoebe,  moreover, 
generally  supposed  to  have  been  the  bearer  of 
the  epistle,  was  a  member  of  the  Church  at  the 
Corinthian  port  of  Cenchreae  (16.1).  As  Paul, 
therefore,  was  preparing  to  visit  Jerusalem, 
one  of  his  converts  was  also  departing  from 
Corinth  in  an  opposite  direction  for  Rome,  and 
by  her  this  epistle  was  taken  to  that  city.  It 
was  therefore  written  from  Corinth,  probably  in 
the  winter  of  56-57  A.D. 

The  contents  and  its  argument  of  the  epistle 
may  be  analysed  as  follows  : — 

I.  INTRODUCTION  (1.1-17). 

1.  The  salutation  (1.1-7).  2.  Introduction, 
and  Paul's  estimate  of  the  gospel  (8-17).  The 
sixteenth  verse  contains  in  brief  the  subject  of  the 
whole  epistle.  The  gospel  is — (1)  the  power  of 
God  unto  salvation,  (2)  to  every  one  that 
believeth  ;  (3)  to  the  Jew  first,  and  also  (4)  to 
the  Greek. 

II.  DOCTRINAL  EXPOSITION  (1.18-8.39). 

(a)  Sinfulness  of  the  human  race. 

1.  Condition  of  the  Gentiles — In  relation  to 
God    (1.18-23).    In    relation    to    human    duty 
(24-32). 

2.  Condition  of  the  Jews — Mere  knowledge 
will  not  save  (2.1-11).     It  even  aggravates  guilt 
(12-29). 

3.  Comparison  of  Jews  and  Gentiles — Value 
of  O.T.  dispensation  not  lowered  (3.1-8).     Both 
guilty,  and  needing  salvation  (9-20). 

(b)  The  gospel  plan  of  salvation  explained,  in 
itself,  and  in  its  results. 

1.  This  plan  explained,  a  revelation  of  Divine 
justice  and  mercy  excludes  all  boasting  (3.27), 
and  saves  all  on  the  same  terms  (21-31). 

2.  Holy  men  of  old  justified  by  faith — Illus- 
trated, Abraham  (4.1-5) ;   David  (6-8). 

Circumcision  the  sign  (9-12),  and  the  theo- 
cracy the  result  (13-17)  of  the  covenant :  the 
result,  therefore,  of  justification,  rather  than 
subservient  to  it. 

3.  Abraham's    faith    described.     Its    results 
(4.18-25). 

4.  The  fruits  of  faith  in  Christian  experience 
in  imparting  peace,  joy,  and  hope  (5.1-11). 

5.  The  excellence  of  faith  shown  by  a  com- 
parison between  Adam,  the  head  of  the  fallen 
race,  and  Christ,  the  Author  of  spiritual  life,  to 
all  who  are  united  to  Him  (5.12-21). 

(r)  This  way  of  salvation  favourable  to  holi- 
ness. (See  3.8.) 

1.  We  cannot  go  on  in  sin,  that  grace  may 
abound  ;  for  we  are  one  with  Christ  our  Head, 
in  His  baptism,  death,  and  life  (6.1-14) ;  verses 


ROMANS,  EPISTLE  TO  THE] 


418          [ROMANS,  EPISTLE  TO  THE 


12-14  illustrating  the  idea  that  Christ  is  our 
King,  as  well  as  Head. 

2.  Nor  can  we  go  on  in  sin,  because  under 
grace  and  not  under  law.     P'or  the  servants  of 
another  are  bound  to  obey  their  master,  and, 
moreover,  men  are  increasingly  swayed  by  that 
authority,    which   they    heartily    acknowledge. 
It  becomes  a  yoke,   which,  however,  if  it  be 
righteousness,  is  free,  and  has  a  glorious  issue 
(6.15-23). 

3.  The  same  truth  illustrated,  as  in  6.2,  by  an 
example  founded  on  the  Law  (7.1-6). 

4.  Hence  a  twofold  objection  : 
(i)  Either  the  Law  is  sin — 

No ;  for  it  reveals  sin,  and  impresses  it  on  the 
conscience  (7.7-12) : 

(ii)  Or,  being  itself  good,  it  has  become 
death  (7.13-25). 

No ;  for  we  ("  our  inner  man  ")  admit  it 
to  be  spiritual,  even  when  not  obeying  it ;  the 
paradox  of  the  awakened  and  regenerate  con- 
science. 

Both  facts  meet  the  objection,  and  show  our 
need  of  a  new  system. 

(d)  The  Law  having  failed  to  justify  and 
sanctify,  Christ  for  us  and  Christ  in  us  is  our 
justification  and  holiness. 

1.  The    Christian    justified    in    Christ    and 
sanctified  in  Him,  through  the  Spirit ;    which 
sanctification  will  be  complete  (8.1-11). 

2.  The     Christian's      duty     and      privilege 
(8.12-17). 

3.  The  connexion  between  the  perfection  of 
creation,    and    that    of    the    children    of    God 
(8.18-30). 

4.  Exultant  assurance  of  salvation  (8.31-39). 

III.  SPECIAL  RELATION  OP  THE  JEWS  TO 
THE  GOSPEL  (9-11). 

As  in  1.18-3.20  the  apostle  has  explained  the 
relation  of  Jews  and  Gentiles  to  the  Law,  so  in 
9.1-11.36  he  explains  the  relation  of  both  to  the 
gospel. 

That  salvation  is  by  Christ,  and  for  all  that 
believe,  is  the  conclusion  to  which  the  apostle 
has  come  ;  but  if  so,  the  great  majority  of  the 
Jews  perish,  and  the  Gentiles  have  taken  their 
place ;  a  result  apparently  severe,  and  to  the 
Jew  particularly  startling.  The  apostle  meets 
this  feeling. 

1.  He  affirms  his  own  distress  at  their  state  of 
rejection  (9.1-5). 

2.  It  cannot  be  said,  however,  that  the  pro- 
mise is  unfulfilled,  or  that  this  difference  of 
treatment  is  without  precedent ;  for — 

The  promise  did  not  extend  to  all  the  children 
of  Abraham,  but  only  to  the  descendants  of 
Sarah  ;  nor  to  all  her  descendants,  but  only 
to  Isaac  (9.7-9),  and  of  Isaac's  children,  to 
Jacob  (9.10-13),  the  ground  of  the  difference 
being,  not  the  actual  merit  of  the  persons,  but 
the  election  of  God. 

Least  of  all  does  it  follow  that  God  is  unjust, 
for  all  mercy  on  God's  part  is  evidence  of  kind- 
ness, and  is  altogether  undeserved. 

That  God  has  a  right  to  make  distinctions  in 


His  dealings,  and  does  make  them,  is  further 
shown  in  the  case  of  Pharaoh  (9.14-18). 

3.  But  does  not  this  idea  of  purpose  on  God's 
part  free  us  from  blame  ?     No,  for  first  God  has 
a  right  to  do  as  He  will ;   and  in  the  exercise  of 
that  right  there  can  be  no  wrong  ;  and  secondly, 
in  exercising  that  will,  both  the  justice  and  the 
mercy  of  God  will  be  the  more  illustriously  re- 
vealed (9.19-24),  saving  all  on  the  same  condi- 
tions, both  Jews  and  Gentiles. 

4.  Both  this  call  of  the  Gentiles,   and  the 
salvation  of  a  remnant  only  of  the  Jews,  are 
foretold,  or  have  their  precedents  in  the  Old 
Testament  (9.25-29). 

5.  The   failure   and   rejection   of   the   Jews, 
though  in  one  sense  in  accordance  with  the 
Divine  purpose,  are  really  results  of  unbelief 
(9.30-33). 

This  last  thought  is  expanded  (10).  After 
again  expressing  his  distress  at  the  unbelief  of 
the  Jews,  the  apostle  shows  that  their  rejection 
is  the  result  of  unbelief ;  and  that  all  who  call 
on  the  name  of  the  Lord,  Jews  and  Gentiles, 
shall  be  saved  (10.4-13). 

Objected,  that  the  Jews  could  not  call  upon 
one  of  whom  they  had  not  heard  (10.14-17). 
Answer,  they  have  heard,  so  that  their  rejection 
of  truth  was  not  owing  to  ignorance,  but  to 
disobedient  unbelief ;  as  foretold  by  their  own 
prophets  (10.18-21). 

6.  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  Israel,  as  a 
whole,  have  been  rejected. 

Not  Jews  as  Jews,  but  Jews  as  unbelievers ; 
for  "I  myself,"  says  he,  "am  an  Israelite " 
(11.1).  In  Elijah's  days  there  were  thousands 
who  had  not  bowed  to  Baal,  so  now  there  is  a 
remnant  according  to  the  election  of  grace, 
chosen  not  for  their  works,  but  from  free  favour  ; 
while  the  rest  have  missed  the  blessing  through 
unbelief  (11.2-10). 

Nor,  speaking  of  the  Jews  as  a  nation,  is 
there  utter  rejection : 

Their  unbelief  gave  occasion  for  the  pro- 
clamation of  the  truth  to  the  Gentiles,  and  their 
conversion  will  be  connected  with  the  general 
diffusion  of  the  truth  (11.11-15),  of  all  which 
the  faith  of  their  fathers  is  a  kind  of  earnest 
(11.16). 

7.  Humility,  faith,  adoring  reverence  of  the 
justice  and  mercy  of  God,  with  hope  in  this 
general    issue,    become    all    Gentile    converts 
(11.17-24),  and— 

8.  By  and  by  Israel,  as  a  whole,  shall  be  con- 
verted to  God  (11.25-32). 

9.  The  whole  scheme  of  salvation  an  evidence 
of  the  unfathomable  wisdom  and  love  of  God 
(11.33-36),  to  whose  praise  all  will  ultimately 
redound. 

IV.  ETHICAL  DEVELOPMENT  OP  TRUTH 
(12-15.17). 

(a)  In  relation  to  general  behaviour. 

1.  All  previous  doctrine  points  to  consecra- 
tion of  the  whole  life  as  the  appropriate  result, 
and  with  this  consecration  all  holiness  begins 
(12.1,  2), 


ROME] 


419 


[RUE 


This  founded  in  humility,  i.e.  in  a  true  and 
healthy  view  of  ourselves,  and  of  our  position 
(12.3). 

This  consecration  will  include — 

2.  The    Christian's    relation    to    the    Church 
(12.4-13),  including  love,  faith,  and  hope  ;  and— 

3.  The    Christian's    relation    to    the    world 
(12.14-21). 

4.  Chap.  13.     Especially  is  this  spirit  of  con- 
secration seen  in  submission  to  the  ruling  power, 
which  has  the  force  of  a  Divine  law  (1-7). — 
Obedience  in  such  cases  is  another  form  of  the 
great  law  of  love  (8-10),  which  is  especially  in- 
cumbent under  the  gospel,  as  is  all  spiritual 
holiness  (11-14). 

(b)  In  relation  to  our  behaviour  in  things 
indifferent  (14.1-15.7). 

Here,  forbearance  is  our  rule.  He  who 
regards  things  indifferent  as  binding  may  be  the 
weaker  Christian,  but  God  has  received  him  ; 
he  does  all  to  Christ,  who  is  his  judge  ;  and  in 
accordance  with  his  own  conscience,  which  is, 
subordinately,  his  law. 

Therefore,  neither  is  he  the  less  welcome,  nor 
is  he  to  be  tempted  by  ridicule  or  rebuke  to 
violate  what  he  himself  believes  (14.2-23). 

The  example  of  Christ,  and  the  ultimate 
design  of  the  Scriptures,  teach  this  duty  on  even 
more  comprehensive  grounds  —  the  common 
good  (15.1-7). 

The  lesson  is  repeated,  that  Gentiles  and  Jews 
are  one  body,  and  that  the  salvation  of  each 
illustrates  the  faithfulness  and  mercy  of  God 
(15.8-13). 

V.  PERSONAL  COMMUNICATIONS. 

1.  Explanation  of   the   Apostle's  relation  to 
the  Gentiles  and   of   his   earnestness  on   their 
behalf  (15.14-21). 

2.  Notice  of  his  proposed  journeys  (15.22,  23). 

3.  Salutations    (16.1-23),    with    cautions    in 
reference  to  such  as  caused  divisions  (17-20). 

4.  Conclusion  (16.24-27). 

The  twenty-six  salutations  in  the  last  chapter, 
addressed  to  a  community  personally  unknown 
to  the  Apostle,  present  a  difficulty  which  has 
been  variously  met.  Certain  variations,  and 
the  absence  from  some  early  copies  of  the  text 
of  the  last  two  chapters,  have  led  to  the 
supposition  that  the  epistle  "  was  circulated  at 
an  early  date  in  two  forms,  both  with  and  with- 
out the  last  two  chapters.  In  the  shorter  form 
it  was  divested  as  far  as  possible  of  its  epistolary 
character  by  abstracting  the  personal  matter 
addressed  especially  to  the  Romans"  (Bishop 
Lightfoot).  Or  early  copies  of  the  epistle  may 
have  been  sent  with  varying  terminations  to 
different  Churches,  one  being  the  Church  at 
Ephesus,  as  the  salutations  (16.1-20)  are  ad- 
dressed to  persons  whom  one  would  expect  to 
find  rather  there  than  in  Rome  (e.g.  verse  3, 
Aquila  and  Priscilla ;  verse  5,  Epsenetus) ;  so  in 
other  districts  where  the  Apostle  had  resided 
and  laboured,  verses  9, 13.  There  seem,  in  fact, 
to  be  at  least  two  distinct  endings  to  the  epistle, 
one  beginning  15.30,  the  other  16.17.  There 


are  two  (or  three)  closing  benedictions,  15.33, 
16.20,  24,  but  according  to  the  best  texts  one  of 
them  is  to  be  omitted.  R.V.  omits  16.24. 

Rome. — The  former  "mistress  of  the  world," 
on  the  Tiber,  15  miles  from  its  mouth ;  the 
seven  hills  of  the  ancient  city  are  on  the  left 
bank.  Rome  is  mentioned  only  in  the  Acts, 
the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  and  the  Second 
Epistle  to  Timothy.  Many  Jewish  captives 
and  emigrants  were  brought  to  Rome  in  the 
time  of  Pompey,  and  a  special  district  assigned 
to  them  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tiber.  Julius 
Caesar,  Augustus,  and  Tiberius  during  the 
latter  part  of  his  reign,  were  well  disposed  to- 
wards the  Jews.  Claudius  "  commanded  all 
Jews  to  depart  from  Rome"  (Acts  18.2)  on 
account  of  tumults  connected  with  the  preach- 
ing of  Christianity.  Nevertheless,  there  were 
many  Jews  in  Rome  at  the  time  of  Paul's  visit 
(Acts  28.17).  He  was  detained  there  for  two 
whole  years,  dwelling  in  his  own  hired  house 
with  a  soldier  that  kept  watch  over  him  (Acts 
28.16,30),  to  whom,  according  to  Roman 
custom,  he  was  bound  with  a  chain  (Acts 
28.20;  Eph.  6.20;  Phil.  1.13).  Here  he 
preached  to  all  that  came  to  him,  no  man  for- 
bidding him  (Acts  28.30,  31).  It  is  generally  be- 
lieved that  he  was  acquitted  at  this  time,  that  he 
resumed  his  liberty,  but  after  a  period  was  im- 
prisoned again,  and  suffered  martyrdom  at  Rome 
during  the  persecution  of  Nero.  On  Rome  in 
the  First  Epistle  of  Peter  and  the  Revelation, 
see  those  articles.  [ROMANS,  EPISTLE  TO  THE.] 

Room.— The  word  in  Matt.  23.6 ;  Mk.  12.39  ; 
Lk.  14.7,8,  20.46  signifies  the  chief  place  on 
the  chief  couch  round  the  dinner  or  supper- 
table,  the  "  uppermost  seat "  of  Lk.  11.43. 

Rose  (Cant.  2.1 ;  Isai.  35.1).— Not  our  rose  ; 
possibly  (as  R.V.  marg.)  the  autumn  crocus 
(meadow-saffron),  or  the  narcissus. 

Rosh. — 1.  A  son  of  Benjamin  (Gen.  46.21). 
2.  "  Magog,  the  chief  prince  of  Meshech  and 
Tute.1"  (Ezek.  38.2,3,  39.1)  ought  to  run, 
"  Magog,  the  prince  of  Rosh,  Mesech,  and  Tubal." 
meaning  that  Magog  is  the  head  of  the  three  great 
Scythian  tribes,  of  which  "  Rosh  "  is  the  first. 
Rosh  was  the  tribe  on  the  north  of  the  Taurus, 
and  in  the  name  we  have,  as  it  seems,  the 
first  trace  of  the  Rusa  or  Russian  nation.  No 
other  name  of  any  modern  nation  occurs  in  the 
Scriptures. 

Ruby.— Wherever  this  word  comes  in  the 
text  of  the  A.V.  it  represents  the  Hebrew 
penmlm,  i.e.  coral  (e.g.  Lam.  4.7),  not  pearls,  as 
some  have  supposed.  "  Ruby  "  also  stands  for 
the  Hebrew  kadkod  in  the  R.V.  of  Isai.  54.12 ; 
Ezek.  27.16,  perhaps  as  sparkling.  It  also 
occurs  in  the  margins  of  A.V.  and  R.V.,  Ex. 
28.17,  39.10;  Ezek.  28.13  as  a  rendering  of 
'odem,  which  means  a  red  stone.  [SARDIUS.] 

Rue. — A  small  shrub,  of  from  two  to  three 
feet  in  height,  with  much-divided  leaves  and 
yellow  flowers.  Its  scent  is  too  powerful  to  be 
agreeable  to  Western  taste,  but  it  was  valued 
by  the  ancients.  Rue  was  formerly  used  not  only 
for  condiment  but  as  a  medicine  (Lk.  1 1 .42). 


RUFUS] 


420 


[SABBATH 


Rufus.— Red:  Simon  the  Cyrenian,  whom 
the  Jews  compelled  to  bear  the  cross  on  the 
way  to  Golgotha,  had  two  sons,  Alexander  and 
Rufus  (Mk.  15.21).  The  phrasing  of  the  verse 
suggests  that  the  sons  were  better  known  than 
the  father  among  the  people  for  whom  Mark 
wrote  his  gospel.  See  also  Bom.  16.13. 

Ruha'mah. — Pitied :  a  symbolic  name  of 
Israel,  denoting  that  the  chosen  people  were 
still  the  objects  of  the  Lord's  compassion  (Eos. 
2.1). 

Ru'mah. — High :  residence  of  Pedaiah, 
maternal  grandfather  of  King  Jehoiakim  (2  K . 
23.36).  Perhaps  Rumeh,  6  miles  north  of 
Nazareth.  [ARUMAH.] 

Rush. — The  word  is  used  three  times  in 
Isaiah  (9.14,  19.15,  35.7)  in  a  general  sense. 

Ruth. — See  the  following  article. 

Ruth,  Book  of.— This  book  is  linked  by  its 
opening  words  to  Judges.  In  the  Jewish  Canon, 
it  forms  part  of  the  Hagiographa ;  being  the 
second  of  the  five  Megilloth  or  Festal  Rolls, 
one  of  which  was  publicly  read  at  each  festival. 
Ruth,  on  account  of  its  harvest  associations, 
was  appointed  for  Pentecost.  In  the  LXX 
and  Vulgate,  it  is  placed  next  to  Judges,  as  in 
modern  versions.  Its  authorship  is  unknown, 
but  was  by  Jewish  tradition  ascribed  to  Samuel. 
Its  date  is  uncertain.  It  is  clear  that  it  was 
written  after  the  era  of  the  Judges  (1.1),  when 


certain  Israelite  usnges  had  become  antiquated, 
4.7  (cf.  Dent.  25.9),  and,  probably,  when 
David's  house  was  established  upon  the  throne 
(4.17-22 ;  although  the  genealogy  may  have 
been  inserted  by  a  subsequent  editor).  The 
contents  of  the  book  record  the  history  of  Ruth, 
a  Moabitess,  who  (1)  married  Chilion,  one  of  the 
two  sons  of  Elimelech,  a  man  of  Bethlehem - 
judah,  who,  under  stress  of  famine,  went  into  the 
country  of  Moab,  possibly  during  the  Midianitish 
invasions  (Judg.  6.1-6).  Elimelech  and  his  sons 
dying,  Naomi,  his  wife,  returned  to  Bethlehem 
with  Ruth.  They  arrived  at  harvest-time, 
and  (2)  Ruth  gleaned  in  the  fields  of  Boaz,  a 
kinsman  of  Elimelech.  Boaz  showed  her  kind- 
ness, and  (3)  Ruth,  instructed  by  Naomi,  claimed 
of  him  the  help  due  from  a  kinsman.  Boaz 
acknowledged  the  claim,  (4)  himself  undertook 
the  responsibilities  involved,  and  married  Ruth, 
who  bare  him  a  son,  Obed,  the  grandfather  of 
David.  Ruth,  though  a  Gentile,  thus  became 
an  ancestor  of  Jesus  Christ  (Matt.  1.5, 16). 
[REDEEM.] 

Rye,  Rie.— (Ex.  9.32;  Isai.  28.25).  R.V. 
rightly  has  "  spelt,"  a  hard  and  rough-grained 
wheat,  bearded,  but  much  resembling  the 
ordinary  kind.  It  seems  to  have  been  culti- 
vated in  Palestine  and  Egypt  from  very  early 
times.  Some  think  that  a  kind  of  vetch  is 
meant.  [FITCHES.] 


s 


Sabachtani.— [Ei.oi.] 

Sabaoth. — [LORD  OF  HOSTS.] 

Sabbath. — Cessation  (of  labour) :  the  primitive 
institution  of  the  Sabbath  is  recorded  in  Gen. 
2.2, 3 ;  but  the  word  first  occurs  in  Ex.  16.23.  Its 
observance  is  there  spoken  of  as  required  by 
God's  law  (Ex.  16.25-30) ;  and  the  law  of  the  Sab- 
bath was  enshrined  in  the  fourth  commandment 
(Ex.  20.8-11).  Associated  first  with  the  creation 
work  (Gen.  2.3 ;  Ex.  20.11),  it  was  also  con- 
nected with  the  deliverance  from  Egypt  (Deut. 
5.15).  The  law  laid  stress  upon  the  observance 
of  the  day,  even  "  in  earing  time  and  in  harvest  " 
(Ex.  34.21).  The  work  forbidden  included 
even  the  kindling  of  a  fire  (Ex.  35.3),  and  the 
gathering  of  sticks  on  that  day  was  punished 
by  death  (Num.  15.32-36).  A  particular 
burnt- offering  was  appointed  for  the  Sabbath 
(Num.  28.9, 10).  The  due  observance  of  the 
day  was  connected  by  the  prophets  with  the 
blessing  of  God,  and  its  violation  with  His 
anger  (Isai.  56.2,  58.13  ;  Jer.  17.20-22 ;  Ezek. 
20.13).  These  notices  indicate  a  growing 
laxity  in  the  observance  of  the  day,  whilst  a 
formal  observance  by  those  indifferent  to  the 
spirit  of  God's  law  is  also  noted  (Isai.  1.13). 
Nehemiah  found  profanation  of  the  day  preva- 
lent amongst  the  "  nobles  of  Judah  "  and  others, 
and  restored  it«  observance  (Neh.  13.15-22). 


This  observance  grew  in  stringency,  until,  by 
the  time  of  our  Lord,  the  "  commandments  of 
men"  had  accumulated  in  bewildering  in- 
tricacy around  the  keeping  of  the  Sabbath. 
Fantastic  distinctions  and  ingenious  evasions 
abounded.  Human  interpretations  of  the  law 
had  made  it  an  insupportable  burden.  The 
teaching  of  our  Lord  placed  the  Sabbath  in  its 
true  position.  He  came  not  to  destroy  the  Law, 
but  to  fulfil  it  (Matt.  5.17) ;  He  was  Himself 
accustomed  to  be  present  at  synagogue-worship 
on  that  day  (Mk.  6.2 ;  Lk.  4.16,  6.6,  13.10). 
But  He  claimed  authority  over  the  Sabbath 
(Matt.  12.8) ;  pressed  its  institution  for  the 
benefit  of  man  (Mk.  2.27) ;  worked  a  miracle 
on  that  day  (Matt.  12.13 ;  Mk.  3.5 ;  Lk.  6.10) ; 
and  defended  His  disciples  against  a  charge  of 
infringing  the  Sabbath  law  (Matt.  12.3-8). 

For  a  time  Jewish  Christians  observed  both 
the  Sabbath  and  the  Lord's  Day;  but  St. 
Paul  clearly  taught  that  the  requirements  of 
the  law  as  to  the  Sabbath  were  not  binding 
on  Christians  (Rom.  14.5, 6 ;  Col.  2.16, 17  ;  and 
cf.  Gal.  4.10).  The  institution  of  the  seventh 
day  as  a  day  of  rest  is,  however,  prior  to 
the  giving  of  the  law.  The  Christian  Church 
has  transferred  that  rest  day  from  the  seventh 
to  the  first,  using  the  latter  as  a  day  of  rest  and 
worship;  "no  longer,"  as  Ignatius  wrote, 


SABBATH  DAY'S  JOURNEY]          421 


[SACRIFICE 


"  keeping  the  Sabbath,  but  living  in  the  spirit  of 
the  Lord's  Day  "  (ad  Magn.  ix.).  [LORD'S  DAY.] 

Sabbath  Day's  Journey. — About  seven  fur- 
longs, the  extent  to  which  the  Jews  allowed 
themselves  to  go  on  the  Sabbath  (Acts  1.12). 
It  is  said  to  have  been  originally  fixed  by  the 
distance  from  the  Tabernacle  to  the  extremity 
of  the  camp  in  the  wilderness.  The  milage  of 
Bethany  was  fifteen  furlongs  from  Jerusalem 
(John  11.18). 

Sabbatical  Year. — Every  seventh  year  was  to 
be  celebrated  among  the  Jews  by  allowing  the 
land  to  rest  (Ex.  23.10 ;  Lev.  25.2,  3,  etc.)  un- 
cultivated. This  Sabbatical  year  began  in 
the  autumn,  after  the  harvest.  The  people 
were  then  to  set  slaves  at  liberty  (Ex.  21.2),  to 
remit  all  debts,  and  each  was  to  re-enter  on 
his  inheritance  that  had  been  alienated.  The 
Sabbatic  year  had  been  instituted  to  celebrate 
the  creation  ;  to  enforce  the  acknowledgment 
that  God  was  Lord  over  all  things,  particularly 
over  the  land  of  Canaan,  which  He  had  given  to 
the  Hebrews.  In  this  year  the  fruits  of  the 
fields  and  of  the  vineyards  belonged  to  the 
poor  and  needy,  and  finally  for  the  beasts 
(Ex.  20.10  ff.);  and  special  services  were  held 
at  the  time  of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  (Deut. 
31.10-13).  This  institution,  as  Moses  had  pre- 
dicted (Lei).  26.34, 35),  was  long  disregarded, 
but  after  the  Captivity,  during  which  the  land 
lay  waste,  to  make  up  the  arrears  of  rest  which 
had  been  accumulating  by  a  long  period  of 
neglect  (2  Ch.  36.21),  it  was  observed  more  care- 
fully. [HARVEST,  JUBILEE.] 

Sa1)eans.  —  Isai.  45.14  [SEBA];  Job  1.15; 
Joel  3.8  [SHEBA].  In  Ezek.  23.42  R.V.  has 
"  drunkards." 

Sabta,  Sabtah.— The  third  son  of  Cush 
(Gen.  10.7 ;  1  Ch.  1.9).  The  descendants 
peopled  a  portion  of  Arabia  Felix  and  gave  the 
name  Sabtah  to  a  place  on  the  southern  coast 
of  Arabia. 

Sab'techa,  Sabtechah  fR.V.  Sabteca).— The 
fifth  son  of  Cush  (Gen.  10.7  ;  1  Ch.  1.9).  The 
place  of  his  settlement  is  unknown. 

Sa'car  (1  Ch.  11.35).— Hire :  1.  He  appears 
as  Sharar  in  2  Sam.  23.33.  2.  A  gatekeeper 
of  the  Tabernacle  in  David's  time  (1  Ch.  26.4). 

Sackbut. — A  wind-instrument,  a  primitive 
form  of  the  trombone.  It  is  probable  that  the 
Aramaic  word  used  in  Daniel  signifies  rather 
a  stringed  instrument,  the  "  Sambuca  "  of  the 
Lat.  and  Gk.  versions  (O.E.  Sambuke),  a  kind 
of  harp  varying  in  size,  shape,  and  number  of 
strings,  made  of  elder-wood  (Lat.  Sambucus, 
elder  tree). 

Sackcloth. — A  word  of  pure  Hebrew  origin 
(sak),  which  has  spread  over  Europe  through 
the  aid  of  Phoenician  traders.  It  was  a  strong, 
rough  cloth  made  of  camel  and  goat's  hair,  and 
worn  next  the  skin  as  a  sign  of  grief  and  mourn- 
ing in  times  of  great  calamities,  in  penitence, 
in  trouble  (Gen.  37.34  ;  2  Sam.  3.31).  Generally 
it  was  worn  around  the  loins,  causing  great 
discomfort  (Ezek.  27.31).  Its  colour  was  dark, 
verging  on  black  (Rev.  6.12). 


Sacrament.— {BAPTISM,  SUPPER,  THE  LORD'S.] 

Sacrifice. — Sacrifice  and  offering  appear  as 
early  as  the  time  of  Cain  and  Abel.  Cain 
brought  "of  the  fruit  of  the  ground";  Abel 
"  of  the  firstlings  of  his  flock,  and  the  fat  thereof  " 
(Gen.  4.3,4).  Sacrifices  appear  in  the  patriarchal 
age  (Gen.  15.9-11, 17,  31.54,  46.1) ;  and  were 
familiar  to  the  Israelites  in  Egypt  (Ex.  3.18). 
The  law  laid  down  in  great  detail  the  sacrifices 
and  offerings  required  of  the  Jews.  The  offerings 
were  taken  from  both  the  vegetable  and  animal 
kingdoms,  those  from  the  former  called  the 
"  bloodless "  offerings,  from  a  Hebrew  word 
meaning  "  gifts,"  and  those  from  the  latter  the 
bloody  offerings,  from  a  term  meaning  slain 
sacrifices.  In  both  the  vegetable  and  flesh 
offerings,  salt,  an  emblem  of  purity,  was  used. 

From  the  vegetable  kingdom  were  taken 
flour,  cakes,  parched  corn,  and  libations  of 
wine  for  the  drink-offerings.  Both  offerings 
were  usually  united,  and  were  considered  as 
an  addition  to  the  thank-offerings  made  by  fire 
(Lev.  14.10-21 ;  Num.  15.5-11,  28.7-15).  The 
animals  offered  were  oxen,  goats,  and  sheep  ; 
all  were  to  be  without  blemish,  not  under  eight 
days  old,  nor  over  three  years  (there  is  one 
exception,  however,  "  the  bullock  of  seven 
years  old,"  Judg.  6.25) ;  doves  were  also 
offered  in  some  cases  (Ex.  12.5,  22.20  ;  Lev.  5.7, 
9.3,4).  Fish  were  never  offered;  and  human 
sacrifices  were  expressly  forbidden  (Lev.  18.21, 
20.25). 

The  offerings  were  presented  only  in  the 
front  court  of  the  sanctuary,  the  tabernacle, 
that  is,  and  afterwards  the  Temple  (Lev.  17.1-9  ; 
Deut.  12.5-7).  Occasionally,  however,  sacrifices 
were  offered  elsewhere,  without  reprehension 
(Judg.  2.5,  6.26,  13.16;  1  Sam.  7.17,  9.12, 
11.15,  16.5;  1  K.  18.30);  while  the  people 
evinced  a  frequent  disposition  to  sacrifice  in  the 
"  high  places "  to  which  they  had  recourse 
before  the  existence  of  a  permanent  sanctuary 
(1  K.  3.2),  and  afterwards  in  a  schismatic 
spirit  (1  K.  12.31 ;  2  Ch.  33.17). 

In  the  performance  of  the  sacrifice,  the  offerer, 
himself  legally  purified  (Ex.  19.14 ;  1  Sam.  16.5), 
brought  the  victim  to  the  altar,  and  turning 
towards  the  sanctuary  laid  his  hand  upon  its 
head  (Lev.  1.4,  3.2,  4.33),  thus  identifying  it 
with  himself,  and  dedicating  it  to  the  purpose 
of  atonement  through  sacrifice.  He  then  slew 
the  animal,  an  act,  however,  which  the  priest 
might  do  (2  Ch.  29.24 ;  Ezra  6.20).  As  the 
victim  was  slain  the  priest  received  the  blood, 
and  sprinkled  or  poured  it  near  the  different 
offerings,  yet  apart  from  them.  The  victim  was 
cut  in  pieces  by  the  offerer  (Lev.  1.6),  and  the  fat 
was  burnt  by  the  priest.  In  some  sacrifices, 
before  or  after  the  slaying,  the  victim  was 
heaved  or  b'fted  up,  and  waved  towards  the 
altar  and  back,  a  symbol  of  its  presentation  to 
Jehovah.  In  those  cases  where  the  worshippers 
ate  part  of  the  sacrifice  the  idea  of  communion 
\vith  God  and  each  other  was  emphasised. 

These  sacrifices  were  in  themselves  very 
imperfect,  and  altogether  incapable  of  purifying 


SACRILEGE] 


422 


[SAINTS 


the  soul.  Paul  has  described  these  and  other 
ceremonies  of  the  Law  as  "  weak  and  beggarly 
elements  "  (Gal.  4.9).  They  represented  grace 
and  purity,  but  they  did  not  communicate 
them.  They  convinced  the  sinner  of  the  necessity 
to  purify  himself,  and  make  satisfaction  to  God  ; 
but  they  did  not  impart  holiness  to  him.  Of 
this  fact  the  pious  Jew  was  not  insensible. 
Hence  the  profound  feeling  of  the  Psalmist — 
"  The  sacrifices  of  God  are  a  broken  spirit ;  a 
broken  and  a  contrite  heart,  O  God,  Thou  wilt 
not  despise"  (Ps.  51.17).  God  had  taught 
His  people  by  the  prophets  that  without  these 
dispositions  they  could  not  present  any  offer- 
ing agreeable  to  Him  (Ps.  40.6,  51.16;  Isai. 
1.11-14;  Jer.  35.15;  Hos.  14.2;  Joel  2.12,13; 
Amos  5.21,  22).  All  sacrifices  emblematically 
set  forth  the  sacrifice  of  Christ,  being  the  insti- 
tuted type  and  shadow  of  it  (Heb.  9.9-15,  10.1). 
Christ  abolished  all  other  sacrifices  when  He 
offered  Himself  (1  Cor.  5.7 ;  Heb.  10.8-10). 

The  idea  of  sacrifice  is  often  used  in  a  secondary 
or  metaphorical  sense,  and  applied  to  the  good 
works  of  believers,  the  duties  of  prayer  and 
praise,  etc.  (Heb.  13.16).  "  But  to  do  good,  and 
to  communicate,  forget  not ;  for  with  such 
sacrifices  God  is  well  pleased."  "  I  beseech 
you,  by  the  mercies  of  God,  that  ye  present 
your  bodies  a  living  sacrifice "  (Rom.  12.1). 
The  worshipper  was  not  to  offer  that  which 
cost  him  nothing ;  part  of  his  substance  was  to 
be  transferred  from  himself  to  God.  The  offering 
might  be  in  time,  ease,  comfort,  property, 
intellect ;  all  of  which  might  be  dedicated  to 
the  Lord.  [ALTAR,  PEACE-OFFERING.] 

Sacrilege. — Only  found  in  Rom.  2.22,  where 
R.V.  has  "  dost  thou  rob  temples  ?  "  In  the 
ancient  Church,  sacrilege,  the  violation  of  sacred 
things,  or  the  desecration  of  things  consecrated 
to  God,  was  very  severely  punished.  To  break 
into  and  enter  a  church  or  place  of  worship  and 
commit  any  felony  therein  is  still  an  offence 
in  English  law. 

Sadducees. — A  Jewish  party,  only  mentioned 
thirteen  times  in  the  N.T.,  and  not  at  all  in  the 
Fourth  Gospel  or  in  the  Epistles,  but  playing  an 
important  part  in  the  religious  history  of  the 
time.  (1)  Their  name  is  now  generally  held  to 
be  derived  from  the  name  Zadok — either  the 
name  of  some  unidentified  leader  of  the  party,  or 
that  of  the  Zadok  who  was  priest  under  David 
(1  K.  1.8)  and  Solomon  (1  Ch.  29.22).  The 
descendants  of  Zadok  were  found  in  the  priest- 
hood after  the  Exile,  and  came  to  form  a  party 
which  was  in  its  aims  political  as  well  as  ecclesi- 
astical or  religious.  Josephus  (Antiq.  xiii. 
chap.  x.  §  6),  noting  the  differences  between 
Pharisees  and  Sadducees,  says  that  the  latter 
"  influence  none  but  the  rich,  and  have  not  the 
populace  on  their  side,  but  the  Pharisees  have 
the  multitude  to  back  them."  They  had  been 
an  important  party  in  the  State  for  more 
than  a  century  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  and 
during  N.T.  times  all  the  high-priests  were 
Sadducees.  (2)  Their  attitude  to  our  Lord  and 
His  message  appears  natural  enough,  in  view  of 


their  position  as  an  aristocratic  party,  closely 
associated  with  the  priesthood.  His  teaching 
struck  directly  at  their  position.  Their  in- 
dignation when  He  cleansed  the  Temple  (Matt. 
21.12)  and  when  He  accepted  the  title  "  Son 
of  David"  (Matt.  21.15)  was  natural.  The 
desire  to  suppress  Him  brought  them  into 
line  with  the  Pharisees  (Lk.  19.47) ;  whilst 
they  also  sought  to  create  difficulties  for  Him 
by  cleverly  framed  questions  (Matt.  22.23). 
Our  Lord,  early  in  His  ministry,  publicly  re- 
buked them  (Matt.  3.7),  and  warned  His  dis- 
ciples to  beware  of  their  "  leaven "  (Matt. 
16.6, 11, 12).  (3)  After  the  death  of  our  Lord, 
the  opposition  of  the  Sadducees — joined  as 
usual  with  that  of  the  priests — is  again  felt 
(Acts  4.1,  5.17).  Paul,  in  self-defence,  made 
use  of  the  doctrinal  differences  between  Phari- 
sees and  Sadducees  (Acts  23.6).  The  prominence 
given  by  Paul  to  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection 
will  be  noted  in  connexion  with  the  teaching  of 
the  Sadducees.  (4)  Their  distinctive  doctrinal 
position  is  noted  by  our  Lord  (Matt.  16.6, 12) 
and  by  the  Evangelists  (Matt.  22.23 ;  Mk.  12.18 ; 
Lk.  20.27).  The  conflict  between  themselves 
and  the  Pharisees  is  illustrated  in  Acts  23.6-8. 
From  the  passages  already  referred  to  it  is  seen 
that  the  Sadducees  denied  (1)  the  resurrection, 
and  (2)  the  existence  of  angels  and  spirits.  As  to 
(1)  the  resurrection,  Josephus,  after  explaining 
the  belief  of  the  Pharisees  in  fate  and  freewill, 
in  the  "  immortal  power  "  of  the  soul,  and  in  a 
future  state  of  rewards  and  punishments,  adds, 
"  but  the  doctrine  of  the  Sadducees  is  that 
souls  die  with  the  bodies "  (Antiq.  xviii. 
chap.  i.  §  4).  As  to  (2)  the  denial  of  the  exist- 
ence of  angels  and  spirits,  this  ran  counter  to 
so  much  of  the  O.T.  that  the  unpopularity  of 
the  Sadducees  may  find  an  explanation  on  this 
as  well  as  other  sides.  Josephus  points  out  that 
when  Sadducees  became  magistrates  they  had 
to  "  addict  themselves  to  the  notions  of  the 
Pharisees,  because  the  people  would  not  other- 
wise put  up  with  them  "  (Antiq.  xvin.  i.  §  4). 
The  Sadducees  as  a  party  were  never  a  numerous 
body,  and  they  ceased  to  exist  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem. 

Sadoc. — Just :  a  name  in  the  genealogy  of 
Jesus  (Matt.  1.14). 

Saffron. — The  English  name  of  this  substance 
is  derived  from  the  Arabic  zafaran.  It  is 
obtained  in  minute  quantities  from  the  yellow 
stigmas  and  style  of  a  crocus,  60,000  blooms, 
it  is  stated,  being  needed  to  make  one  pound 
of  saffron.  In  the  East  it  is  converted  into  a 
fragrant  perfume  (Cant.  4.14),  used  to  flavour 
meat  and  wine,  and  as  a  powerful  stimulative 
medicine.  It  is  also  used  as  a  dye,  chiefly  so  in 
this  country.  An  inferior  kind  is  made  from 
Carthamus  tinctorius,  a  tall  plant  of  the  order 
Composite. 

Saints.— In  the  A.V.  of  O.T.  "  saints  "  re- 
presents two  Hebrew  words  :  (1)  Lit.  pious,  godly 
(Ps.  30.4,  and  frequently  in  Psalms,  elsewhere 
only  1  Sam.  2.9  ;  2  Ch.  6.41 ;  Prov.  2.8).  (2)  Lit. 
separate,  applied  to  angels  (Ps.  89.5,7;  R.V. 


SALA,  SALAH] 


423 


[SALT  SEA 


"  holy   ones  ")   and   to   men   (Deut.   33.3  ;    cf. 
ver.  2  ;  Ps.  16.3,  34.9  ;  Dan.  7.18,  etc.). 

It  is  this  latter  word  which  (in  its  Greek 
equivalent)  is  taken  over  into  the  N.T.  as  the 
characteristic  designation  of  the  Christian 
community  (Acts  9.13  ;  Rom.  1.7  ;  1  Cor.  1.2 ; 
2  Cor.  1.1,  etc.).  The  term  thus  indicates 
primarily  the  call  and  status  of  the  Christian 
believer,  secondarily  the  qualities  which  befit 
and  issue  from  such  high  privilege.  Scripture 
contains  no  warrant  for  the  limitation  of  the 
word  to  persons  of  special  holiness.  [SANCTIFI- 

CATION.] 

Sa'la,  Sa'lah  (R.V.  Shelah).—  A  branch, 
offshoot :  grandson  of  Shem  and  father  of  Eber 
(Gen.  10.24,  11.12  ;  Lk.  3.35). 

Sal'amis. — A  city  at  the  east  end  of  Cyprus, 
where  Paul  landed  in  the  course  of  his  first 
journey  (Acts  13.5).  That  there  were  many 
Jews  in  the  place  is  shown  by  the  mention  of 
synagogues,  whereas  in  most  places  outside  the 
Holy  Land  one  synagogue  was  sufficient. 
Contemporary  history  shows  that  this  was  so, 
and  that  Herod  the  Great  leased  copper  mines 
in  Cyprus,  employing  Jews  to  work  them.  The 
city  has  quite  disappeared,  but  its  ruins  are 
near  the  present  Famagousta.  [PAUL.] 

Salathi'el,  ShealtieL— Father  of  Zerubbabel 
and  grandson  of  Jehoiakim,  king  of  Judah 
(1  Ch.  3.17  ;  Ezra  3.2,  etc. ;  Neh.  12.1 ;  Hag. 
1.1,  etc. ;  Matt.  1.12  ;  Lk.  3.27). 

Salcah,  Sal'chah  (R.V.  Salecah).— An  isolated 
fortress  in  a  wady  running  into  the  Yahmuk, 
at  the  south  extremity  of  the  Jebel  Hauran. 
It  was  the  south  outpost  of  Argob,  and  the  limit 
of  Bashan  and  Gad  (Deut.  3.10  ;  Josh.  12.5, 
13.11;  1  Ch.  5.11).  Its  modern  name  is 
Sulkhad,  a  town  of  considerable  size. 

Salem. — Peace:  the  city  of  which  Melchizedek 
was  king  (Gen.  14.18  ;  Heb.  7.1,  2).  It  is  prob- 
ably to  be  identified  with  Jerusalem,  in  accord- 
ance with  Jewish  tradition,  but  the  Samaritans 
place  Salem  near  Shechem,  a  view  advocated 
by  Dean  Stanley  (Sinai  and  Palestine,  p.  250). 
This  might  find  some  support  in  A.V.  of  Gen. 
33.18,  if  Shalem= Salem  :  there  is  still  a  village 
Salim  east  of  Shechem.  But  the  R.V.  "  came 
in  peace  to  the  city  of  Shechem  "  is  probably 
correct.  Salem  is  a  poetic  designation  of  Jeru- 
salem (Ps.  76.2). 

Salim. — Peace  :  in  John  3.23  it  is  stated  that 
John  the  Baptist  "  was  baptizing  in  ^Enon  near 
to  Salim,  because  there  was  much  water  there." 
This  is  the  only  occurrence  of  the  two  names, 
and  the  sites  cannot  be  certainly  identified. 
There  is  a  Salim  near  Nablous  (see  last  article), 
and  an  Ahum  in  the  Wady  Faria,  a  valley  well 
supplied  with  springs  running  east  to  the  Jordan ; 
but  these  are  between  7  and  8  miles  apart. 

Sal'lai. — 1.  A  Benjamite  who  settled  in  Jeru- 
salem with  his  people  after  the  Captivity  (Neh. 
11.8).  2.  A  priest  \vho  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel (Neh.  12.20).  His  name  appears  as 
Sallu  in  Neh.  12.7. 

Sal'lu.— 1.  (1  Ch.  9.7 ;  Neh.  11.7).    2.  (Neh. 

12.7).       [SALLAI2.] 


Sal'ma,  Sal'mon. — The  father  or  founder  of 
Bethlehem  (1  Ch.  2.51,  54).  He  was  the  father 
of  Boaz,  who  married  Ruth,  and  thus  the  founder 
of  the  House  of  David  (Ruth  4.20,  21 ;  1  Ch.  2.11 ; 
Matt.  1.4  ;  Lk.  3.32). 

Salmai.— [SHALMAI.] 

Salmon.— [ZALMONT.] 

Salmo'ne. — The  eastern  promontory  of  Crete, 
passed  by  Paul  on  his  last  voyage  (Acts  27.7). 

Salo'me. — 1.  One  of  the  women  who  witnessed 
the  Crucifixion  (Mk.  15.40,  16.1).  It  appears 
from  a  comparison  with  Matt.  27.56  she  was  the 
wife  of  Zebedee,  and  possibly  from  John  19.25 
that  she  was  the  sister  of  Mary,  the  mother  of 
Jesus.  [MARY.]  She  it  was  who  asked  the  Lord 
for  seats  of  honour  for  her  sons  in  the  kingdom 
of  heaven  (Matt.  20.20).  2.  The  daughter  of 
Herodias  (Matt.  14.6  ;  Mk.  6.22)  was  also  named 
Salome. 

Salt. — The  Jews  had  access  to  an  inex- 
haustible supply  of  salt  on  the  shores  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  and  in  the  mountain  of  soli^  salt 
at  its  southern  end,  described  by  Robinson 
as  being  5  miles  in  length.  In  this  neigh- 
bourhood were  the  saltpits  (Zeph.  2.9)  and 
the  valley  of  salt  (2  Sam.  8.13).  In  addition, 
the  Phoenicians  procured  quantities  of  salt 
from  the  Mediterranean  by  evaporation.  The 
salt  used  by  the  ancients  was  rock,  or  fossil, 
salt,  besides  that  left  by  evaporation  of  salt 
lakes.  It  was  impure,  and  the  outside  portion 
flavourless,  through  deliquescence.  The  allu- 
sion in  Matt.  5.13  was  to  this  kind  of  salt,  much 
of  which  had  to  be  thrown  away  as  worthless. 

The  Orientals  are  accustomed  to  ratify 
their  engagements  by  gifts  of  salt.  It  is  the 
emblem  of  preservation,  and  so  of  constancy 
and  fidelity.  It  is  a  sacred  pledge  of  hospi- 
tality, which  they  never  dare  to  break,  shelter- 
ing even  murderers,  rather  than  give  up  to  justice 
a  criminal  who  had  eaten  of  their  salt.  Even 
the  robber  Bedouins  of  the  desert  refrain  from 
molesting  one  who  has  sought  the  shelter  of 
their  tent,  and  has,  in  consequence,  been  offered 
the  salt  of  friendship.  By  the  command  that 
every  meat-offering  should  be  seasoned  with 
salt  (Lev.  2.13),  this  sacred  "  covenant  of  salt  " 
was  established  between  God  and  His  people 
(Num.  18.9;  2  Ch.  13.5).  Its  qualities  of 
flavouring  and  preserving  appear  to  be  referred 
to  in  Matt.  5.13 ;  Mk.  9.50 ;  Col.  4.6. 

The  effect  of  salt  on  vegetation  is  described 
as  "  burning "  (Deut.  29.23).  This  is  the  true 
reason  of  the  barrenness  of  the  shores  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  So  a  salt  land  (Jer.  17.6)  is  the  same 
as  the  "  parched  places  of  the  wilderness,"  and 
is  descriptive  of  barrenness,  as  saltness  also  is 
(Job  39.6;  Ps.  107.34;  Ezek.  47.11;  Zeph. 
2.9).  Hence  the  ancient  custom  of  sowing 
an  enemy's  city,  when  taken,  with  salt  in  token 
of  perpetual  desolation  (Judg.  9.45). 

Salt,  City  of. — The  position  of  this  city  of 
Judah  is  unknown,  but  it  must  have  been 
somewhere  on  the  plain  extending  from  the 
south  end  of  the  Dead  Sea  (Josh.  15.62). 

Salt  Sea.— The  Dead  Sea  is  called  the  Salt 


SALT,  VALLEY  OF] 


424 


[SAMARIA 


Sea  in  Deut.  3.17  ;  Josh.  3.16,  12.3.  It  receives 
its  name  from  the  immense  quantity  of  salt 
its  waters  hold  in  solution,  giving  to  its  waters 
a  specific  gravity  of  from  20  to  25  per  cent, 
greater  than  that  of  sea  water.  No  form  of 
life  can  survive  in  its  depths,  and  fish  carried 
down  to  it  by  the  Jordan  immediately  die.  The 
sea  has  no  outlet,  its  waters  being  carried  off 
by  the  enormous  evaporation,  amounting  to 
six  millions  of  tons  per  day  (Bible  Hand-Book, 
p.  289).  The  surface  of  the  Salt  Sea  is  1292 
feet  below  that  of  the  Mediterranean.  [DEAD 
SEA,  JORDAN.] 

Salt,  Valley  of. — A  ravine  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Petra  [SELA]  where  David  and 
Amaziah  defeated  and  slew  large  numbers  of 
Edomites  (2  Sam.  8.13;  2  K.  14.7;  1  Ch. 
18.12 ;  2  Ch.  25.11 ;  Ps.  60,  title). 

Saltpits. — Pits  made  on  the  shore  of  the 
Dead  Sea  that  they  may  be  filled  at  the  rising 
of  the  water  in  times  of  flood.  When  the 
water^  subside  that  in  the  pits  soon  evaporates, 
leaving  a  crust  of  salt  about  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness (Zeph.  2.9). 

Salu. — A  Simeonite  slain  by  Phinehas 
(Num.  25.14). 

Salutation. — Words  of  salutation  or  greeting 
are  frequently  quoted  in  the  O.T.  Thus, 
"  My  Lord  "  (Gen.  19.18) ;  "  Blessed  of  the  Lord  " 
(Gen.  24.31) ;  "  Blessed  be  ye  of  the  Lord " 
(1  Sam.  23.21);  "  Peace  be  with  thee"  (Judg. 
19.20) ;  and  note  especially  the  elaborate  form : 
"  Peace  be  both  unto  thee,  and  peace  be  to  thine 
house,  and  peace  be  unto  all  that  thou  hast" 
(1  Sam.  25.6).  In  the  N.T.  we  find,  "Hail, 
Master"  (Matt.  26.49);  "All  hail"  (Matt. 
28.9) ;  "  Peace  be  to  this  house  "  (Lk.  10.5) ; 
"  Peace  be  unto  you  "  (John  20.21).  See  also 
the  salutations  in  the  various  Epistles. 

The  acts  which  accompanied  the  salutation 
varied.  Kissing  was  an  ancient  custom  which 
persisted  in  N.T.  times  (Gen.  33.4,  45.15,  50.1 ; 
Lk.  7.45,  15.20;  Acts  20.37;  2  Cor.  13.12). 
A  mounted  traveller  alighted  before  a  superior 
(Gen.  24.64;  1  Sam.  25.23).  Prostration  was 
usual  in  the  presence  of  kings  (1  K.  1.53 ; 
Esth.  8.3);  so  Cornelius  before  Peter  (Acts 
10.25).  Bowing  lovr  was  a  familiar  token  of 
respect  (Gen.  23.7,  42.6  ;  1  Sam.  24.8).  Kneel- 
ing was  an  act  of  homage  used  in  worship  (1  K. 
8.54;  Lk.  22.41),  but  was  sometimes  employed 
by  suppliants  (Mk.  1.40,  10.17,  15.19). 

Salvation,  Save,  Saved. — The  words  thus 
rendered  are  used  both  in  the  O.T.  and  N.T.  in 
more  than  one  sense.  From  the  saving  or  being 
saved  from  some  danger  to  the  body  or  the  life, 
the  words  pass  into  meaning  salvation  in  its 
religious  sense,  usually  with  direct  or  implied 
reference  to  the  Messianic  hope  or  to  the  work 
of  our  Lord.  Thus  in  the  O.T.  "  salvation  " 
and  the  words  rendered  "  save "  are  used  of 
deliverance  from  a  specified  danger,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Israelites  at  the  Red  Sea  (Ex. 
14.13,30),  and  of  Jonathan  (1  Sam.  14.45); 
and  saved  is  used  of  saving  the  individual  life 
(Gen.  12.12 ;  Josh.  6.25),  and  the  lives  of  animals 


(1  K.  18.5).  The  words  implying  safety 
secured  by  deliverance  are  used  of  the  security 
of  those  who  trusted  in  Jehovah,  Who  is 
Salvation  personified  (Ps.  3.8,  35.9,  62.2; 
Isai.  12.2 ;  Jer.  33.16  ;  Mic.  7.7  ;  Hab.  3.8, 18). 
This  deliverance  or  security  is  national  (Ps. 
28.9;  Isai.  25.9;  Hos.  14.3),  as  well  as 
personal  (Ps.  6.4,  69.1),  and  looks  forward  to 
the  greater  deliverance  bound  up  with  the 
Messianic  hope  (cf.  Lk.  1.69,  77).  In  the  N.T. 
usage  the  same  breadth  of  meaning  is  found. 
Save  is  used  of  deliverance  from  peril 
(Matt.  8.25;  John  12.27;  Acts  27.20);  but 
more  often  save  and  salvation  refer  to  the 
condition  of  pardon  and  security  obtained  for 
man  by  Christ  Jesus  (Matt.  1.21 ;  Lk.  19.10  ; 
John  12.47;  Acts  2.21,  4.12,13,47,  16.30; 
Rom.  5.9  ;  1  Cor.  1.18 ;  1  Thess.  5.9  ;  Heb.  5.9). 
This  salvation  is  for  the  present  as  well  as  the 
future,  and  is  associated  with  faith  in  the 
Saviour,  whether  the  immediate  relief  be 
bodily,  or  whether  a  deeper  meaning  were  also 
attached  to  the  words  (Lk.  7.50,  18.42 ;  Acts 
16.30,  31 ;  Rom.  10.9  ;  1  Cor.  1.21).  It  is  the 
free,  unmerited  provision  of  God — a  matter  of 
grace  (Eph.  2.5,  8 ;  Tit.  2.11).  [ATONEMENT, 
SAVIOUR.] 

Samaria. — Watchtower :  1.  The  country  of 
Samaria  included  at  first  the  whole  of  the 
territories  occupied  by  the  revolting  ten  tribes, 
joined  together  under  the  kingship  of  Jeroboam. 
It  extended  from  Bethel  to  Dan,  from  the 
Mediterranean  to  Syria  and  Ammon. 

It  was  limited  by  the  inclusion  of  Simeon 
and  Dan  in  the  kingdom  of  Judah ;  by  the 
conquests  of  Hazael  (2  K.  10.32),  of  Pul  and 
Tiglath-pileser  (2  K.  15.29;  1  Ch.  5.26),  of 
Shalmaneser  (2  K.  17.5, 6),  after  which  it  was 
a  scene  of  utter  desolation  (2  K.  17.23,  21.13), 
until  it  was  repeopled  by  foreigners  during  the 
years  of  the  Captivity  (2  K.  17.24 ;  Ezra  4.10). 
[ISBAEL,  KINGDOM  OF.] 

2.  The  position  of  the  capital  city  of  the  ten 
tribes  that  revolted  from  David  was  a  strong 
one,  equalling  that  of  Jerusalem.  It  lay 
midway  between  the  Jordan  and  the  Medi- 
terranean, east  of  the  plain  of  Sharon,  on  the 
summit  of  a  steep  oblong  hill,  precipitous  on 
one  side  and  easily  defended  on  the  other.  It 
was  built  by  Omri,  king  of  Israel,  who  bought 
the  hill  Samaria  of  Shemer  for  two  talents  of 
silver  (1  K.  16.24).  The  kings  of  Israel  omitted 
nothing  that  could  enhance  the  strength  and 
beauty  and  riches  of  Samaria.  Ahab  built  a 
palace  of  ivory  (1  K.  22.39) ;  and  Amos  describes 
the  city  as  the  seat  of  luxury  and  effeminacy 
(Amos  3.15,  4.1,2).  Samaria  was  associated 
with  Ahab's  career  and  death,  and  with  Baal- 
worship  (1  K.  16.32,  22.38;  2  K.  10.1-28; 
2  Ch.  18).  It  was  the  scene  of  Elisha's  ministry 
(2  K.  5,  6.1-20,  7).  It  was  twice  ineffectually 
besieged  by  the  Syrians  (1  K.  20.1-34;  2  K. 
0.24,  7.20),  and  was  taken  at  last  after  a  three 
years'  siege  begun  by  Shalmaneser  iv.,  and  con- 
cluded by  Sargon  in  722  B.C.  (2  K.  17.5,6). 
The  severities  the  city  suffered  are  vividly 


SAMARITANS,  THE] 


425 


[SAMOTHBACIA 


described  by  Hosea  (10.4,8,9),  while  Micah 
(1.6)  says  that  the  city  was  reduced  to  a 
heap  of  stones.  Sargon,  having  subdued  the 
city,  carried  all  its  inhabitants  away  and  settled 
them  in  places  remote  from  their  old  home. 
Following  out  the  usual  policy  of  old-time 
conquerors,  he,  and,  later,  Esarhaddon,  repeopled 
Samaria  with  Babylonians,  Cutheans,  and  others 
from  a  distance,  the  object  being  of  course  to 
destroy  national  feelings  amongst  the  conquered 
peoples  (2  K.  17.24;  Ezra  4.2). 

.  The  Cuthites  rebuilt  in  a  measure  the  destroyed 
city,  and  on  the  return  of  the  Jews  from 
captivity  a  number  of  them  with  their  foreign 
wives  went  to  reside  there  (Ezra  4.17 ;  Neh.  4.2). 
[SAMARITANS.] 

Very  little  change  took  place  in  Samaria  until 
Aulus  Gabinius,  Pompey's  Legate,  about  60  B.C., 
rebuilt  it.  Yet  it  remained  an  insignificant 
place  until  Herod  the  Great  again  rebuilt  it 
[HEROD],  and  restored  it  to  more  than  its 
ancient  splendour,  calling  it  Sebaste,  i.e. 
Augusta,  after  the  Roman  Emperor.  Herod 
made  it  more  of  a  citadel  than  ever  it  had 
been,  and  adorned  it  with  a  magnificent 
temple,  of  which  only  some  rows  of  ruined 
columns  are  visible.  These  ruins  lie  outside 
the  present  small  village  of  Sebastieh,  the 
modern  representative  of  the  ancient  capital 
of  the  kings  of  Israel.  Whether  the  city  of 
Samaria  is  mentioned  in  the  N.T.  depends  on 
the  presence  or  absence  of  the  Greek  article  in 
Acts  8.5.  Herod  died  in  4  B.C.,  when  Samaria 
became  part  of  the  dominions  of  his  son  Archelaus. 
Tradition  states  that  John  the  Baptist  was 
buried  at  Sebaste,  and  points  to  the  ruins  of  a 
church  of  that  name  in  proof. 

3.  The  district  of  Samaria  in  N.T.  times 
lay  between  Judaea  and  Galilee  (Lk.  17.11); 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  range  of  hills  which 
form  the  south  border  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon, 
on  the  south  by  the  north  limits  of  Benjamin.  It 
was  traversed  by  our  Lord  (John  4.4-43),  and 
in  part  early  received  the  Gospel  (Acts  8.5-25). 

Samaritans,  The. — An  ancient  but  still  exist- 
ing sect  among  the  Jews,  who  derived  their  name 
from  Samaria,  the  capital  city  of  their  dominions. 
[ISRAEL,  ISRAELITES.]  After  the  fall  of  Samaria, 
and  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  Sargon  the  con- 
queror carried  away  the  bulk  of  the  inhabitants 
to  Assyria,  and  partly  replaced  them  with 
people  from  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Tigris 
and  the  Euphrates  (2  K.  17).  The  new- 
comers intermarried  with  the  Israelites  left 
in  the  country,  and  ultimately  took  the  name 
of  Samaritans.  The  depopulated  country  had 
become  overrun  with  wild  beasts,  and  the 
idolatrous  immigrants,  concluding  that  "  the 
God  of  the  land  "  was  angry,  sent  to  the  king 
of  Assyria  begging  him  to  send  them  a  priest 
of  Jehovah  to  instruct  them  how  to  worship 
Him.  At  first  their  religion  was  of  a  motley 
kind,  "  they  feared  Jehovah  and  served  their 
own  gods."  After  the  reforms  of  Josiah, 
however,  which  extended  to  Bethel  and  the 
northern  districts  (2  K.  23.15  ;  2  Ch.  34.6, 7), 


the  people  seem  to  have  submitted  to  the 
destruction  of  their  idols,  and  nominally  to 
have  adopted  the  Israelite  religion.  But 
though  they  were  united  in  religion  they  were 
not  so  in  the  affection  of  the  Jews  ;  for  they 
employed  various  calumnies  and  stratagems  to 
hinder  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple  at  Jeru- 
salem (2  K.  17  ;  Ezra  4.5, 6). 

After  the  Captivity,  Nehemiah  had  begun  a 
reform  in  Judsea,  when  some  of  the  Jews,  who 
had  married  heathen  wives,  went  over  to  the 
Samaritans  rather  than  give  them  up.  One  of 
these  was  Manasseh,  a  son  of  the  high-priest, 
who  persuaded  the  Samaritans  to  renounce 
many  of  then*  idolatries,  and  built  a  temple 
on  Mount  Gerizim,  where  rites  were  cele- 
brated resembling  the  worship  at  Jerusalem. 
[MANASSEH,  NEHEMIAH,  SANBALLAT.]  After- 
wards, when  the  country  was  part  of  the  Greek 
empire,  the  Samaritans  revolted  from  Alexander. 
He  drove  them  out  of  Samaria,  replaced  them 
with  Macedonians,  and  gave  the  province  of 
Samaria  to  the  Jews.  This  circumstance  con- 
tributed in  no  small  degree  to  increase  the 
hatred  and  animosity  between  those  two  peoples. 
Samaria  became  a  place  of  refuge  for  Jewish  law- 
breakers, who  then  embraced  the  worship  on 
Mount  Gerizim.  When  the  affairs  of  the  Jews 
were  prosperous,  the  Samaritans  did  not  fail 
to  call  themselves  Hebrews,  and  of  the  race  of 
Abraham.  But  when  the  Jews  suffered  per- 
secution, the  Samaritans  disowned  them,  and 
alleged  that  they  were  from  Phoenician  stock, 
or  descended  from  Joseph  or  his  son  Manasseh. 

The  Samaritans  claimed  an  interest  in  the 
Mosaic  covenant ;  their  faith  and  practice  they 
founded  on  the  PentateuchN  alone,  and  they 
rejected  the  whole  of  the  other  Jewish  books. 
Their  temple  on  Mount  Gerizim  remained  till 
the  year  109  B.C.  Our  Lord  distinguishes  the 
Samaritans  from  the  lost  sheep  of  the  house  of 
Israel  and  from  the  Gentiles  (Matt.  10.5,6). 
At  this  time  the  hatred  between  them  and  the 
Jews  was  at  its  height  (Lk.  9.52, 53  ;  John  4.9), 
and  the  title  "  Samaritan  "  was  applied  to  the 
Saviour  as  including  all  that  was  bad  (John  8.48). 

Samgar-nebo. — One  of  the  princes  of  the 
king  of  Babylon  who  sat  in  the  middle  gate  of 
Jerusalem  after  the  capture  of  the  city  (Jer. 
39.3).  But  perhaps  the  text  is  corrupt. 

Samlah. — An  ancient  king  of  Edom,  who 
succeeded  Hadad  (Gen.  36.36, 37 ;  1  Ch.  I  AT,  48). 
[EDOM.] 

Samos. — An  island  off  the  west  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  slightly  south  of  Ephesus,  about  1  mile 
from  the  shore.  Through  the  narrow  channel 
Paul  sailed  on  his  return  from  his  third  mission- 
ary journey  (Acts  20.15).  The  island  is  moun- 
tainous, a  natural  feature  which  is  said  to  have 
given  it  its  name  (height).  It  was  an  important 
place,  noted  for  its  worship  of  Juno,  as  the 
birthplace  of  Pythagoras,  and  for  a  decisive 
Greek  victory  over  the  Persian  fleet,  (479  B.C.) 
in  the  narrow  sea  where  Paul  sailed. 

Samothra'cia  (R.V.  Samothrace).— - A  small 
though  conspicuous  island  in  the  north-east  of 


SAMSON] 


426 


[SAMUEL,  THE  BOOKS  OF 


the  ^Sgean  Sea  where  Paul's  ship  anchored  during 
his  first  missionary  journey  (Acts  16.11).  Samo- 
thrace  lies  between  Troas  and  Neapolis,  being 
visible  throughout  the  voyage  between  those 
places.  It  had  several  names  at  different 
periods,  being  called  Dardania,  Leucania,  and 
Samos.  Its  chief  town  was  on  the  north  side 
of  the  island,  where  also  was  the  anchorage. 
Though  only  17  miles  in  circumference,  it  was 
a  free  state.  It  is  now  called  Samothraki. 
[PAUL.] 

Samson. — Pertaining  to  the  sun  :  the  son  of 
Manoah  of  the  tribe  of  Dan,  born  at  Korah, 
his  birth  being  miraculously  intimated  to  his 
parents  (Judg.  13).  He  was  a  Nazirite  (Judg. 
16.17).  He  married,  contrary  to  the  law 
(Ex.  34.16 ;  Dent.  7.3),  a  Philistine  woman  of 
Timnath.  Having  slain  a  lion  on  the  way  to 
Timnath  (Judg.  14.5-9),  he  afterwards  pro- 
pounded a  riddle,  which  his  wife,  under  pressure, 
revealed  to  the  Philistines.  To  pay  his  loss 
over  this,  he  sleAV  and  despoiled  thirty  Philis- 
tines of  Askelon  ;  but  his  wife  was  given  by  her 
father  to  another  (Judg.  14.19,  20).  In  revenge, 
Samson  turned  foxes  (jackals),  with  burning 
brands  tied  to  their  tails,  loose  into  the  corn 
of  the  Philistines  and  destroyed  their  crop.  A 
war  of  reprisals  continued  (Judg.  15),  until 
Samson  was  betrayed  by  Delilah,  captured  and 
blinded  by  the  Philistines,  who  imprisoned 
him  at  Gaza.  Brought  out  for  their  sport  in 
a  feast  to  Dagon,  their  god,  he  involved  himself 
and  them  in  a  common  destruction.  His 
brethren  secured  his  body,  and  laid  it  in  the 
family  burying-place  between  Zorah  and 
Eshtaol.  Samson  judged  Israel  twenty  years 
(Judg.  16).  He  is  classed  with  the  heroes  of 
faith  in  Heb.  11.32,  33. 

Samuel. — Name  of  God,  hardly  Heard  of  God  : 
the  son  of  Elkanah  and  Hannah  his  wife,  and, 
like  Isaac,  a  child  of  promise  (1  Sam.  I).  Before 
his  birth  Samuel  had  been  vowed  (1  Sam.  1.11) 
to  the  Lord  as  a  Nazirite,  a  promise  duly  kept 
(1  Sam.  1.24-28).  The  child  "  did  minister  unto 
the  Lord  before  Eli  the  priest"  (1  Sam.  2.11). 
He  wore  the  priestly  ephod  of  white  linen,  and 
was  visited  once  a  year  by  his  mother,  who 
brought  him  clothing  (2.19).  The  sons  of  Eli, 
Phinehas  and  Hophni,  openly  and  shamelessly 
sinned  (1  Sam.  2.12  ff.),  and  were  rebuked  by 
the  aged  father.  Then  the  word  of  the  Lord 
came  to  Samuel,  intimating  the  punishment  of 
Eli's  house  (1  Sam.  3.11-14). 

Years  later,  Samuel  is  found  in  office  as  ruler 
and  judge.  The  Ark  had  been  returned  by  the 
Philistines,  and  the  Israelites,  exhorted  by 
Samuel,  "  did  put  away  Baalim  and  Ashtaroth, 
and  served  the  Lord  only."  The  Philistines 
renewing  their  attacks,  Samuel  interceded  for 
the  people,  who  defeated  the  enemy,  and  the 
pillar  Eben-ezer  was  set  up  by  Samuel  to  com- 
memorate the  victory.  His  home  was  at 
Ramah,  but  as  judge  he  went  "  in  circuit  to 
Bethel,  and  Gilgal,  and  Mizpeh  "  (1  Sam.  7). 

After  another  long  interval,  Samuel  reappears 
as  an  old  man,  appointing  his  two  sons,  Joel 


and  Abiah,  to  administer  justice  in  his  place 
(1  Sam.  8.1).  Their  wrong-doing  led  to  the 
demand  of  the  people  for  a  king.  Samuel, 
appealing  to  the  Lord  for  guidance,  was  told 
to  let  the  people  have  their  wish,  after  explaining 
to  them  the  risks  they  ran  in  placing  one  man 
over  the  lives  and  fortunes  of  the  nation 
(1  Sam.  8). 

Samuel,  under  the  direction  of  God,  anointed 
Saul  as  king,  and  summoned  Israel  to  Mizpeh 
to  choose  their  ruler  (1  Sam.  9,  10).  In  a 
noble  address  he  vindicated  his  own  uprightness, 
warned  the  people  of  their  duty  to  Jehovah,  and 
promised  his  intercession  for  them  (1  Sam.  12). 
When  Saul  sinned,  it  was  Samuel  who  conveyed 
to  him  the  Divine  reproof  (1  Sam.  13.11-15).  On 
the  rejection  of  Saul  he  anointed  David  (1  Sam. 
16.1-13  ;  1  Ch.  11.3).  He  seems  to  have  acted 
as  judge,  despite  the  appointment  of  a  king 
(1  Sam.  7.15),  but  it  is  as  prophet  and  seer  that 
he  is  commonly  spoken  of  (1  Sam.  10.11 ; 
1  Ch.  9.22,  26.28,  29.29).  He  died,  lamented 
by  all  Israel,  and  was  buried  at  Rarnah  (1  Sam. 
25.1,  28.3).  His  position  in  the  eyes  of  his 
nation  is  indicated  by  later  references  to  his 
personality  and  work  (Ps.  99.6 ;  Jer.  15.1 ; 
Acts  3.24,  13.20 ;  Heb.  11.32).  [SAUL.] 

Samuel,  The  Books  of.— These  two  books 
originally  formed  but  one.  In  the  LXX  the 
Books  of  Samuel  and  the  Books  of  Kings  are 
treated  as  one  history,  the  former  being  called 
respectively  the  First  and  Second  Books  of 
Kings.  The  authorship  is  uncertain.  Chaps. 
1-24  of  the  First  Book  are  ascribed  to  Samuel ; 
and  with  him — on  the  basis  of  1  Ch.  29.29— are 
joined  Nathan  the  prophet  and  Gad  the  seer. 
From  similar  references  to  sources  (2  Ch.  9.29, 
12.15,  26.22)  it  is  probable  that  these  two 
were  the  authors  of  records  of  first-hand 
authority  from  the  history  of  David's  reign 
(cf.  1  Sam.  22.5;  2  Sam.  7.2-17, 12.1,  24.11-14  ; 
1  Ch.  21.11,12).  Other  possible  sources  are 
"  the  Chronicles  of  King  David  "  (1  Ch.  27.24) ; 
the  Book  of  Jashar  (2  Sam.  1.18) ;  and  the 
collection  supplying  the  strong  poetic  element. 
The  Song  of  Hannah  (1  Sam.  2.2-10)  developed 
later  into  the  Magnificat  of  Mary  (Lk.  1. 46-55). 
It  prophetically  refers  to  a  coming  King,  "  the 
Anointed,"  and  thus  falls  into  the  line  of  the 
foreshadowings  of  the  Messiah.  There  are  also 
David's  elegies  on  the  death  of  Saul  and  Jona- 
than, and  on  that  of  Abner  (2  Sam.  1.17-27, 
3.33,  34),  his  ode  of  triumph  over  his  enemies 
(2  Sam.  22  ;  Ps.  18),  and  the  last  song  of  "  the 
sweet  psalmist  of  Israel  "  (23.1-7). 

The  date  of  the  compilation  is  uncertain.  It 
must  have  been  subsequent  to  the  division  of  the 
kingdom,  unless  the  reference  to  the  kings  of 
Judah  (1  Sam.  27.6)  be  a  late  interpolation  ; 
but  there  is  no  reason  for  requiring  a  later  date 
than  soon  after  the  disruption.  The  Hebrew 
text  of  Samuel,  especially  in  the  First  Book, 
presents  some  difficulties  in  regard  to  the  order 
of  incidents,  and  to  numerical  statements,  and 
in  several  passages  is  obscure.  It  has  evidently 
suffered  at  the  hands  of  transcribers. 


SANBALLAT] 


42? 


[SANDAL 


The  contents  may  be  summarised  as  follows  : — 

1  Samuel.— 1.   The  conclusion   of   the  times 
of  the  Judges ;  comprising  the  birth  and  early 
life  of  Samuel;    the  wickedness  of  Eli's  sons, 
and    denunciations    of    judgment    against    his 
family  (1-3) ;   defeat  of  the  Israelites  ;    capture 
of  the  Ark;    chastisement   of  the  Philistines, 
and  restoration  of  the  Ark  (4-6) ;  repentance 
and  deliverance  of  the  Israelites  (7).      2.  The 
commencement  of   the  monarchy.     The  desire 
of  the  people  for  a  king  (8) ;    designation  and 
appointment  of  Saul  (9, 10) ;  Saul's  victory  over 
the  Ammonites  (11) ;    Samuel's  address  to  the 
people  on  resigning  the  government  (12) ;  Saul's 
wars  with  the  Philistines  and  Amalekites,  his 
disobedience    and    rejection   (13-15).       3.  The 
close  of  Saul's  reign,  and  appointment  of  David 
as  king.     An  interval  of  from  twenty  to  thirty 
years  separates  this  portion  of  the  book  from  the 
preceding.    The  anointing  of  David  by  Samuel 
(16) ;    his  victory  over  Goliath  (17) ;    his  per- 
secution by  Saul,  and   flight  to  Ramah,  Nob, 
Gath,   and  Adullam  (18-22.5) ;    the  slaughter 
of  the  priests  at  Nob  (22.6-23) ;   David's  rescue 
of  Keilah,  and  flight  into  the  wilderness  and  to 
Gath  (23-27) ;  renewal  of  war  by  the  Philistines ; 
Saul  and  the  witch  of  Endor  (28) ;    David's 
dismissal  by  the  Philistine  princes,  and  pursuit 
of  the  Amalekites  (29,  30) ;  defeat  of  the  Israelites 
by  the  Philistines,  and  death  of  Saul  and  his 
sons  (31). 

2  Samuel. — 1.  The  triumphs  of  David ;  com- 
prising   David's    lamentation    over    Saul    and 
Jonathan  (1) ;    his  election  as  king,  first  over 
Judah,    and  then   over   all   Israel    (2-4);     his 
capture   of   Jerusalem,  and  victories   over   the 
Philistines  (5) ;    the  bringing  up  of  the  Ark  to 
Jerusalem  (6) ;    his  desire  to  build  a  temple, 
God's  covenant   of    mercy   with  him,   and  his 
prayer  and  thanksgiving  (7) ;  the  subjugation  of 
the  Philistines,  Moabites,  Syrians,  Ammonites, 
etc.    (8-10).     2.  The  troubles   of  David,  with 
their   cause ;     his   repentance^   and   subsequent 
history ;    including  David's  sin  in  respect  to 
Uriah,  and  Nathan's  reproof  (11, 12) ;    Amnon's 
sin,  and  murder  by  Absalom  (13) ;    Absalom's 
rebellion,  ending  in  his  defeat  and  death  (14-19) ; 
rebellion  of  Sheba,  and  its  suppression  (20) ; 
avengement  of  the  Gibeonites  (21.1-14) ;  battles 
with  the  Philistines  (21.15-22) ;    David's  psalm 
of  thanksgiving,  and  last  words  (22,  23.1-7) ; 
his  chief  military  officers  (23.8-39) ;   his  offence 
in  numbering  the  people,  with  its  punishment ; 
his  prayer  and  sacrifice  (24). 

Sanbal'lat. — A  Horonite  from  Horonaim  in 
Moab  (Neh.  2.10, 19,  4.1,  7,  6.1-14).  A  military 
commander  of  Artaxerxes,  the  Persian  monarch, 
in  charge  of  the  inhabitants  of  Samaria  (Neh. 
4.2)  at  the  time  when  Nehemiah  returned  with 
his  commission  to  rebuild  the  walls  of  Jerusalem. 
With  Tobiah  the  Ammonite  and  Geshem  the 
Arabian  he  did  all  he  could  to  trouble  and 
thwart  Nehemiah  (Neh.  2.19,  4.7).  His  daughter 
was  married  to  a  grandson  of  Eliashib.  The 
expulsion  of  his  son-in-law  from  the  priesthood 
led  to  further  trouble  with  Nehemiah  and  the 


returned  Jews.  He  and  his  sons  are  mentioned 
in  the  papyri  of  408  B.C.  found  in  Elephantine. 
[NEHEMIAH.] 

Sanctification,  Sanctify.  —  The  O.T.  words 
rendered  sanctify,  Sanctification,  imply  a 
setting  apart.  Most  of  the  words  translated 
holy  have  the  same  meaning.  The  foundation 
fact  indicated  by  the  use  of  the  words  is  the 
holiness  of  God  Himself.  He  is  holy,  the  holy 
One  of  Israel  (2  K.  19.22;  Ps.  71.22  ;  Isai.  1.4, 
etc.),  and  holiness  is  required  in  those  who  are 
His  (Lev.  11.44,45,  19.2,  21.8;  Josh.  24.19; 
Ps.  22.3 ;  Isai.  6.3).  So  also  persons  and  things 
associated  with  the  holy  God  or  His  services, 
or  set  apart  for  Him,  acquire  a  relative  holiness. 
They  are  holy,  sanctified.  Thus  the  words  are 
applied  to  the  seventh  day  (Gen.  2.3 ;  Neh.  8.11), 
the  ground  at  the  burning  bush  (Ex.  3.5), 
the  Tabernacle  (Ex.  29.44),  Aaron  and  his  sons 
(Ex.  28.41 ;  Lev.  8.30),  with  their  garments 
(Ex.  28.2),  the  anointing  oil  (Ex.  30.25),  the 
convocation  (Ex.  12.16),  the  Temple  (2  Ch.  7.16), 
a  fast  (Joel  1.14,  2.15),  etc.  This  thought  of 
separation  shows  signs  of  passing,  in  the  O.T., 
into  the  sense  of  sanctified  as  representing  the 
work  of  the  Holy  Spirit  within  man  (Isai.  62.12  ; 
Ezek.  37.28).  In  the  N.T.  our  Lord  speaks  of 
Himself  as  the  "  One  Whom  the  Father  hath 
sanctified"  (John  10.36) — consecrated,  set  apart, 
for  His  redeeming  work  ;  and  of  sanctifying 
Himself,  devoting  Himself,  that  His  followers 
may  be  sanctified  (John  17.17, 19).  His  whole 
teaching  is  in  opposition  to  forms  of  righteous- 
ness expressed  in  external  obedience  to  the  law. 
In  the  teaching  of  the  apostles  sanctify  has  the 
sense  not  only  of  setting  apart  or  hallowing 
(as  in  the  case  of  the  unbelieving  husband 
or  wife,  1  Cor.  7.14),  but  also  of  the  cleansing 
and  guiding  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  man 
(Rom.  15.16;  2  Thcss.  2.13;  1  Pet.  1.2).  The 
results  of  this  work  are  expressed  by  St.  John 
as  walking  "  in  the  light  "  (1  John  1.7),  keeping 
God's  commandments  (1  John  2.3) ;  by  St. 
Paul  as  pleasing  God  (1  Thess.  4.1),  walking 
"  worthy  of  the  Lord  unto  all  pleasing  "  (Col. 
1.10),  having  the  heart  established  "  unblame- 
able  in  holiness  before  God"  (1  Thes$.  3.13), 
"  perfecting  holiness  in  the  fear  of  God " 
(2  Cor.  7.1),  etc.  [JUSTIFICATION,  SAINT.] 

Sanctuary. — A  placg  set  apart,  devoted  to  God ; 
used  of  the  Promised  Land  (Ex.  15.17 ;  Ps.  78.54), 
the  Tabernacle  (Ex.  25.8,  36.1),  the  holy  place 
(Lev.  4.6),  the  Temple  (1  Ch.  22.19),  fche  dwelling- 
place  of  God  (Ps.  102.19),  a  refuge  (Isai.  8.14). 

Sandal— Found  only  in  Cant.  7.1  (R.V.); 
Mk.  6.9 ;  Acts  12.8 ;  but  the  form  of  "  shoe  " 
worn  in  the  East  was  generally,  as  to  this  day, 
a  sandal.  They  consisted  of  a  sole  of  leather 
or  wood  tied  to  the  feet  by  thongs  (Gen.  14.23  ; 
Isai.  5.27).  They  were  removed  on  entering  a 
house  or  sanctuary  (Ex.  3.5 ;  Josh.  5.15 ;  Lk.  7.38 ; 
and  cf.  Ex.  12.11 ;  Josh.  9.5-13). 

The  Prodigal  Son  returned  to  his  home  bare- 
foot (Lk.  15.22).  No  doubt  sandals  differed 
in  costliness  (cf.  Cant.  7.1;  EzeJc.  16.10  (R.V.) 
with  Amos  2.6,  8.6). 


SANHEDRlNj 


428 


[SAUDIS 


The  varied  symbolism  connected  with  shoes 
in  Scripture  requires  notice.  (1)  To  unloose 
(or  carry)  another's  shoes  seems  to  have 
been  a  mark  of  inferiority,  perhaps  the  office 
of  the  meanest  slave  of  the  household  (Mail. 
3.11 ;  Mk.  1.7  ;  Lk.  3.16 ;  John  1.27).  (2)  To 
shake  or  wipe  off  the  dust  from  one's  shoes  ex- 
pressed repudiation,  with  release  from  responsi- 
bility (Matt.  10.14  and  parallels;  Lk.  10.11; 
Acts  13.51).  (3)  The  renunciation  and  trans- 
ference of  legal  rights  was  ratified  by  drawing 
off  a  shoe  and  giving  it  as  a  sort  of  bond  to  the 
other  party  to  the  transaction  (Deut.  25.10 ; 
Ruth  4.7,8).  (4)  If  the  phrase  in  Ps.  60.8, 
108.9  be  rendered  as  A.V.,  "  Over  Edom  will  I 
cast  out  my  shoe,"  or  as  R.V.,  "  Upon  Edom 
will  I  cast  my  shoe,"  it  would  seem  to  indicate 
a  symbolic  act  similar  to  (3),  the  throwing  of 
a  shoe  upon  a  piece  of  newly  acquired  land  in 
token  of  legal  possession.  An  alternative  render- 
ing, however,  is,  "Unto  Edom"  (R.V.  marg.). 
This  would  make  Edom  the  slave  to  whom  the 
victorious  soldier  flings  his  sandals  to  clean  or 
to  carry  (see  (1)),  just  as  proud  Moab  is  humbled 
to  be  his  "washpot,"  the  vessel  in  which  he 
bathes  his  feet.  (5)  For  the  curious  blessing 
upon  Asher,  "  Thy  shoes  shall  be  iron  and  brass  " 
(Deut.  33.25),  R.V.  has  "  Thy  bars."  (6)  In 
Eph.  6.15  the  Christian  warrior  is  to  have  his 
feet  shod  "  with  the  preparation  of  the  gospel 
of  peace,"  lit.  "  readiness,"  as  of  one  eager  to 
cany  the  good  news  (cf.  Isai.  52.7). 

Sanhedrin. — Sitting  in  council:  the  Hebrew- 
Aramaic  form  of  the  Greek  word  synedrion, 
always  rendered  "council"  in  both  A.V.  and 
R.V.  This  was  the  name  of  the  supreme  court 
of  law  and  authority  in  Jerusalem  in  N.T.  times, 
but  the  origin  of  the  court  is  obscure.  Probably 
it  stood  in  some  historical  connexion  with  the 
primitive  assembly  of  Elders  in  the  Israelitish 
State,  interrupted  formally,  though  perhaps 
hardly  in  fact,  by  the  personal  rule  of  the  kings. 
Jehoshaphat  seems  to  have  given  some  shape  to 
it  as  a  court  of  justice  (2  Ch.  19.8).  In  any 
case,  the  existence  of  assemblies  of  Elders  in 
other  towns  than  the  capital  would  suggest  to 
the  Jews  of  the  Captivity  the  formation  of  a 
body  to  care  for  the  whole  nation.  On  the 
Return,  Jerusalem  was  the  recognised  head  of 
the  organisation  of  the  new  State,  and  its 
assembly,  increased  from  without  as  the  Jews 
spread  in  the  country  round,  became  more  and 
more  respeofced  and  influential.  But  there  is  no 
certain  mention  of  such  an  assembly  till  the 
time  of  Antiochus  the  Great  (246-226  B.C.), 
when  it  is  called  the  Gerousia  or  SENATE.  The 
Sanhedrin  is  said  to  have  contained  71  members 
(compare  the  70  Elders  of  Num.  11.6,  with  the 
addition  of  Moses),  prominent  among  whom  were 
the  high-priest,  and,  in  later  years,  those  who 
had  preceded  him  in  his  office  and  their  im- 
mediate connexions.  These  belonged  to  the 
party  of  the  Sadducees,  but  at  some  periods  the 
Pharisees  were  in  the  majority.  The  duties  of 
the  Sanhedrin  v.jere  of  the  widest,  from  framing 
decisions  of  religious  practice,  caring  for  the 


Temple,  and  investigating  the  claims  of  religious 
teachers,  to  entering  into  relations  with  foreign 
states.  Naturally  the  last  would  depend  on  the 
strength,  or  weakness,  of  those  who  were  kings 
or  governors  at  the  time.  The  Romans  deprived 
the  Sanhedrin  of  the  power  of  life  and  death 
somewhere  about  20  A.D.  [ELDER,  COUNCIL, 
SENATE.] 

Sansan'uah. — Palm-branch  :  a  town  in  the 
south  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.31).  It  is  the  same 
as  Hazar-susah  (Josh.  19.5),  which  see ;  now 
Sushi. 

Saph. — One  of  the  race  of  the  giants  or 
Rephaim  (2  Sam.  21.18).  The  name  occurs 
as  Sippai  in  1  Ch.  20.4. 

Saphir  (R.V.  Shaphir).— Beautiful :  a  city 
of  Ephraim  about  9  miles  north-east  of  Ascalon 
(Mic.  1.11).  On  modern  maps  it  appears  as 
Es-Suafir. 

Sapphi'ra. — Beautiful :  the  wife  of  Ananias 
(Acts  5.1-10).  [ANANIAS.] 

Sapphire. — Beauty :  a  pellucid  blue  gem 
extremely  beautiful  and  valuable,  and  second 
only  to  the  diamond  in  lustre,  hardness,  and 
value.  Its  proper  colour  is  pure  blue  ;  in  the 
choicest  specimens  it  is  of  the  deepest  azure, 
but  in  others  it  varies  between  that  and  a  pure 
crystal  brightness,  without  the  least  tinge  of 
colour,  but  with  a  superior  lustre.  The 
Oriental  sapphire,  of  a  fine  sky-blue  colour,  is 
most  beautiful.  Sometimes  the  sapphire  is 
variegated  with  veins  of  a  white  sparry  sub- 
stance, or  has  distinct  spots  of  a  gold  colour 
(Job  28.6, 16 ;  Eztk.  28.13).  The  sapphire  was 
the  second  stone  in  the  second  row  of  the  high- 
priest's  breastplate  (Ex.  28.18).  The  clearness 
and  transparency  of  the  gem  is  referred  to  in 
Ex.  24.10  in  the  vision  of  God  granted  to  Moses 
and  the  elders  (cf.  Etek.  1.26,  10.1).  It  is  one 
of  the  twelve  foundations  of  the  wall  of  the 
New  Jerusalem  (Rev.  21.19,  R.V.  marg.  lapis 
lazuli ;  cf.  Isai.  54.11).  See  also  Cant.  5.14 ; 
Lam.  4.7. 

Sara,  Sarah,  Sarai.— Princess  :  the  wife  of 
Abraham  (Gen.  11.29),  and,  according  to  Gen. 
20.12,  his  half-sister.  For  her  history,  see 
ABRAHAM.  She  died  at  the  age  of  one  hundred 
and  twenty-seven,  and  was  buried  in  the  cave 
of  Machpelah  (Gen.  11.29-23.20).  She  is 
(Gal.  4.22-31)  the  type  of  the  "  Jerusalem 
which  is  above."  Her  excellences  are  recalled 
in  Heb.  11.11 ;  1  Pet.  3.6. 

Saraph  (1  Ch.  4.22).— Burning. 

Sardine  (R.V.  Sardius).— (Rev.  4.3). 

Sar'dis. — The  ancient  capital  of  the  kings  of 
Lydia,  on  the  banks  of  the  Pactolus,  a  tributary 
of  the  river  Hermus ;  now  known  as  Sari. 
It  was  the  seat  of  one  of  the  seven  Churches 
of  Asia  to  which  the  Apocalyptic  letters  were 
addressed  (Rev.  1.11).  The  Church  in  Sardis 
was  reproached  for  its  want  of  vital  religion; 
it  had  a  name  to  live,  but  was  really  dead  (Rev. 
3.1-4).  The  place  is  now  a  pitiful  village  in 
the  midst  of  the  ruins  of  former  magnificence, 
but  possessing  a  khan  useful  for  the  caravans 
from  Persia  to  Smyrna,  travelling  \vilh  silk. 


SARDITES] 


429 


[SAVIOUR 


Sar'dites. — Descendants  of  Sered  (Num. 
2G.2G). 

Sardius. — A  reddish  precious  stone,  which 
occupied  the  first  place  in  the  first  row  of  the 
high-priest's  breastplate  (Ex.  28.17,  39.10). 
It  was  also  among  the  jewels  worn  by  the  king 
of  Tyre  (Ezek.  28.13).  The  Occupant  of  the 
heavenly  throne  (Rev.  4.3)  is  described  as  looking 
"  like  a  jasper  stone  and  a  sardius."  The  re- 
maining mention  of  this  stone  is  in  Rev.  21.20, 
where  the  sixth  foundation  stone  of  the  heavenly 
Jerusalem  is  said  to  consist  of  a  sardius.  The 
sardius,  or  sard  (sardonyx),  a  species  of  agate, 
was  often  employed  for  seals  and  rings  that 
were  engraved  upon,  being  chosen  for  its  tough- 
ness and  hardness;  hence  also  its  employment 
in  the  breastplate  of  the  high-priest.  Some 
varieties  have  a  tinge  of  yellow  in  them. 

[RUBY.] 

Sar'donyx. — A  variety  of  sard,  consisting  of 
"  a  white  opaque  layer  superimposed  upon  a 
red  transparent  stratum  of  the  true  red  sard  " 
(Antique  Gems).  It  is  an  agate  used  largely 
for  cameo  engraving.  In  Rev.  21.20  it  is  men- 
tioned as  the  fifth  foundation  stone  of  the  wall  of 
the  heavenly  Jerusalem. 

Sarep'ta. — Smelting  place  :  the  Greek  form  of 
Zarephath  (Lk.  4.26).  [ZABEPHATH.] 

Sar'gon. — An  Assyrian  general  who  usurped 
the  throne  on  the  death  of  Shalmaneser  iv.  in 
722,  and  reigned  till  706  B.C.  (Isai.  20.1).  He 
is  referred  to,  though  not  by  name,  in  2  K. 
17.6  and  18.11.  He  was  a  successful  warrior, 
and  peopled  Media  with  the  inhabitants  of 
Samaria  and  other  conquered  countries.  His 
armies  proved  so  victorious  that  his  power 
extended  over  Babylonia,  Media,  the  whole  of 
Assyria,  Philistia,  and  for  a  time  over  Egypt 
(see  Isai.  20.2-4).  Besides  conducting  several 
successful  wars,  Sargon  rebuilt  Nineveh  on  a 
most  magnificent  scale,  and  resided  there  him- 
self. His  son,  Sennacherib,  succeeded  to  his 
throne. 

Sa'rid. — A  boundary  town  in  the  south  of 
Zebulun  (Josh.  19.10,12).  Its  exact  position 
is  unknown. 

Sa'ron  (R.V.  Sharon).— (Acts  9.35).  [SHARON]. 

Sarse'chim. — A  Babylonian  general  who 
assisted  at  the  taking  of  Jerusalem  (Jer.  39.3) 
by  Nebuchadnezzar. 

Sa'ruch  (R.V.  Serag).— [SEBUG.] 

Satan.— Adversary.     [DEVIL.] 

Satrap. — [LIEUTENANT.] 

Satyr. — A  bestial  creature  of  the  Greek 
mythology,  the  upper  part  human,  the  lower 
a  he-goat.  Some  such  demon,  with  which  in 
popular  belief  desert  places  were  peopled, 
seems  to  be  intended  in  several  passages  by  the 
Hebrew  word  generally  rendered  "  he-goat " 
(Isai.  13.21,  34.14,  A.V.  and  R.V. ;  R.V.  marg. 
"  he-goats,"  American  Rev.  "  wild  goats," 
without  marg. ;  LXX  "  demons  ").  The  same 
word  is  rendered  "  devils  "  in  A.V.  of  Lev.  17.7  ; 
2  Ch.  11.15,  where  the  R.V.  has  "  he-goats," 
marg.  "  satyrs,"  LXX  "  foolish  things." 

Saul.— Afkfd  for  :  1.  The  first  king  of  Israel; 


a  Benjamite,  the  son  of  Kish,  a  yeoman  of  sub- 
stance (1  Sam.  9.1,  14.51 ;  1  Ch.  8.33,  9.39). 
On  the  people  desiring  a  king,  Samuel  was  led 
to  anoint  Saul,  and  he  was  subsequently  chose  n 
by  lot  (1  Sam.  10.21).  He  dwelt  at  Gibeeh 
(1  Sam.  10.26,  14.2).  The  Ammonites  under 
Nahash  offering  to  the  men  of  Jabesh-gilead 
contemptuous  terms  of  servitude,  Saul  roused 
the  nation  to  their  defence,  defeated  the  enemy, 
and  put  to  shame  those  who  had  resented  his 
advancement  (1  Sam.  10.27,  11.1-13).  At  the 
instigation  of  Samuel,  Saul  was  "  made  .  .  .  king 
before  the  Lord  in  Gilgal "  (1  Sam.  11.14, 15). 
He  vindicated  his  right  to  the  confidence  of  the 
people  by  the  success  of  his  campaigns  against 
their  enemies  (1  Sam.  14.47-52).  Directed, 
however,  to  destroy  Amalek,  he  saved  the  king 
and  the  best  of  the  spoil ;  was  rebuked  by 
Samuel,  and  warned  that  God  had  rejected  him 
(1  Sam.  15).  His  character  at  this  period  was 
gloomy  and  melancholic.  It  was  whilst  "  an 
evil  spirit  from  the  Lord  troubled  him"  (1  Sam. 
16.14)  on  such  occasion  that  he  first  saw  David, 
a  musical  shepherd  lad  brought  to  the  palace 
as  an  experiment  (1  Sam.  16.18).  The  event 
justified  the  action  (1  Sam.  16.23).  An  affection 
for  David  sprung  up  in  the  heart  of  the  king, 
an  affection  even  exceeded  in  the  case  of  his 
son  Jonathan.  From  this  time  the  histories  of 
Saul  and  David  were  closely  interwoven.  The 
prophetical  gift  which  Saul  had  displayed  at 
first  left  him,  only  to  return  occasionally,  and 
the  greater  part  of  the  forty  years  of  his  reign 
was  marked  by  outbursts  of  mad  rage  in  which 
he  displayed  a  terrible  zeal  (1  Sam.  19.24,  22.6  ff., 
28.3-9  ;  2  Sam.  21.1  ff.).  In  another  mood  Saul 
himself  took  occasion  to  seek  advice  from  one 
of  the  wise  women  on  witchery  (1  Sam.  28.3  ft.). 
[WrrcH.]  This  event  was  soon  followed  by 
an  invasion  of  Philistines,  who  overcame  Saul, 
and  pursued  him,  killing  his  sons.  This  last 
calamity  caused  the  wounded  king  to  fall  Upon 
his  own  sword  (1  Sam.  31.1-6).  His  head 
was  placed  in  the  temple  of  Dagon,  and  his 
naked  body,  with  those  of  his  three  sons,  hung 
upon  the  walls  of  Beth-shan.  At  the  beginning 
of  his  career  he  had  saved  the  people  of  Jabesh- 
gilead  from  slaughter.  These  now  removed 
the  dishonoured  corpses  by  night,  burnt  them, 
and  gave  them  decent  burial  (1  Sam.  31.11-13). 
[DAVID,  ENDOR,  SAMUEL.] 

2.  The  sixth  king  of  Edom  (Gen.  36.37,  38), 
who  in  1  Ch.  1.48,  49  is  called  Shaul,  the  proper 
form  of  Saul  (so  R.V.  in  all  the  passages).  3. 
The  name  of  Paul  before  his  conversion  (Acts 
7.58,  8.1,3,  9.1  ff.).  [PAUL.] 

Saviour. — The  word  is  used  in  the  O.T.  of 
God  (2  Sam.  22.3;  Ps.  106.21;  Isai.  43.3, 
49.26,  etc.) ;  and  of  human  deliverers  (2  K. 
13.5 ;  Neh.  9.27  ;  Obad.  21).  The  same  word 
(rendered  deliverer,  A.V.)  is  applied  to  the 
Judges  (Judg.  3.9,  15;  and  cf.  2.16).  In  the 
N.T.  "God  my  Saviour"  (Lk.  1.47)  and  in 
St.  Paul's  Pastoral  Epistles,  "  God  our  Saviour  " 
(1  Tim.  1.1,  2.3  ;  Tit.  1.3,  2.10,  3.4  ;  as  also  in 
2  Pet.  1.1  and  Jude  25)  refer  to  God  as  our 


SAVOUR] 


430 


[SCORPION 


Redeemer  in  Jesus  Christ  (cf.  2  Cor.  5.19). 
For  its  use  as  applied  to  our  Lord,  see  JESUS 
CHRIST.  [SALVATION.] 

Savour. — Taste,  odour,  fragrance.  [PERFUME, 
SPICES.] 

Saw. — The  saws  of  the  ancients  were  made 
of  bronze,  and  afterwards  of  iron.  They  had 
straight  blades,  either  single  or  double-handed, 
the  object  to  be  sawn  being  placed  upright, 
the  cut  being  downward.  In  form  they  did 
not  greatly  differ  from  the  ordinary  hand-saws 
of  the  present  time.  That  stone  was  cut  with 
saws  we  know  from  the  mention  of  sawn  stone 
for  the  Temple  (1  K.  7.9).  The  saw  was  used 
as  an  instrument  of  torture  or  death  (1  Ch. 
20.3  ;  cf.  Heb.  11.37).  Another  interpretation 
of  this  act  of  David  is,  however,  suggested  by 
the  expression  in  the  parallel  account  of  2  Sam. 
12.31,  "  He  put  them  under  (R.V.  marg.  to) 
saws,"  etc. 

Scab.—  (Lev.  13.2,  6,  etc.).    [LEPROSY.] 

Scales.— [BALANCES.] 

ScalL— (Lev.  13.30,  etc.).    [LEPROSY.] 

gcalp<_The  crown  of  the  head  ;  in  Ps.  68.21 
only. 

Scandal. — [STUMBLING-  BLOCK  .] 

Scape-goat.— (Lev.  16.8,  etc.).    [AZAZEL.] 

Scarlet. — This  dye  was  produced  at  various 
places  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  from 
the  cochineal  insect.  It  was  used  chiefly  in  rich 
articles  (Ex.  28.15),  and  ceremonial  costumes 
given  by  kings  to  those  on  whom  they  conferred 
a  favour  (Prov.  31.21).  Emblematically  it  was 
used  to  denote  luxuriousness  and  idle  living 
(2  Sam.  1.24). 

Sceptre. — A  Greek  word  properly  signifying  a 
rod  or  staff  of  command  and  authority  which  is 
supposed  to  be  in  the  hands  of  kings,  governors, 
and  others  in  authority  (Gen.  49.10 ;  Num.  24.17  ; 
/sat.  14.5).  The  sceptre  is  used  for  the  rod  of 
correction,  and  for  the  supreme  authority  that 
punishes  or  humbles  (Ps.  2.9  ;  Prov.  22.15,  etc.). 
A  shepherd's  crook  was  also  called  a  sceptre 
(Lev.  27.32) ;  in  this  passage  the  word  "  rod  " 
is  the  same  as  that  elsewhere  translated  sceptre 
(see  also  Mic.  7.14).  Sceptres  were  made  of 
many  substances  :  iron  (Ps.  2.9,  125.3),  gold 
(Esth.  4.11),  silver,  and  other  metals,  besides 
ivory  and  fine-grained  woods.  Metaphorically 
the  word  was  used  to  express  dominance 
(Gen.  49.10) ;  the  government  of  God  is  called 
the  sceptre  of  righteousness  (Ps.  45.6 ;  Heb.  1.8). 

[ROD.] 

Sce'va. — During  Paul's  second  visit  to  Ephesus, 
the  "  seven  sons  of  one  Sceva,  a  Jew,  and  chief 
of  the  priests,"  are  mentioned  amongst  the 
exorcists  who  tried  to  cast  out  evil  spirits  in  the 
name  of  Jesus  (Acts  19.13-16).  But  the  man 
in  whom  the  evil  spirit  was  "  mastered  both 
of  them."  It  is  not  clear  how  the  seven  of 
ver.  14  became  only  two  in  ver.  16  (see  R.V.). 
Perhaps  some  details  have  dropped  out  of  ver. 
14 ;  or,  as  the  papyri  seem  to  indicate,  "  both  " 
was  colloquially  used  for  "  all " ;  or  only  two 
were  present  when  the  incident  occurred. 

School — From     a     Greek     word     originally 


meaning  leisure,  then  the  occupation  of  leisure 
in  lectures  or  discussions,  and  so  the  place  where 
such  discussions  or  lectures  were  held.  The 
word  "  school "  has  this  meaning  in  the  only 
place  where  it  occurs  in  Scripture.  Paul  at 
Ephesus  was  able  for  three  months  to  use  the 
synagogue  as  his  lecture-room ;  driven  thence 
by  opposition,  he  "  separated  the  disciples, 
reasoning  daily  in  the  school  of  Tyrannus " 
(Acts  19.8-10).  The  "  Western  text  "  of  the 
passage  has  the  interesting  addition  "  from  the 
fifth  to  the  tenth  hour,"  i.e.  from  11  a.m  to 
4  p.m.  As  public  life  in  Ionian  cities  began  at 
daybreak  and  ended  before  noon,  at  11,  Paul's 
work  at  his  trade  would  be  over,  and  the  school 
would  be  free  for  the  mission  work  to  which 
he  devoted  the  hours  usually  given  to  rest  and 
recreation. 

Paul's  use  of  the  synagogue  at  Ephesus 
suggests  that  this  was  the  recognised  place  of  re- 
ligious instruction,  carried  on  in  Palestine  after 
the  Exile  by  a  body  of  professional  teachers,  the 
Scribes  (which  see).  It  has  often  been  assumed 
that  in  earlier  times  a  similar  work  was  carried 
on  by  the  "  Schools  of  the  Prophets  "  ;  but 
this  phrase  does  not  in  fact  occur,  and  there  is 
no  evidence  that  the  "  sons  of  the  prophets  5! 
(which  see)  engaged  in  education.  While  the 
O.T.  has  many  references  to  "  instruction " 
and  "  teachers,"  there  is  no  trace  of  schools 
for  children.  It  would  seem  that  the  Jewish 
home  was  the  school,  and  the  parents  the 
instructors. 

Schoolmaster.— The  A.V.  rendering  in  Oal. 
3.24,  25  of  the  Greek  word  "  pedagogue,"  lit. 
child-leader:  the  R.V.  has  "tutor,"  and  so 
for  the  same  word  in  1  Cor.  4.15  (A.V.  "  in- 
structors"). No  English  equivalent  is  quite 
satisfactory.  The  "  pedagogue "  was  a  con- 
fidential servant  (usually  a  slave)  or  male 
nurse,  to  whose  charge  the  Greek  or  Roman  boy 
was  committed  till  he  should  reach  the  freedom 
of  manhood.  There  is  no  special  reference  in 
the  Galatian  passage  to  this  slave's  duty  of 
seeing  the  boy  safe  to  school.  The  contrast 
is  between  the  restraint  and  tutelage  of  the  Law 
and  the  freedom  which  is  reached  in  Christ. 

Science. — The  word  occurs  twice  in  the  A.V. 
In  Dan.  1.4  it  is  retained  by  the  R.V.  as  a 
convenient  synonym  for  "  knowledge,"  but  the 
phrase  "  understanding  science "  simply  re- 
peats the  generality  of  the  previous  clause 
"  cunning  in  knowledge."  In  1  Tim.  6.20  for 
A.V.  "  avoiding  profane  and  vain  babblings, 
and  oppositions  of  science  falsely  so  called," 
R.V.  has  "  turning  away  from  the  profane 
babblings  and  oppositions  of  the  knowledge 
falsely  so  called."  The  reference  is  to  theo- 
sophical  speculation ;  "  science  "  in  the  modern 
sense  is  not  referred  to  in  the  Bible. 

Scorpion. — The  scorpion  belongs  to  the  same 
class  as  do  the  spiders,  and  is  found  chiefly  in 
hot  countries.  They  vary  greatly  in  size,  from 
about  6  inches  in  Africa  to  3  or  less  in  other 
parts  bordering  the  Mediterranean.  The  chief 
characteristic  of  the  scorpion  is  its  sting,  a 


SCOURGE] 


431 


[SEA 


curved  spur  having  two  poison  glands  at  its 
base  placed  at  the  extremity  of  the  tail.  The 
creature  hides  in  holes  or  under  stones,  coming 
out  at  night  in  search  of  prey,  large  insects  and 
grubs.  These  it  seizes  in  its  pincer  jaws,  and  at 
once  stings  to  death  by  a  stroke  of  its  tail,  which 
it  brings  over  its  back.  Scorpions  are  very 
abundant  about  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Sinaitic 
Peninsula  generally,  just  as  they  were  in  the  days 
of  the  Exodus,  "  wherein  were  fiery  serpents, 
and  scorpions,  and  drought "  (Dent.  8.15). 
A  pass  on  the  southern  boundary  of  Judah, 
mentioned  in  Josh.  15.3,  has  the  name  of  the 
Scorpion's  Pass.  [AKRABBIM.]  The  only  other 
O.T.  references  are  Ezek.  2.6 — a  metaphor  of 
rebellious  Israel— and  1  K.  12.11 ;  2  Ch.  10.14, 
"  I  will  chastise  you  with  scorpions,"  probably 
a  figurative  expression,  though  possibly  (cf. 
Eng.  "  cat  ")  the  name  of  some  kind  of  scourge. 
In  the  N.T.  the  scorpion  appears  in  the  imagery 
of  Revelation  (9.3,  5,  10),  and  in  two  sayings 
of  our  Lord  (Lk.  10.19,  11.12) ;  in  the  latter  of 
these  there  is  perhaps  allusion  to  the  egg-like 
appearance  of  the  curled-up  scorpion. 

Scourge. — Beating  with  rods  was  and  is  a 
common  mode  of  punishment  in  the  East 
(Deut.  25.1-3 ;  Prov.  22.15,  etc.) ;  the  use  of  the 
scourge  or  whip  is  referred  to  in  the  O.T.  only 
in  1  K.  12.11,  14 ;  2  Ch.  10.11,  14  (not  Lev. 
19.20  ;  see  R.V.).  For  "  scourge  "  in  a  meta- 
phorical sense,  see  Josh.  23.13  ;  Job  5.21,  9.23 ; 
Isai.  10.26,  28.15. 

The  Jewish  practice  of  scourging  offenders 
against  religion  is  referred  to  in  Matt.  10.17, 
23.34,  and  Paul  records  that  he  suffered  this 
punishment  on  five  occasions  (2  Cor.  11.24  ; 
cf.  Heb.  11.36).  The  lashes  of  the  Roman 
scourge  were  knotted  with  pieces  of  sharp  bone 
or  metal.  Scourging  usually  preceded  cruci- 
fixion, and  was  part  of  the  punishment  inflicted 
upon  our  Lord  (Matt.  27.26;  Mk.  15.15;  cf. 
John  19.1,  where  the  scourging,  perhaps  in 
lighter  form,  precedes  the  sentence  as  part  of 
Pilate's  attempt  to  avoid  the  death  penalty). 

By  the  Lex  Porcia  a  Roman  citizen  was 
exempt  from  scourging  (Acts  22.25). 

Screech  Owl— Only  in  Isai.  34.14,  where 
A.V.  marg.  and  R.V.  text  have  "  night-monster." 
R.V.  marg.  has  "  Heb.  Lilith."  Lilith,  accord- 
ing to  Hebrew  tradition,  was  not  a  bird,  but  a 
demon  in  the  form  of  a  spectral  woman  that  fed 
upon  children. 

Scribe. — Writer :  before  the  Captivity  the 
word  is  used  of  one  who  performs  certain  duties 
in  the  army  (Judg.  5.14;  2  K.  25.19;  Isai. 
33.18 ;  Jer.  52.25) ;  and  as  king's  secretary 
(2  Sam.  20.25 ;  1  K.  4.3  ;  2  K.  12.10),  an  office 
near  the  royal  person,  and  one  of  high  rank.  In 
later  Jewish  history  the  Scribes  are  students, 
interpreters,  and  copyists  of  the  Law.  Thus 
Ezra  is  described  as  "  a  ready  scribe  in  the  law 
of  Moses  "  (Ezra  7.6) ;  and  the  claim  of  the  pro- 
fession was,  "  We  are  wise,  and  the  law  of  the 
Lord  is  with  us  "  (Jer.  8.8).  When  the  speech 
of  the  people  passed  into  Aramaic,  they  re- 
mained familiar  with  Hebrew,  They  were  the 


professed  students  of  the  Law,  written  and  oral, 
and  by  the  time  of  our  Lord  they,  had  so  ob- 
scured the  former  with  their  own  explanations 
and  additions  that  they  were  charged  by  Him 
with  transgressing  the  commandments  of  God 
by  their  "  tradition,"  and  with  "  teaching  for 
doctrines  the  commandments  of  men  "  (Matt. 
15.1-9;  Mk.  7.7).  They  are  most  frequently 
named  in  conjunction  with  the  Pharisees,  no 
doubt  as  representing  a  similar  attitude  towards 
the  law  and  a  similar  formalism  in  religious 
life  (Matt.  5.20,  12.38,  etc.);  but,  though  the 
Scribes  may,  for  the  most  part,  have  been 
Pharisees,  they  were  not  all  associated  with 
that  party  (cf.  Mk.  2.16;  Lk.  5.30;  Acts 
23.9).  Their  influence  is  indicated  by  their 
close  association  with  the  chief  priests  and 
elders  (Matt.  16.21,  20.18,  26.3;  Mk.  10.33, 
14.53 ;  Acts  6.12).  The  teaching  of  our  Lord 
was  so  definitely  opposed  to  the  formalism  of  the 
Scribes  that  their  hostility  towards  Him  was 
natural  (Lk.  5.30,  6.7,  etc.);  and  this  hostility 
was  continued  towards  the  apostles  (Acts  4.5, 
6.12). 

Scrip. — A  bag  used  by  travellers  for  carrying 
money  and  provisions  for  a  journey.  It  was  of 
various  materials,  generally  skin  or  leather, 
and  was  attached  to  the  girdle  (1  Sam.  17.40 ; 
Matt.  10.10  ;  Lk.  12.33-36).  [PuESE.] 

Scripture. — Once  only  in  the  O.T.  (Dan.  10.21). 
In  the  N.T.  the  plural  is  used  of  Scriptures — 
the  O.T.  writings— generally  (Matt.  21.42 ; 
Mk.  12.24 ;  John  5.39  ;  Acts  17.11,  etc.) ;  the 
singular  usually  of  a  particular  passage  given 
in  the  context  (Mk.  12.10;  John  7.38,  etc.). 
[CANOH  OF  HOLY  SCRIPTURE,  NEW  TESTAMENT, 
NON-CANONICAL  BOOKS,  OLD  TESTAMENT.] 

ScrolL— The  figure  in  Isaiah  (34.4  ;  Rev.  6.14) 
is  a  reference  to  the  rolling  up  of  the  ancient 
books,  which  were  written  on  long  sheets  of 
papyrus  or  parchment,  and  rolled  up  on  sticks. 
[BOOK,  PAPER,  ROLL.] 

Scurvy.— A  skin-disease  that  disqualified  a 
descendant  of  Aaron  from  serving  in  the  Temple 
(Lev.  21.20).  Nothing  could  be  offered  for 
sacrifice  that  had  the  scurvy  (Lev.  22.22). 

Scythian. — Named  once  only,  and  then  as  a 
general  term  for  a  rude  and  barbarous  people 
(Col.  3.11).  Scythians  were  classed  with  Britons 
by  Cicero.  The  country  of  Scythia  extended 
from  the  Black  Sea  across  Central  Asia,  but  the 
term  Scythian  is  used  very  loosely  by  early 
historians  to  denote  the  uncivilised  nomadic 
tribes  that  wandered  over  the  vast  plains 
bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Caspian  and  Black 
Seas,  and  extending  eastwards.  They  came  into 
Palestine,  for  Beth-shean  was  called  Scythopolis, 
and  Herodotus  tells  us  that  the  Egyptians  de- 
feated them  at  Ashdod. 

gea._The  Hebrews  gave  the  name  "  sea " 
to  all  large  bodies  of  water.  Thus  the  term 
included  the  ocean  (Gen.  1.2 ;  1  K.  10.22 ;  Job 
38.8) ;  the  Mediterranean,  which  was  called  the 
hinder  sea  (Deut.  11.24),  the  western  sea  (Deut. 
34.2,  R.V.  marg.;  Jod  2.20),  and  by  several 
other  names  (see  Ex.  23.31 ;  marg.  "  the  sea  "  ; 


SEA,  MOLTEN] 


432 


[SEIRATH 


Ps.  80.11) ;  the  Red  Sea  (Ex.  10.19  ;  Josh.  24.6) ; 
the  Dead  Sea  (Num.  34.3;  Josh.  18.19);  lliu 
Sea  of  Galilee  (Num.  34.11 ;  Matt.  4.15  ;  Mk. 
3.7) ;  the  Sea  of  Jazer,  a  small  lake  near  Heshbon 
(Jer.  48.32).  In  addition,  the  word  was  some- 
times applied  to  great  rivers,  as  the  Nile  (/sat. 
11.15),  the  Euphrates,  the  Tigris,  which  were 
subject  to  annual  overflowings  by  which  the 
surrounding  country  was  inundated. 

Sea,  Molten. — The  molten  sea  was  the  great 
brazen  laver  constructed  for  ritual  purposes  in 
the  service  of  the  Temple.  For  the  Tabernacle 
a  "  laver  "  was  made,  its  position  being  between 
the  altar  and  the  "  tent  of  meeting."  This 
was  a  large  basin,  with  an  ornamented  foot  or 
stand,  in  which  the  priests  washed  their  hands 
and  feet  when  about  to  perform  their  duties. 
It  was  made  of  brass  (bronze  or  copper),  devout 
women  giving  up  their  mirrors  of  polished 
metal  for  the  purpose  (Ex.  38.8).  In  the  first, 
or  Solomon's,  Temple,  the  molten  sea,  or  brass 
laver,  was  an  immense  vessel  nine  feet  deep  and 
over  fifty  in  circumference.  Its  precise  shape 
is  not  known,  but  it  contained  from  12,000  to 
20,000  or  more  gallons  of  water.  The  basin 
rested  on  twelve  figures  of  oxen  (2  Ch.  4.3, 4), 
all  facing  outward.  This  laver  was  constructed 
with  the  "  brass "  carried  away  by  David 
from  Tibhath  and  Chun  (1  K.  7.23  ff. ;  1  Ch. 
18.8),  and  was  supplied  with  water  by  the 
Gibeonites  until  long  afterwards,  when  an 
aqueduct  carried  it  from  the  pools  of  Bethlehem. 
What  the  laver  in  the  last  Temple  was  like  is 
not  known,  but  it  was  supplied  with  water  by 
means  of  a  draw-well  or  wheel  from  a  sub- 
terranean reservoir.  [TEMPLE.] 

Sea,  Salt.— [SALT  SEA.] 

Seah.— [WEIGHTS  AND  MEASUBES.] 

Seal — Seals  were  usually  worn  as  rings  cither 
on  the  finger  or  hung  by  a  cord  from  the  neck. 
Others  were  in  the  form  of  rollers  bored  through 
their  length,  being  passed  over  the  clay  or  other 
substance  to  be  impressed. 

They  were  generally  of  some  hard  or  precious 
stone,  but  sometimes  of  pottery,  and  even  of 
baked  clay.  Specimens  of  ancient  Palestinian 
seals  and  seal-rings  clearly  show  that  the  art  of 
engraving  on  stone  was  acquired  by  the  Hebrews 
at  an  early  date,  probably  from  the  Phoenicians. 
Most  of  the  seal-rings  are  merely  oval  stones. 
Frequently  the  ring  simply  contained  the  name 
of  the  owner  engraved  upon  it.  One  very  early 
specimen  must  have  belonged  to  an  ancient 
Hebrew,  judging  from  the  antiquity  of  the 
characters.  It  has  this  engraving,  "  Belonging 
to  Obadiah,  servant  of  the  king." 

For  the  use  of  seals  in  O.T.  times  see  1  K. 
21.8  ;  Esth.  8.8  ;  Jer.  32.10  ;  Dan.  6.17.  The 
N.T.  often  employs  the  metaphor  of  a  seal  as 
token  of  validity  and  finality.  See  John  3.33, 
6.27  ;  Rom.  4.11, 15.28  ;  1  Cor.  9.2  ;  2  Cor.  1.22  ; 
Eph.  1.13,  4.30  ;  2  Tim.  2.19  ;  Rev.  5-8, 9.4,  etc. 

Sealskin.— (Ex.  25.5,  R.V.).    [BADGER.] 

Sea-monster. — [WHALE.] 

SeT>a.— The  eldest  son  of  Gush  (Gen.  10.7  ; 
1  Ch.  1.9).  The  descendants  of  Seba  occu- 


pied a  position  on  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea, 
a  kingdom  extending  from  the  coast  of  the 
Red  Sea  inland  to  Meroe,  between  the  rivers 
Astapus  (Blue  Nile)  and  Astaboras  (Atbarah). 
It  was  a  great  centre  of  trade  (Pt.  72.10; 
Isai.  43.3,  45.14),  and  important  politically,  its 
people  being  described  as  fine  and  handsome  in 
appearance.  [Cusn,  SABHAN,  SHEBA.] 

Sebam.— [SHEBAM.] 

Se'bat,  Shebat — The  eleventh  month  of  the 
Jewish  year,  beginning  with  the  new  moon  of 
February  (Zech.  1.7). 

Seca'cah. — A  town  of  Judah  on  the  shore  of 
the  Dead  Sea.  Though  called  a  town,  it  was 
most  probably  a  fort  or  stronghold  established 
in  the  far  south  to  hold  the  wild  tribes  off  the 
more  settled  portions  of  the  country  (Josh. 
15.61). 

Se'chu  (R.V.  Seen).— A  place  between 
Gibeah  and  Ramah  (1  Sam.  19.22).  Its  exact 
position  is  unknown. 

Second  Coming,  The.— [COMING  OF  CHRIST, 
THK  SECOND.] 

Sect.— Used  of  the  Sadducees  (Acts  5.17), 
the  Pharisees  (Acts  15.5,  26.5),  the  Christians 
as  Nazarenes  (Acts  24.5),  and  the  Christians 
without  other  title  (Acts  28.22) ;  also  in  the 
R.V.  of  Acts  24.14,  where  A.V.  has  "  heresy." 
[HERESY.] 

Seen. — [SECHU.] 

Secundus. — A  Thessalonian  Christian  who 
accompanied  Paul  part  of  the  way  on  his  return 
from  the  third  missionary  journey  (Acts  20.4). 

Secure.— In  old  English  this  meant  "free 
from  care."  So  Judg.  18.7  ;  Matt.  28.14. 

Seducers. — 2  Tim.  3.13,  where  R.V.  reads 
"  impostors,"  the  general  meaning  which  the 
Greek  word  had  acquired.  Reference  to  persons 
who  practised  magic  might,  however,  have  been 
implied  (Acts  8.9,  19.19). 

Seer.— [PROPHET.] 

Se'gub. — 1.  The  youngest  son  of  Hiel,  who 
rebuilt  Jericho  in  the  time  of  Ahab  (1  K.  16.34). 
2.  Son  of  Hezron  (1  Ch.  2.21,  22). 

Seir,  Mount.— Rough,  rugged  :  1.  A  range 
of  mountains  extending  from  the  south  of  the 
Dead  Sea  to  the  eastern  arm  of  the  Red  Sea 
at  Ezion-geber.  It  is  100  miles  long  by  20 
miles  broad.  Its  slopes  and  valleys  were 
originally  inhabited  by  the  Horites  (Gen.  14.6, 
36.20 ;  Deut.  2.12,  22).  By  Esau  the  country 
was  merged  into  Edom  (Gen.  32.3,  33.14,  36.8, 
9.30;  Deut.  1.44,  2.1-20,  29  ;  Josh.  11.17,  12.7, 
24.4  ;  2  Ch.  20.10).  The  country  had,  however, 
been  previously  invaded  and  overrun  by  Chedor- 
laomer,  king  of  Elam.  Mount  Seir  was  avoided 
by  the  Israelites  in  their  long  march  to  the 
Promised  Land  (Deut.  1.2,  2.1 ;  2  Ch.  20.10). 
The  two  nations  were  in  conflict  here  (1  Ch. 
4.42  ;  2  Ch.  20).  It  was  the  subject  of  poetical 
reference  (Num.  24.18  ;  Deut.  33.2  ;  Judg.  5.4; 
Isai.  21.11;  Ezek.  25.8).  Its  chief  city  was 
Petra.  [SELA.]  2.  A  mountain  on  the  north 
boundary  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.10).  Its  position 
was  between  Kirjath-jearim  and  Beth-shemesh. 

Sei'rath    (R.V.    Seirah).— Place    on    Mount 


SELA,  SELAH] 


433 


[SENNACHERIB 


Ephraim  where  Ehud  collected  his  countrymen 
after  killing  Eglon  (Judg.  3.26). 

Sela,  Se'lah.— Rock  or  cliff :  the  capital  city 
of  the  Edomites,  a  stronghold  shut  in  by  mighty 
mountain  cliffs  (Judg.  1.36,  E.V.  marg.  ;  Isai. 
16.1 ;  Jer.  49.16  ;  Obad.  3) ;  taken  by  Amaziah 
and  called  Joktheel  (which  see)  (2  K.  14.7; 
2  Ch.  25.12).  The  more  recent  city  of  Petra  is 
supposed  to  be  on  the  site  of  the  older  Sela. 

Se'la-hanimah'lekoth. —  Rock  of  separation  : 
a  hill  in  the  wilderness  of  Maon,  where  David 
escaped  from  Saul  (1  Sam.  23.28).  The  Wady 
Malaki  is  said  to  mark  the  place. 

Se'lah. — A  musical  term  of  uncertain  mean- 
ing, occurring  seventy-one  times  in  thirty-nine 
Psalms  and  three  times  in  the  Psalm  of  Hob.  3. 
An  ancient  interpretation  regards  the  word  as 
directing  a  pause,  perhaps  filled  by  an  instru- 
mental interlude  before  the  singers  again  take  up 
the  strain.  This  does  not  fit  the  facts,  and  is 
generally  abandoned.  There  is  large  agreement 
among  scholars  that  the  word  is  derived  from  a 
root  meaning  to  raise,  lift  up.  Its  significance 
would  thus  be  Up  !  Variously  interpreted  as 
a  direction  (1)  to  the  players  for  a  louder 
accompaniment,  some  scholars  being  even  of 
opinion  that  it  is  only  a  transliteration  of  the 
Greek  word  Psalle,  "  play  the  instruments "  ; 
(2)  to  the  singers  to  continue  to  lift  up  heart 
and  voice  in  praise ;  (3)  to  all  the  congregation 
to  join  in  the  benediction,  "  Blessed  be  Jehovah 
for  ever  and  ever,"  lifting  up  their  voices,  or 
extolling  the  Lord.  [HiGGAioN.] 

Se'led. — A  son  of  Nadab  and  descendant  of 
Jerahmeel  (1  Ch.  2.30). 

Seleu'cia. — A  Mediterranean  port  and  one  of 
the  chief  cities  of  Syria,  lying  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Orontes.  Paul  and  Barnabas  sailed  from 
this  port  on  their  first  missionary  tour  (Acts 
13.4).  The  city  derived  its  name  from  Seleucus 
Nicator.  Antioch,  of  which  Seleucia  was  the 
port,  was  inland  about  16  miles.  From  its 
foundation  its  importance  was  great,  and  more 
than  once  it  successfully  resisted  the  invader. 
In  N.T.  times  it  had  obtained  its  freedom  for 
an  especially  brave  defence  against  Tigranes. 

Sem  (R.V.  Shem).— (Lk.  3.36). 

Semachi'ah. —  Whom  Jehovah  supports  :  a 
tabernacle  gatekeeper  in  the  time  of  David 
(1  Ch.  26.7). 

Semei  (R.V.  Semein).— (Lk.  3.26).    [SHIMEI.] 

Sena'ah. — Acacia  tree  :  a  town  of  Judah,  the 
inhabitants  of  which  returned  from  captivity 
with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.35  ;  Neh.  7.38). 

Senate,  Senator. — The  term  senators  in  Ps. 
105.22  means  simply  (as  R.V.  marg.)  "  elders." 
In  Acts  5.21,  "  Called  the  council  together,  and 
all  the  senate  of  the  children  of  Israel,"  authori- 
ties are  divided  as  to  whether  the  term  "  senate  " 
(only  here  in  N.T.)  is  another  name  for  the 
"  council "  (Sanhedrin)  just  mentioned,  or  a 
larger  body,  increased  for  the  special  business 
in  hand  by  calling  into  council  all  men  of  age 
and  experience. 

Se'neh. — Pointed  rock :  one  of  two  crags 
between  which  Jonathan  and  his  armour- 
28 


bearer  entered  the  Philistine  garrison  at 
Michmash  (1  Sam.  14.4). 

Se'nir,  She'nir.— The  Amorite  name  for  part 
of  Mount  Horeb  (Deut.  3.9  ;  1  Ch.  5.23  ;  Ezek. 
27.5)  ;  now  Jebel  esh-Sheikh. 

Sennacherib.— Sin  (the  moon-god)  has  in- 
creased brothers :  the  son  and  successor  of  Sar- 
gon,  king  of  Assyria,  who  ascended  the  throne 
705  B.C.  Brought  up  in  the  ease  and  splendour 
of  the  palace,  Sennacherib  displayed  none  of  the 
virtues  of  his  father.  He  was  weak,  boastful, 
cruel ;  and  preserved  his  empire  only  by  the  help 
of  the  veterans  and  generals  trained  by  Sargon. 
In  his  second  year  he  was  engaged  in  subduing 
an  insurrection  by  means  of  which  Merodach- 
baladan  had  possessed  himself  of  Babylon. 
In  701  B.C.  he  invaded  Phoenicia  and  Palestine, 
because  Hezekiah,  king  of  Judah,  and  other 
neighbouring  kings  had  refused  tribute  (2  K. 
18.13-16).  Of  this  campaign  we  have  an  account 
in  Sennacherib's  own  words,  inscribed,  according 
to  custom,  on  a  commemorative  monument — 
"  Zedekiah,  king  of  Ashkelon,  who  had  not 
submitted  to  my  yoke,  himself,  the  gods  of  the 
house  of  his  fathers,  his  wife,  his  sons,  his 
daughters,  his  brothers,  the  seed  of  the  house  of 
his  fathers,  I  removed,  and  I  sent  him  to  Syria. 
I  set  over  the  men  of  Ashkelon  Saludari,  the 
son  of  Rukipti,  their  former  king,  and  I  imposed 
upon  him  the  payment  of  tribute,  and  the 
homage  due  to  his  majesty,  and  he  became  a 
vassal.  In  the  course  of  my  campaign  I  ap- 
proached and  captured  Beth-Dagon,  Joppa, 
Bene-berak,  and  Azur,  the  cities  of  Zedekiah, 
which  did  not  submit  at  once  to  my  yoke,  and 
I  carried  away  their  spoil.  The  priests,  the  chief 
men,  and  the  common  people  of  Ekron  who  had 
thrown  into  chain*  their  king  Padi,  because  he 
was  faithful  to  his  oaths  to  Assyria,  and  had 
given  him  up  to  Hezekiah,  the  Jew,  who  im- 
prisoned him  like  an  enemy  in  a  dark  dungeon, 
feared  in  their  hearts.  The  king  of  Egypt, 
the  bowmen,  the  chariots,  and  the  horses  of  the 
king  of  Ethiopia,  had  gathered  together  in- 
numerable forces,  and  gone  to  their  assistance. 
In  sight  of  the  town  of  Eltekeh  was  their  order 
of  battle  drawn  up  ;  they  called  their  troops 
(to  the  battle).  Trusting  in  Assur,  my  lord, 
I  fought  with  them  and  overthrew  them.  .  .  . 
I  captured  the  towns  of  Eltekeh  and  Timnath, 
and  I  carried  away  their  spoil.  I  marched 
against  the  city  of  Ekron  (which  see),  and  put  to 
death  the  priests  and  the  chief  men  who  had 
committed  the  sin  (of  rebellion),  and  I  hung  up 
their  bodies  on  stakes  all  round  the  city.  The 
citizens  who  had  done  wrong  and  wickedness  I 
counted  as  a  spoil ;  as  for  the  rest  of  them  who 
had  done  no  sin  or  crime,  in  whom  no  fault  was 
found,  I  proclaimed  a  free  pardon.  I  had 
Padi,  their  king,  brought  out  from  the  midst  of 
Jerusalem,  and  I  seated  him  on  the  throne  of 
royalty  over  them.  .  .  .  But  as  for  Hezekiah 
of  Judah,  who  had  not  submitted  to  my  yoke, 
forty-six  of  his  strong  cities,  together  with 
innumerable  fortresses  and  small  towns  which 
depended  on  them,  by  overthrowing  the  walls 


SENUAH] 


434 


[SEPTUAGINT,  THE 


and  open  attack,  by  battle  engines  and  batter- 
ing-rams, I  besieged,  I  captured.  I  brought  out 
from  the  midst  of  them  and  counted  as  a  spoil 
200,150  persons,  great  and  small,  male  and 
female,  horses,  mules,  asses,  camels,  oxen,  and 
sheep  without  number.  Hezekiah  himself  I 
shut  up  like  a  bird  in  a  cage  in  Jerusalem,  his 
royal  city.  ...  I  made  his  country  small. 
In  addition  to  their  former  tribute  ...  I  added 
other  tribute  .  .  .  the  fear  of  the  greatness  of 
my  majesty  overwhelmed  him,  even  Hezekiah, 
and  he  sent  after  me  to  Nineveh,  my  royal  city, 
by  way  of  gift  and  tribute  .  .  .  800  talents  of 
pure  silver  ...  a  vast  treasure  (of  enumerated 
articles) ;  and  he  sent  his  ambassador  to  offer 
homage."  In  this  account  of  his  campaign 
Sennacherib  discreetly  says  nothing  about  the 
disaster  to  his  army  before  Jerusalem  (2  K. 
19).  Instead,  he  represents  the  tribute  offered 
by  Hezekiah  at  Lachish,  when  he  tried  to 
buy  oS  the  threatened  Assyrian  attack,  as 
the  result  of  a  successful  campaign.  The  800 
talents  of  silver,  however,  are  not  exaggerated, 
as  they  are  equal  to  the  500  (2  K.  19),  when 
reckoned  according  to  the  standard  of  value 
in  use  in  Nineveh.  The  destruction  of  Senna- 
cherib's army  by  a  pestilence,  which  carried  off 
185,000  men,  freed  Palestine  from  his  power. 
During  the  rest  of  his  reign  he  refrained  from 
any  further  attack.  (For  the  Bible  account  of 
this  campaign,  see  and  compare  2  K.  18, 19  ; 
2  Ch.  32 ;  Isai.  36,  37).  In  700  B.C.  Sennacherib 
had  to  take  the  field  again  to  suppress  a  revolt 
in  his  own  territory.  This  was  followed  by 
fighting  in  Babylonia,  and  the  appointment  of 
his  eldest  son,  Assurnadin-sumi,  viceroy  of 
Babylon.  The  latter,  however,  was  later  taken 
captive  by  the  Elamites,  who  had  invaded  the 
country  and  defied  the  Assyrian  power  for 
four  years,  until  they  were  beaten  in  a  decisive 
battle  at  Khalule.  The  following  year,  Senna- 
cherib captured  Babylon  and  gave  it  over  to 
fire  and  sword ;  the  inhabitants  were  sold  into 
slavery,  and  the  waters  of  the  Araxes  canal 
overflowed  the  ruined  city.  The  rest  of  his 
life  was  chiefly  spent  in  constructing  canals, 
aqueducts,  and  the  rebuilding  of  his  magnificent 
palace  at  Nineveh.  For  though  he  left  the 
conduct  of  his  wars  chiefly  to  his  generals  he 
was  a  great  builder.  His  palace  covered  over 
eight  acres,  and  was  adorned  with  fine  sculptures 
and  inscriptions,  many  of  which  can  be  seen  to- 
day. He  was  murdered  (681  B.C.)  by  his  two 
elder  sons,  Adrammelech  and  Sharezar,  whilst 
worshipping  his  god  (2  K.  19.37;  Isai.  37.38). 
[BABYLON,  HEZEKIAH,  NINEVEH.] 

Sen'uah  (R.V.,  with  definite  article  the, 
Hassenuah). — A  Benjamite,  the  father  of  Judah 
who  was  second  over  Jerusalem  after  the  return 
from  Babylon  (Neh.  11.9).  The  same  name 
appears  in  1  Ch.  9.7. 

Seo'rim.—  Chief  of  David's  fourth  course  of 
priests  (1  Ch.  24.8). 

Se'phar. — A  place  in  Arabia,  called  "  the 
mountain  of  the  east,"  and  named  as  one  of 
the  boundaries  of  the  clan  of  Joktan  (Gen.  10.30). 


Sepha'rad. — A  land  where  Jews  were  held  in 
captivity  (Obad.  20),  the  Saparda  of  the  Assyrian 
inscriptions,  and  probably  north-east  of  Assyria. 
A  Jewish  tradition  identifies  it  with  Spain ; 
hence  the  Spanish  Jews  still  call  themselves 
Scphardim. 

Sepharva'im. — A  town  or  towns  from  which 
the  king  of  Assyria  brought  captives  to  re- 
populate  the  cities  of  Samaria  (2  K.  17.24,  31) ; 
identified  with  Sipar,  or  Sippar,  the  city  of 
Samas  the  sun-god.  The  Sepharvaim  of  2  K. 
18.34  (Isai.  36.19)  and  19.13  (Isai.  37.13)  may 
have  been  the  same  or  another  city.  A  double 
city  of  Sippar  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates  is 
identified  with  Sepharvaim  by  some  authorities. 
Sepharvites. — Inhabitants  of  Sippar  (2  K. 
17.31),  who  continued  their  idolatrous  worship 
even  after  their  removal  to  Samaria.  [SEPHAK- 
VAIM.] 

Septuagint,  The.— I.  The  Origin  of  the  Trans- 
lation.— The  Septuagint,  or  Seventy,  so-called 
from  the  Latin  word  septuaginta,  is  the  name 
by  which  the  first  and  only  complete  Greek 
translation  of  the  O.T.  is  known.  The  legend 
of  its  origin  is  contained  in  a  letter  professedly 
written  by  one  Aristeas,  a  courtier  in  the 
service  of  Philadelphia,  King  of  Egypt  (285-247 
B.C.),  to  his  brother  Philocrates.  He  says  that 
at  the  suggestion  of  the  royal  librarian  at 
Alexandria,  King  Philadelphus  desired  to 
procure  for  his  library  a  translation  of  the 
Jewish  laws,  and  sent  a  letter  to  the  High 
Priest  Eleazar  at  Jerusalem,  asking  him  to 
send  to  Alexandria  six  learned  elders  from 
each  of  the  twelve  tribes  to  make  the  trans- 
lation. In  due  course  they  arrived,  bringing 
with  them  a  copy  of  the  Hebrew  Law  written 
in  letters  of  gold  on  a  roll  composed  of  skins. 
They  were  ultimately  conducted  to  a  building 
on  the  island  of  Pharos,  and  set  to  work  com- 
paring their  several  results,  and  making  them 
agree.  In  this  way  the  translation  and  tran- 
scription was  completed  in  seventy-two  days. 
In  the  second  century  A.D.  the  legend  is  told 
with  the  addition  that  the  translators  worked 
separately  in  separate  cells,  and  that  at  the  end 
their  translations  were  found  to  be  identical  ! 

There  has  been  much  discussion  as  to  the 
genuineness  of  the  letter  of  Aristeas  and  its 
trustworthiness,  but  now  scholars  are  generally 
agreed  that,  although  the  letter  cannot  have 
been  written  much  less  than  fifty  years  after 
the  death  of  Philadelphus,  some  of  its  state- 
ments are  true — in  particular  that  the  transla- 
tion did  begin  in  the  time  of  Philadelphus, 
and  that  the  part  then  made  was  only  the 
Pentateuch  or  Law.  It  is  probable  that  the 
Jews  of  Alexandria  felt  at  that  time  their  need 
of  a  Greek  version  of  the  Law,  and  that  this  part 
at  least  was  made  under  the  more  or  less  official 
sanction  of  the  Jewish  community  there. 
But  the  language  (see  below)  is  Egyptian 
Greek,  and  not  such  as  Palestinian  translators 
would  have  written.  It  is  even  probable  also 
that  the  translation  was  welcomed  by  Phil- 
adelphus and  his  courtiers  as  a  useful  addition 


SEPTUAGINT,  THE] 


435 


[SEPTUAGINT,  THE 


to  their  means  of  understanding  the  religion 
of  their  Jewish  citizens. 

While,  however,  we  may  thus  place  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Pentateuch  as  early  as  250  B.C., 
we  have  little  evidence  for  the  date  of  the  rest 
of  the  version.  On  the  whole,  it  is  probable 
that  much  less  care  was  taken  with  this,  and 
indeed  that  the  various  books  were  translate  1 
to  satisfy  the  needs  of  private  persons  rather 
than  of  the  community,  and  parts  of  some 
books  by  different  people.  This  accounts  for 
the  great  variety  in  the  style  of  the  Greek, 
and  in  accuracy  of  rendering  the  Hebrew. 
But  the  Prophets,  former  and  latter  (s>e  O.T.), 
appear  to  have  been  completed  by  132  B.C., 
and  the  greater  part  even  of  the  Holy  Writings 
(see  O.T.)  by  the  same  time.  Some  scholars, 
however,  place  the  translation  of  even  these  a 
century  earlier. 

II.  The  Nature  of  its  Language. — It  is  unneces- 
sary here  to  say  much  about  the  curious  cha- 
racter of  the  Greek  language  in  which  the 
Septuagint  is  written.  Yet  the  discoveries  of 
the  last  few  years  have  thrown  so  much  light 
upon  this,  that  it  cannot  be  left  quite  un- 
noticed. For  until  recently  it  was  supposed 
that  the  Greek  of  the  Septuagint,  and  practically 
of  the  N.T.  as  well,  was  peculiar  to  the  Bible, 
and  was  the  offspring  of  the  union  of  Hebrew 
thought  with  classical  Greek  language.  Even 
now  we  may  not  neglect  the  influence  of  Hebrew 
upon  it,  but  this  is  by  no  means  the  sole  or  most 
important  part.  In  fact,  so  far  from  Biblical 
Greek,  as  it  was  called,  being  something  peculiar, 
and  by  itself,  it  represents  the  popular  language 
of  the  whole  of  the  Mediterranean.  Classical 
or  Attic  Greek  was  at  most  the  spoken,  or 
perhaps  even  only  the  written,  language  of 
Athens  and  its  neighbourhood,  and  it  became 
the  standard  of  the  best  Greek  writing  ;  but 
elsewhere  the  Greek  of  ordinary  life  and  ordinary 
documents  was  practically  that  which  is  now 
found  in  the  Septuagint  and  the  N.T.  Of 
course  there  are  many  technical  terms  in  the 
Hebrew  books  which  had  to  be  translated,  or 
else  transliterated,  into  this  popular  Greek, 
and  so  far  the  LXX  differs  from  all  other 
Greek,  but  only  so  far.  In  other  respects,  the 
language  is  that  of  the  inscriptions  on  monu- 
ments throughout  Asia  Minor,  of  the  papyri, 
and  even  of  the  thousands  of  "  ostraka "  (i.e. 
scribblings  on  broken  pieces  of  pottery)  found 
everywhere  in  Egypt.  The  study  in  recent  years 
of  these  two  last,  in  particular,  has  thrown  a 
flood  of  light  on  both  the  language  and  the 
customs  of  Greek-speaking  peoples  in  Egypt, 
and  has  enabled  us  to  understand  more  clearly 
the  wide  extent  of  the  audience  to  which  a 
speaker  or  writer  of  the  so-called  "  Biblical  " 
Greek  could  appeal.  We  can  see  that  both 
language  and  thought  had  been  prepared  for 
the  spread  of  the  Gospel. 

III.  Its  Contents  and  Arrangement. — On  open- 
ing any  edition  of  the  Septuagint,  the  reader  is 
at  once  struck  by  the  difference  of  the  contents 
from  those  of  the  ordinary  English  Bible,  which, 


as  regards  its  matter,  resemble  the  original 
Hebrew.  He  will  find  many  additions,  such 
as  an  extra  hundred  and  fifty-first  Psalm, 
additional  chapters  to  the  Book  of  Esther, 
and  the  stories  of  Susanna,  Bel  and  the  Dragon, 
and  the  Benedicite  or  Song  of  the  Three  Children 
added  to  the  Book  of  Daniel,  besides  additional 
matter  in  1  K.  8  and  12.  He  will  also  find  many 
verses  absent  from  1  Sam.  17  and  18.  Further, 
in  the  original  Septuagint  (though  not  in  our 
present  manuscripts),  the  Book  of  Job  existed 
in  a  much  shorter  form  than  that  of  the  Hebrew 
text. 

Besides  these  differences,  he  will  find  whole 
books  added— 1  Esdras,  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon, 
the  Wisdom  of  Sirach  or  Ecclesiasticus,  Judith, 
Tobit,  Baruch,  the  Epistle  of  Jeremiah,  and  at 
least  two  Books  of  the  Maccabees.  The  English 
reader  will  recognise  these  as  forming  with 
2  Esdras,  and  the  Prayer  of  Manasseh  (and,  of 
course,  the  additional  chapters  previously 
mentioned),  the  Apocrypha  which  is  printed 
as  an  Appendix  to  some  editions  of  the  English 
O.T.  [NON-CANONICAL  BOOKS.] 

But  the  Septuagint  differs  from  the  Hebrew, 
not  only  in  the  addition  or  omission  of  passages 
and  the  addition  of  whole  Books,  but  also  in 
the  arrangement  of  its  contents.  The  Hebrew 
Bible  (see  O.T.)  is  arranged,  as  it  seems,  by  the 
principle  of  the  date  of  the  canonisation  of  its 
three  great  divisions— the  Law,  the  Prophets 
(former  and  latter),  and  the  Writings ;  the 
Septuagint  rather  by  the  classes  of  Law,  History, 
Poetry,  and  Prophecy.  Roughly  speaking,  the 
Vulgate,  or  standard  Latin  version,  follows  this 
order  also,  and  our  English  Bible  as  well, 
though  it  separates  the  Apocryphal  books, 
placing  them,  as  has  been  said,  in  an  Appendix. 
This,  which  by  force  of  habit  seems  the  natural 
order  to  us,  is  certainly  more  convenient,  but 
it  neglects  the  more  scientific  basis  of  the  order 
adopted  by  the  compilers  of  the  Hebrew  Bible. 
It  should  be  added  that  in  some  books, 
notably  Jeremiah  and  the  end  of  Proverbs,  the 
order  of  the  chapters  differs  considerably  in 
the  Hebrew  and  the  Septuagint ;  also  that  the 
numbering  of  Pss.  10  -147  is  altered  by  the 
facts  that  the  LXX  treats  Pss.  9  and  10  as  one, 
and  again  subdivides  Ps.  147  into  two. 

IV.  Present  State  of  the  Text.— It  is  most  un- 
fortunate that  this  first  and  greatest  of  all 
versions  of  the  O.T.  has  come  down  to  us  in 
so  unsatisfactory  a  state.  No  one  can  say  at 
present  what  were  the  exact  words  written 
even  by  the  translators  of  the  Pentateuch, 
much  less  by  those  of  the  other  parts  of  the 
Bible.  This  uncertainty  is  due  to  rather 
curious  circumstances,  which  must  now  be 
briefly  explained. 

The  Septuagint  became  from  the  first  the 
form  of  the  Bible  which  was  used  by  Christians 
(see  below),  and  naturally  they  appealed  to  it 
in  their  endeavours  to  convince  the  Jews  of  the 
truth  of  the  Gospel.  This  led  the  Jews  of  the 
second  century  A. P.  to  make  a  fresh  translation, 
which  should  be  n  ore  in  accord  with  the 


SEPTUAGINT,  THE] 


436 


[SEPTUAGINT,  THE 


system  of  interpretation  in  favour  with  Jews  of 
that  time,  and  should  also  translate  certain 
passages  of  the  O.T.  in  an  anti-Christian  way. 
This  was  made  by  Aquila  (about  130  A.D.), 
a  Gentile  who  had  been  a  Christian,  and  had 
become  a  Jew.  It  aimed  at  extreme  literalness. 
Another  version  was  made  slightly  later  (say 
about  150  A.D.)  by  Theodotion,  who  appears 
to  have  been  a  Christian.  This,  though  nearer 
to  the  Hebrew  than  was  the  Septuagint,  was 
much  liked  by  Christians,  and  his  translation 
of  Daniel  was  so  much  accepted,  that  it  is  the 
text  of  Daniel  found  in  the  ordinary  editions  of 
the  Septuagint,  and  the  Septuagint  translation 
proper  has  survived  in  one  manuscript  only. 
A  third  version  was  that  of  Symmachus  (about 
190  A.D.),  of  whom  even  less  is  known.  He 
tried  to  render  the  Hebrew  into  more  idiomatic 
Greek  than  that  of  its  predecessors.  There  were 
also  other  translations  of  separate  books,  of 
wluch  we  possess  only  very  small  fragments. 

Thus,  by  the  first  quarter  of  the  third  century 
A.D.,  there  were  four  great  Greek  versions  of 
the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  besides  others  of 
separate  books.  Origen  (185-253  A.D.),  the 
greatest  and  most  original  of  all  the  Fathers, 
conceived  the  plan  of  copying  all  these  out  in 
parallel  columns,  together  with  the  Hebrew 
original,  and  a  transliteration  of  the  Hebrew 
into  Greek  characters.  He  thus  formed  a  vast 
work  of  six  columns  (Hexapla,  i.e.  sixfold), 
besides  sometimes  additional  columns,  when 
other  versions  of  any  book  existed.  Further, 
he  marked  in  the  Septuagint  column  the 
beginning  of  those  passages  which  were  want- 
ing in  the  Hebrew  with  one  kind  of  mark 
( —  or  -f-  ),  and  he  added  to  that  column  passages 
which  were  properly  not  in  the  Septuagint 
(from  Aquila  or  Theodotion),  marking  the 
beginning  of  these  his  own  additions  by 
another  kind  of  mark  (•& ).  For  each  set  he 
marked  the  end  of  the  passage  by  a  third  kind 
of  mark  ( :  or  •/•  °r  X)-  This  was  well  enough 
in  the  one  great  original  manuscript  at  Qr,sarea 
in  Palestine  (where  it  remained  till  its  destruc- 
tion in  the  sixth  century),  but  it  is  evident 
that  when  the  all-important  column  of  the 
Septuagint  was  copied,  the  copyists  would 
very  easily  make  mistakes  in  the  various  kinds 
of  marks,  and  indeed  sometimes  omit  them 
altogether.  This  is  what  actually  happened. 
With  the  exception  of  a  very  few  fragments, 
we  possess  no  manuscript  that  does  not  contain 
the  readings  of  Aquila  and  Theodotion,  mixed 
in  with  the  Septuagint  proper.  When  to  this 
confusion  of  text  are  added  the  corruptions 
that  invariably  arise  in  the  long  succession 
of  copies,  it  is  evident  that  the  task  of  those 
who  would  sift  out  the  true  text  of  the  Septua- 
gint is  extremely  complicated.  Very  little, 
in  fact,  has  been  done  by  scholars  in  this  direc- 
tion. The  most  trustworthy  edition  of  the 
Septuagint  (by  Dr.  Swete,  Cambridge,  1894- 
1899),  aims  only  at  reproducing  the  Vatican 
manuscript  (B)  as  accurately  as  possible, 
supplementing  it  where  it  is  mutilated,  and 


adding  readings  from  a  few  other  manuscripts. 
Even  the  large  edition  of  Messrs.  Brooke  and 
McLean,  of  which  only  the  Pentateuch  has  ap- 
peared, differs  from  this  only  in  the  immense 
number  of  manuscripts  and  versions  which  it 
cites.  It  makes  no  attempt  to  reproduce  the 
original  text  of  the  Septuagint  translators. 

V.  Its  Present  Value. — Notwithstanding    the 
uncertainty  that  surrounds  the  details,   there 
is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  the  greater  part  of 
the    text    of    the    Septuagint    represents    the 
work   of   the   original   translators.     So   far   as 
this  is  the  case  we  have  a  translation  from 
Hebrew  manuscripts  many  hundreds  of  years 
earlier    than    any    which    now    exist.     Hence 
scholars  have  earnestly  discussed  the  question 
whether  the  Hebrew  text  represented  by  the 
Septuagint  is  better  than  that  of  the  ordinary 
Hebrew  Bible.     It  is  generally  agreed  to-day, 
that    while    sometimes    the    Septuagint    has 
preserved    the  better  reading,  this  is  not  the 
case    as    a   whole.     Each    variation   must   be 
studied  on  its  merits,  for  there  are  many  causes 
of  variation.     For  example,  it  may  be  due  to  a 
variation  in  the  Hebrew,  as,  for  instance,  an 
interchange   of  similar   letters,   or   to   a   mis- 
translation of  the  Hebrew,  or  to  a  reverential 
change  of  expression  about  God  and  His  powers, 
or  even  to  a  traditional  interpretation  of  a 
Hebrew  phrase  instead  of  an  accurate  trans- 
lation.    Indeed,  it  is  probable  that  not  a  few 
of    the    so-called    mistranslations    or    various 
readings  are  due  to  this  last  cause — the  wish 
to  paraphrase  rather  than  translate.     Even  if 
we  had  before  us  an  accurate  text  of  the  Septua- 
gint version  as  it  left  the  hands  of  its  trans- 
lators, it  would  require  scholarship  that  com- 
bined an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  Greek  of 
the  period  with  one  equally  accurate  of  the 
Hebrew  scholarship  and  traditional  learning  of 
the  Jews  who  were  likely  to  have  made  the 
translation,  before  a  decisive  answer  could  be 
given  to  the  question,  What  was  the  Hebrew 
text  in  front  of  the  translators  ?     In  the  present 
backward  state  of  these  two  parts  of  the  neces- 
sary scholarship,  it  is  well  to  be  very  cautious 
in  pronouncing  dogmatically  upon  any  apparent 
variation  between  the  Greek  and  the  Hebrew 
texts,    and    to   hesitate   before   emending    the 
Hebrew  by  the  Greek. 

VI.  Its    Historical    Importance. — Lastly,    it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  Septuagint  is  of 
extreme  interest  not  only  for  what  it  is,  but 
also  for  what  it  has  done.     1.  It  was,  as  has  been 
already  stated,  the  Bible  of  N.T.  times.     By 
far   the  greater  part  of  the  quotations   from 
the  O.T.  found  in  the  N.T.  are  taken  from  the 
Septuagint.     In  the   Epistle  to   the  Hebrews, 
crowded    though   it  is   with   quotations,   none 
are  drawn  from  the  Hebrew.     But  it  is  equally 
instructive  that  it  is  not  certain  that  any  of 
the  quotations  are  taken  from  the  Apocryphal 
books  of  the  Greek  Bible.     There  are  indeed 
a  few  verbal  coincidences,  which  indicate  that 
the  inspired  authors  knew  some  of  these  books, 
but   they   do   not   use   them   in   evidence      it 


SEPULCHRE] 


437 


[SERPENT,  BRAZEN 


should  be  observed   that  the  Book  of  Enoch, 
quoted  in  Jude  14,  is  no  part  of  the  Septuagint. 

2.  Not  only,   however,  was  the  Septuagint 
practically  the  Bible  of  the  N.T.  writers,  but 
it  was,  as  has  also  been  stated,  the  O.T.  of 
the    early    Fathers.     Greek    was    the    mother 
tongue  of  the  Levant,  and  even  of  a  great  part 
of  the  population   at   Rome,  certainly  of  the 
foreign  part,  which  included  the  great  majority 
of  the  Christians  there.   It  is  easy  to  understand, 
therefore,  that  the  Septuagint  would  suggest 
the   words    for   many   theological   terms,    and 
that  as  the  Fathers,  with  one  or  two  exceptions, 
could  not  read  Hebrew,  their  modes  of  forming, 
as    well    as    expressing,    theological    doctrines 
would  be  largely  determined  by  the  Septuagint. 
For  example,  in  the  fourth  century  the  whole 
Christian   Church  was   interested   in   the  dis- 
cussion of  the  words,  "  The  Lord  created  me  " 
in  the  Septuagint  version  of  Prov.  8.22,  although 
the   Hebrew   is   properly   represented    by   the 
English   version,  "  The  Lord    possessed    me." 
The  history  of  the  development  of  much  of  the 
theology   in   the   Christian   Church  would   be 
almost  unintelligible  without  the  Septuagint. 

3.  Finally,  the  LXX  is  of  immense  importance 
for   its   effect  upon   those   translations   which 
were  made  by  its  help,  whether  directly  from  it 
or  from  the  Hebrew  with  its  assistance.     This, 
in  both  forms  of  influence,  is  especially  true  of 
the  Latin  versions,  the  older  of  which  (the  old 
Latin)   was    made    from   the   Septuagint,    the 
later  (the  Vulgate)  professedly,   indeed,   from 
the   Hebrew,    but    only   after    the   Septuagint 
had   already  determined   much   of   the    Latin 
wording  of  sacred  things.     It  should  be  noted 
that  the  so-called  Vulgate  of  to-day  is  a  mix- 
ture of   the  old  Latin  and   Jerome's  Vulgate 
proper. 

The  Latin  Fathers,  like  the  Greek,  were  in 
almost  every  case  ignorant  of  Hebrew  (Jerome 
is  the  greatest  of  the  few  exceptions),  and,  like 
them,  therefore,  were  dependent  ultimately 
on  the  Septuagint,  which  had  influenced  the 
Latin  so  greatly.  It  is  almost  needless  to 
point  out  that  those  later  translations,  such  as 
the  English,  which  were  influenced  directly 
and  indirectly  by  the  Vulgate,  contain  much 
that  historically  is  due  to  the  Septuagint. 

For  further  study  the  student  should  read 
Swete's  Introduction  to  the  O.T.  in  Greek,  and 
Kenyon's  article  on  "  Greek  Versions  of  the  O.T." 
in  Hastings-Selbie's  Diet,  of  the  Bible. 

Sepulchre.— {BURIAL.] 

Se'rah.— Sarah    (Gen.   46.17;    Num.   2G.46 ; 

1  Ch.  7.30).       [SARAH.] 

Serai'ah.  —  1.  A  scribe  (2  Sam.  8.17). 
[SHEVA.]  2.  Chief  priest  at  Jerusalem  when  it 
was  taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (2  K.  25.18  ; 
1  Ch.  6.14 ;  Etra  7.1 ;  Jer.  52.24).  3.  Son  of 
Tanhumeth  (2  K.  25.23  ;  Jer.  40.8).  4.  Brother 
of  Othniel  (1  Ch.  4.13, 14).  5.  A  Simeonite 
(1  Ch.  4.35).  6.  A  priest  who  returned  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.2 ;  Neh.  10.2,  12.1,  12). 
In  Neh.  7.7  Azariah.  7.  A  post-exilic  priest 
who  was  called  "  ruler  of  the  house  of  God  " 


(Neh.  11.11).  8.  (Jer.  36.26).  9.  Son  of  Neriah. 
He  was  sent  to  Babylon  by  Jeremiah  with  the 
written  doom  of  that  city,  and  was  instructed 
to  sink  it  in  the  Euphrates,  as  indicative  that 
so  Babylon  should  sink  never  to  rise  again  (Jer. 
51.59-61). 

Ser'aphim. — An  order  of  angels,  mentioned 
only  in  the  vision  of  Isaiah  (6.2,  6).  They  are 
described  as  human  in  form,  but  with  six  wings, 
standing  above  the  Lord  (R.V.).  One  cried  to 
another  and  said,  "  Holy,  holy,  holy,  is  the  LORD 
of  Hosts ;  the  whole  earth  is  full  of  His  glory." 
In  the  self-abasement  of  the  prophet  before 
the  vision  of  the  Holy  One  a  seraph  flies  to 
him  with  a  live  coal  from  the  altar,  with  which 
he  touches  Isaiah's  lips,  to  purge  away  his  sin. 
Possibly  the  name  means  burning  ones,  in  an 
active  sense,  and  in  reference  to  this  function 
of  purifying  as  by  fire  those  to  whom  they  were 
sent.  [ANGEL.] 

Se'red.— (Gen.  46.14 ;  Num.  26.26). 

Sergius  Pau'lus. — [PAULUS-SEKGIUS,  also  CY- 
PRUS, ELYMAS.] 

Serjeants. — The  English  rendering  in  Acts 
16.35, 38  for  a  Greek  word  meaning  rod-bearers. 
They  were  the  Roman  lictors,  officers  in  attend- 
ance upon  the  magistrates  to  carry  out  their 
orders,  especially  of  punishment,  and  bearing 
as  their  symbol  of  office  the  "  fasces,"  an  axe 
tied  round  with  a  bundle  of  rods. 

Serpent. — Some  thirty  species  of  serpents 
have  been  found  in  Palestine,  several  of  which 
are  highly  poisonous.  The  serpent  is  first 
mentioned  in  Gen.  3.1, 13,  where  it  is  said  to 
be  more  subtil  than  all  the  beasts  of  the  field. 
The  venomous  properties  of  the  serpent  tribe 
are  mentioned  in  Ps.  58.4,  "  Their  poison  is  like 
the  poison  of  a  serpent,"  and  in  Deut.  32.24 
and  Prov.  23.32  The  poison  appears  in  some 
passages  to  have  been  held  to  reside  in  the 
tongue  (Job  20.16 ;  Ps.  140.3),  instead  of  being 
attributed  to  the  bite,  as  is  correctly  indicated 
in  Num.  21.9  and  Prov.  23.32.  The  habit  of 
serpents  to  lie  hidden  is  referred  to  (Eccles. 
10.8;  Amos  5.19).  The  peculiar  mode  of  pro- 
gression is  noticed  with  wonder  in  Prov.  30.19. 
In  Isaiah  (59.5),  "  They  hatch  basilisks'  (marg. 
adders')  eggs  "  shows  that  the  fact  of  serpents 
being  oviparous  was  well  known  (cf .  34.15,  R.V.). 
The  taming  and  charming  of  serpents  appears 
in  Ps.  58.5 ;  Eccles.  10.11 ;  Jer.  8.17.  The  tradi- 
tional wisdom  of  the  serpent  is  alluded  to  by 
our  Lord  (Matt.  10.16). 

Serpent,  Brazen. — The  snakes  which  attacked 
the  Hebrews  were  probably  asps  and  adders, 
the  burning  inflammation  set  up  by  their 
poisonous  bite  being  aptly  described  by  "  fiery  " 
(Num.  21.6).  The  brazen  serpent  set  up  by 
Moses  at  the  command  of  God  was  afterwards 
used  by  our  Lord  as  symbolical  of  the  uplifted 
Son  of  man  (John  3.14).  The  brazen  serpent 
had,  of  course,  no  natural  tendency  to  work  a 
cure,  but  owed  all  its  efficacy  to  the  Divine 
appointment,  faith  in  which  was  expressed  by 
the  act  of  looking  at  it  for  deliverance.  A 
superstitious  use  was  afterwards  made  of  this 


SERUG] 


438 


[SHAHAZIMAH 


brazen  serpent,  and  led  to  its  being  destroyed 
by  Hezekiah  (2  K.  18.4).  [NBHUSHTAN.] 

Serug. — (?)  Entwined  :  the  great-grandfather 
of  Abraham  (Gen.  11.20-23 ;  1  Ch.  1.26 ;  Lk.  3.35, 
R.V.,  where  A.V.  has  Saruch). 

Servant.— In  the  O.T.  this  is  most  frequently 
the  rendering  of  two  Hebrew  words  meaning 
a  boy,  a  lad,  an  attendant,  or  a  slave.  The 
word  is  sometimes  employed  in  humility 
(Gen.  32.18,  20),  and  of  high  officials  at  court 
(Gen.  40.20;  2  Sam.  10.2,4).  A  third  word 
(used  of  Joshua,  Ex.  33.11)  implies  an  attendant 
ministering  to  his  needs.  But  "  servant "  in  the 
O.T.  most  commonly  represents  bond-servant 
or  slave.  In  the  N.T.,  in  like  manner,  whilst 
servant  appears  as  the  rendering  of  words  indi- 
cating a  house-servant  (as  in  Lk.  16.13),  a  child 
or  boy  (as  in  Matt.  8.6),  or  an  underling  (as  in 
Matt.  26.58),  the  word  most  often  appearing 
is  equivalent  to  bond-servant,  slave  (Matt.  8.9, 
etc.).  This  word  is  applied  by  the  apostles  to 
themselves  as  the  servants  of  God  (Acts  4.29 ; 
Tit.  1.1 ;  Jas.  1.1)  and  of  Jesus  Christ  (Rom.  1.1 ; 
Phil.  1.1 ;  Jude  1).  [SLAVE,  SLAVERY.] 

Servant  of  the  Lord.— In  the  O.T.  several 
persons  are  spoken  of  as  servants  of  the  Lord — 
Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  (Deut.  9.27),  Moses 
(Josh.  1.2),  Joshua  (Josh.  24.29),  Isaiah  (20.3), 
Job  (1.8),  and  even  Nebuchadnezzar  (Jer.  27.6). 
The  title  was  also  applied  to  the  people  of  Israel, 
sometimes  spoken  of  as  Jacob,  as  the  people 
chosen  of  God  (/sat.  41.8,  42.19  ;  Jer.  30.10  ; 
Ezek.  28.25).  There  are  four  other  passages, 
in  which  the  use  of  the  title  is  used  with  a 
deeper  significance.  These  are  —  Isai.  42.1-4, 
49.1-6,  50.4-9,  and  52.13-53.12.  Some  authori- 
ties are  content  only  to  identify  this  Servant 
with  the  ideal  Israel.  The  nation  was  called 
to  be  God's  servant  (Deut.  10.12, 20),  and, 
although  punished  by  Him  for  their  sins,  was 
not  by  Him  "  cast  off  "  (Rom.  11.1,  and  cf. 
11.29) ;  there  remained  a  "  holy  seed  "  (Isai. 
6.13),  a  "  remnant  "  (Rom.  11.5).  So  far,  then, 
the  identification  appears  natural.  But  in 
Isai.  49.5,  6  the  Servant  stands  apart  from 
and  has  a  duty  towards  Israel,  by  whom 
in  Isai.  53  he  is  rejected.  Thus  there  is 
reached  the  higher  conception  of  the  Servant 
of  the  Lord,  who  was  the  Lord  Jesus  Himself,  in 
His  person  fulfilling  the  prediction  of  Isai.  53, 
offering  the  "  one  sacrifice  for  sins  "  (Heb.  10.12). 
[ISAIAH,  THE  BOOK  OF.] 

Seth.— (?)  Shoot :  the  son  of  Adam  and  Eve 
(Gen.  4.25,  26,  5.3-8  ;  1  Ch.  1.1 ;  Lk.  3.38). 

Se'thur. —  An  Asherite  spy  employed  by 
Moses  (Num.  13.13). 

Settle.— The  use  of  this  word  in  Ezekiel 
(43.14  ff.)  denotes  a  ledge  or  step  of  the  altar. 

Seven. — The  use  of  the  number  seven  sug- 
gests a  peculiar  regard  for  it.  Appearing  first 
at  the  record  of  creation  (Gen.  2.3),  it  is  found 
in  the  law  in  regard  to  feasts  (Ex.  12.15 ; 
Lev.  25.8;  Deut.  16.9),  and  the  consecration 
of  priests  and  altars  (Ex.  29.30, 35, 37),  de- 
filement (Lev.  12.2),  the  sprinkling  of  blood 
(Lev.  4.6),  and  oil  (Lev.  14.16).  Of  persons  in 


sevens  we  have  sons  (Ruth  4.15  ;  1  Sam.  2.5  ; 
Jer.  15.9;  Acts  19.14),  chamberlains  (Ezra  7.14; 
Esth.  1.10,  14)  ;  maidens  (Esth.  2.9),  wise 
men  (Prov.  20.16),  poor  men  (Eccles.  11.2), 
women  (Isai.  4.1),  deacons  (Acts  6.3);  also 
angels  (Rev.  8.2),  spirits  (Rev.  1.4),  devils 
(Mk.  16.9).  Of  things  in  sevens  —  animals 
(Gen.  7.2),  kine  and  ears  of  corn  (Gen.  41.2-7), 
altars  (Num.  23.1),  pillars  (Prov.  9.1), 
streams  (Isai.  11.15),  withs  and  locks  (Judg. 
16.7,  13),  eyes  (Zech.  3.9),  stars  (Amos  5.8), 
seals  (Rev.  5.1),  etc.  Seven  times  is  connected 
with  —  bowing  (Gen.  33.3),  punishment  (Lev. 
26.18,  21),  praising  God  (Ps.  119.164),  restora- 
tion (Prov.  6.31),  forgiveness  (Matt.  18.22). 
Seven  was  also  used  as  a  round  number  (Job 
5.19,  etc.),  and,  as  sevenfold,  in  the  sense  of 
frequency  or  fully  (Gen.  4.15). 

Seventy,  The.  —  The  disciples  sent  out  by  our 
Lord,  as  recorded  by  Luke  alone  (Lk.  10.1,  17). 

Shaalab'bin.  —  A  town  of  Dan  in  which  the 
Amorites  were  allowed  to  remain  ;  one  of  Solo- 
mon's commissariat  districts  (Josh.  19.42  ;  Judg. 
1.35  ;  1  K.  4.9).  Its  present  name  is  Selbit. 

Shaal'bim.—  The  same  as  Shaalabbin  (Judg. 
1.35  ;  1  K.  4.9). 

Shaalbonite.—  Inhabitant  of  Shaalbin  (2  Sam. 
23.32  ;  1  Ch.  11.33). 

Shaalim.—  [SHALIM.] 

Sha'aph.—  1.  A  son  of  Jahdai  (1  Ch.  2.47). 
2.  A  son  of  Caleb.  The  founder  of  the  town  of 
Madmannah  (1  Ch.  2.49). 

Shaara'im,  Shara'im.  —  Two  gates  :  1.  A  town 
in  the  lowland  of  Judah.  It  was  east  of  Gath 
and  north  of  Kadesh  (Josh.  15.36  ;  1  Sam.  17.52). 
2.  A  town  of  Simeon,  in  the  Negeb  (1  Ch.  4.31). 


Shaash'gaz.  —  A  chamberlain  of  Ahasuerus 
(Esth.  2.14). 

Shab'bethaL—  Born  on  the  Sabbath  :  1.  ALevite 
(Ezra  10.15)  who  expounded  the  Law  after  it 
had  been  read  (Neh.  8.7).  2.  A  Levite  who 
was  an  overseer  of  the  House  of  God  (Neh. 
11.16)  ;  perhaps  the  same  as  1. 

Shach'ia.  —  A  son  of  Shaharaim,  a  Benjamite 
(1  Ch.  8.10). 

Shaddai.  —  The  meaning  is  quite  unknown, 
though  it  seems  to  be  connected  with  the 
thought  of  the  power  of  God.  Conjectures, 
ancient  or  modern,  are  "  the  Over-powerer," 
"  the  Destroyer,"  "  my  Mountain,"  "  He  is  who 
is  sufficient,"  "  the  Rain-giver."  [GoD.] 

Shad'rach.  —  The  Babylonian  name  given  to 
Hananiah,  one  of  the  three  Jewish  princes 
who  had  been  carried  captive  to  the  court 
of  Nebuchadnezzer,  and  cast  into  the  fiery 
furnace  rather  than  deny  bis  God  (Dan.  1.7, 
2.49,  3.12-30).  [HANANIAH.] 

Sha'ge.  —  Father  of  Jonathan,  who  was  one 
of  David's  valiant  men  (1  Ch.  11.34). 

Sha'har.  —  [AIJELETH-SHAHAR.] 

Shahara'im.  —  The  passage  is  of  doubtful 
meaning  (1  Ch.  8.8). 

Shahazi'mah  (R.V.  Shahazu'mah).—  Lofty 
place  :  a  border  town  of  Issachar  lying  between 
Mount  Tabor  and  the  Jordan  (Josh.  19.22). 


SHALEM] 


439 


[SHAPHAN 


Sha'lem. — Safe :  the  site  of  Jacob's  encamp- 
ment on  entering  the  Promised  Land  (Gen.  33.18). 
But  the  K.V.  renders  this  passage  "  Jacob  came 
in  safety  to  Shechem."  [SALEM.] 

Sha'lim  (R.V.  Sha'alim).— Foxes :  a  district 
through  which  Saul  passed  when  seeking  his 
father's  asses  (1  Sam.  9.4).  Its  position  was 
probably  north  of  Michmash.  [SALIM.] 

Shall  'sha. — A  district  traversed  by  Saul  in 
the  search  for  his  father's  asses  (1  Sam.  9.4). 
[BAAL-SHALISHAH.] 

Shalle'cheth.— Casting  out :  a  western  gate  of 
the  Temple  of  Solomon ;  possibly  that  through 
which  garbage  was  taken  (1  Ch.  26.16). 

Shal'lum. — Retribution :  1.  A  son  of  Jabesh. 
He  slew  Zechariah,  the  fourteenth  king  of  Israel, 
and  usurped  his  throne.  After  reigning  one 
month,  he  was  himself  assassinated  in  Samaria 
by  Menahem,  770  B.C.  (2  K.  15.10-15).  2. 
Keeper  of  the  wardrobe  and  husband  of  the 
prophetess  Huldah  (2  K.  22.14 ;  2  Ch.  34.22). 

3.  A  descendant  of  Jerahmeel  (1  Ch.  2.40,  41). 

4.  A  son  of  King  Josiah  (1  Ch.  3.15 ;  Jer.  22.11). 
He  is  also  known  as   Jehoahaz.     [JEHOAHAZ.] 

5.  Grandson  of  Simeon  (1  Ch.  4.25).     6.  Father 
of  Hilkiah  (1  Ch.  6.12, 13  ;  Ezra  7.2).     7.  Son 
of   Naphtali   (1   Ch.   7.13).     He  is  Shillem  in 
Gen.  46.24.     8.  A  Levite  who  was  chief  of  the 
gatekeepers  of   the  east   gate   of   the  Temple 
(1  Ch.  9.17,31;    Ezra   2.42;    Neh.  7.45).     9. 
Father  of  Jehizkiah  (2  Ch.  28.12).     10.  A  gate- 
keeper of  the  sanctuary  (Ezra  10.24).     11.  One 
of  the  sons  of  Bani  (Ezra  10.42).     12.  Son  of 
Hallohesh.    He  ruled  half  of  Jerusalem,  and  with 
the  aid  of  his  daughters  assisted  in  the  repairs 
to  the  walls  of  the  city  (Neh.  3.12).     13.  The 
son    of    Col-hozeh    (Neh.    3.15).      Here    spelt 
Shallun.     14.  Uncle  of  Jeremiah  the  prophet 
(Jer.  32.7).     Possibly  the  same  as  Shallum  2. 
15.  An  officer  in  the  service  of  the  Temple  in  the 
time  of  Jehoiakim  (Jer.  35.4). 

Shal'mai. — A  family  of  servants  or  Nethinim 
(Ezra  2.46,  R.V.  Shamlai ;  Neh.  7.48,  R.V. 
Salmai). 

Shal'man. — Presumably  an  abbreviated  form 
of  Shalmaneser  (Hos.  10.14).  Beth-arbel,  which 
he  "  spoiled,"  was  probably  a  fortress  taken  by 
one  of  the  Assyrian  kings  of  that  name,  perhaps 
Shalmaneser  m.,  783-773  B.C.  It  has  been 
identified  with  the  modern  Irbid.  Near  this 
place  are  extensive  caverns,  which  were  re- 
peatedly fortified  by  the  Jews. 

Shalmane'ser. — The  fourth  king  of  Assyria 
of  that  name,  who  succeeded  Tiglath-pileser  and 
reigned  five  years,  from  727-722  B.C.  (2  K.  17.3, 
18.9).  He  invaded  Israel  twice.  The  second 
time  he  carried  off  Hoshea,  who  had  revolted 
from  his  authority  and  refused  payment  of 
tribute,  and  besieged  Samaria,  which  held  out 
over  two  years,  and  was  finally  taken  by  Sargon 
after  Shalmaneser's  death.  [SARGON.] 

Sha'ma. — A  Reubenite  and  member  of  David's 
guard  (1  Ch.  11.44). 

Shamari'ah.— [SHEMARIAH  2.] 

Shambles. — The  meaning  of  the  word  so 
translated  is  "  provision-market,"  and  especially 


"meat-market."  So  1  Cor.  10.25.  Doubtless 
some  of  the  meat  had  been  offered  in  sacrifice 
at  the  heathen  temples. 

Sha'med  (R.V.  She'med).  —  (1  Ch.  8.12). 
[SHEMEB  4.] 

Sha'mer.— 1.  (1  Ch.  6.46,  R.V.  Shemer). 
2.  (1  Ch.  7.34,  R.V.  Shemer).  In  1  Ch.  7.32 
it  appears  as  Shomer. 

Sham 'gar. — Son  of  Anath  and  deliverer  of 
Israel  from  the  Philistines,  of  whom  he  slew  600 
with  an  ox-goad  (Judg.  3.31).  The  only  other 
reference  is  in  the  Song  of  Deborah  (5.6).  It 
would  seem  from  3.31,  4.4  that  his  place  in  the 
line  of  the  Judges  is  between  Ehud  and  De- 
borah, but  he  is  not  mentioned  in  4.1.  The  name 
may  be  identical  with  Sangara,  a  Hittite  king, 
and  as  Anath  was  a  heathen  goddess  it  has  been 
conjectured  that  Shamgar  was  of  Hittite  descent. 

Sham'huth. — One  of  David's  captains,  who 
commanded  in  the  fifth  month  (1  Ch.  27.8). 
[SHAMMAH  4,  SHAMMOTH.] 

Sha'mir. — 1.  Town  in  the  mountains  of  Judah 
(Josh.  15.48).  2.  Residence  and  burial-place  of 
Tola,  the  judge  (Judg.  10.1, 2).  3.  A  Kohathite 
(1  Ch.  24.24). 

Sham'lai.— [SHALMAI.] 

Sham 'ma. — A  son  of  Zophah  (1  Ch.  7.37). 

Sham'mah.  —  1.  Grandson  of  Esau  (Gen. 
36.13, 17  ;  1  Ch.  1.37).  2.  David's  brother  who 
fought  against  the  Philistines  at  the  battle  of 
Elah  (1  Sam.  16.9,  17.13;  1  Ch.  2.13).  His 
name  also  appears  as  Shimma,  Shimea,  and 
Shimeah.  3.  One  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  23.11).  4.  Another  of  the  mighty 
men  (2  Sam.  23.33).  [SHAMHUTH,  SHAMMOTH.] 
5.  Another  (2  Sam.  23.25). 

Sham'mai.— 1.  Son  of  Onam  (1  Ch.  2.28,  32). 
2.  Son  of  Rekem  (1  Ch.  2.44,45).  3.  Son  of 
Mered  (1  Ch.  4.17). 

Sham'moth.  —  (1  Ch.  11.27).  [SHAMHUTH, 
SHAMMAH  4.] 

Shammu'a. — 1.  A  Reubenite  sent  by  Moses 
to  spy  out  the  Promised  Land  (Num.  13.4). 
2.  David's  son,  born  in  Jerusalem  (1  Ch.  14.4). 
His  name  is  spelt  Shimea  in  I  Ch.  3.5,  and 
Shammuah  in  A.V.  of  2  Sam.  5.14.  3.  A  Levite 
connected  with  the  Temple  worship  (Neh.  11.17). 
4.  A  Levite  (Neh.  12.18). 

Shamshe'rai.— A  Benjamite  (1  Ch.  8.26). 

Sha'pham.— A  chief  of  Gad  (1  Ch.  5.12). 

Sha'phan. — 1.  Son  of  Azaliah  and  father  of 
Ahikam  (2  K.  22.3, 12).  His  other  sons  were 
Elasah  and  Gemariah  (Jer.  29.3,  36.10, 
11, 12),  and  his  grandsons,  Gedaliah  (Jer.  39.14, 
40.5  ff.)  and  Michaiah  (Jer.  36.11).  He  was 
secretary  and  a  chief  officer  to  King  Josiah. 
As  scribe  he  accompanied  as  an  equal  in  rank 
those  sent  to  look  after  the  money  collected 
by  the  Levites  for  the  repair  of  the  Temple 
(2  K.  22.4-22 ;  2  Ch.  34.8-20).  The  copy  of  the 
Law  which  Hilkiah  had  discovered  was  con- 
veyed to  Josiah  by  Shaphan,  and  read  by  him 
to  the  king.  [HILKIAH,  HULDAH,  JOSIAH.] 

2.  Father  of  Elasah  (Jer.  29.3),  and  possibly 
identical  with  1.  3.  Father  of  Jehazaniah 
(Ezek.  8.11),  and  possibly  identical  with  1. 


SHAPHAT] 


440 


[SHEBNA 


Sha'phat. — 1.  One  of  the  spies  employed  by 
Moses  (Num.  13.5).  [SPIES.]  2.  Father  of  the 
prophet  Elisha  (1  K.  19.16,  19 ;  2K.  3.11,  6.31). 
3.  A  descendant  of  David  (1  Ch.  3.22).  4.  A 
chief  of  Bashan  (1  Ch.  5.12).  5.  One  of  David's 
chief  herd-keepers  (1  Ch.  27.29). 

Sha'pher  (R.V.  Shepher).  —  Gleam  ing  :  a 
mountain  on  the  route  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  where  an  encampment  was  made 
(Num.  33.23,  24).  Site  unknown. 

Sha'phir.— [SAPHIR.] 

Sha'raL— A  son  of  Bani  (Ezra  10.40). 

Sha'rar.— One  of  David's  valiant  men 
(2  Sam.  23.33).  [SACAR  1.] 

Share'zer. — With  his  brother  Adrammelech 
he  murdered  their  father  Sennacherib,  and  then 
fled  to  Armenia,  where  he  was  given  a  place 
in  which  to  settle  (2  K.  19.37  ;  Isai.  37.38). 
The  Sherezer  of  Zech.  7.2  is  the  same  name, 
though  a  different  personage.  [SHEKEZEH.] 

Sha'ron. — Level  ground  :  1.  There  were  two 
tracts  of  pasture-land  bearing  this  name.  The 
first  is  the  plain  lying  between  the  mountains 
of  Ephraim  and  the  Mediterranean,  and  between 
Carmel  on  the  north  and  Joppa  on  the  south. 
This  is  the  Sharon  that  was  so  celebrated  for  its 
beauty  and  fertility.  It  still  preserves  this  char- 
acter, and  in  the  spring  is  adorned  with  the  red 
and  white  rose,  the  narcissus,  carnations,  white 
and  orange  lilies.  On  its  pastures  the  royal 
herds  of  David  browsed  (1  Ch.  27.29).  Its 
beauty  and  utility  were  such  that  its  loss  would 
be  regarded  as  a  calamity  (Isai.  33.9).  It  was 
symbolical  of  prosperity  (/sat".  65.10)  and  of 
attractiveness  (Cant.  2.1).  This  is  the  Saron 
of  Acts  9.35.  [PALESTINE.]  2.  The  second 
Sharon  lay  east  of  the  Jordan,  and  consisted  of 
the  pasture-land  of  Gilead  and  Bashan,  where 
the  Gadites  fed  their  flocks  (1  Ch.  5.16). 

Sharonite. — Title  of  Shitrai,  who  had  charge 
of  the  royal  herds  (1  Ch.  27.29).  [SHARON  1.] 

Sharulien. — Town  in  the  territory  of  Judah, 
allotted  to  Simeon  ( Josh.  19.6).  Probably  identi- 
cal with  Shilhim  (15.32)  and  Shaaraim  (1  Ch. 
4.31).  Its  present  name  is  Tell  esh-Sheriah. 

Sha'shaL— A  son  of  Bani  (Ezra  10.40). 

Sha'shak.— A  Benjamite  (1  Ch.  8.14, 25). 

Sha'uL — Asked  for :  1.  A  son  of  Simeon 
(Gen.  46.10  ;  Ex.  6.15 ;  1  Ch.  4.24).  2.  A  king 
of  Edom  (Gen.  36.37,  A.V.  Saul ;  1  Ch.  1.48,  49). 
3.  A  Levite  (1  Ch.  6.24). 

Shaulites.— The  family  of  Shaul  1  (Num. 
26.13). 

Sha'veh,  The  Vale  of. — Level  plain :  place  of 
the  meeting  between  Abraham  and  the  king  of 
Sodom,  east  of  the  Jordan  (Gen.  14.17). 

Sha'veh-kiriatha'im.— The  level  plain  of  the 
double  city :  residence  of  Emim  (Gen.  14.5)  in 
the  district  afterwards  possessed  by  Reuben 
(Num.  32.37). 

Shav'sha.— David's  scribe  (1  Ch.  18.16) ; 
the  same  as  Seraiah  in  2  Sam.  8.17,  Sheva  in 
2  Sam.  20.25,  and  Shisha  in  1  K.  4.3. 

She'aL— A  son  of  Bani  (Ezra  10.29). 

Sheal'tiel.— [SALATHIEL.] 

Shea'riah.— (1  Ch.  8.38,  9.44). 


Shear-ja'shub.— A  remnant  shall  return  :  the 
name  given  to  the  son  of  Isaiah  previous  to 
the  invasion  of  Judah  by  the  Syrians  and  the 
Ephraimites.  The  name  was  symbolic  and 
prophetical,  at  once  indicating  the  Captivity 
and  the  Return  (Isai.  7.3  ;  cf.  8.18,  10.20-22). 

She'ba. — Seven  :  1.  A  Benjamite  who  rebelled 
against  David  (2  Sam.  20.1  ff.).  [DAVID.]  2. 
A  Gadite  (1  Ch.  5.13).  3.  A  town  in  thft  terri- 
tory of  Judah,  allotted  to  Simeon  (Josh.  19.2). 
Probably  the  same  as  Shema  (Josh.  15.26). 

She'ba. — A  different  word  in  the  Hebrew 
from  the  preceding,  and  the  meaning  is  un- 
known. 1.  Son  of  Raamah  and  grandson  of 
Ham  (Gen.  10.7  ;  1  Ch.  1.9).  2.  Son  of  Yoktan 
(Gen.  10.28;  1  Ch.  1.22).  3.  Grandson  of 
Abraham  (Gen.  25.3;  1  Ch.  1.32).  These  are 
to  be  regarded  as  differing  genealogies  of  the 
people  described  in  the  following  article. 

She'ba. — A  kingdom  embracing  the  greater 
part  of  the  Yemen  in  the  south  of  Arabia, 
between  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Persian  Gulf. 
The  kingdom  of  Sheba  arose  after  the  decay  of 
that  of  Ma'in  or  the  Minaeans,  and  its  rulers 
were  already  masters  of  northern  Arabia  in 
the  time  of  Tiglath-pileser  and  Sargon  (733-715 
B.C.).  Its  ancient  capital  is  now  represented 
by  the  ruins  of  Mareb,  in  the  south-western 
corner  of  Arabia.  Owing  to  its  trade  its  popula- 
tion was  regarded  as  the  wealthiest  in  Arabia. 
The  valuable  products  of  the  country  are 
alluded  to  (Ps.  72.15 ;  Isai.  60.6 ;  Jer.  6.20) ;  and 
its  merchants  (Ezek.  27.22,23,  38.13).  Some 
authorities  placed  Sheba  in  Ethiopia.  Its  in- 
habitants are  called  Sabeans  in  the  A.V.  of 
Job  1.15  and  in  Joel  3.8. 

Sheba,  Queen  of. — The  visit  to  King  Solomon 
of  a  queen  of  Sheba,  who  had  heard  of  his 
"  fame  .  .  .  concerning  the  name  of  the  Lord," 
is  recorded  in  1  K.  10.1-13  and  2  Ch  9.1-12, 
and  is  referred  to  by  our  Lord  (Matt.  12.42). 
Presumably  she  came  from  the  country  described 
in  the  preceding  article. 

Shebah  (R.V.  Shibah).— Seven  or  Oath:  the 
well  which  gave  its  name  to  JBeersheba  (which 
see)  (Gen.  26.33). 

SheTbam  (R.V.  Sebam).— Balsam,  fragrant : 
town  of  Dan,  near  Heshbon,  on  the  east  of  the 
Jordan.  At  one  time  it  belonged  to  Moab, 
then  to  the  Amorites  (Num.  32.3).  It  also 
appears  as  Shibmah  (ver.  38,  R.V.  Sibmah)  and 
Sibmah  (Josh.  13.19  ;  Isai.  16.8, 9  ;  Jer.  48.32). 

Shebani'ah. — Brought  back  by  Jehovah  :  1.  A 
priest  who  helped  bring  the  Ark  from  Obed- 
edom  to  Jerusalem  (1  Ch.  15.24).  2.  A 
Levite  (Neh.  9.4,5,  10.10).  3.  A  priest  (Neh. 
10.4,  12.14).  4.  A  Levite  (Neh.  10.12). 

Sheba'rim. — Breaches  :  limit  of  pursuit  of 
the  men  of  Ai  (which  see)  (Josh.  7.5;  see 
R.V.  marg.). 

She'bat.— [SEBAT.] 

She'ber.— Breach  :  son  of  Caleb  (1  Ch.  2.48). 

Sheb'na. — King  Hezekiah's  scribe  or  secre- 
tary (2  K.  18.18  ff.,  R.V.  Shebnah).  At  one 
time  he  was  ruler  of  the  palace,  but  was  reduced 
through  the  instrumentality  of  Isaiah  for  his 


SHEBUEL] 


441 


[SHEEP  MARKET 


overbearing  conduct  and  his  leanings  towards 
idolatry  (2  K.  18.26,  37, 19.2 ;  /sat.  22.15,  36.3, 
11,  22,  37.2). 

Sheba'el. — 1.  Son  of  Gershom  and  grandson 
of  Levi  (1  Ch.  23.16).  In  24.20  he  is  called 
Shubael.  2.  Son  of  Heman,  and  head  of  the 
thirteenth  band  of  twelve  in  the  Temple  service 
of  song  (1  Ch.  25.4).  He  is  called  Shubael  in 
25.20. 

Shechani'ah, — The  Lord  hath  taken  up  His 
abode :  1.  (1  Ch.  3.21,  22).  2.  A  priest  (1  Ch. 
24.11).  3.  (Ezra  8.3).  4.  (Ezra  8.5).  5.  The 
first  to  confess  to  taking  strange  wives  (Ezra 
10.2).  6.  (Neh.  3.29).  7.  (Neh.  6.18).  8. 
(Neh.  12.3). 

She'chem.— Shoulder,  saddle  :  1.  A  town  in 
the  valley  between  Ebal  and  Gerizim  on  the 
backbone  of  Palestine,  40  miles  from  Jerusalem 
on  the  road  to  Nazareth  (Gen.  33.18) ;  called 
also  Sichem,  Sychem  in  the  A.V.  of  Gen.  12.6  ; 
Acts  7.16.  The  name  of  Neapolis  (whence  the 
modern  Nablous)  was  given  to  it  by  the 
Emperor  Vespasian.  Abraham  came  into  this 
valley  (Gen.  12.6  ff.) ;  and  there  he  saw  the 
vision  in  which  he  was  promised  the  land  for 
an  inheritance.  Here  also  he  built  an  altar  to 
the  Lord.  Jacob  purchased  a  field  here,  erected 
an  altar,  and  dug  a  well  (Gen.  33.18-20,  34, 
35.4;  John  4.6).  Here  Joseph  sought  his 
brethren,  and  was  directed  to  Dothan,  whither 
they  had  removed  (Gen.  37.12  ff.) ;  hither  were 
his  bones  brought  from  Egypt  and  buried  in 
the  parcel  of  ground  which  Jacob  had  bought 
(Josh.  24.32). 

On  the  division  of  the  land  it  was  allotted  to 
Ephraim,  though  near  Manasseh  (Josh.  17.7). 
Then  it  was  assigned  to  the  Levites,  and  made 
a  city  of  refuge  (Josh.  20.7,  21.21 ;  1  Ch.  6.67, 
7.28). 

Shechem  was  the  scene  of  a  remarkable 
national  gathering,  when  Joshua  built  an  altar  on 
Mount  Ebal,  overlooking  the  valley,  and  inscribed 
on  stone  the  words  of  the  Law,  which  he  then  read 
to  the  people  assembled  on  the  opposing  slopes 
of  Mounts  Ebal  and  Gerizim  (Josh.  8.30-35). 
From  this  time  it  was  a  rallying-point  of  the 
nation  (Josh.  24.1-25  ;  1  K.  12.1  ;  2  Ch.  10.1). 
Shechem  was  the  birthplace  of  Abimelech,  the 
scene  of  his  insurrection,  of  Jotham's  parable 
(Judg.  8.31, 9).  It  was  destroyed,  and  Abimelech 
killed  by  the  stone  thrown  by  a  woman  after 
he  had  pulled  down  the  city  and  sown  its  site 
with  salt  (Judg.  9).  It  was  rebuilt  by  Jero- 
boam (1  K.  12.25).  Jeremiah  tells  us  that  some 
of  its  inhabitants  who  were  on  their  way  to 
Jerusalem  were  killed  by  Ishmael  (41.5, 7). 

It  was  about  2  miles  from  Shechem  that  our 
Lord  talked  with  the  woman  of  Samaria  (John 
4.1-42).  The  disciples  also  perhaps  ministered 
here  (Acts  8.25).  [JACOB'S  WELL,  SYCHAR.] 

2.  Son  of  Hamor,  a  Hivite,  and  the  chief 
of  Shechem  when  Jacob  arrived  there  (Gen. 
33.19;  Josh.  24.32;  Judg.  9.28).  For  his 
conduct  towards  Dinah  (which  see)  Shechem 
was  skin  by  her  brothers  (Gen.  34.2-26),  and 
his  city  ravaged.  3.  Son  of  Gilead  (Num.  26.31 ; 


Josh.   17.2).      4.    Son   of   Shechem    3    (1    Ch. 
7.19). 

Sheche'mites.— Family  of  Shechem  3  (Num. 
26.31). 

Shede'ur. — A  Reubenite  who  assisted  to 
number  the  people  (Num.  1.5,  2.10,  7.30,35, 
10.18). 

Sheep. — The  sheep  formed  the  chief  portion 
of  the  wealth  of  the  patriarchs.  Not  only  did 
its  flesh  form  a  chief  article  of  food,  but  its 
fleece  furnished  almost  the  whole  of  the  clothing 
of  the  people.  Moreover,  owing  to  the  rugged 
nature  of  the  land,  sheep -farming  was  carried 
on  extensively,  and  was  of  more  importance 
than  agriculture.  The  sheep  of  Palestine  are 
of  three  breeds — the  common  sheep,  the  small 
stunted  sheep  tended  by  Amos  (Amos  1.1)  and 
owned  by  MESHA  (see  below),  and  the  broad- 
tailed  sheep,  the  latter  chiefly  remarkable  for 
its  enormously  broad  and  heavy  tail,  which 
sometimes  weighs  between  ten  and  twenty 
pounds.  This  breed  is  found  in  Tartary, 
Arabia,  Persia,  Barbary,  and  Syria,  and  was 
well  known  to  the  ancients,  being  found  figured 
on  Assyrian  monuments.  The  body  is  white, 
head  and  neck  dark,  and  the  tip  of  the  tail 
horny.  The  tail,  which  is  almost  all  fat,  is 
regarded  as  a  great  delicacy  by  the  Arabs.  It 
formed  a  part  of  the  peace-offering  (Lev.  3.9, 
R.V.). 

The  sheep  is  the  first  animal  specified  by 
name  in  the  Bible,  when  Abel  offered  the  first- 
lings of  his  flock  to  the  Lord  (Gen.  4.2).  Abra- 
ham was  very  rich  in  sheep,  and  Job  at  one 
time  had  14,000  in  his  flocks.  In  2  K.  3.4 
the  Moabitish  shepherd-king  MESHA  gives  a 
tribute  of  a  hundred  thousand  lambs  and  a 
hundred  thousand  rams  ;  and  this  country  is 
still  noted  for  its  vast  flocks  of  sheep.  Solo- 
mon sacrificed  120,000  sheep  at  the  dedication 
of  the  Temple.  The  lamb  was  a  type  of 
innocence  and  purity,  and  therefore  figured 
conspicuously  in  the  sacrificial  offerings.  The 
male  lamb  or  the  kid  was  usually  selected— 
the  ram  alone  for  the  trespass-offering. 

Sheep's  wool  as  clothing  is  often  mentioned 
(Lev.  13.47  ;  Dent.  22.11 ;  Prov.  31.13).  Sheep- 
shearing  is  alluded  to  many  times  in  Scripture  : 
"  Jehu  and  the  brethren  of  Ahaziah  at  the 
shearing-house,"  etc.  (2  K.  10.12, 14) ;  and  in 
Gen.  38.12,  "  Judah  went  up  unto  his  sheep- 
shearers,"  and  in  other  passages.  Musical 
instruments  were  made  from  the  horns  of 
rams  (Josh.  6.4),  and  also  vessels  for  holding  oil 
and  other  liquids  (1  Sam.  16.1).  Besides  cloth- 
ing made  from  spun  yarn  of  wool,  the  dressed 
skins  were  used  for  coverings  (Heb.  11.37) ;  and 
the  Tabernacle  was  lined  with  red  ram  skins 
(Ex.  26.14).  Sheep-dogs  were  used  (Job  30.1), 
apparently  for  much  the  same  purposes  as  with 
us  (Josephus,  Antiq.  iv.  viii.  9).  [SHEPHERD.] 

Sheep  Gate.— (Neh.  3.1,  32,  12.39;  John  5.2, 
R.V.).  [IEMPLE,  GATES  OF.] 

Sheep  Market.  —  (John  5.2,  A.V. ;  R.V., 
correctly,  sheep  gate).  The  Greek  text  has  no 
noun,  but  simply  the  feminine  adjective  "  per- 


SHEEEAH] 


442 


[SHEM 


taining  to  sheep,"  with  which  the  feminine  noun 
for  "  gate  "  is  to  be  supplied. 

Sheerah.— [SHEE  AH.  ] 

Shehari'ah.  —  Jehovah  is  the  light :  son  of 
Jehoram  (1  Ch.  8.26). 

She'kel. — In  all  the  early  uses  of  this  word 
the  reference  is  to  a  weight.  From  the  very 
earliest  times  the  precious  metals  were  used 
as  representative  of  wealth.  Abraham  bought 
the  cave  of  Machpelah  for  four  hundred  shekels 
of  silver  weighed  out  to  Ephron  (Gen.  23.16). 
There  are  many  similar  instances  of  this  use  of 
money  by  weight.  Abimelech  gave  to  Abraham 
a  thousand  pieces  of  silver  (Gen.  20.16).  The 
Philistines  paid  to  Delilah  eleven  hundred  pieces 
of  silver  (Judg.  16.5, 18).  See  also  Gen.  37.28 ; 
Judg.  17.2 ;  2  K.  5.23.  The  contributions  to  the 
Tabernacle  (Ex.  30.13,  38.26),  the  sacrifices  of 
animals  (Lev.  5.15),  the  redemption  of  the  first- 
born (Num.  3.50,  18.16),  and  the  payment  to 
the  seer  (1  Sam.  9.8)  were  all  regulated  by 
weight.  The  half-shekels  had  a  distinct  value, 
as  had  also  the  half -shekel  of  Ex.  30.13,  and 
the  fourth  part  of  a  shekel  of  1  Sam.  9.7,  8. 
Later  on  the  word  shekel  became  the  name 
for  an  actual  coin,  the  change  from  shekel  the 
weight  to  shekel  the  coin  taking  place  in  much 
the  same  way  as  in  the  use  of  the  English  word 
pound.  In  addition  to  the  shekel,  there  was  the 
bekah  or  half-shekel  (Ex.  38.26),  the  third  part 
(Neh.  10.32),  the  rebah  or  fourth  part  (1  Sam. 
9.8),  and  the  gerah  or  twentieth  part  of  a  shekel 
(Ex.  30.13).  [MONEY,  WEIGHTS.] 

She'lah. — 1.  Youngest  son  of  Judah  (Gen. 
38.5, 11, 14, 26  ;  1  Ch.  2.3,  421.  2.  The  same 
as  Sala  (which  see)  (1  Ch.  1.18,  24).  3.  [SILOAM.] 

She'lanites.— Descendants  of  Shelah  1  (Num. 
26.20). 

Shelemi'ah.— 1.  A  gatekeeper  of  the  Taber- 
nacle (1  Ch.  26.14).  2.  (Ezra  10.39).  3.  (Ezra 
10.41).  4.  Father  of  Hananiah  (Neh.  3.30). 
5.  A  treasurer  of  the  tithes  appointed  by 


Nehemiah  (Neh.  13.13).  5.  (Jer.  36.14).  7. 
Son  of  Abdeel,  who  was  ordered  by  Jehoiakim 
to  arrest  Baruch  and  Jeremiah  (Jer.  36.26). 
[JEHOIAKIM.]  8.  Father  of  Jehucal  (Jer. 
37.3).  In  Jer.  38.1  Jehucal  appears  as  Jucal. 
9.  Father  of  Irijah,  who  arrested  Jeremiah  (Jer. 
37.13). 

She'leph.— Son  of  Joktan  (Gen.  10.26 ;  1  Ch. 
1.20). 

She'lesh. — A  name  in  the  genealogy  of  Asher 
(1  Ch.  7.35). 

Shelo'mi.— A  chief  of  Asher  (Num.  34.27). 

Shelo'mith. — 1.  Mother  of  the  Egyptian  whose 
son  was  stoned  (Lev.  24.11).  2.  Daughter  of 
Zerubbabel  (1  Ch.  3.19).  3.  A  Levite  (1  Ch. 
23.9,  R.V.  Shelomoth).  4.  (1  Ch.  23.18,  see 
Shelomoth).  5.  A  treasurer  of  the  Tabernacle 
appointed  in  the  days  of  David  (1  Ch.  26.25,  26, 
28,  R.V.  Shelomoth).  6.  A  child  of  Rehoboam, 
uncertain  whether  son  or  daughter  (2  Ch.  11.20). 
7.  (Ezra  8.10). 

Shelo'moth.  —  1.  (1  Ch.  24.22).  [SHELO- 
MITH  4.]  2.  [SHELOMITH  5.]  3.  [SHELO- 
MITH  3.] 

Shelumi'eL — A  Simeonite  chief  at  the  time  of 
the  Exodus.  He  helped  Moses  to  number  the 
people  (Num.  1.6,  2.12,  7.36,  41). 

Shem. — Name,  renown :  the  eldest  of  the 
three  sons  of  Noah  (which  see)  (Gen.  5.32). 
After  the  Flood  he,  with  the  other  members  of 
Noah's  family,  entered  into  the  covenant  with 
God  (Gen.  9.1  ff.).  He  was  then  ninety-eight 
years  old,  with  a  wife,  but  no  children.  After- 
wards he  had  five  sons,  on  whom  the  blessing 
of  Noah  fell  because  of  his  filial  act  as  narrated 
in  Gen.  9.25  fi.  He  lived  to  the  age  of  six  hun- 
dred years.  His  posterity  possessed  Upper  and 
Middle  Asia,  stretching  from  the  Mediterranean 
to  the  east  of  India.  From  his  third  son, 
Arphaxad,  sprang  the  chosen  race,  and  so  the 
Messiah,  in  whom  "  all  the  families  of  the  earth 
shall  be  blessed." 


Shem 
1 

1 

m                         Asshur 

1                                    1 
Arphaxad                          Lud 

1 

1 
Aram 

1 

Salah                 |                    | 
|                   Ux              Hul 
Eber 
! 

I 
Gether 

Mash 

Peleg 

I 
Reu 

I 
Serug 

Nahor 

I 
Terah 


I 
Joktan 

I 
Almodad  and  12  others 


Abram 
See  each  name  separately  for  their  settlements,  etc. 


SHEMA] 


443 


[SHEPHERD 


She'ma.— 1.  A  town  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.20). 
Its  position  was  near  Anam  in  the  south  ;  now 
unknown.  Probably  the  same  as  the  Sheba  of 
Josh.  19.2,  which  was  allotted  to  Simeon.  2.  Son 
of  Hebron  (1  Ch.  2.43,  44).  3.  (1  Ch.  5.8).  4. 
A  Benjamite  and  chief  of  Aijalon  (1  Ch.  8.13). 
5.  (Neh.  8.4). 

Shema'ah. — Father  of  two  of  David's  heroes 
(1  Ch.  12.3). 

Shemai'ah.  —  Jehovah  has  heard :  1.  A 
prophet  of  the  time  of  Rehoboam.  The  latter 
was  about  to  lead  his  army  against  the  revolting 
kingdom  of  Israel  when  Shemaiah  was  sent  to 
warn  him  not  to  war  against  his  brethren 
(1  K.  12.22 ;  2  Ch.  11.2).  He  appeared  again  to 
bring  comfort  to  Judah  during  the  investment 
of  Jerusalem  by  Shishak  (which  see),  king  of 
Egypt  (2  Ch.  12.5,  7).  He  also  wrote  a  history 
of  Kehoboam's  reign  (2  Ch.  12.15).  2.  A 
descendant  of  David  (1  Ch.  3.22).  3.  Father 
of  Shimri  and  a  Simeonite  prince  (1  Ch.  4.37). 
4.  A  Reubenite  chief  (1  Ch.  5.4).  5.  A  Merarite 
(1  Ch.  9.14 ;  Neh.  11.15).  6.  A  Levite  (1  Ch. 
9.16).  7.  A  Kohathite  who  assisted  in  bringing 
up  the  Ark  from  Obed-edom  (1  Ch.  15.8, 11). 
8.  A  Levite  and  recorder  in  David's  time  (1  Ch. 
24.6).  9.  A  Kohathite  (1  Ch.  26.4-7).  10.  A 
Levite  (2  Ch.  17.8).  11.  A  son  of  Jeduthun 
(2  Ch.  29.14).  12.  A  Levite  (2  Ch.  31.15).  13. 
A  chief  Levite  (2  Ch.  35.9).  14  One  who  re- 
turned with  Ezra  (Ezra  8.13).  15.  A  messenger 
of  Ezra  (Ezra  8.16).  16.  A  priest  who  married 
a  foreign  wife  (Ezra  10.21).  17.  One  who  had 
married  a  foreign  wife  (Ezra  10.31).  18.  A 
repairer  of  the  wall  (Neh.  3.29).  19.  An  oppon- 
ent of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  6.10).  20.  A  priest 
(Neh.  10.8).  21.  A  helper  of  Nehemiah  (Neh. 
12.36).  22.  One  who  gave  thanks  at  the  dedi- 
cation of  the  wall  (Neh.  12.42).  23.  Father  of 
Uriah  (Jer.  26.20).  24.  One  who  stirred  up 
hostility  to  Jeremiah  (Jer.  29.24).  25.  Father 
of  Delaiah  (Jer.  36.12). 

Shemari'ah. — Guarded  by  God :  1.  One  of 
David's  mighty  men  (1  Ch.  12.5).  2.  Son  of 
King  Rehoboam  (2  Ch.  11.19).  3.  (Ezra  10.32). 
4.  (Ezra  10.41). 

Sheme'ber.— The  king  of  Zeboim,  who  allied 
himself  with  others  against  Abraham  (Gen. 
14.2). 

Shemed. — [SHAMED,  SHEMER  4.] 

She'mer. — Watch,  or  guardian  :  I.  Owner  of 
the  ground  which  Omri  purchased  and  on  which 
Samaria  (which  see)  was  built  (1  K.  16.24). 
2.  [SHAMEB  1.]  3.  [SHAMEB  2.]  4.  A  various 
reading  for  Shemed  or  Shamed. 

Shemi'dah  (R.V.  Shemi'da).— Son  of  Gilead 
(Num.  26.32  ;  Josh.  17.2  ;  1  Ch.  7.19). 

Shemida'ites.  —  Descendants  of  Shemidah 
(Num.  26.32  ;  Josh.  17.2). 

Shemi'nith. — A  musical  term  occurring  in 
1  Ch.  15.21  and  in  the  titles  of  Psalms  6  and  12, 
R.V.  "  set  to  the  Sheminith,"  marg.  or"  eighth," 
i.e.,  probably,  octave.  The  "  harps  set  to  the 
Sheminith"  of  1  Ch.  15.21  stand  in  contrast 
with  the  "  psalteries  set  to  Alamoth  "  of  ver. 
20.  If  this  latter  means  the  choir  of  female 


voices,   Sheminith  would   seem   to  denote  the 
male  choir,  singing  an  octave  lower.    [ALAMOTH.] 

Shemira'moth.— 1.  A  Levite  (1  Ch.  15.18, 
20,  16.5).  2.  A  Levite  sent  by  Jehoshaphat 
to  teach  the  people  of  Judah  (2  Ch.  17.8). 

Shenm'el. — Name  of  God,  hardly  Heard  of 
God :  1.  A  Simeonite  chief  who  assisted  in 
the  division  of  the  land  (Num.  34.20).  2.  The 
prophet  Samuel  (1  Ch.  6.33,  R.V.  Samuel). 
3.  Head  of  a  family  of  Issachar  (1  Ch.  7.2). 

Shen. — Tooth,  crag,  or  peak  :  a  place  near 
which  Samuel  erected  the  stone  Ebenezer 
(1  Sam.  7.12). 

Shena'zar  (R.V.  Shenazzar).— A  son  of 
Jeconiah  (1  Ch.  3.18). 

She'nir  (R.V.  Senir)  (Deut.  3.9 ;  Cant.  4.8)— 
Peak.  [SENIR.] 

SheoL— [HELL.] 

She'pham. — Bareness  :  landmark  on  the 
north-east  boundary  of  the  Promised  Land 
(Num.  34.10, 11). 

Shephati'ah.  —  Jehovah  judges  :  David's 
fifth  son  (2  Sam.  3.4;  1  Ch.  3.3).  2.  A 
Benjamite  (1  Ch.  9.8).  3.  A  valiant  man  who 
joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Ch.  12.5).  4.  A 
prince  of  Simeon  in  the  time  of  David  (1  Ch. 
27.16).  5.  A  son  of  Jehoshaphat  (2  Ch.  21.2). 
6.  One  whose  descendants  returned  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.4).  7.  Another  whose 
descendants  returned  (Ezra  2.57).  8.  One 
whose  descendants,  Zebadiah  and  others, 
returned  (Ezra  8.8).  9.  A  descendant  of 
Pharez  (Neh.  11.4).  10.  A  prince  of  Judah 
(Jer.  38.1). 

Shephelah. — [PALESTINE.] 

Shepherd. — Shepherds  in  the  East  lead  a 
lonely  life.  They  wander  far  from  human 
habitations  in  the  quest  of  pasturage  ;  and  they 
have  to  protect  their  flocks  by  day  and  night. 
In  the  morning  the  shepherd  lets  the  sheep  out 
of  the  roughly-built  fold,  and,  calling  them,  he 
leads  the  way,  and  they  follow,  "  for  they  know 
his  voice  "  (John  10.1-5).  The  sheep  will  pur- 
sue the  shepherd  and  surround  him  rather  than 
let  him  escape  from  them,  such  is  their  trust  in 
him,  their  natural  protector  from  the  dreaded 
wolf.  The  finding  of  water  is  a  matter  of  great 
concern  to  the  shepherd.  Hence  it  is  that  wells, 
such  as  that  at  Beersheba,  and  running  streams, 
are  great  resorts  and  centres  for  pasture  (Ps. 
23.2).  Noontide  is  the  usual  watering-time. 
In  the  story  of  Gen.  29  the  point  of  the  incident 
is  the  rolling  away  of  the  stone  from  the  well 
for  Rachel  to  water  her  sheep,  the  heavy  stone 
being  placed  as  a  protection  against  dust  and 
sand.  Later  on,  Moses  performed  the  same 
services  for  the  daughters  of  Jethro,  pouring 
the  water  into  the  troughs  for  the  sheep.  To  this 
day  the  well  is  the  common  meeting-place  in 
the  East.  [WELL.]  If  the  shepherd  lost  any  of 
his  sheep  it  was  his  duty  to  search  until  they 
were  found  (Ezek.  34.12  ;  Lk.  15.4).  His  ordi- 
nary equipment  was  a  long  crook  or  staff 
(mishencth),  a  short,  thick-headed  rod  (shebet), 
and  a  sling.  As  he  let  them  into  the  fold  in 
the  evening  he  compelled  them  to  pass  under  a 


SHEPHI,  SHEPHO] 


444 


[SHIGGAION 


rod  across  the  entrance,  checking  each  animal 
as  it  passed  by  a  turn  of  the  hand  (Lev.  27.32 ; 
Jer.  33.13;  Ezek.  20.37).  The  duties  of  the 
day  over,  he  still  had  to  keep  watch  during  the 
night.  Sometimes,  however,  another  person 
kept  the  night  watch  (John  10.3).  The  tender- 
ness and  regard  of  the  shepherd  for  his  sheep 
was  shown  by  his  care  of  the  feeble  and 
sick  members  of  his  charge  (Qen.  33.13 ;  /sat. 
40.11). 

The  relations  of  God  to  His  people  are  sym- 
bolically referred  to  as  those  of  shepherd  and 
sheep  (Ps.  23.1,  80.1 ;  and  see  the  Messianic 
passages,  /sat.  40.11 ;  Zech.  13.7).  Our  Lord 
calls  Himself  "  the  good  shepherd "  (John 
10.11;  and  cf.  Heb.  13.20;  1  Pet.  2.25). 

[SHEEP.] 

Sheph'i,  Sheph'o. — A  son  of  Shobal  (Gen. 
36.23  ;  1  Ch.  1.40). 

Shephu'phan  (1  Ch.  8.5).  —  Serpent :  a 
descendant  of  Benjamin.  His  name  appears 
also  as  Shephupham  (Num.  26.39,  R.V. ;  A.V. 
Shupham),  Shuppim  (1  Ch.  7.12,  15),  and 
Muppim  (Gen.  46.21). 

She'rah  (R.V.  Sheerah).— A  daughter  of 
Beriah  (1  Ch.  7.24). 

Sherebi'ah.— A  Levite  who,  with  his  family, 
returned  with  Ezra,  joined  in  expounding  the 
Law,  and  sealed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah 
(Ezra  8.18,  24;  Neh.  8.7,  9.4,  5, 10.12, 12.8, 24). 

She'resh.— (1  Ch.  7.16). 

Sheriffs. — An  official  title  used  only  in  Daniel 
(3.2,  3).  What  the  office  was  is  unknown. 

She'shach. — A  secret  or  mystical  name  for 
Babylon  (Jer.  25.26,  51.41).  The  word  seems  to 
be  formed  from  Babel,  by  a  system  in  which  the 
first  letter  of  the  alphabet  is  written  for  the  last, 
the  second  for  the  last  but  one,  and  so  on. 

She'shai. — A  son  of  Anak  who,  with  his 
brethren,  dwelt  at  Hebron,  and  was  killed  by 
Caleb  and  his  Judahite  followers  (Num.  13.22  ; 
Josh.  15.14  ;  Judg.  1.10). 

She 'sham — A  descendant  of  Jerahmeel  (1  Ch. 
2.31,  34,  35). 

Sheshbaz'zar.  —  Zerubbabel,  the  Chaldsoan 
governor  of  Judah  (Ezra  1.8, 11,  5.14, 16).  The 
name  was  bestowed  upon  him  by  Cyrus,  though 
its  significance  is  uncertain.  The  case  is 
analogous  to  those  of  Shadrach,  Meshach,  etc. 

Sheth. — 1.  The  same  as  Seth  (which  see) 
(1  Ch.  1.1).  2.  In  Num.  24.17  for  A.V. 
"  children  of  Sheth,"  R.V.  has  "  sons  of  tumult," 
a  title  descriptive  of  the  fighting  men  of  Moab 
(cf.  Jer.  48.45). 

She'thar.— A  Persian  prince  who  had  free 
access  to  the  king  (Eslh.  1.14). 

She'thar-boz'nai. — A  commanding  officer  in 
the  service  of  the  Persian  king  Darius  who 
tried  to  obstruct  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple 
(Ezra  5.3,  6,  6.6,  13). 

She'va.— 1.  (2  Sam.  20.25).  2.  (1  Ch.  2.49). 
[SHAVSHA.] 

Shewbread.— [BREAD,  SHEW.] 

Shibah.— [SHEBAH.] 

Shib'boleth. — Flood,  stream,  also,  an  ear  of 
corn :  a  word  which  the  Gileadites,  after  their 


defeat  of  Ephraim,  used  as  a  test  of  the  fugitives 
who  sought  to  cross  the  fords  of  Jordan  by 
denying  that  they  were  Ephraimites.  For  the 
Ephraimites  could  not  pronounce  the  Hebrew 
"  Sh  "  ;  therefore  they  said  Sibboleth  instead 
of  Shibboleth,  and,  self-betrayed,  were  slain 
(Judg.  12.6). 
Sbib'mah  (R.V.  Sibmah).— (Num.  32.38). 

[SlBMAH.] 

Shic'ron  (R.V.  Shikkeron).— Boundary  town 
in  the  north-west  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.11).  Site 
unknown,  though  it  must  have  been  near  to  the 
sea. 

Shield. — Four  Hebrew  words  are  translated 
shield  in  the  A.V.  The  first  was  of  large  size, 
adapted  to  covering  the  whole  body.  This 
was  the  tsinnah,  the  great  shield  or  buckler 
which  was  constructed  of  wood  and  covered 
with  hardened  hides  ;  the  magen  was  a  small 
round  or  octagonal  shield,  much  used  by  the 
Jews,  Babylonians,  Chaldaeans,  Assyrians,  and 
Egyptians.  This  small  shield  was  also  made  of 
wood  covered  with  leather  for  general  use,  but  it 
was  frequently  covered  with  copper,  or  even 
overlaid  with  gold  (1  K.  10.16, 17,  14.26,  27). 
The  larger  shield  was  employed  by  infantry 
chiefly,  and  was  sometimes  carried  by  the 
fighter's  attendant  (1  Sam.  17.7).  It  was  used 
also  during  sieges,  several  being  placed  together 
to  protect  the  heads  of  the  besiegers  from  darts 
and  stones  flung  from  the  walls  or  towers.  The 
small  round  shield  was  worn  by  cavalry  as  well 
as  by  infantry.  The  third  (kidon)  is  properly 
a  dart  or  javelin  (1  Sam.  17.45).  The  meaning 
of  the  fourth  (shelet  in  2  Sam.  8.7)  is  uncertain, 
though  probably  it  is  a  shield  of  some  kind. 
To  lose  the  shield  in  battle  was  a  disgrace,  for 
it  was  an  aggravation  of  the  national  mourn- 
ing that  "  the  shield  of  the  mighty  was  vilely 
cast  away"  (2  Sam.  1.21).  With  the  Greeks 
it  was  a  capital  crime,  and  punished  with 
death.  Lacedaemonian  mothers  would  excite  the 
ambition  of  their  sons  by  handing  them  their 
fathers'  shields  with  these  words,  "  This  shield 
thy  father  always  preserved ;  do  thou  preserve 
it  also,  or  perish." 

It  was  the  pride  of  the  warrior  to  keep  the 
shield  bright.  It  was  covered  up  when  not  in 
use,  and  rubbed  with  oil  to  protect  it  from  the 
weather  (/sat.  21.5,  22.6).  Shields  overlaid 
with  gold  were  largely  used  for  decorative 
purposes,  and  for  ostentatious  display.  Solomon 
employed  them  thus,  and  in  religious  pro- 
cessions (1  K.  10.16  ff.),  as  his  father  had  previ- 
ously done,  with  his  battle  trophies  (2  Sam.  8.7). 

Faith  is  described  as  a  shield  in  Eph.  6.16  ;  as 
is  salvation  in  Ps.  18.35. 

Shiggai'on.— Ps.  7  is  described  in  the  title 
as  "  Shiggaion  of  David."  The  word  is  obscure  ; 
supposed  to  come  from  a  root  meaning  to  wander, 
it  has  been  imaginatively  interpreted  as  "  a 
dithyrambic  poem  in  wild  ecstatic  wandering 
rhythms,  with  corresponding  music."  The  plural 
occurs  in  the  title  of  the  Psalm  of  Hob.  3,  "  Set 
to  Shigionoth,"  possibly  a  corruption  for 
Sheminith  (which  see). 


SHIGIONOTH] 


445 


[SHIMEI 


Shigio'noth.— The  plural  of  Shiggaion  (Hal. 
3.1). 

Shi'hon  (R.V.  and  A.V.  of  1611,  Shion)  — 
V  town  of  Issachar  near  Mount  Tabor  (Josh. 
19.19).  Its  modern  name  is  'Ayun  esh-Sh'ain. 

Shi'hor.—  Black,  turbid  :  in  Josh.  13.3  and 
1  Ch.  13.5  the  "  River  of  Egypt " ;  now  the  Wady 
d-Arlsh;  in  Isai.  23.3  and  Jer.  2.18,  the  Nile. 

Shi'hor-lib'nath. — River  of  glass  :  a  place 
marking  the  south  boundary  of  Asher  (Josh. 
19.20). 

Shikkeron. — [SmcRosr.] 

Shillii. — Grandfather  of  King  Jehoshaphat 
(1  K.  22.42  ;  2  Ch.  20.31). 

Shirhim. — Town  in  the  south  of  Judah  (Josh. 
15.32).  It  has  not  been  identified. 

Shiriem.— [SHALLUM  7.] 

Shil'lemites.—  (Num.  26.49).    [SHALLUM  7.] 

Shilo'ah. — [SILOAH,  SILOAM.] 

Shi'loh. — Rest :  now  Seilun  ;  a  place  10  miles 
north-east  of  Bethel  on  a  bold  knoll,  surrounded 
by  higher  hills.  A  copious  fountain  springs  up  a 
little  to  the  east,  making  the  locality  a  desirable 
camping  ground.  It  was  on  the  main  road  from 
Bethel  to  Shechem.  Under  Joshua,  Shiloh  was 
the  meeting-place  and  sanctuary  of  the  Israelites. 
Here  also  the  land  was  divided  by  lot  (Josh. 
19.51)  amongst  the  tribes,  the  town  itself  falling 
to  the  share  of  Manasseh.  The  Ark  and  Taber- 
nacle remained  here  until  the  time  of  Samuel,  a 
period  of  300  years  ( Josh.  18.1-10,  22.12  ;  Judg. 
18.31 ;  1  Sam.  1,  2,  3,  4 ;  1  K.  2.27  ;  Ps.  78.60 ; 
Jer.  7.12, 14,  26.6,  9).  Here  also  the  remnant  of 
Benjamin  obtained  their  wives  (Judg.  21.12-21), 
and  Abijah  lived  (1  K.  14.2,  4).  It  was  resettled 
by  the  returned  exiles  from  Babylon  (Jer.  41.5). 

Shiloh.— In  the  A.V.  and  R.V.  of  Gen.  49.10 
this  word  appears  as  a  personal  proper  name. 
Jacob  is  blessing  his  sons,  and,  predicting  the 
pre-eminence  of  Judah,  declares,  "  The  sceptre 
shall  not  depart  from  Judah  .  .  .  until  Shiloh 
come."  This  has  been  interpreted  as  a  Messi- 
anic title,  Shiloh  meaning  "  the  peaceful  One  " 
(cf.  Isai.  9.6).  The  difficulties,  however,  are  very 
great.  (1)  It  is  generally  agreed  by  scholars 
that  the  Hebrew  word  cannot  bear  the  meaning 
thus  assigned  to  it.  (2)  Everywhere  else  Shiloh 
is  a  place  ;  there  is  no  reference  either  in  O.T. 
or  N.T.  to  this  supposed  Messianic  title.  (3) 
This  interpretation  lacks  any  support  from  the 
ancient  versions  (or  from  the  earlier  English 
translations  of  Wyclif  and  Coverdale).  4. 
Such  a  prediction  of  Messiah  by  name  would  be 
unique  in  Messianic  prophecy. 

On  these  and  other  grounds  this  rendering 
is  generally  abandoned,  and  opinion  is  divided 
in  the  main  between  two  interpretations.  (1) 
Keeping  the  existing  Hebrew  text,  we  may 
translate  the  phrase,  "  Until  he  come  to  Shiloh." 
In  this  case  the  reference  would  be  to  the  pre- 
eminence of  Judah  during  the  period  of  the 
wanderings  and  the  conquest  of  Canaan  (Num. 
10.14;  Josh.  15  ;  Judg.  1.2, 10)  until  tribal  differ- 
ences were  merged  in  a  national  unity,  of  which 
Shiloh  was  the  religious  and  political  centre 
(cf.  Josh.  18.1).  The.  Messianic  outlook  of  the 


prophecy,  while  detached  on  this  view  from  the 
word  Shiloh,  still  remains  in  the  context.  (2) 
Without  discussing  modern  "conjectural  emenda- 
tions," it  must  be  noted  that  the  ancient  ver- 
sions cannot  have  been  based  upon  the  existing 
Hebrew  text  as  vocalised  by  the  Massoretes. 
The  Latin  Vulgate  reads  the  word  with  a 
different  final  consonant  nearly  of  the  same 
form,  and  renders,  "  Till  he  come  who  is  to  be 
sent."  The  LXX  translation  does  not  neces- 
sarily require  any  change  in  the  consonants, 
and  is  (in  the  best  text),  "  Till  the  things 
reserved  for  him  shall  come,"  i.e.  until  the 
ideal  Judah  be  realised  in  the  Messiah.  The 
Syriac  Version  renders,  "  Until  he  come  whose 
it  is,"  an  even  more  significant  prediction  of 
Messiah.  Compare  Ezek.  21.27,  "  Until  he  come 
whose  right  it  is,"  which  probably  refers  to  our 
passage.  See  further  R.V.  marg. 

Shilo'ni. — [SHILONITE.] 

Shi'lonite.— Belonging  to  Shiloh  :  Ahijah  the 
prophet  is  so  called  (1  K.  11.29,  12.15,  15.29 ; 
1  Ch.  9.5,  etc.).  But  in  1  Ch.  9.5  and  Neh.  11.5 
(A.V.,  wrongly,  Shiloni)  perhaps  we  should  read 
Shelanite,  descendant  oi  Shelah.  [SHELAH  1, 
and  cf.  Num.  26.20.] 

Shil'shah. — An  Asherite  (1  Ch.  7.37). 

Shim'ea.— 1.  David's  brother  (1  Ch.  20.7) ; 
called  Shimeah  (2  Sam.  21.21),  Shimma  (1  Ch. 
2.13),  and  Shammah  (1  Sam.  16.9).  2.  A  son 
of  David  of  Bathsheba  (1  Ch.  3.5),  called  Sham- 
muah  (2  Sam.  5.14  ;  1  Ch.  14.4).  3.  A  Merarite 
Levite  (1  Ch.  6.30).  4.  A  Gershonite  Lerite 
(1  Ch.  6.39). 

Shim'eah. — 1.  [SHIMEA  1.]  2.  A  Benjamite 
(1  Ch.  8.32) ;  called  Shimeam  (1  Ch.  9.38). 

Shim'eam.— {SHIMEAH  2.] 

Shiin'eath. — An  Ammonitess  whose  son  killed 
Joash,  king  of  Judah  (2  K.  12.21 ;  2  Ch.  24.26). 

Shimea'thites. — A  family  of  scribes  (1  Ch. 
2.55). 

Shim'ei. — 1.  Son  of  Gershom  (Num.  3.18  ; 
1  Ch.  6.17,  42,  23.7-10  ;  Zech.  12.13) ;  called 
Shimi  in  A.V.  of  Ex.  6.17.  2.  A  Benjamite, 
son  of  Gera  (2  Sam.  16.5,  19.16-23 ;  1  K. 
2.8-44).  He  was  a  member  of  the  house  of 
Saul,  and  lived  at  Bahurim.  While  David  and 
his  troops  were  passing  Bahurim,  Shimei  taunted 
him  with  being  a  "  man  of  blood  "  (2  Sam. 
16.7,  8),  cast  stones  and  dirt  at  him,  and  called 
down  curses  on  his  head  for  having  slain  Saul 
and  his  sons.  David  forbade  Abishai  to  hurt 
Shimei  (2  Sam.  16.9, 10),  and  afterwards  forgave 
him,  allowing  him  to  reside  at  Jerusalem.  On 
his  accession  to  the  throne,  Solomon,  who  had 
been  cautioned  by  David  (1  K.  2.9),  forbade 
Shimei  to  leave  the  city  under  pain  of  death. 
Three  years  afterwards,  Shimei,  while  in  pursuit 
of  some  runaway  slaves,  disobeyed  the  order, 
and  was  slain  by  Benaiah  (1  K.  2.36-46).  3. 
One  of  David's  officers  who  remained  faithful 
to  him  during  the  usurpation  of  Adonijah  (1  K. 
1.8).  4.  One  oi  Solomon's  officers  (1  K.  4.18). 
5.  A  grandson  of  Jeconiah  (1  Ch.  3.19).  6.  A 
Benjamite  (1  Ch.  4.26,27).  7.  A  Reubenite 
(1  Ch.  5.4>.  8.  A  Merarite  (1  Ch,  6.29).  9.  A 


SHIMEON] 


446 


[SHITTAH,  SHITTIM 


Benjamite  (1  Ch.  8.21,  A.V.  Shimhi,  marg.  or, 
Shema).  10.  A  Levite  (1  Ch.  25.17).  11.  A 
man  of  Rama  and  an  officer  of  David  (1  Ch. 
27.27).  12.  One  of  the  sons  of  Heman  (2  Ch. 
29.14).  13.  A  Levite  in  the  time  of  Hezekiah 
(2  Ch.  31.12,  13).  14.  A  Levite  (Ezra  10.23). 

15.  One  of  the  family  of  Hashum  (Ezra  10.33). 

16.  One  of  the  family  of  Bani  (Ezra  10.38).     17. 
The  grandfather  of  Mordecai  (Esth.  2.5). 

Shim'eon. — An  Israelite  who  had  married  a 
foreign  wife  (Ezra  10.31).  The  name  is  the  same 
as  Simeon. 

Shim'hi  (R.V.  Shimei).— (1  Ch.  8.21). 

Shim'ites. — Descendants  of  Shimei  1  (Num. 
3.21). 

Shim 'ma  (R.V.  Shimea). — Brother  of  David 
(1  Ch.  2.13).  The  same  as  Shammah,  Shimea, 
Shimeah. 

Shi'mon. — A  descendant  of  Caleb  (1  Ch. 
4.20). 

Shim/rath.— A  son  of  Shimhi  (1  Ch.  8.21). 

Shim'ri,  Simri. — 1.  Head  of  a  Simeonite 
family  (1  Ch.  4.37).  2.  The  father  of  one  of 
David's  valiant  men  (1  Ch.  11.45).  3.  A  Merarite 
(1  Ch.  26.10).  4.  A  Levite  (2  Ch.  29.13). 

Shim'rith. — A  Moabitess  and  mother  of  one  of 
the  murderers  of  Joash  (2  Ch.  24.26).  In  2  K. 
12.21  she  is  called  Shomer. 

Shim'ron. — 1.  A  son  of  Issachar  (Gen.  46.13  ; 
Num.  26.24  ;  1  Ch.  7.1).  2.  Town  in  Zebulun. 
It  had  previously  been  a  royal  Canaanite  city 
(Josh.  11.1,  19.15).  Now  Semunieh,  west  of 
Nazareth.  Probably  the  same  as  Shimron-meron 
(Josh.  12.20). 

Shimron-meron.— [SHIMKON  2.] 

Shim'shai. — Sunshine  :  a  scribe  employed  to 
write  to  the  Persian  monarch  objecting  to  the 
rebuilding  of  Jerusalem  (Ezra  4). 

Shi'nab.— King  of  Admah  (Gen.  14.2).  He 
was  one  of  the  five  associated  kings  attacked 
by  Chedorlaomer.  The  name  is  identical  with 
Sinabu  in  Babylonian. 

Shi'nar. — Ancient  name  for  the  country  after- 
wards known  as  Babylonia  (Gen.  10.10,  11.2, 
14.1,9;  Isai.  11.11;  Dan.  1.2;  Zech.  5.11). 
The  derivation  and  meaning  are  uncertain. 
[BABYLONIA,  CHALD^A.] 

Shion.— [Snmox.] 

Ship. — First  named  in  Jacob's  blessing,  where 
it  is  predicted  that  Zebulun  "  shall  be  an  haven 
for  ships"  (Gen.  49.13).  The  ships  most 
familiar  to  the  Hebrews  would  be  the  semi-raft- 
like  constructions  of  reeds  on  the  Nile  and  the 
trading  vessels  of  the  Mediterranean,  propelled 
partly  by  means  of  oars  and  partly  by  one 
large  sail.  Jehoshaphat  endeavoured  to  found 
a  mercantile  fleet,  having  its  base  at  Ezion- 
gaber  (2  Ch.  20.36).  This  was  for  the  purposes 
of  foreign  trade.  Jonah  sought  to  escape  from 
God  by  taking  ship  (Jon.  1.3)  to  sail  across  the 
Mediterranean  to  the  port  of  Tarshish,  a  Phoeni- 
cian settlement  in  what  is  now  Spain.  The  early 
trading  vessels  were  partly  decked  over,  forming 
a  cabin  and  hold  for  the  protection  of  persons 
and  goods.  Jonah  had  gone  below,"  into  the  sides 
of  the  ship  "  (Jon.  1.5).  In  some,  cabins  were 


erected  on  deck,  as  is  shown  in  ancient  inscrip- 
tions. Figures  wore  sometimes  painted  or 
carved  on  the  prow  and  the  stern  of  the  vessel. 
This  would  generally  take  the  form  of  a  god,  or 
protecting  deity.  [CASTOR  AND  POLLUX.]  Jonah's 
Tarshish  ship  had  such  an  image  or  images  (Jon. 
1.5),  as  had  Paul's  Alexandria  ship  at  a  much 
later  date  (Acts  28.11).  Vessels  of  war  seem  to 
have  been  in  existence  from  a  very  early  period. 
The  prophet  Ezekiel  gives  the  fullest  account  of 
such  a  ship  (Ezek.  27).  It  was  probably  a  galley 
or  fighting  ship  of  the  largest  size,  with  a  pro- 
jecting gallery  all  round,  for  the  warriors  to  stand 
and  fight,  and  on  which  they  would  hang  their 
shields  when  not  in  use.  Ezekiel  likens  such 
a  vessel  to  the  city  of  Tyre,  "  The  walls  round 
about  "  (ver.  11),  i.e.  the  fighting  stage,  sug- 
gesting the  parallel.  The  towers  were  high 
places  upon  the  forecastles. 

In  Paul's  days  sailors  had  no  compass,  and 
when  they  left  the  sight  of  land  (which  was 
seldom)  they  could  only  direct  their  way  by 
the  sun  and  stars.  In  cloudy  weather,  there- 
fore, it  was  usual  to  anchor  for  the  night  (Acts 
27.20).  They  often  remained  in  port  during  the 
winter  (Acts  27.1 2).  Ships  carried  several  anchors. 
These  were  at  first  large  blocks  of  stone,  but 
bronze  and  finally  iron  were  employed.  Four 
anchors  were  cast  out  of  the  stern  of  Paul's  ship 
by  the  help  of  a  boat  (Acts  27.29,  30).  Vessels 
were  steered  by  large-bladed  oars  or  sweeps 
fastened  by  cords  to  the  sides  of  the  ship,  one 
on  each  side. 

The  "  ships  "  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee  were  fisher- 
men's boats,  carrying  mast  and  sail,  and  but 
rarely  decked  over.  The  fishermen  who  left  all 
to  follow  Jesus  were  not  necessarily  poor  men, 
certainly  not  of  the  poorest  (Matt.  4.22). 

Shiph'i. — A  Simeonite  prince '(1  Ch.  4.37). 

Shiph'mite. — An  officer  of  David  who  had 
charge  of  his  wine  cellars  and  saw  to  their 
replenishment  (1  Ch.  27.27) ;  perhaps  a  native 
of  Shepham. 

Shiph'rah. — A  Hebrew  midwife  who  dis- 
obeyed Pharaoh  and  saved  newborn  males 
(Ex.  1.15). 

Shiph'tan.— An  Ephraimite  (Num.  34.24). 

Shi'sha.— The  father  of  two  of  Solomon's 
scribes  (1  K.  4.3).  [SHAVSHA.] 

Shi'shak. — A  king  of  Egypt  who  received 
Jeroboam  (1  K.  11.40),  and  invaded  Judaea 
during  the  reign  of  Rehoboam.  He  took  several 
fenced  cities  as  well  as  Jerusalem,  and  carried 
off  the  Temple  treasures  (1  K.  14.25,  26  ;  2  Ch. 
12.2-9).  He  is  identified  with  the  first  king  of 
the  twenty-second  dynasty,  Shoshenk  I.  The 
south  wall  of  the  great  temple  at  Karnak  had 
sculptures  giving  a  list  of  the  cities  in  Palestine 
taken  by  the  king. 

Shit'rai. — A  herdsman  of  Sharon  who  had 
charge  of  David's  flocks  (1  Ch.  27.29). 

Shit 'tab,  Shittim. — In  the  prophecy  of  Isai. 
41.19  among  the  trees  to  be  planted  in  the 
desert  is  the  shittah  (R.V.  acacia).  Elsewhere 
the  word  is  used  in  the  plural,  "  shiltim  wood," 
R.V.  "  acacia  wood."  The  references  are  con- 


SHITTIM] 


447 


[SHUSHAN 


fined  to  the  Book  of  Exodus  with  Deut.  10.3, 
from  which  we  learn  that  it  was  the  chief  material 
used  in  the  construction  of  the  Tabernacle  and 
its  furniture. 

The  tree  in  question,  the  Egyptian  "  sunt," 
is  the  Acacia  seyal,  and  yields  the  gum-arabic 
of  commerce.  It  grows  chiefly  in  the  Sinaitic 
peninsula,  but  extends  some  distance  into 
Palestine,  being  found  in  the  Jordan  valley  and 
on  the  east  side  of  the  Dead  Sea.  It  has  a 
rugged  and  thorny  stem,  and  bears  yellow 
blossoms  amidst  its  feathery  foliage;  its  seed 
is  a  pod  like  that  of  the  laburnum.  The  wood 
is  hard  and  very  durable,  and  admirably  adapted 
for  cabinet-work  (Ex.  25,  26,  27,  30,  35,  36, 
37,  38  ;  Deut.  10.3). 

Sbittim. — Acacias  :  site  of  the  last  Israelite 
encampment  before  the  passage  of  the  Jordan 
(Num.  25.1 ;  Mic.  6.5).  Its  full  name  was  Abel- 
shittim,  which  see. 

Shi'za. — The  father  of  one  of  David's  valiant 
men  (1  Ch.  11.42). 

Sho'a. — A  district  of  Assyria  (EzeJc.  23.23). 
Sho'bab. — 1.  One   of    David's  sons   born  in 
Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  5.14  ;  1  Ch.  3.5,  14.4).     2.  A 
descendant  of  Caleb  (1  Ch.  2.18). 

Sho'bach. — One  of  King  Hadarezer's  captains, 
slain  by  Joab  (2  Sam.  10.15-18).  In  1  Ch. 
19.16  he  is  called  Shophach. 

Sho'bai. — One  whose  descendant  returned 
with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.42  ;  Neh.  7.45). 

Sho'bai. — 1.  A  son  of  Seir  the  Horite  (Oen. 
36.20, 29  ;  1  Ch.  1.38,  40).  2.  A  son  of  Caleb, 
son  of  Hur  (1  Ch.  2.50, 52).  3.  A  son  of  Judah 
(1  Ch.  4.1,  2). 

Sho'bek. — One  of  those  who  sealed  the 
covenant  (Neh.  10.24). 

Sho'bi. — A  son  of   Nahash  who    befriended 
David  as  he  fled  from  Absalom  (2  Sam.  17.27). 
Sho'cho,  Shoco,  Shochoh.     [Socno.] 
Shoe.— [SANDAL.] 

Sho'ham.— A  Merarite  Levite  (1  Ch.  24.27). 
Sho'mer.— 1.  The  father  of  Jehozabad  (2  K. 
12.21) ;  called  Shimrith  in  2  Ch.  24.26.     2.  An 
Asherite  (1  Ch.  7.32).     In    vcr.  34  his  name 
appears  as  Shamer  (R.V.  Shemer). 
Sho'phach. — [SHOBACH.] 
Sho'phan. — A  fortified  town  of  Gad  (Num. 
32.35).    [ATEOTH-SHOPHAN.] 

Shoshan'nim. — Lilies :  a  musical  direction 
in  Psalms  45  and  69.  R.V.  "  Set  to  Shoshan- 
nim."  Also  Psalm  60  is,  "  Set  to  Shushan- 
eduth,"  i.e.  "  the  lily  of  testimony,"  and  Psalm  80 
to  "  Shoshannim-eduth,"  i.e.  "  lilies,  a  testi- 
mony." Probably  the  name  of  the  melody; 
perhaps  connected  with  the  spring  festival  of 
the  Passover  commemorating  the  great  deliver- 
ance wrought  by  Jehovah.  Dr.  Thirtle  (Titles 
of  the  Psalms)  applies  the  title  in  each  case  to 
the  preceding  Psalm. 

Shovel. — Shovels  were  among  the  utensils 
attached  to  the  altar  (Ex.  27.3,  38.3  ;  Num. 
4.14).  The  reference  in  Isai.  30.24  is  to  the 
broad-bladed  winnowing  shovel  of  wood. 

Shrine.— In  Acts  19.24  the  "  silver  shrines 
of  Diana  "  were  miniature  temples  or  grottoes 


containing  the  image  of  the  goddess.  They 
were  also  made  in  marble  and  terra-cotta. 

Shua.— A  sister  of  Shomer  (1  Ch.  7.32). 

Shu'ah. — 1.  One  of  Abraham's  sons  by 
Keturah  (Gen.  25.2).  2.  A  Canaanite  (Gen. 
38.2,  R.V.  Shua);  in  1  Ch.  2.3  Shua  (R.V. 
Beth-shua).  3.  A  descendant  of  Caleb,  son  of 
Hur  (1  Ch.  4.11,  R.V.  Shuhah). 

Shu'al.— An  Asherite  (1  Ch.  7.36). 

Shu'al,  Land  of.  —  Jackal :  the  district 
through  which  the  marauding  party  of  Philistines 
went  (1  Sam.  13.17) ;  in  the  hill  country  of 
Benjamin. 

Shuba'el.— [SHEBUEL  1  and  2.] 

Shuhah.— [SHUAH  3.] 

Shu 'ham. — A  son  of  Dan,  and  founder  of 
the  family  of  the  Shuhamites  (Num.  26.42). 

Shu'hamites. — The  family  of  Shuham  (Num. 
26.42,  43). 

Shu'hite. — A  designation  of  Job's  friend, 
Bildad.  Perhaps  from  Shuah  1  (Job  2.11,  etc.). 

Shu'lamite  (R.V.  Shulammite).— A  designa- 
tion of  the  heroine  of  the  Song  of  Songs  (6.13). 
Perhaps  Shulem  was  an  alternative  form  of 
Shunem  (which  see). 

Shu'mathites. — Descendants  of  Shobal  of 
Kirjath-jearim  (1  Ch.  2.53). 

Shunam'mite. — A  native  of  Shunem  (1  K. 
1.3, 15,  2.17-22  ;  2  K.  4.12,  25,  36).  The  term 
is  applied  in  the  above  passages  to  Abishag,  a 
nurse  of  King  David,  and  to  the  woman  who 
received  the  prophet  Elisha  into  her  house. 
[ABISHAG,  ELISHA.] 

Shu'nem. — A  town  of  Issachar  at  the  south- 
west corner  of  Little  Hermon  ( Jebel  Duhy),  more 
than  20  miles  from  Carmel.  It  was  the  camping- 
place  of  the  Philistines  before  the  battle  of 
Gilboa  ;  the  original  home  of  Abishag,  David's 
nurse,  and  of  the  hostess  of  Elisha.  Its  present 
name  is  Solam  (Josh.  19.18 ;  1  Sam.  28.4 ; 
1  K.  1.3  ;  2  K.  4.8,  25). 

Shu'ni. — Fortunate :  a  son  of  Gad  (Gen. 
46.16  ;  Num.  26.15). 

Shu 'nit es. — Descendants  of  Shuni  (Num. 
26.15). 

Shu'pham  (R.V.  Shephupham).— Serpent :  a 
son  of  Benjamin  (Num.  26.39).  [SnuppiM  1.] 

Shu'phamites. — Descendants  of  Shupham 
(Num.  26.39). 

Shup'pim. — Serpent :  1.  Descendant  of  Ben- 
jamin (1  Ch.  7.12, 15).  2.  A  Levite  and  door- 
keeper (1  Ch.  26.16).  [MUPPIM,  SHUPHAM, 
SHEPHUPHAN.] 

Shur. — Wall:  the  wilderness  between  Palestine 
and  Egypt,  extending  south-east  from  the  Isthmus 
of  Sue?,  between  the  Gulf  and  et-Tih  (Gen.  16.7, 
20.1,  25.18;  Ex.  15.22;  1  Sam.  15.7,  27.8); 
called  also  the  Wilderness  of  Etham.  [ETHAM.] 

Shu'shan. — A  city  on  the  branch  of  the 
Choaspes  (Kerkhah);  afterwards  called  Sus  or 
Shush,  Greek  Susa.  Originally  the  capital  of 
Elam,  then  of  Persia,  and  the  usual  residence 
of  the  Persian  monarchs  (Neh.  1.1 ;  Esth. ; 
Dan.  8.2).  Here  Daniel  had  the  vision  of  the 
ram  and  the  he-goat  (Dan.  8) ;  and  here  Darius 
Hystaspes  issued  his  decree  for  the  rebuilding 


SHUSHANCHITES] 


448 


[SILVER,  SILVERSMITH 


of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  in  gratitude  for 
which  the  Jews  called  the  eastern  gate  of  the 
Temple  the  gate  of  Shushan,  and  had  a  picture 
of  that  city  carved  thereon.  At  Shushan, 
also,  Darius  kept  the  splendid  feast  described 
in  Esther  (1.6). 

Shushanchites. — [SUSAXCHITES.] 

Shu'shan-e'duth.— [SHOSHANNIM.] 

Shuthalites,  Shuthelahites.— Descendants  of 
Shuthelah  1  (Num.  26.35). 

Shuthe'lah. — 1.  Descendant  of  Ephraim  (Num. 
26.35,  36 ;  1  Ch.  7.20).  2.  Another  descendant 
of  Ephraim,  but  possibly  the  same  as  Shuthelah  1 
(1  Ch.  7.21). 

Shuttle.— [WEAVING.] 

Si'a,  Sia'ha. — Ancestor  of  some  who  returned 
to  Jerusalem  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.44  ;  Neh. 
7.47). 

Sib'becai,  Sib'bechai. — One  of  David's  officers. 
He  slew  the  giant  Saph  in  single  combat  at 
Gezer  (2  Sam.  21.18  ;  1  Ch.  11.29,  20.4,  27.11). 

Sibtoleth.— [SHIBBOLETH.] 

Sib 'man. — [SHEBAM.] 

Sibra'im. — Landmark  on  the  north  boundary 
of  the  Holy  Land  (Ezek.  47.16). 

Siccuth. — Or  rather  Sakkuth,  a  name  of  Adar, 
the  Assyrian  god  of  war  (Amos  5.26,  R.V., 
where  A.V.  reads  tabernacle,  as  though  it  was 
connected  with  Succoth). 

Si'chem. — [SHECHEM.] 

Sickle.— [HABVEST,  REAPING.] 

Sid'dim. — A  valley  at  the  north-west  corner 
of  the  Dead  Sea  ;  the  scene  of  the  battle  of  the 
kings  in  which  Lot  was  taken  prisoner  (Gen. 
14.3-12).  [Lor.] 

Sidon.— Fishery  :  1.  The  eldest  son  of  Canaan 
and  legendary  founder  of  Sidon  2  (Gen.  10.15, 
R.V.  Zidon).  2.  The  Greek  form  of  Zidon. 

[ZlDON.] 

Sidonians.— [ZiDONiANs.] 

Signet. — [RING,  SEAL.] 

Si'hon. — An  Amorite  king  in  Heshbon  who 
attacked  the  Israelites  as  they  approached  the 
Promised  Land.  He  lost  the  battle  and  his 
life,  his  army  was  annihilated  and  his  country 
occupied  by  the  enemy.  Previously  to  the 
coming  of  the  Israelites,  Sihon  had  defeated 
the  Moabites  and  had  taken  a  portion  of  their 
country  (Num.  21.21  ff. ;  Dcut.  1.4,  2.24  ff., 
3.2,6;  Judg.  11.19-21;  Neh.9.22;  Ps.  135.10-12, 
136.18, 19  ;  Amos  2.9).  [AMORITB.] 

Si'hor  (R.V.  Shihor).— (Josh.  13.3 ;  1  Ch.  13.5 ; 
Isai.  23.3  ;  Jer.  2.18).  [SHIHOR.] 

Si'las. — A  prominent  member  of  the  Early 
Christian  Church,  and  a  Roman  citizen  (Acts 
15.22).  He  was  sent  by  the  apostles  to  Antioch 
with  Paul  and  Barnabas  (Acts  15.22,27,34). 
He  was  also  Paul's  fellow-labourer  and  com- 
panion on  his  second  missionary  journey 
through  Asia  Minor  ( Acts  15.40,  16.19,  17.4, 10  ; 
1  Thess.  1.1  ;  2  Thess.  1.1).  Silas  was  cast 
into  prison  with  Paul  at  Philippi  (which  see), 
but  released  by  a  miracle  (Acts  16.19-40). 
For  awhile  he  remained  at  Berea  with 
Timothy  (Acts  17.14),  but  rejoined  Paul  at 
Corinth  (Acts  17.15,  18.5).  Silas  is  a  con- 


traction of  Silvanus,  the  name  by  which  he  is 
known  in  the  Epistles  (2  Cor.  1.19  ;  1  Thess. 
1.1 ;  2  Thess.  1.1).  He  is  probably  the  Silvanus 
who  was  the  bearer  of  the  First  Epistle  of  Peter 
(1  Pet.  5.12). 

Silk. — Though  silk  is  only  mentioned  three 
times  in  the  Bible  (in  Prov.  31.22,  R.  V.,  correctly, 
"  fine  linen  "),  it  was  well  known  in  the  Holy 
Land  and  neighbouring  countries,  being  im- 
ported from  the  far  East  in  its  rough  state, 
called  "  whole  silk."  A  method  of  separating 
the  threads  into  a  finer  state  was  employed, 
and  the  woven  web  resembled  the  modern 
gauze.  Silk  was  manufactured  and  coloured 
at  Tyre  and  Berytus  ;  sometimes  it  was  mixed 
with  other  materials.  [LINEN.]  It  was  very 
costly,  being  at  times  worth  its  weight  in  gold 
(Ezek.  16.10,  13  ;  Rev.  18.12). 

Sil'la. — Highway  :  an  unknown  spot  in  or 
near  Jerusalem,  apparently  in  the  Tyropoeon 
Valley  (2  K.  12.20). 

Silo'ah.— The  same  as  Shiloah,  Siloam. 

Silo'am.— Sent  forth  :  the  "  pool  of  Siloam  " 
is  referred  to  in  John  9.7,  11 ;  from  Neh.  3.15 
(Shelah,  R.V.)  we  learn  that  its  "wall"  was 
"  by  the  king's  garden,"  i.e.  probably  a  portion 
of  the  fortifications  at  the  south  end  of  the 
Tyropoeon  Valley,  of  which  perhaps  the  "  tower 
in  Siloam  "  (Lk.  13.4)  formed  part.  The  only 
other  mention  is  Isai.  8.6,  "  The  waters  of 
Shiloah  that  go  softly."  Both  the  name  itself 
(sent)  and  the  phrase  "  go  softly "  seem  to 
refer  to  the  fact  that  the  pool  was  supplied 
by  a  rock-hewn  conduit  from  the  "  Fountain 
of  the  Virgin  "  [GraoN],  an  intermittent  spring 
in  the  Kidron  Valley.  This  conduit  has  been 
discovered,  with  an  inscription  (found  in  1880) 
near  its  issue  in  the  pool,  describing  how  the 
miners  worked  from  both  ends  and  met  in  the 
middle.  In  all  probability,  both  pool  and 
conduit  are  to  be  attributed  to  Hezekiah  (2  K. 
20.20  ;  2  Ch.  32.2-4,  30  ;  Isai.  22.9,  11).  The 
pool  is  identified  with  the  present  Birket  Silwan, 
in  the  Tyropceon  Valley,  and  lay  just  outside 
the  city  wall. 

Silvanus  —[SILAS.] 

Silver,  Silversmith.— Lead  and  silver  are 
both  found  in  Palestine,  and  silver  was  mined 
(Job  28.1-11).  Silver  refining  and  the  mixing 
of  alloys  are  also  alluded  to  (Ps.  12.6 ;  Prov. 
8.19,  25.4 ;  Jer.  6.30  ;  Ezek.  22.20  ff.).  But 
silver  was  also  largely  imported  from  Spain  and 
India,  being  brought  by  the  merchants  of 
Tarshish  in  plates  (2  Ch.  9.21 ;  Jer.  10.9).  It 
was  used  for  money,  for  the  making  of 
drinking  and  other  vessels,  and  for  overlaying 
baser  materials  (Gen.  13.2;  Amos  8.6;  Matt. 
26.15).  David  provided  a  quantity  for  the 
Temple  (1  Ch.  29.2,  7),  and  in  Solomon's  time 
it  was  very  abundant  (1  K.  10.27).  The 
introduction  of  Phoenician  workmen  for  the 
building  of  David's  palace  (2  Sam.  5.11)  and 
Solomon's  Temple  brought  the  art  of  engraving 
on  silver  and  other  arts  to  the  Hebrews,  who 
readily  learnt  from  Hiram's  skilled  workmen. 
In  the  reign  of  Jehoash,  when  repairs  became 


SILVER,  PIECE  OF] 


449 


[SIN 


necessary,  we  have  no  hint  of  foreign  workmen 
being  employed  (2  K.  12.7-13). 

Silver,  Piece  of.— In  the  O.T.  this  phrase 
probably  refers  to  the  shekel,  and  so,  probably, 
in  Matt.  26.15,  27.3,  5,  6,  9,  a  reference  to  the 
thirty  shekels  paid  for  a  slave  (Zech.  11.12, 13). 
In  Lk.  15.8, 9  the  coin  is  named  the  "  drachma," 
a  Greek  coin  equivalent  to  the  Roman  silver 
"  denarius  "  (penny).  [MONEY,  WEIGHTS.] 

Silverling.— Small  piece  of  silver  (Isai.  7.23). 

Sim'eon — Hearing  :  1.  The  son  of  Jacob  and 
Leah  (Gen.  29.33,  34.25).  Jacob  foretold  that, 
because  of  their  cruelty  to  the  Shechemites, 
Simeon  and  Levi  should  have  no  fixed  share 
in  the  Promised  Land.  "  I  will  divide  them 
in  Jacob,  and  scatter  them  in  Israel"  (Gen. 
49.5,  7).  During  the  famine  Simeon  was  kept 
prisoner  by  Joseph  for  the  surety  of  his  breth- 
ren's return  (Gen.  42.24,  36).  The  reason  for 
this  choice  is  not  given.  The  tribe  of  Levi 
never  had  any  fixed  lot  or  portion,  and  that  of 
Simeon  received  only  a  portion  of  land  dis- 
membered from  Judah  (Josh.  19.1,  etc.),  and 
certain  territories  in  the  mountains  of  Seir  and 
the  deserts  of  Gedor  (1  Ch.  4.39,42)  which 
they  wrested  from  the  original  inhabitants. 
The  tribe  of  Simeon  was  a  small  one,  its 
rate  of  increase  being  low  (1  Ch.  4.27).  At 
the  numbering  at  Sinai  it  was  relatively  large, 
furnishing  59,300  fighting  men  (Num.  1.23, 
2.12, 13),  but  at  the  second  counting,  at  Shittim, 
it  was  the  smallest  tribe  of  all  (Num.  26.14). 
Its  position  on  the  march  was  south  of  the 
Tabernacle  under  the  standard  of  Reuben  (Num. 
2.12).  There  was  great  mortality  in  the  tribe 
following  its  idolatry  at  Peor.  Josiah  destroyed 
the  Simeonite  idols  (2  Ch.  34.6).  David  took 
refuge  among  the  Simeonites,  and  gave  them 
part  of  the  spoils  of  the  Amalekites,  and  when 
he  had  secured  the  throne  a  deputation  attended 
his  coronation  (1  Ch.  12.23  ff.)  at  Hebron. 

2.  An  aged  and  pious  Jew  who  blessed  Jesus 
in  the  Temple  (Lk.  2.25  ff.).  Gamaliel,  the  in- 
structor of  Saul  (Acts  22.3),  is  said  to  have  been 
Simeon's  son;  if  so,  Simeon  was  probably  a 
Rabbi  of  high  rank.  Tradition  makes  him 
chief  of  the  Sanhedrin.  3.  A  name  in  the 
genealogy  of  our  Lord  (Lk.  3.30).  4.  A  disciple 
and  prophet  at  Antioch,  surnamed  Niger  (black). 
He  was  a  teacher  at  Antioch  (Acts  13.1).  5. 
(Acts  15.14).  [PETER,  SYMEON.] 

Si'mon.  —  Hearing  :  1.  The  "  brother  "  of 
our  Lord  (Matt.  13.55  ;  Mk.  6.3).  [BRETHREN 
OF  THE  LORD.]  2.  (Matt.  4.18,  etc.).  [PETEB.] 
3.  The  Canansean,  an  apostle  of  Jesus  Christ. 
The  term  (A.  V.,  wrongly,  Canaanite)  is  equivalent 
to  the  Greek  "  zealot."  We  know  nothing  of 
his  acts  as  an  apostle  (Matt.  10.4 ;  Mk.  3.18  ; 
Lk.  6.15;  Acts  1.13).  [€ANAANITE.]  4.  A 
leper  living  at  Bethany,  at  whose  house  the 
Saviour's  head  was  anointed  with  oil  (Matt. 
26.6  ;  Mk.  14.3).  As  he  was  living  among  the 
people  and  in  his  own  house,  he  must  have 
recovered  from  his  leprosy ;  probably  he  was 
one  of  those  miraculously  cured  by  the  Lord. 
Lazarus,  Mary,  and  Martha  were  present  as 


quests  (John  12.2).  5.  A  Cyrenean  who  was 
compelled  to  help  carry  the  cross  to  the  site  of 
(he  Crucifixion  (Matt.  27.32;  Mk.  15.21;  Lk. 
23.26)  when  Jesus  was  too  fatigued  to  bear  it 
longer ;  the  father  of  Alexander  and  Rufus 
(Mk.  15.21) ;  the  latter  perhaps  the  Christian  of 
Rome  named  in  Rom.  16.13.  6.  A  Pharisee 
at  whose  house  Jesus  was  anointed  by  the 
"  woman  who  was  a  sinner  "  (Lk.  7.36-50).  7. 
The  father  of  Judas  Iscariot  (John  6.71,  12.4, 
13.2,  26).  [JUDAS.]  8.  A  sorcerer  of  Samaria, 
generally  called  Simon  Magus,  who  sought  to 
purchase  for  money  the  gift  of  the  Spirit  (Acts 
8.9-24).  His  impious  offer  of  money  for  the 
gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost  is  embodied  in  the  term 
Simony.  Later  Christian  tradition  has  much 
to  say  of  his  subsequent  history.  9.  Simon  the 
tanner  :  a  Christian  of  Joppa  at  whose  house 
Peter  stayed  (Acts  9.43, 10.6,  17,  32). 

Simri  (R.V.  Shimri).— (1  Ch.  26.10). 

Sin. — Mire :  1.  A  city  of  Egypt,  afterwards 
called  Pelusium.  It  was  situated  amongst  the 
marshes  of  the  north-east  branches  of  the  Nile, 
now  overflowed  (Ezek.  30.15,  16).  2.  Wilder- 
ness of.  A  wild  tract  of  country  between  Elim 
and  Sinai  traversed  by  the  Israelites.  It  was 
here  that  the  manna  and  quails  were  given 
(Ex.  16.1,  17.1 ;  Num.  33.11, 12).  [MANNA, 
QUAIL.] 

Sin.— I.  One  great  object  of  the  Bible  is 
to  deal  with  the  facts  of  human  life,  to  state 
their  meaning  and  effect,  and  sometimes  to 
throw  light  upon  their  cause.  In  the  case  of 
sin  there  are  two  chief  facts — first,  that  men 
commit  sins ;  secondly,  that  every  man  commits 
them.  It  may  be  expected,  therefore,  that  the 
Bible  will  throw  light  on  the  meaning  and 
effect  of  sins,  and  also  on  the  cause  of  their 
universal  prevalence  among  men,  and  if  there 
be  a  remedy  will  indicate  it. 

II.  According  to  the  Bible,  the  cause  of  sins  is 
due  ultimately  (so  far  as  regards  earthly  life) 
to  the  sin  of  the  first  human  pair,  with  its 
consequences  on  them  and  their  children. 
This  subject  is  considered  under  FALL.  Here 
it  must  be  sufficient  to  say  that,  however  low 
in  the  scale  of  humanity  (according  to  the 
theory  of  evolution)  the  first  man  was,  yet, 
if  he  was  man,  he  must  have  had  some  rudi- 
mentary sense  of  right  and  wrong,  and  after 
his  first  wilful  disobedience  to  this  moral  sense 
must  have  been  in  a  different  and  lower  state 
morally  from  what  he  was  before.  The  first 
conscious  transgression  cannot  but  be  a  moral 
fall,  however  much  intellectual  wisdom  may 
be  gained  in  the  process.  Further,  it  is  only 
reasonable  to  believe  that  children  begotten 
after  such  a  fall  so  far  share  their  parents' 
nature  as  to  be  themselves  more  weak  as  regards 
morality  than  they  would  have  been  if  their 
parents  had  not  transgressed. 

This  very  reasonable  belief  appears  to  be  the 
central  thought  of  the  narrative  in  Gen.  3. 
For  the  writer  is  evidently  doing  more  than 
state  the  sin  of  Adam  and  Eve  as  such.  He 
desires  to  show  that  it  has  affected  the  whole  of 


SINA,  SINAI] 


450 


[SIN-OFFERING 


mankind.  Every  one  comes  into  the  world 
with  the  original  tendency  of  human  nature 
modified  for  the  worse.  It  is,  therefore,  not 
to  be  wondered  at  that  every  person  does  in 
fact  sin.  In  succeeding  chapters  the  terrible 
and  far-reaching  effects  of  that  first  sin  are 
stated  plainly. 

III.  The  different  aspects  of  sin  which  pre- 
sented themselves  to  the  writers  of  the  Bible 
may  be  seen  most  conveniently  in  the  various 
names  given  to  it.     For  the  Bible  is  very  rich 
in   words   for   sin,   evil,   iniquity,   wickedness, 
of  which  the  more  important  may  be  mentioned 
here:— 1.  Words  that  mean  "  failure,"  "  miss- 
ing one's  aim,"  etc.     In  Hebrew,  chet  and  cog- 
nate words  (Ps.  51.9) ;  in  Greek,  hamartia  (Rom. 
3.9),  hamartema  (I  Cor.  6.18).    2.  Perversion,  dis- 
tortion, with  an  implication  of  guilt,  is  presented 
by  the  Hebrew  'avon  (1  K.  17.18).     3.  Several 
words  indicate  the  transgression  of  a  law,  or 
rebellion  against  a  lawgiver.     In  Hebrew  pesha 
(Prov.  28.13 ;  Isai.  53.5) ;  in  Greek  parabasis 
("transgression,"      Rom.      4.15),      paraptoma 
("  trespasses,"    R.V.,   Eph.   2.5),   anomia   (dis- 
regard of  God's  law,  1  John  3.4,  where  we  read 
"  hamartia  is  anomia  "),  asebeia  (disregard  of 
God,  2  Tim.  2.16).     4.  Wickedness,  a  habit  of 
sin,   and  often  violence,  are  intended  by  the 
Hebrew  resha    (1  Sam.  24.13),  and  the  Greek 
adikia  (Lk.  13.27).    5.  Unfaithfulness,  treachery 
to    God    and    man,     by    the    Hebrew    ma'al 
(Josh.     22.22,     "trespass,"     R.V.)      6.    Guilt 
requiring    a     guilt-offering    is    expressed    by 
:dshdm  (Prov.  14.9).     7.  Sin  is  regarded  as  a 
debt  in  the  Lord's  Prayer,  opfoiTlma  (Malt.  6.12). 

IV.  Among  the  greater  effects  of  sin  may  be 
mentioned  : — 1.  The  dread  of  God,  in  contrast 
to  reverential,  filial  fear  (Gen.   3.10).     2.  The 
gradual  hardening  of  the  will  against  good  and 
good  influences  (Ex.  7.13).    3.  The  eating  away 
of  the  vigour  and  life  of  the  soul,  as  leprosy 
eats  away  the  body.    ("  There  is  no  reference  in 
the  Bible  to  leprosy  as  a  type  of  sin  ;    the 
nearest  approach  to  this  is  in  Ps.  51.7,  where 
the  reference  is   to   the  ceremonial  cleansing 
of    the    leper."  —  A.    Macalister    in    Hastings' 
B.D.    in.    98.)      4.  All    these    culminating    in 
separation  from  God  (Gen.  3.24 ;    Lev.  13.46 ; 
2.  Thess  1.9). 

V.  But  in  the  Bible  the  remedy  for  sin  is  at 
least  as  prominent  as  its  cause,   nature,  and 
effect.    Frequently,  of  course,  there  are  appeals 
to  sinners  to  leave  their  sins,  emphasised  with 
statements  of  the  disasters  that  overtake  sinners, 
and  there  are  promises  of  the  kindly  reception 
which    God   gives    to   such   repentant  sinners 
(notably    2    Sam.    12.13),    the    human    means 
being    repentance   and    faith.     But   both    the 
O.T.     and   the   N.T.   state   clearly   that  more 
is     required.      In     Isai.    53   the    self-sacrifice 
of    the    Ideal   Servant   is   represented   as   the 
means  by  which  sinners  are  healed,  as  the  Person 
on  whom  our  iniquity  was  laid.     Other  sacri- 
fices were  but  types  of  this  one  sacrifice.     See 
also  John  1.29  ;   Col  1.21,  22.     This  remedy  is 
effective  for  the  restoration  of  a  right  standing 


with  God  (Rom.  5.1;  1  John  1.9),  for  the 
removal  of  the  stain  brought  even  on  the 
very  highest  places  by  sin,  which  touches  the 
honour  of  God  and  His  temple  (Heb.  9.23-26), 
and  also  for  the  gradual  elimination  of  sin  in 
the  believer  (1  John  1.7-96),  although  while 
he  is  on  earth  he  is  never  wholly  free  from  it 
(Rom.  7.23 ;  Gal.  5.17 ;  1  John  1.10).  It  is 
no  wonder  that  our  Lord  received  His  name, 
"  for  it  is  he  that  shall  save  his  people  from 
their  sins  "  (Matt.  1.21,  R.V.). 

Among  the  many  helps  for  the  student  of  this 
subject  may  be  mentioned  Bishop  Westcott's 
additional  note  on  1  John  1.9,  The  Idea  of 
Sin  in  St.  John,  and  Chancellor  E.  R.  Bernard's 
article  on  "  Sin  "  in  Hastings'  Bible  Dictionary. 
[ATONEMENT.] 

Sina,  Sinai. — The  peninsula  lying  between 
the  Gulfs  of  Suez  and  Akabah.  The  Wilderness 
of  Sinai,  where  the  Israelites  continued  encamped 
almost  a  year,  and  where  Moses  erected  the 
Tabernacle  of  the  Covenant,  is  itself  higher  than 
the  rest  of  the  country.  Here  the  Almighty 
made  known  His  will,  through  Moses,  to  the 
assembled  multitude.  At  Mount  Sinai,  rising 
abruptly  from  the  plain,  the  Decalogue  was 
given,  and  the  covenant  made  (Ex.  20.1-17, 
24.7, 8).  In  this  desert  also  the  worship  of  the 
golden  calf  took  place ;  the  people  were  numbered 
(Num.  1.19,  3.1) ;  Aaron  and  his  sons  were 
consecrated ;  the  second  passover  was  cele- 
brated (Num.  9.5) ;  and  Nadab  and  Abihu 
were  destroyed  for  offering  strange  fire  unto 
the  Lord.  [NADAB,  Asrau.]  The  mountain 
from  which  the  Law  was  given  is  called  Horeb 
in  Deuteronomy  (1.2,  etc.);  elsewhere  it  is 
Sinai.  Horeb,  it  seems,  denotes  the  whole  dis- 
trict, and  Sinai  the  mountain  where  the  Law 
was  given. 

Sinim,  The  Land  oL— A  country  in  the  Far 
East ;  by  some  identified  with  China,  by  others 
with  Persia  (Isai.  49.12).  But  it  should  per- 
haps be  emended  to  SYENB.  The  district  of 
the  SINTTBS  is  too  near. 

Sinites. — Descendants  of  Canaan,  who  occu- 
pied the  maritime  district  north  of  Sidon  (Gen. 
10.17  ;  1  Ch.  1.15).  [CANAAN.] 

Sin-offering. — An  offering  of  atonement  for 
sin  (Lev.  4.32-35).  The  sin-offering  was  a 
burnt-offering,  differing  from  other  sacrifices 
in  that  the  victims  were  offered  for  sins  com- 
mitted inadvertently,  or  through  ignorance, 
but  for  which  the  offender  would  have  deserved 
cutting  off,  if  done  willingly.  It  was  the  "  expia- 
tion of  sin  by  a  substituted  life"  (Lev.  5.17-19, 
15.2, 9,  39,  etc. ;  Num.  6.11).  Sin-offerings  were 
(1)  presented  by  the  high-priest  when  he  had 
committed  an  offence  and  brought  guilt  upon 
the  nation,  or  (2)  when  the  nation  had  sinned 
inadvertently ;  also  (3)  by  individuals  who  had 
sinned  through  ignorance  (Lev.  4.32  ff.) ;  and 
(4),  more  especially,  on  the  great  Day  of  Atone- 
ment. In  the  first  and  last  cases  the  high- 
priest  laid  bis  hand  on  the  head  of  the  victim, 
confessing  his  sin.  In  the  second  case  the  elders 
laid  their  hand  on  the  victim,  and  in  the  third 


SIGN] 


451 


[SMITH 


case  on  the  person  who  brought  the  offering. 
The  transactions  of  the  great  Day  of  Atonement 
were  exceedingly  significant  (Lev.  16.20,  26-33 ;' 
Num.  29.7-11) ;  the  goat  for  AZAZBL  carrying 
away  the  sins  of  the  people,  and  forming,  with 
the  second  goat,  which  was  sacrificed,  a  single 
complete  type  of  the  work  of  our  Lord.  Sin- 
offerings  were  also  presented  on  various  occasions 
of  purification  (Lev.  9.22, 14.19-31,  15.2, 14, 15, 
25-30  ;  Num.  6.2-12). 

In  the  N.T.  our  Lord  is  spoken  of  in  terms 
that  represent  Him  as  a  sin-offering  (Rom.  8.3  ; 
2  Cor.  5.21 ;  Heb.  1.3,  9.28). 

Si'on.  —  Peak :  1.  Mount  Hermon  (Deut. 
4.48).  2.  The  Greek  form  of  Zion.  [ZiON.] 

Siph'moth. — Town  in  the  south  of  Judah,  to 
which  David  fled  from  Saul  (1  Sam.  30.28). 
Position  unknown. 

Sip'pai. — A  giant  (sons  of  Rephaim)  killed 
by  Sibbechai  at  Gezer  (1  Ch.  20.4).  The  name 
appears  again  as  Saph  in  2  Sam.  21.18. 

Si'rach,  Book  of.— [ECCLESIASTICUS,  NON- 
CANONICAL  BOOKS.] 

Si'rah. — Going  aside :  a  pit  or  well  about  one 
mile  on  the  north  road  from  Hebron,  where  Abner 
was  killed  by  Joab  (2  Sam.  3.26).  Now  'Ain 
Sarah. 

Si'rion. — The  name  given  to  Mount  Hermon 
by  the  Zidonians  (Deut.  3.9  ;  Ps.  29.6). 

Sisa'mai  (R.V.  Sismai).  —  A  Jerahmeelite 
(1  Ch.  2.40). 

Sis'era.— (?)  Child :  1.  A  captain  of  the  army 
of  Jabin,  king  of  Canaan.  He  was  slain  by  Jael 
(Judg.  4.2  ff.,  5.20-30  ;  1  Sam.  12.9  ;  Ps.  83.9). 
Sisera  had  been  defeated  by  Barak  and  Deborah, 
and  fled  from  the  battlefield.  Exhausted,  he 
sought  shelter  in  the  tent  of  Jael,  who  drove 
a  tent-pin  through  his  skull  while  he  slept. 
[JAEL.]  2.  The  ancestor  of  a  family  that  re- 
turned to  Jerusalem  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
2.53;  Neh.  7.55). 

Sis'mai.— [SisAMAi.] 

Sith.— Old  English  for  "  since  "  (Ezek.  35.6). 

Sith'ri.— [ZiTHEi.] 

Sit'nah. — Accusation,  strife  :  a  well  dug  by 
Isaac's  servants  which  the  herdsmen  of  Gerar, 
Abimelech's  servants,  strove  to  obtain  (Gen. 
2G.21). 

Si 'van. — The  third  month  in  the  Jewish  sacred 
calendar.  It  lasted  from  the  new  moon  of  May 
to  that  of  June.  On  the  sixth  and  seventh  was 
the  Pentecost  or  Feast  of  Weeks,  being  seven 
weeks  from  the  days  of  unleavened  bread 
(Esth.  8.9). 

Skirt. — That  part  of  the  flowing  mantle  below 
the  girdle  (Deut.  22.30;  1  Sam.  24.11;  Ezek. 
16.8). 

Skull,  Place  of  a.— [CALVARY,  GOLGOTHA.] 

Slave,  Slavery. — The  word  slave  occurs  once 
in  the  A.V.  (Rev.  18.13 ;  but  see  the  word  in  italics 
in  Jer.  2.14) ;  and  twice  in  R.V.  (Deut.  21.14, 
24.7).  The  word  servant  most  frequently  ex- 
pressed all  that  we  mean  by  slave.  Slavery 
as  an  institution  appears  in  the  oldest  records 
of  mankind.  The  slaves,  or  bond-servants,  of 
0-T.  times  were  obtained  in  various  ways. 


Many  were  prisoners  of  war  (Gen.  14.14 ;  Deut. 
20.14  ;  2  Ch.  28.8  ;  Dan.  1.4).  Offenders,  i.e. 
thieves,  etc.,  were  sold  into  slavery  (Ex.  22.3). 
If  a  man  owed  money  and  could  not  pay,  he 
became  the  slave  of  him  to  whom  he  was  in- 
debted, and  might  be  sold  by  him  (2  K.  4.1 ; 
Neh.  5.4,  5 ;  Matt.  18.25).  Some  were  the  chil- 
dren of  slaves,  and  born  in  the  master's  family 
(Gen.  14.14,  15.3,  17.23,  21.10;  Jer.  2.14;  cf. 
Ps.  86.6,  116.16).  Slaves  of  this  latter  class 
were  generally  treated  with  more  kindness  than 
the  others ;  but  there  was  a  great  difference 
between  them  and  the  sons  of  the  family 
(Rom.  8.15  ;  Gal.  4.6).  Yet  their  masters  put 
great  confidence  in  them,  and  even  armed  them 
for  the  general  defence  (Gen.  14.14,  32.6,  33.1). 
The  stories  of  Joseph  and  Daniel  show  that 
slaves  were  sometimes  advanced  to  posts  of 
great  authority. 

The  Mosaic  Law  was  a  law  of  mercy  for  the 
bond-servant  (Ex.  20.10, 21.20, 26,27;  Deut.  5.14, 
12.18,  16.11,  etc.).  Hebrews  who  had  been 
compelled  to  become  slaves  were  to  be  set  free 
at  the  end  of  the  seventh  year,  unless  they  chose 
to  continue  in  the  service  of  their  master 
(Deut.  15.12).  It  was  partly  through  the  neglect 
of  this  merciful  provision  that  the  Lord  delivered 
the  nation  into  the  hands  of  their  enemies 
(Jer.  34.9,  20).  [SERVANT.] 

Slime. — Asphalt  or  bitumen.  This  substance 
was  gathered  in  the  form  of  a  muddy  slime  from 
the  region  of  the  Dead  Sea  (which  see),  the 
Euphrates,  and  other  places,  and  used  for 
cementing  stone  and  brick  used  in  building 
(Gen.  11.3),  especially  for  protecting  the  lower 
courses  from  damp.  The  bitumen  which 
bubbles  up  from  springs  is  frequently  found 
floating  on  the  surface  of  the  Dead  Sea  in  large 
lumps;  such  lumps  are  sometimes  also  seen 
floating  down  the  Euphrates. 

Sling. — Slings  were  part  of  the  equipment  of 
soldiers  in  ancient  times  (2  Ch.  26.14).  The 
Benjamites  were  celebrated  for  their  skill  with 
the  weapon  (Judg.  20.16),  and  David  killed 
Goliath  with  a  sling  (1  Sam.  17.40-50).  Later, 
the  Romans  constructed  instruments  that  could 
sling  stones  and  darts  to  great  distances,  and 
thus  foreshadowed  the  modern  guns.  [ARMS, 
WAR.] 

The  sling  was  also  used  by  shepherds  and 
herdsmen  to  drive  off  threatening  beasts  of 
prey.  They  became  expert  in  the  use  of  the 
simple  instrument,  which  consisted  of  two 
strings  fastened  to  opposite  sides  of  a  small 
piece  of  leather  in  which  the  stone  was  placed. 

Sluice. — A  channel  for  the  conveyance  of 
water  (Isai.  19.10,  A.V.).  But  in  Isai.  19.10 
the  R.V.  rightly  gives  quite  a  different  trans- 
lation. [SlLOAM.] 

Smith  (1  Sam.  13.19).— It  was  not  until  the 
times  of  the  kings  that  the  Israelites  took  up 
handicrafts.  Then  they  learnt  them  from  the 
imported  workmen  of  King  Hiram,  etc.  Bronze 
was  the  prevalent  metal  employed  by  the 
smiths,  from  which  they  made  cooking-utensils 
and  fetters  (Judg.  16.21),  besides  armour  and 


SMYRNA] 


452 


[SOLOMON 


weapons  (1  Sam.  17.5,  6  ;  2  Sam.  21.16,  22.35). 
Iron  was  chiefly  used  to  point  spears,  to  edge 
ploughshares  and  axes,  and  the  Canaanite 
chariots  were  plated  with  iron  (Judg.  1.19) ; 
all  of  which  work  implied  skill  in  the  smiths  of 
a  high  order.  [KENITE.] 

Smyrna. — An  ancient  and  flourishing  city  on 
the  west  coast  of  Asia  Minor  near  the  head 
of  a  deep  bay,  now  as  in  N.T.  times  a  centre 
of  commerce  for  the  Levant.  It  was  the  seat 
of  one  of  the  seven  Churches  of  Asia  to  which 
the  apocalyptic  letters  were  addressed  (Rev. 
1.11,  2.8).  Polycarp  was  one  of  its  early 
bishops. 

Snail. — Two  words  are  translated  "  snail." 
In  Lev.  11.30  a  variety  of  lizard  is  evidently 
intended.  In  the  only  other  case  in  which  the 
word  occurs  (Ps.  58.8)  the  metaphor  is  derived 
from  the  slimy  track  left  by  the  snail,  which 
gives  it  the  appearance  of  melting  as  it  moves. 
Snails  are  abundant  in  Palestine  and  other  Bible 
lands. 

Snow. — Snow  falls  in  Palestine  not  only  on 
the  mountains  of  the  north,  but  generally  over 
the  country  as  far  south  as  Nazareth  and 
Jerusalem,  where  it  falls  frequently.  It  does 
not  last,  however,  on  the  lowlands  and  lesser 
heights,  so  that  when  ice  is  wanted  for  cooling 
purposes  it  has  to  be  brought  from  Lebanon 
(Prov.  25.13;  Jer.  18.14).  Falling  snow  is 
mentioned  in  2  Sam.  23.20  ;  Ps.  147.16,  148.8  ; 
and  see  Job  6.16,  24.19.  The  snow  never  melts 
from  the  summit  of  Mount  Hermon.  Meta- 
phorically snow  stands  for  purity  (Ps.  51.7 ; 
Isai.  1.18),  for  shining  brightness  (Dan.  7.9; 
Rev.  1.14),  for  whiteness  (Ex.  4.6  ;  Num.  12.10), 
for  cleansing  qualities  (Job  9.30),  and  for  chill- 
ing and  blighting  effects  (Prov.  25.13,  26.1). 

So. — An  Egyptian  king  of  Ethiopian  descent 
whose  fuller  name  was  Sabaku,  in  the  twenty- 
fifth  dynasty.  Hoshea,  who  desired  to  free  him- 
self from  the  Assyrian  yoke,  sought  the  help 
and  alliance  of  So  (2  K.  17.4).  The  result  was 
disaster,  for  Hoshea  was  taken  prisoner  by  the 
Assyrians,  who  also  took  Samaria  and  carried 
the  ten  tribes  into  captivity.  Many,  however, 
think  that  So  was  only  a  sub-king  in  the  Delta. 
[HOSEA,  ISRAEL,  SAMARIA.] 

Soap.— {SopE.] 

So'cho,  So'co,  So'coh,  Sho'choh,  So'choh.— 
1.  A  town  of  Judah,  near  which  the  Philistines 
were  encamped  when  Goliath  was  slain  (1  Sam. 
17.1) ;  fortified  by  Rehoboam,  and  retaken  by 
the  Philistines  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz  (1  K.  4.10 ; 
2  Ch.  11.7,  28.18).  2.  Another  town  in  the 
mountain  district  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.48). 

So'di. — Intimacy  of  Jehovah  :  the  father  of 
one  of  the  spies  (Num.  13.10). 

Sodom. — One  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  plain 
which  opposed  the  invasion  of  Chedorlaomer 
(Gen.  14) ;  the  dwelling-place  of  Lot  (Gen. 
13.12, 13).  For  its  crimes  of  pride,  gluttony, 
idleness,  and  lust  (Ezek.  16.49,50;  2  Pet. 
2.6-9 ;  Jude  7),  it  was  destroyed,  together  with 
Gomorrah,  Zeboim,  and  Admah,  neighbouring 
cities,  so  completely  that  no  trace  of  any  of 


them  remains  (Gen.  19).  [GOMORRAH,  VINE  OP 
SODOM.] 

Sodoma. — The  Greek  form  of  Sodom  (Rom. 
9.29). 

So  journer . — [STRANGER  .] 

Soldier.— [ARMY.] 

Solomon.— (?)  Place  of  Jehovah  :  the  third 
king  of  Israel ;  tenth  son  of  David  and  his  second 
by  Bathsheba.  His  birth  was  foreshadowed  in 
the  promise  conveyed  by  the  prophet  Nathan 
(2  Sam.  7.12, 13 ;  1  CA.  22.8-10).  Born  at  Jeru- 
salem (2  Sam.  5.14),  he  was  named  by  the  pro- 
phet Jedidiah,  "  Beloved  of  the  Lord  "  (2  Sam. 
12.24,25).  When  David's  son  Adonijah,  in 
his  father's  old  age,  "  exalted  himself,"  and  said, 
"  I  will  be  king  "  (1  K.  1.5),  Nathan  incited 
Bathsheba  to  remind  David  of  his  promise  as 
to  Solomon.  Bathsheba  acted  promptly,  and 
David,  hearing  of  Adonijah's  pretensions, 
caused  Zadok  and  Nathan  to  anoint  Solomon 
king.  Adonijah's  supporters  promptly  deserted 
him,  but  Solomon  for  the  time  dismissed  his 
half-brother  to  his  house  (1  K.  1 ;  1  Ch.  23.1). 
The  ceremony  of  anointing  was  repeated  later 
(1  Ch.  29.22-25).  After  the  death  of  David 
(1  K.  2.10),  Solomon  married  a  daughter  of  the 
Egyptian  Pharaoh,  and  brought  her  to  Jeru- 
salem (1  K.  3.1).  In  a  dream  he  asked  of  God 
wisdom,  and  received  the  promise  of  abundant 
honour  (1  K.  3.5-15).  His  wisdom  (1  K.  3.16-28) 
and  piety  (1  K.  5.5),  the  splendour  of  his  sur- 
roundings and  the  extent  of  his  kingdom,  spread 
his  fame  broadcast  (1  K.  10.1-13).  According 
to  the  promise  given,  he  built  the  first  Temple 
at  Jerusalem  (1  K.  5,  6 ;  2  Ch.  2-4),  a  palace 
for  himself,  the  House  of  the  Forest  of  Lebanon, 
a  palace  for  his  Egyptian  queen,  the  wall  of 
Jerusalem,  and  various  cities  (1  K.  3.1,  7.1, 2,  8, 
9.15-19,  24). 

Solomon  and  his  people  enjoyed  a  profound 
peace  during  his  reign  and  throughout  his 
dominions.  He  ruled  over  all  the  countries  and 
kingdoms  from  (and  even  beyond)  the  Euphrates 
to  the  Nile.  His  army  was  large  and  well 
equipped  (1  K.  4.26, 10.26 ;  2  Ch.  1.14).  He 
so  encouraged  commerce  that  Palestine  became 
rich,  and  articles  of  luxury  abundant  (1  K. 
9.26-28,  10.14,15,27-29).  His  court  was  a 
scene  of  wealth  and  splendour  (1  K.  10.5  ;  and 
cf.  Matt.  6.29).  But  prosperity  degenerated 
into  voluptuousness  ;  moral  and  religious  decay 
ensued.  Solomon  took  wives  and  concubines, 
to  the  number  of  a  thousand,  from  among  the 
Moabites,  Ammonites,  Idumaeans,  Sidonians,  and 
Hittites.  These  perverted  his  heart,  so  that 
he  worshipped  false  gods,  Ashtoreth  of  the 
Sidonians,  Moloch  of  the  Ammonites,  and 
Chemosh  of  the  Moabites,  to  whom  he  built 
temples  on  the  Mount  of  Olives  (1  K.  11.1-2 ; 
Neh.  13.26).  His  sins  brought  down  the 
chastisement  foretold  (2  Sam.  7.14;  1  K. 
11.9-13),  and  enemies  appeared  (1  K.  11.14-40), 
clouding  his  last  days.  After  a  reign  of  forty 
years,  Solomon  died,  and  was  buried  "  in 
the  city  of  David  his  father"  (1  K.  11.42,  43  ; 
2  Ch.  9.29-31).  Three  O.T.  books— Proverbs, 


SOLOMON'S  PORCH] 


453 


[SON  OF  MAN,  THE 


Ecclesiastes,  and  Canticles  are  attributed  to 
him.  The  wisdom  and  splendour  of  Solomon 
were  alluded  to  by  our  Lord  (Matt.  6.29,  12.42  ; 
Lk.  11.31,  12.27).  [ADONIJAH,  BATHSHEBA, 
TEMPLE.] 

Solomon's  Porch. — In  Herod's  Temple  there 
was  a  colonnade  on  each  of  the  four  sides  of  the 
Temple  area,  that  on  the  east  being  named 
after  Solomon,  perhaps  because  it  was  on  the 
same  site  as  one  built  by  him,  or  that  even  some 
remains  of  the  original  building  still  survived. 
Our  Lord  taught  there  (John  10.23),  and  it  was 
the  scene  of  Christian  work  by  Peter  and  John 
(Acts  3.11)  and  the  apostles  (Acts  5.12). 

Solomon's  Servants,  The  Children  of.— A 
group  of  persons  attached  to  the  second  Temple 
(Ezra  2.55,  58  ;  Neh.  7.57,  60, 11.3). 

Solomon,  Song  of.— [CANTICLES.] 

Son  of  Consolation  (R.V.  Exhortation).— 
The  interpretation  in  the  A.V.  of  the  name 
Barnabas.  [BARNABAS.] 

Son  of  God.— In  the  O.T.  the  title  "  sons  of 
God  "  appears  in  Gen.  6.2,  where  it  has  been 
variously  interpreted  as  (1)  young  men  of  rank, 
(2)  angels,  (3)  the  descendants  of  Seth,  (4)  the 
descendants  of  Cain  ;  in  Job  1.6,  38.7,  where  it 
is  used  of  angels ;  and  in  Eos.  1.10  of  the 
spiritual  Israel.  As  God  revealed  Himself  as  a 
Father  to  Israel  (Isai.  63.16,  64.8  ;  Jer.  31.9), 
so  they  are  called  His  sons  (Ex.  4.22  ;  Deut. 
14.1.  Cf.  Deut.  1.31 ;  Isai.  1.2,  30.1).  The 
words  of  Ps.  2.7,  "  Thou  art  my  Son  ;  this  day 
have  I  begotten  thee,"  are  in  Acts  13.33,  Heb. 
1.5,  5.5  applied  to  our  Lord. 

In  the  N.T.  the  titles  "  Son  of  God,"  or  "  the 
Son,"  are  applied  as  distinctive  titles  to  our 
Lord.  In  the  Synoptic  Gospels  the  title  is  used 
before  the  birth  of  Christ  (Lk.  1.35) ;  is  be- 
stowed by  the  Divine  voice  at  the  Baptism  and 
the  Transfiguration  (Matt.  3.17,  17.5  ;  Mk.1.11, 
9.7  ;  Lk.  3.22,  9.35) ;  is  used  by  Peter  (Matt. 
16.16),  and  by  men  who  saw  the  miracles 
(Matt.  14.33) ;  by  the  devil  at  the  Temptation 
(Matt.  4.3,  6 ;  Lk.  4.3,  9),  and  by  demoniacs 
(Mk.  3.11,  5.7  ;  Lk.  4.41,  8.28) ;  by  the  priests 
and  others  interrogatively  at  the  Crucifixion 
(Matt.  27.43) ;  and  by  the  watching  centurion 
(Matt.  27.54  ;  Mk.  15.39). 

The  Fourth  Gospel  opens  with  the  writer's 
personal  testimony  to  the  Son  of  God  (1.34) ; 
the  title  is  used  by  Christ  Himself  (9.35, 37, 11.4), 
and  the  use  is  testified  to  by  His  accusers  before 
Pilate  (19.7) ;  to  promote  belief  in  Him  as  the 
Son  of  God  is  declared  to  be  the  purpose  of 
the  author  (20.31).  Compare  also  3.16, 17, 18, 
35, 36,  5.20,  21, 22,  etc.  In  Acts  the  title  only 
appears  in  8.37,  which  is  omitted  by  R.V.,  and  in 
9.20  (and  cf .  13.33).  Neither  "  Son  of  God  "  nor 
"  the  Son  "  appears  in  several  epistles — Philip- 
pians,  2  Thessalonians,  1  and  2  Timothy,  Titus, 
Philemon,  James,  1  Peter,  Jude,  and  3  John. 
But  the  uses  of  "  the  Son  of  God,"  or  "  the 
Son,"  speak  of  Him  as  sent  by  God  (Rom.  8.3), 
"  spared  "  by  Him  (Rom.  8.32),  manifestly  de- 
clared as  His  Son  (Rom.  1.4) ;  as  the  great  High 
Priest  (Heb.  4.14) ;  as  manifested  to  "  destroy  the 


works  of  the  devil  "  (1  John  3.8),  to  give  eternal 
life  (1  John  4.9,  5.11),  to  be  "  the  propitiation 
for  our  sins  "  (1  John  4.9, 10),  and  "  the  Saviour 
of  the  world  "  (1  John  4.14),  belief  on  Whom 
procures  the  indwelling  of  God,  victory  over  the 
world,  and  eternal  life  (1  John  4.15,  5.5, 10,  11, 
12).  [JESUS  CHRIST.] 

Son  of  man,  The.— This  title  is  applied  to 
the  Lord  Jesus  in  the  N.T.  only  by  Himself, 
with  the  exception  of  Acts  7.56  and  (though 
rather  as  a  description  than  a  title)  Rev.  1.13, 
14.14.  He  uses  it  with  reference  to  power  and 
supremacy  (Matt.  9.6,  13.41,  16.27,  19.28, 
24.27,  30,  25.31,  32,  26.64  ;  Mk.  14.62),  and 
also  to  weakness,  humiliation,  and  suffering 
(Matt.  8.20,  17.22,  26.24).  Doubtless  His 
followers  avoided  it  because  they  were  more 
occupied  with  His  Divinity  than  His  humanity. 
What  meaning,  however,  did  He  Himself  give 
to  it,  and  from  what  source  did  He  derive  it  ? 
.  It  has  been  asserted  that,  as  in  the  Aramaic  of 
(approximately)  our  Lord's  day,  and  pre- 
sumably spoken  by  Him,  "  a  son  of  man  " 
meant  "  a  man,"  i.e.  an  ordinary  human  being, 
"  the  son  of  man  "  meant  "  the  man,"  i.e.  the 
ordinary  human  being.  But  the  phrase 
"  the  son  of  man  "  has  not  yet  been  found  in 
the  existing  fragments  of  Aramaic  of  that 
time,  and  therefore  the  argument  is  precarious. 
It  is,  moreover,  plain  that  on  our  Lord's  lips 
the  phrase  meant  more  than  "  the  ordinary 
human  being." 

Whence,  however,  did  He  derive  it  ?  Was 
it  from  Dan.  7.13,  which  in  the  A.V.  is  "  one 
like  the  son  of  man "  ?  Hardly,  for  the 
R.V.  rendering  is  right :  "  One  like  unto  a 
son  of  man,"  i.e.  a  human  being,  in  contrast 
to  the  brute  forms  mentioned  just  before. 
There,  too,  it  refers,  not  to  the  Messiah,  but 
to  "  the  saints  of  the  Most  High,"  the  people 
of  Israel.  No  doubt  our  Lord  used  some 
terms  taken  from  that  passage,  e.g.  "the 
clouds  of  heaven,"  when  describing  the 
return  of  Himself  as  the  Son  of  man,  but 
the  phrase  itself  can  hardly  be  derived  thence. 
Was  it,  then,  taken  from  the  Book  of  Enoch, 
written  (in  this  part)  between  94  and  79  B.C.  ? 
[ NON-CANONICAL  BOOKS.]  There  the  Son 
of  man  is  with  "  the  Head  of  days,"  is 
chosen  by  the  Lord  of  spirits,  will  arouse  the 
kings,  will  grind  to  powder  the  teeth  of  the 
sinners,  will  put  down  the  kings  from  their 
thrones  (§  46).  Before  the  creation  of  the  sun 
and  stars,  his  name  was  named  before  the 
Lord  of  spirits.  He  will  be  a  staff  to  the 
righteous,  and  be  the  light  of  the  Gentiles. 
He  was  chosen  and  hidden  before  the  Lord 
of  spirits,  before  the  creation  of  the  world, 
and  for  evermore  (§  48).  He  is  identical  with 
Him  who  is  called  the  Anointed,  i.e.  the 
Messiah  (§  48),  and  the  Elect  One  (§  40),  who 
sits  on  God's  throne  (§51),  which  is  also  the 
throne  of  the  Son  of  man  (§62).  At  first 
sight  it  does  seem  probable  that  our  Lord 
derived  His  use  of  the  term  from  the  Book 
of  Enoch.  But  although  the  Book  was 


SONG  OP  SOLOMON] 


454 


[SPARROW 


known  to  Jude  (ver.  14),  in  perhaps  70  A.D., 
there  is  no  evidence  that  it  was  known  to  the 
circle  in  which  our  Lord  was  brought  up.  But 
even  if  it  were,  the  contrast  between  Himself, 
the  meek  and  lowly  Jesus,  and  the  glorious  Son 
of  man  of  the  Apocalyptists,  was  so  great  that 
it  would  not,  and  did  not,  occur  to  the  populace 
to  identify  them.  Hence  He  could  use  the  title 
of  Himself  without  it  being  a  direct  and  open 
claim  to  Messiahship,  a  claim  He  was  careful  to 
avoid,  save  to  His  disciples  privately  (Malt. 
16.13-16),  and,  at  the  very  last,  to  the  high- 
priest  (Mk.  14.61, 62).  Further,  in  the  Book  of 
Enoch  only  the  high  position  of  the  Son  of  man 
is  described  ;  nothing  is  said  of  His  humilia- 
tion and  suffering.  But  this  side  was,  as  we 
have  seen,  brought  out  by  our  Lord  equally 
with  the  other.  On  the  whole,  therefore,  it 
is  improbable  that  He  derived  the  title  from 
the  Book  of  Enoch.  In  the  Book  of  Ezekiel, 
however,  both  aspects  of  the  title  are  con- 
tained ;  that  of  human  weakness  in  contrast 
to  God,  quite  plainly,  in  perhaps  all  the  many 
times  (nearly  one  hundred)  that  the  phrase 
occurs.  But  the  aspect  of  power  and  glory 
is  also  implied.  For  in  the  introductory 
vision  of  the  four  living  creatures  (the 
"  chariot  "  of  God,  to  use  an  ancient  phrase), 
each  having  faces  of  a  man,  a  lion,  an  ox,  and 
an  eagle,  there  is  seated  on  the  throne  above 
them  "  a  likeness  as  the  appearance  of  a 
man  upon  it "  (1.26),  who  then  addresses 
the  prophet  as  "  Son  of  man."  Thus  Ezekiel 
is  bid  remember  that  he  stands  in  close  con- 
nexion with,  not  the  chariot  alone,  but  also 
the  Charioteer.  It  ia  to  this  double  relation 
that  our  Lord  refers  in  His  use  of  the  term. 
He  is  man  among  creation,  and  therefore 
liable  to  suffering,  but  also  He  holds  a 
unique  place  as  regards  the  Supreme,  a  rela- 
tion to  Him  of  which  Ezekiel's  relation  was 
only  a  hint,  a  relationship  enduing  Him  with 
power  to  govern  and  to  judge.  The  phrase 
suggests  also  that  He  is  the  ideal  man,  stand- 
ing closer  to  God  than  any  human  being,  even 
than  the  first  Adam.  Thus,  while  the  title, 
"  the  Son  of  man,"  was  not  identified  in  the 
common  consciousness  of  the  time  with  the 
personality  of  the  Messiah,  and  therefore  was 
not  a  direct  claim  to  the  Messiahship,  it 
admirably  expressed  both  His  humiliation  and 
His  glory,  and  was  appreciated  by  the  disciples 
when  they  had  come  to  know  Him  as  He  really 
was,  human  yet  Divine.  [JESUS  CHRIST.] 

Song  of  Solomon.— [CANTICLES.] 

Sons  of  Thunder.— [BOANERGES,  THUNDBK.] 

Soothsayer. — [DIVINATION.] 

So 'pater. — A  Greek  Christian  who  returned 
with  Paul  from  his  third  missionary  tour  (Acts 
20.4).  He  was  a  native  of  Beroea,  and  is  thought 
by  some  to  be  the  same  as  Sosipater  (Rom.  16.21). 

Sope.— Soap  is  so  spelt  in  A.V.  (Jer.  2.22; 
Mai.  3.2). 

Sopher'eth. — Learned  one  :  a  family  that  re- 
turned from  captivity  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
2.55  ;  Neh.  7.57). 


Sorcerer,  Sorcery.— [DIVINATION,  WITCH.] 

So 'rek.— Choice  vine  :  a  valley  in  which  was 
the  home  of  Delilah  (Judg.  16.4),  near  Gaza; 
possibly  the  modern  Wady  Surak.  [SAMSON.] 

Sosi'pater. — A  kinsman  of  Paul,  named  among 
those  who  sent  salutations  from  Corinth  to  Rome 
(Rom.  16.21).  [SOPATER.] 

Sps'thenes. — 1.  A  ruler  of  the  synagogue  at 
Corinth,  who  was  beaten  by  the  Greeks  when 
Gallic  refused  to  entertain  the  charges  brought 
by  the  Jews  of  that  place  against  Paul  during  his 
second  journey  (Acts  18.17).  2.  Another  person 
of  the  same  name ;  a  Christian  believer  associ- 
ated with  Paul  at  Ephesus  (1  Cor.  1.1).  But 
many  think  he  is  identical  with  1,  who  had 
become  a  Christian  after  the  events  mentioned 
in  Acts  18.17. 

So'tai, — Ancestor  of  a  family  who  returned 
with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.55 ;  Neh.  7.57). 

SouL — Save  in  two  cases  (Job  30.15  ;  Isai. 
57.16) "  soul "  in  the  A.V.  represents  the  Hebrew 
nepheshj  which  in  many  other  passages  is  trans- 
lated "  life  "  or  "  creature."  It  is  used  of  a 
living  being  (Gen.  17.14 ;  Num.  9.13,  etc.) ;  and, 
as  "  creature,"  of  animals  (Gen.  2.19,  9.15,  etc.) ; 
of  the  soul  as  distinguished  from  the  body 
(Gen.  35.18) ;  of  animal  life  (Gen.  2.7 ;  and 
note  the  apparent  identification  with  blood, 
Lev.  17.14 ;  Deut.  12.23) ;  of  the  soul  as  the 
seat  of  affections,  sensations,  passions — as,  e.g., 
capable  of  anguish  (Gen.  42.21),  of  affliction 
(Lev.  16.29),  of  discouragement  (Num.  21.5), 
of  desire  (Deut.  14.26),  of  abhorrence  (Ps. 
107.18);  but  also  as  capable  of  intercourse 
with  God,  as  being  His  (Ezek.  18.4),  desiring 
Him  (Ps.  42.1 ;  Itai.  26.9),  rejoicing  in  Him 
(Ps.  35.9;  Isai.  61.10),  trusting  in  Him  (Ps. 
57.1),  worshipping  Him  (Ps.  86.4,  104.1),  sin- 
ning against  Him  and  being  sinned  against 
(Jer.  44.7  ;  Ezek.  18.4 ;  Mic.  6.7). 

In  the  N.T.  "  soul "  is  the  rendering  of  the 
Greek  psvche,  which,  like  nephesh,  is  often 
rendered  "  life."  It  is  used  of  the  individual 
man  (Acts  2.41 ;  Rom.  13.1 ;  1  Pet.  3.20) ;  of  the 
animal  sentient  life,  with  its  passions  and  de- 
sires, distinguished  from  the  body  (Matt.  10.28), 
and  from  the  spirit  (Lk.  1.46 ;  1  Thess.  5.23 ; 
Heb.  4.12) ;  capable  of  being  lost  (Matt.  16.26), 
or  saved  (Heb.  10.39  ;  Jas.  1.21) ;  and  of  exist- 
ing after  separation  from  the  body  (Matt.  10.28  ; 
Rev.  6.9,  20.4).  [IMMORTALITY  OP  THE  SOUL, 
SPIRIT.] 

South  Country.— [PALESTINE.] 

Sow,  Sower.— [AGRICULTURE.] 

Spain. — The  present  country  of  that  name, 
which  Paul  proposed  to  visit,  though  there  is  no 
satisfactory  evidence  to  show  that  he  ever  did 
so  (Rom.  15.24,  28).  [PAUL,  TARSHISH.] 

Span. — The  span  was  a  measure  of  length 
equal  to  three  palms,  or  9  inches  (Ex.  28.16, 
etc.).  [WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES.] 

Sparrow.— In  two  passages  (Ps.  84.3,  102.7) 
the  word  translated  "  sparrow "  is  generally 
used  to  indicate  simply  "  bird "  or  "  fowl," 
though  in  these  instances  it  seems  to  point  to 
a  particular  species  of  bird.  Canon  Tristram 


SPEAR] 


455 


[SPIRIT 


considers  that  the  sparrow  of  Ps.  102.7  may  be 
the  blue  thrush,  which  is  common  in  Palestine, 
solitary  in  its  habits,  and  fond  of  sitting  on  a 
roof  or  any  conspicuous  eminence,  while  uttering 
a  plaintive  cry.  Of  true  sparrows  there  are 
several  varieties  in  the  East,  the  English  variety 
being  very  abundant.  It  is,  however,  more 
brilliantly  coloured,  and  a  trifle  smaller.  A 
marsh  sparrow  is  found  in  the  Jordan  valley, 
and  on  the  east  of  the  Dead  Sea  is  another 
variety,  the  "  Moabitish  sparrow  "  (Matt.  10.29, 
31 ;  Lk.  12.6,  7). 

Spear.— (1  Sam.  13.19,  etc.).    [ARMS,  ARMY.] 

Speech.— [LANGUAGE.] 

Spelt.— [RYE.] 

Spice. — The  ancients  had  most  of  the  spices 
with  which  we  are  familiar,  and  valued  them 
greatly.  With  spice  they  seasoned  their  meat 
(Ezek.  24.10),  flavoured  their  wines  (Cant.  8.2), 
perfumed  their  persons  and  beds  (Esth.  2.12  ; 
Ps.  45.8  ;  Prov.  7.17),  and  embalmed  the  dead 
(2  Ch.  16.14;  Jer.  34.5  ;  Mk.  16.1).  The  trade 
in  spices  was  carefully  encouraged  and  pro- 
tected. It  was  carried  on  largely  by  means  of 
caravans  travelling  across  the  Arabian  desert  and 
along  the  Palestine  shore  of  the  Mediterranean 
to  Egypt  and  beyond  (Gen.  37.25).  Many 
spices  were  brought  to  Palestine  from  India 
and  Persia,  but  those  in  common  use  were  chiefly 
the  product  of  the  country  itself,  such  as  balm 
of  Gilead,  myrrh,  spikenard  (which  see),  though 
these  partake  rather  of  the  nature  of  perfumes 
than  of  spices  proper. 

Spider.— In  Prov.  30.28,  "  The  spider  taketh 
hold  with  her  hands,"  the  word  probably  has 
reference  to  the  "  gecko,"  a  species  of  lizard 
(R.V.  lizard).  This  creature  has  suckers  on  its 
toes,  by  means  of  which  it  can  run  up  walls  with 
the  greatest  ease.  In  the  other  two  cases  (Job 
8.14 ;  /sat.  59.5,  6)  there  is  no  doubt  as  to  the 
creature  intended,  for  not  only  the  spider,  but 
its  web  is  mentioned.  Palestine  has  its  due 
proportion  of  spiders,  adapted  to  various  modes 
and  habits  of  life,  dwelling  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  in  holes  beneath,  or  suspended  from 
trees,  besides  inhabiting  dwellings  and  caverns 
in  large  numbers  ;  sometimes  walls  and  bushes 
will  be  quite  covered  with  their  webs.  To  the 
slenderness  of  the  filmy  web  Job  compares  the 
hope  of  the  wicked  (8.14). 

Spies. — When  the  Israelites  had  reached  the 
borders  of  Canaan  at  Kadesh,  Moses,  by  the 
command  of  God,  sent  out  twelve  men,  one 
from  each  tribe,  to  spy  out  the  land  and  report 
on  its  character  and  the  number  and  quality  of 
its  inhabitants  (Num.  13.1-20).  They  were 
absent  forty  days,  and  then  returned  with  speci- 
mens of  the  produce,  favourable  news  of  the 
productiveness  of  the  land,  but  an  alarming 
account  of  its  inhabitants  (25-33).  Two  of  the 
spies,  however,  when  the  Israelites  broke  out 
into  open  mutiny  against  Moses  and  Aaron 
(14.1-4),  assured  the  people  that  the  conquest 
of  the  country  was  by  no  means  impossible  (5.10). 
These  two,  Joshua  and  Caleb,  were  about  to  be 
stoned  by  the  enraged  multitude  when  Jehovah 


Himself  intervened  (11, 12).  As  a  result,  only 
Joshua  and  Caleb  of  the  spies  were  permitted 
eventually  to  enter  the  Promised  Land  (14.13-35) ; 
the  ten  were  punished  with  immediate  death 
(36-38).  Afterwards  Joshua  sent  two  spies 
into  Jericho  when  he  approached  to  take  that 
city  (Josh.  2.1  ff.).  They  were  discovered, 
and  would  have  been  killed,  but  were  saved  by 
Rahab.  In  return  for  this  act  she  was  saved, 
with  all  her  belongings  and  goods,  when  the 
city  was  destroyed  (Josh.  6.1  ff. ;  and  see  also 
Heb.  11.31). 

Spikenard. — A  fragrant  oil  extracted  from 
an  Indian  plant,  and  very  costly  (Mk.  14.3-5  ; 
John  12.3-5).  Its  name  is  simply  "  nard,"  which 
is  the  Hebrew  word  translated  "  spikenard " 
in  the  O.T.  passages,  which  refer  to  its  use  as 
a  perfume  (Cant.  1.12,  4.13,  14).  The  Greek  of 
the  N.T.  passages  cited  above  has  the  same 
word  "  nard,"  but  joined  with  an  adjective  of 
obscure  etymology  and  meaning  "  pistic  nard  " 
(see  A.V.  and  R.V.  margins).  "  Spikenard " 
comes  from  the  Latin  Vulgate  rendering  of  this 
phrase,  "  spiked  nard,"  a  reference  to  the  spiked 
shoots  at  the  base  of  the  plant,  from  which  the 
oil  is  extracted.  [OINTMENT,  PB»FDMES.] 

Spindle. — Among  the  Jews  tke  spinning  of 
thread  was  a  domestic  operation  rather  than  a 
regular  trade.  It  is  so  still,  to  a  large  extent, 
not  only  in  Palestine  but  all  over  the  East. 
The  instruments  for  spinning  were  of  the  most 
primitive  kind,  consisting  of  a  distaff  and  spindle, 
no  wheel  being  employed.  The  spindle  was  a 
short  staff  less  than  a  foot  in  length,  with  a 
clay  or  stone  whorl  at  the  lower  end  to  give 
it  weight  and  to  steady  its  rotary  motion.  The 
material  to  be  spun  was  loosely  fastened  to  the 
distaff,  which  was  held  in  the  left  hand,  and 
drawn  off  by  the  right  hand,  which  also 
kept  the  spindle  in  motion.  The  industry 
was  entirely  in  the  hands  of  women,  though 
men  assisted  in  the  wearing  (Ex.  35.25, 26 ; 
Prov.  31.19;  Matt.  6.28;  Lk.  12.27). 
[WEAVING.] 

Spirit. — In  the  O.T.,  with  two  exceptions, 
a  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  ruach,  which  also 
bears  its  literal  meaning  of  "  wind  "  (Gen.  8.1, 
etc.),  and  in  many  passages  is  translated 
"  breath,"  as  applying  to  air  breathed  (Job 
17.1 ;  Isai.  2.2),  and  in  the  phrase  "  the  breath 
of  life  "  (Gen.  6.17,  7.15,  and  cf.  Ps.  104.29 ; 
Ezek.  37.8).  Thus,  naturally,  it  is  used  of 
the  vital  principle,  the  principle  of  animal  life 
(anima,  psuehe),  whether  of  men  or  beasts 
("  breath,"  EccUs.  3.19),  of  men  (Gen.  45.27 ; 
Num.  16.22 ;  Jtt  10.12  ;  Ps.  104.29,  "  breath  " ; 
Ecdes.  12.7;  ISM.  38.16,  57.16).  In  other 
passages  it  refers  to  the  spiritual  principle  or 
rational  soul  (animus,  pneuma).  In  this  sense 
the  spirit  is  the  seat  of  the  senses  and  emotions  ; 
it  is  haughty  (Prov.  16.18),  sorrowful  (1  Sam. 
1.15),  contrite  (Prov.  16.18) ;  it  is  the  subject 
of  divine  graces  (Ps.  51.10  ;  Ezek.  11.19,  36.26). 
In  the  N.T.,  spirit  (pneuma),  as  the  divinely 
bestowed  faculty  by  which  man  can  come  into 
communion  with  God,  is  distinguished  from  his 


SPIRIT,  1?HE  HOLV] 


456 


[STANDARD 


natural  self  (psuche) :  see  especially  1  Cor. 
2.10-16.  The  Bible  clearly  implies  the  separate 
existence  of  the  spirit  apart  from  the  body 
after  death  (Lk.  24.37,  39 ;  Heb.  12.23).  [HOLY 
SPIRIT,  SOUL.] 

Spirit,  The  Holy.— The  Holy  Spirit,  the 
Third  Person  of  the  Trinity,  appears  in 
Scripture  as  "  the  Spirit,"  "  the  Holy  Spirit," 
"  the  Holy  Ghost,"  "  the  Spirit  of  God,"  "  the 
Spirit  of  the  Son  of  God,"  and  the  Comforter. 
The  Spirit  moved  on  the  waters  at  Creation 
(Gen.  1.2  ;  Job  2G.13) ;  was  given  to  particular 
men  for  their  work— Bezaleel  (Ex.  31.2, 3),  Joshua 
(Num.  27.18),  Gideon  (Judg.  6.34),  Jephthah 
(Judg.  11.29),  Saul  (1  Sam.  11.6),  David  (1  Sam. 
16.13) ;  was  especially  manifest  in  the  prophets 
(Ezek.  11.5  ;  Zech.  7.12) ;  was  given  for  man's 
enlightenment  (Prov.  1.23) ;  promised  to  the 
Messiah  (Isai.  11.2,  42.1),  and  to  "  all  flesh  " 
(Joel  2.28). 

In  the  N.T.  the  Holy  Spirit  in  the  Synoptic 
Gospels  is  manifested  at  the  baptism  of  our 
Lord  (Matt.  3.16  ;  M k.  1.10),  and  at  the  Tempta- 
tion (Matt.  4.1;  Mk.  1.12;  Lk.  4.1);  and 
immediately  after  the  Temptation  (Lk.  4.14)  ; 
while  in  His  sermon  at  Nazareth  our  Lord  recalls 
the  Messianic  promise  of  Isai.  61.1, 2 ;  cf .  42.1-4. 
So  also  the  Holy  Ghost  speaks  to  and  guides 
the  aged  Simeon  (Lk.  2.25-27).  The  gift  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  is  definitely  promised  by  our  Lord 
(Lk.  11.13).  In  the  Fourth  Gospel  the  teaching 
of  our  Lord  as  to  the  work  of  the  Spirit  is  more 
definite.  "  God  is  Spirit "  (4.24,  R.V.  marg.) 
in  respect  of  His  nature.  Unless  a  man  be 
born  again  "  of  water  and  of  the  Spirit "  he 
cannot  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  God  (3.5). 
The  Spirit  is  given  without  measure  to  Messiah 
(3.34).  In  His  use  of  the  Messianic  promises 
(Isai.  44.3  ;  Joel  2.28)  the  Lord  "  spake  of  the 
Spirit  which  they  that  believe  on  Him  should 
receive  "  (7.39),  for  the  Spirit,  in  manifestation 
or  operation,  was  in  this  sense  "  not  yet  given  " 
(7.39) ;  but,  as  the  "  Comforter,"  Paraclete, 
Advocate  (14.16,  26,  15.26,  16.7  ;  1  John  2.1), 
the  "  Spirit  of  truth,"  by  Whom  the  truth  is 
expressed  and  is  brought  home  to  man  (15.26, 
16.13),  He  was  to  be  "  given  "  to  the  faithful 
by  the  Father  (14.16),  abiding  by  them  and 
dwelling  in  them,  and  glorifying  the  Son  (16.14) 
by  making  Him  known.  In  1  John  3.24,  4.13, 
this  indwelling  is  one  of  the  two  marks  or  tests 
of  union  with  Christ ;  and  the  Spirit,  Who  "  is 
truth,"  bears  witness  of  the  Son  (1  John  5.6). 
In  the  Acts  the  manifestation  of  the  Spirit  is 
made  at  Pentecost,  and  the  fact  is  identified 
with  that  foretold  by  the  prophet  (2.4, 17, 18) ; 
Ananias  and  Sapphira  "  tempt "  the  Spirit, 
putting  to  the  test  His  indwelling  in  the  Church 
(5.9) ;  fehe  Spirit  expressly  directs  the  action 
of  apostles  and  evangelists  (1.2,  8.29,  39, 10.19, 
11.12,  16.7,  21.4) ;  and  inspires  Agabus  (11.28). 
In  the  Epistles  of  Paul  the  indwelling  of  the  Spirit 
is  clearly  stated  (Rom.  8.11 ;  1  Cor.  3.16,  6.17-19). 
He  is  the  author  of  faith  (1  Cor.  12.3,  and  cf. 
2  Cor.  4.13) ;  in  the  Spirit  men  live  (Gal.  5.25), 
aided  by  Him  in  their  infirmities  (Rom.  8.26,  27), 


strengthened  by  Him  (Eph.  3.16),  receiving 
from  Him  gifts  (1  Cor.  12),  bearing  fruit  as  a 
result  of  His  presence  (Gal.  5.22).  He  is  the 
means  of  their  resurrection  (Rom.  8.11).  Peter 
(1  Pet.  1.2)  writes  of  sanctification  as  the  work 
of  the  Spirit.  In  Revelation  the  apostle  is 
consciously  influenced  by  the  Spirit  (1.10,  4.2), 
and  the  message  to  the  Seven  Churches  is  the 
message  of  the  Spirit  (2.7, 11, 17, 29). 

The  Holy  Spirit  is  a  divine  Person,  not  merely 
a  method  of  divine  action  (see  especially  our 
Lord's  words,  John  14.16, 17, 15.26,  16.7,  8,  and 
cf.  Matt.  12.31,32;  Acts  5.3,9,  7.51;  Rom. 
8.14 ;  1  Cor.  2.10  ;  Heb.  3.7,  etc.).  The  Spirit 
proceedeth  from  the  Father  (John  15.26)  and 
from  the  Son  (Gal.  4.6  ;  1  Pet.  1.11,  etc.) ;  He  is 
both  "  the  Spirit  of  God "  and  "  the  Spirit 
of  Christ  "  (Rom.  8.9).  Thus  in  the  mysteries 
of  redemption  and  the  new  life,  in  regeneration, 
sanctification,  and  union  with  Christ,  it  is  a 
Person  Who  is  at  work,  the  Helper  of  man, 
yet  One  Who  may  be  denied,  quenched, 
and  grieved  (Eph.  4.30;  1  Thess.  5.19). 
[TRINITY.] 

Spiritual  Gifts.— The  powers  or  graces  con- 
ferred on  certain  believers  by  the  Holy  Spirit 
for  the  profit  of  the  Church.  Their  nature  and 
the  manner  of  their  right  exercise  are  dealt 
with  in  Rom.  12  and  1  Cor.  12-14 ;  and  see 
also  1  Cor.  7.7 ;  1  Tim.  4.14 ;  2  Tim.  1.6  ;  1  Pet. 
4.10.  They  are  more  than  examples  of  the 
ordinary  Christian  graces  ("  the  fruit  of  the 
Spirit,"  Gal.  5.22,23),  for  they  are  certain 
definite  powers. 

Sponge  (A.V.  Spunge).— Though  the  sponge 
is  only  mentioned  in  connexion  with  the  Cruci- 
fixion, yet  we  learn  from  early  writers  that  it 
was  well  known  in  ancient  times.  It  was  ob- 
tained all  round  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean 
(Matt.  27.48  ;  Mk.  15.36  ;  John  19.29). 

Spring. — Palestine  is  a  land  of  springs, 
though  most  of  them  run  dry  at  certain  seasons. 
For  a  constant  supply  of  water,  wells  had  to  be 
dug,  and  aqueducts  and  cisterns  constructed ; 
indeed,  the  oldest  architectural  remains  in  the 
country  are  connected  with  the  supply  and  re- 
servation of  water.  The  possession  of  water 
was  a  source  of  happiness  (Isai.  41.18),  and  the 
digging  of  a  well  almost  a  religious  act  (see 
Num.  21.16, 17).  [BEER.] 

Spy.— [SPIES.] 

Sta'chys. — Ear  of  corn  :  a  Greek  Christian 
in  Rome  mentioned  by  Paul  (Rom.  16.9). 

Stacte. — One  of  the  three  ingredients  com- 
posing the  sacred  perfume  (Ex.  30.34,  35).  The 
Hebrew  word  signifies  a  drop,  and  "  stacte  " 
is  the  Greek  equivalent.  It  was  perhaps  a  resin 
yielded  by  Storax  officinale,  a  plant  alh'ed  to  that 
yielding  benzoin ;  or  possibly  a  form  of  myrrh  is 
intended. 

Staff. — [ROD,  SHEPHERD.] 

Standard. — During  the  march  of  the  Israelites 
each  tribe  gathered  round  its  own  standard. 
When  in  camp,  three  tribes  were  stationed  on 
each  side  of  the  Tabernacle,  each  three  con- 
stituting a  separate  camp  or  division  under  a 


STAR] 


457 


[STOICS  AND  EPICUREANS 


common  standard  (Num.  1.52, 2.2  ff.).  [BANNER, 
ENSIGN.] 

Star. — Astronomy  was  studied  by  some  of 
the  ancients,  and  O.T.  references  to  the  stars 
show  both  observation  and  reflection.  Wonder 
and  awe  were  stirred  by  their  contemplation. 
Their  origin  is  with  God  (Gen.  1.16;  Ps.  8.3, 
136.9),  and  they  are  under  His  control  (Job  9.7 ; 
Jer.  31.35),  Who  alone  can  number  them  (Ps. 
147.4 ;  Isai.  40.26).  The  darkening  or  disturb- 
ance of  the  heavenly  bodies  is  associated  with 
calamity  both  in  O.T.  (Isai.  13.10;  Ezek. 
32.7;  Joel  2.10,  3.15),  and  in  N.T.  (Matt. 
24.29;  Mk.  13.25;  Acts  2.19,20;  Rev.  6.13, 
8.10-12).  Worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies  was 
one  of  the  forms  of  idolatry  with  which  the 
Hebrews  were  in  contact  (JDeut.  4.19 ;  2  K. 
17.16;  Jer.  19.13;  Amos  5.26;  Zeph.  1.5; 
Acts  7.43).  Our  Lord  is  spoken  of  as  the  Morn- 
ing Star  (Rev.  2.28,  22.16).  The  "  wandering 
stars  "  of  Jude  13  are  a  comparison  with  comets. 
For  particular  stars  or  constellations,  see 
ARCTURUS,  MAZZAROTH,  ORION,  PLEIADES. 

Star  in  the  East,  The.— The  star  seen  by  the 
Magi  (Malt.  2.2,  7,  9,  10)  was  evidently  more 
than  an  ordinary  star,  though  not  observed 
by  the  general  public;  Herod  had  to  inquire 
(2.7)  as  to  the  time  of  its  rising.  It  has  been 
conjectured  by  some  to  have  been  a  new  star, 
a  comet,  or  a  conjunction  of  certain  planets 
known  to  have  occurred  at  that  time. 
[ASTROLOGER,  MAGI.] 

Steel.— Although  some  kind  of  refined  and 
hardened  iron  was  known  to  the  ancients,  yet 
in  most  instances  where  the  word  "  steel " 
occurs  in  the  A.V.  the  R.V.  correctly  has 
"  brass  "  (2  Sam.  22.35  ;  Job  20.24  ;  Ps.  18.34  ; 
Jer.  15.12).  "  Steel "  occurs  once  in  R.V. 
(Nah.  2.3,  "  The  chariots  flash  with  steel "  ; 
A.V.  "  The  chariots  shaU  be  with  flaming 
torches").  [ARMS,  BRASS,  COPPER.] 

Steph'anas. — A  crown :  a  Corinthian  who 
was  baptized  with  all  his  family  by  Paul,  and 
by  him  styled  "  the  first-fruits  of  Achaia " 
(1  Cor.  1.16,  16.15, 17). 

Ste'phen. — A  crown  :  a  Hellenistic  Jew,  and 
the  first  Christian  martyr.  He  is  mentioned 
first  among  "  the  Seven "  of  the  Church  at 
Jerusalem  as  one  "  full  of  faith  and  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,"  "  full  of  grace  and  power,"  and  as 
performing  many  miracles  (Acts  6.5-8).  In  the 
many  disputes  that  ensued,  Stephen  was  chosen 
spokesman  and  leader  to  answer  the  Hellen- 
istic opponents  of  the  young  Church  (ver.  9). 
His  success  led  to  his  arrest.  Brought  before 
the  Sanhedrin,  his  address  in  his  own  defence 
stirred  a  deadly  hostility  against  him.  He 
was  stoned,  calling  upon  God  and  praying  for 
his  murderers  (Acts  7.58-60).  The  persecution 
then  begun  had  remarkable  results  for  the  Church 
(Acts  8.1, 4,  11.19). 

Stoics  and  Epicureans. — Mentioned  as  en- 
countering Paul  at  Athens  and  inquiring  of 
him  concerning  his  "  new  teaching "  (Acts 
17.18-33).  1.  The  Stoics  were  a  sect  of  Greek 
philosophers,  disciples  of  Zeno,  who  derived 


their  name  from  Stoa,  "  a  porch,"  the  "  porch  " 
being  that  where  their  master  stood  to  teach 
at  Athens  (299  B.C.).  The  distinguishing  tenets 
of  the  Stoics  were  :  that  God  is  underived, 
incorruptible,  and  eternal ;  that  He  is  possessed 
of  infinite  wisdom  and  goodness  ;  the  cause 
and  preserver  of  all  things  and  qualities  :  that 
matter,  in  its  original  elements,  is  also  unde- 
rived and  eternal ;  and  is  by  the  powerful 
energy  of  the  Deity  impressed  with  motion  and 
form  :  that  though  God  and  matter  existed 
from  eternity  the  present  system  of  things 
had  a  beginning,  originating  in  chaos,  and  shall 
end  in  a  conflagration  resolving  all  material 
tilings  to  their  original  state,  when  all  life  will 
be  reabsorbed  in  the  Deity ;  and  that  this 
birth  out  of  chaos,  and  subsequent  resolution 
into  chaos  again,  is  to  be  repeatedly  re-enacted 
to  all  time.  Some  imagined  even  that  each 
individual  would  at  each  reappearance  return 
to  his  own  body.  Those  among  the  Stoics  who 
maintained  the  existence  of  the  soul  after 
death,  supposed  it  to  be  removed  to  the 
celestial  regions  of  the  gods,  where  it  remained 
until,  at  the  general  conflagration,  all  souls, 
both  human  and  divine  (those  of  gods),  shall  be 
absorbed  in  the  Deity.  Some  also  believed  in  a 
sort  of  purgatory  in  which  the  soul  was  purged 
and  purified  from  all  grossness.  The  Stoics 
were  stern  fatalists  ;  all  things,  even  the  gods, 
being  subject  to  an  eternal  chain  of  causes  and 
effects.  They  taught  that  a  wise  and  virtuous 
man  might  be  happy  in  the  midst  of  torture, 
and  that  all  external  things  were  to  him  in- 
different. If  a  man  was  satisfied  with  himself, 
that  was  sufficient.  They  detested  vice. 

2.  Epicureans. — Epicurus  was  a  Greek  philo- 
sopher who  taught  in  Athens  from  307  B.C. 
He  was  born  in  the  year  344  B.C.  His 
system  held  that  the  great  business  of  life 
is  the  pursuit  of  pleasure.  He  admitted  the 
existence  of  divine  beings,  but  did  not  believe 
that  they  had  any  intercourse  with  men. 
These  beings  existed  in  a  state  of  perfect 
purity,  tranquillity,  and  happiness.  With 
respect  to  the  life  of  man,  Epicurus  taught  that 
a  tranquil  life,  free  from  evils  and  enriched  with 
pleasure,  is  man's  chief  good.  His  followers 
maintained  that  the  world  was  formed  not  by 
God,  nor  with  any  design,  but  by  the  fortuitous 
concourse  of  atoms.  They  denied  the  immor- 
tality of  the  soul.  The  happiness  they  sought 
was  to  be  obtained  through  pleasure  ;  while 
some  of  them  sought  this  happiness  in  the 
tranquillity  and  joy  of  mind  arising  from  the 
practice  of  morality,  others  sought  it  in  the 
grosser  pleasures  of  the  appetites.  The  philo- 
sophy of  Epicurus  was  twofold — first,  there  was 
the  study  and  observation  of  all  things  pertain- 
ing to  nature,  and,  secondly,  of  moral  actions 
by  which  man's  conduct  should  be  controlled, 
and  the  giving  of  pain  be  avoided.  Man's  life 
consisted  of  pleasure  and  pain,  therefore  the 
true  philosopher  was  he  who  could  increase  the 
joy  of  life  and  diminish  its  pain.  Moreover, 
true  and  perfect  happiness  could  only  be  ob- 


STOMACHER] 


458 


[STUBBLE 


tained  by  virtuous  living  and  thinking,  and  the 
practice  of  temperance,  gentleness,  compassion, 
gratitude,  and  friendship. 

Stomacher. — Perhaps  used  of  a  species  of  tunic 
(/sat.  3.24). 

Stone. — Heaps  or  pyramids  of  stones  were 
erected  as  memorials  or  historic  landmarks. 
Jacob  and  Laban  each  raised  such  a  monument 
on  Mount  Gilead  (Gen.  31.46).  Joshua  erected 
one  at  Gilgal  (Josh.  4.5-7),  and  the  two  and  a 
half  Tribes  beyond  Jordan  raised  one  on  the 
bank  of  that  river,  as  a  testimony  of  their  one- 
ness with  the  Tribes  in  Western  Palestine 
(Josh.  22.10). 

Stone  Knives. — Flint  knives  were  sometimes 
used  at  sacrifices,  and  the  Egyptians  used  them 
in  preparing  the  dead  for  embalmment.  In  each 
case  they  appear  to  have  been  a  religious  sur- 
vival from  the  time  when  flint  was  the  only 
material  used  (see  Ex.  4.25  ;  Josh.  5.2). 

Stone,  White.—"  I  will  give  him  a  white 
stone,  and  upon  the  stone  a  new  name  written  " 
(Rev.  2.17).  White  pebbles  were  used  for 
voting,  as  entrance  tickets  to  various  functions, 
and  were  presented  to  victors  in  the  games. 
The  exact  custom  here  referred  to  is  uncertain. 
But  the  "  new  name  "  is  inscribed  upon  material 
which  is  imperishable,  and  is  white,  the  colour 
of  good  fortune.  [CORNER-STONE.] 

Stone-cutters. — From  the  times  of  Saul  and 
David  the  Hebrews  became  acquainted  with 
the  art  of  working  stone  for  building,  having 
acquired  the  knowledge  from  the  Phoenicians 
(2  Sam.  5.11 ;  1  K.  5.18). 

Stoning. — Stoning,  amongst  the  Jews,  was 
the  usual  method  of  carrying  out  the  death 
sentence.  Any  crime  meriting  death,  unless 
the  law  expressly  stipulated  for  another  form, 
was  punished  with  stoning.  The  witnesses  were 
to  cast  the  first  stones  (Deut.  17.7).  Some  O.T. 
references  are  Ex.  8.26,  19.13,  21.28-32 ;  Lev. 
20.2, 10,  27 ;  Deut.  13.5, 10 ;  1  K.  21.10.  In  the 
N.T.  references  stoning  is  not  only  a  legal  punish- 
ment, but  an  act  of  mob  violence  (Lk.  13.34 ; 
John  8.5,  10.31-33  ;  Acts  5.26,  7.58,  59,  14.19). 

Stork. — The  stork  is  a  migratory  bird,  reaching 
Palestine  at  the  end  of  March.  It  flies  by  day, 
so  that  its  arrival  "in  the  heaven "  (Jer.  8.7) 
is  patent  to  every  one. 

It  was  accounted  an  unclean  bird  (Lev. 
11.19  ;  Deut.  14.18).  The  quill  feathers  of  the 
wings  are  black,  the  rest  of  the  plumage  pure 
white,  presenting  a  beautiful  contrast.  Job 
has  been  thought  to  refer  to  this  feature  (39.13, 
A.V.  marg.).  The  wings  are  large  and  power- 
ful, with  an  expanse  of  7  feet  (Zech.  5.9), 
enabling  the  birds  to  fly  long  distances  at  a 
great  altitude. 

Stranger. — The  English  word  both  in  A.V. 
and  R.V.  represents  Hebrew  terms  of  very 
different  import,  and  though  it  is  hardly  possible 
for  the  English  reader  to  determine  in  any  given 
passage  which  word  is  employed  in  the  original, 
he  ought  always  to  be  on  his  guard,  and  turn, 
if  possible,  to  a  commentary  for  further  infor- 
mation. 


1.  Nekar,  Nokri. — A  foreigner  who  may  or 
may  not  come   into  contact  with  Israel.     He 
worships  strange  gods,  and  is  regarded  as  quite 
outside  the  interests  of  God's  people  (Gen.  35.2 ; 
Ex.  12.43). 

2.  Zar. — A  word  of  wider  meaning,  used  of 
any  one  who  is  outside  a  particular  relationship, 
e.g.  strange  to   a  family  (Deut.  25.5),  or  to  a 
priestly  house  (Lev.  22.12),  or  to  the  land  (Hos. 
7.9). 

3.  Toshab. — A  sojourner  for  a  short  time,  who 
does  not  (as  such)  enter  into  any  kindly  relation- 
ship with  Israel.     It  is  often  joined  with  ths 
next  word  (Lev.  22.10). 

4.  Ger. — A  resident  alien,  and  a  sojourner  in 
the   best   sense.     It   sometimes  has  a  general 
meaning,  as  of  Abraham  at  Hebron  (Gen.  23.4), 
Israel  in  Egypt  (Gen.  15.13;   Ex.  22.20),  but 
frequently  the   technical   sense   of  a  foreigner 
who  comes  to  live  more  or  less  permanently  in 
Israel,  and  places  himself  under  the  protection 
of   Jehovah,   obtaining    thereby  certain   rights 
and  privileges  (Josh.  8.33).     He  is  to  share  in 
the  Sabbath  rest  (Ex.  20.10),  and  is  not  to  be 
ill-treated  (Lev.  19.33),  but  is  not  required  to 
be  strict  in  the  observance  of  the  dietary  laws 
(Deut.  14.21).    He  thus  serves  as  an  illustration 
of  the  relation  of  the  believer  to  God,  for  as 
regards  Him  we  have  no  rights,  yet  are  allowed 
to  enjoy  privileges  (Ps.  39.12). 

Straw. — Long  straw  was  not  valued  by  the 
Hebrews  or  by  the  Egyptians.  It  was  used  for 
food  for  oxen  (/sat.  11.7),  chopped  small,  and 
mixed  with  grains.  Straw  was  also  largely  used 
in  brick-making  (Ex.  5.7)  [BRICK],  and  as  fuel 
for  the  bread  ovens.  [BAKING,  BREAD,  CHAFF, 
REAPING,  STUBBLE.] 

Stream  of  Egypt.— (/sat.  27.12,  R.V."  brook"). 
[RIVEB  OF  EGYPT.] 

Street. — The  streets  of  Eastern  cities  are  often 
very  narrow,  sometimes  3  or  4  feet  wide,  and 
almost  always  very  crooked.  In  many  places 
a  person  cannot  safely  pass  a  loaded  camel, 
but  must  squeeze  into  a  doorway  or  bend  low 
to  let  the  beast  pass.  At  Damascus,  where 
Ananias  found  Saul,  was  a  street  called 
"  Straight "  (Acts  9.11).  This  street  is  still  in 
existence,  and  is  covered  over  its  entire  length, 
about  half  a  mile.  A  street  at  Smyrna,  which  is 
watered  by  a  river,  with  trees  on  either  side, 
tallies  somewhat  closely  with  the  description 
in  Rev.  22.2.  Streets  were  seldom  paved  until 
Roman  tunes,  and  it  is  very  noticeable  that  one 
of  the  glories  of  the  Heavenly  Jerusalem  was  the 
pavement  of  its  streets. 

Stripes. — Not  more  than  forty  stripes  could 
be  given  by  the  Jewish  Law  (Deut.  25.3),  and  to 
avoid  exceeding  this  number  only  thirty-nine 
were  administered  (2  Cor.  11.24). 

Stubble.  — In  harvesting,  the  Egyptians 
gathered  first  the  ears  of  corn,  then  the  straw, 
leaving  the  stubble  standing  in  the  fields.  It 
was  these  short  ends  with  the  attached  roots 
that  the  Israelites  were  compelled  to  gather  for 
brick-making  (which  see)  (Ex.  5.12).  Some- 
times the  ground  was  cleared  of  stubble  by  fire. 


STUDS] 


459 


[SUPPER,  THE  LORD'S 


Hence  the  reference  in  Ex.  15.7  and  Isai.  5.24. 
[CHAFF,  STBAW.] 

Studs. — Beads  or  j  oints  (Song  1.11),  where 
they  are  of  silver  stning  on  golden  threads. 

Stumbling-block,  Stone  of  Stumbling  (Isai. 
8.14).— These  terms  or  figures  of  speech  are 
perhaps  suggested  by  the  rough,  uneven  roads 
and  mountain  paths  of  Palestine,  a  perpetual 
danger  to  the  traveller.  In  the  N.T.  two 
Greek  words  are  used  to  express  the  idea— (1) 
lit.  "  scandal,"  originally  implying  something 
which  entraps  rather  than  what  trips  up  (Matt. 
16.23 ;  1  Cor.  1.23  ;  Gal.  5.11,  etc.) ;  (2)  some- 
thing which  the  foot  strikes  against  (Rom. 
9.32,  33,  14.13,  20  ;  1  Cor.  8.9). 

Su'ah.— A  descendant  of  Asher  (1  Ch.  7.36). 

Sucathites.— [SucHATHiTES.] 

Sue 'coin. — Booths :  1.  A  place  on  the  east  of 
Jordan  where  Jacob  formed  an  encampment 
after  his  return  from  Padan-aram  (Gen.  33.17). 
At  the  division  of  the  land  it  was  allotted  to 
Gad  (Josh.  13.27).  Gideon  passed  by  Succoth 
when  pursuing  the  Midianites,  was  refused  pro- 
vision by  its  princes,  and  on  his  return  slew 
them  (Judg.  8.5-16).  Solomon  established  a 
brass  foundry  here  (1  K.  7.46 ;  2  Ch.  4.17),  at 
which  the  vessels  for  the  service  of  the  Temple 
were  cast.  Site  unknown,  but  probably  south 
of  the  river  Jabbok.  2.  Valley  of.  Mentioned 
in  Psalms  (60.6,  108.7),  but  position  unknown. 
3.  Site  of  the  first  camping-place  of  the  Israelites 
after  leaving  Egypt  and  before  crossing  the 
Red  Sea  (Ex.  12.37,  13.20 ;  Num.  33.5,  6).  It 
is  supposed  to  have  been  a  regular  resting- 
place  for  caravans  starting  from  Egypt  for  the 
north. 

Suc'coth-be'noth. — Booths,  or  tents  of  the 
daughters :  the  name  of  gods  made  by  the  men 
of  Babylon  (2  K.  17.30).  It  seems  to  be  a 
corrupted  form  either  of  the  Babylonian  deity, 
Bel-merodach,  or  of  his  wife,  Zer-banit. 

Suchathites,  Sucathites.— A  family  of  scribes 
(1  Ch.  2.55). 

Sue.— [LAW,  DEBT.] 

Suit. — [CLOTHING,  LAW.] 

Sukkiim,  SukMims.  —  Dwellers  among  the 
rocks :  a  tribe  mentioned  with  the  Lubim  and 
the  Ethiopians  as  being  in  Shishak's  army 
(2  Ch.  12.3). 

Sun.— The  "  greater  light  "  of  Gen.  1.16-18. 
The  name  first  occurs  in  Gen.  15.12.  Sun- 
worship  was  and  is  widely  spread  in  the  East ; 
and  the  Israelites  were  warned  against  it  (Deut. 
4.19,  17.3).  [BETH-HORON,  HBHES,  IDOLATRY, 
JOSHUA,  STARS.] 

Suph  (Deut.  1.1,  R.V.).— Reed :  probably  the 
sense  is  given  rightly  in  A.V.,  "  the  Red  Sea." 
[RED  SEA.] 

Suphah  (Num.  21.14,  R.V.).— (?)  Reed :  it 
appears  to  be  a  place-name.  The  A.V.  trans- 
lation cannot  be  right. 

Supper. — There  were  only  two  meals  in  the 
day  in  the  life  of  an  Oriental.  The  first  was 
about  midday  (Gen.  43.16 ;  1  K.  20.16 ;  Ruth 
2.14;  Lk.  11.37,  14.12).  The  second  supper, 
the  chief  meal  of  the  day,  was  in  the  evening 


( Judg.  19.21).  The  Passover  was  also  celebrated 
at  this  time  (Ex.  16.12). 

Supper,  The  Lord's.— The  Lord's  Supper  is 
distinctly  treated  in  five  N.T.  passages :  in 
the  three  accounts  of  the  institution  in  the 
Gospels,  in  1  Cor.  10,  and  in  1  Cor.  11.  The  two 
titles  given  to  it  are  the  "  breaking  of  bread  " 
(Acts  2.42),  and  the  "  Lord's  Supper  "  (1  Cor. 
11.20).  The  ordinance  was  instituted  on  the 
eve  of  our  Lord's  death,  and  in  the  presence  of 
intimate  disciples,  who  were  in  close  fellowship 
with  Him.  This  shows  that  the  ordinance 
is  intended,  not  for  men  who  were  about  to 
become  disciples,  but  for  those  already  in- 
structed. There  is  a  close  connexion  between 
the  Lord's  Supper  and  the  death  of  Christ ; 
and  it  is  essential  to  study  all  the  passages  which 
throw  light  on  His  death.  He  had  fore- 
shadowed His  death  in  highly  metaphorical 
language  in  John  6,  had  foretold  it  in  plain 
statement  (Matt  .16.21),  and  had  so  far  explained 
its  meaning  as  "  for  the  life  of  the  world  " 
(John  6.51),  and  as  "  a  ransom  for  many" 
(Matt.  20.28).  It  was,  however,  at  Capernaum, 
about  a  year  before  His  crucifixion,  that  Christ 
uttered  the  fullest  teaching  as  to  His  death 
(John  6).  With  solemn  emphasis  He  stated 
that  He  was  about  to  give  His  flesh  for  the  life 
of  the  world,  and  that  it  was  absolutely  necessary 
for  every  one  to  eat  His  flesh  and  drink  His 
blood  for  the  reception  and  maintenance  of 
eternal  life.  He  thus  taught  the  absolute 
necessity  of  participation  in  His  death  for 
the  possession  of  eternal  life.  This  discourse 
at  Capernaum  was  addressed  mainly  to  un- 
believers and  nominal  followers.  In  view  of 
this  clear  reference  to  His  death,  we  see  at  once 
the  relation  of  the  discourse  to  the  Lord's 
Supper,  instituted  on  the  eve  of  His  passion. 
The  relation  is  that  of  a  universal  truth  to  a 
particular  application ;  the  Supper  is  one 
means  whereby  the  disciples  of  Christ  may 
appropriate  the  benefit  of  His  death.  Both 
discourse  and  Supper  refer  to  the  same  thing — 
the  Cross. 

We  must  now  examine  in  detail  the  language 
of  Christ  in  instituting  the  Supper.  The  in- 
stitution came  immediately  after  the  Passover 
meal.  Our  Lord  first  took  the  bread,  and  then 
the  cup,  blessing  God  for  the  one,  and  giving 
thanks  for  the  other.  Both  blessing  and 
thanksgiving  refer  to  God.  When  thus  break- 
ing the  bread  and  taking  the  cup,  our  Lord 
said,  "  This  is  My  body  which  is  given  for 
you,"  "  This  is  My  blood  of  the  covenant, 
which  is  shed  for  many  unto  remission  of  sins 
(Matt.  26.27,28,  R.V.).  The  words,  "This  is 
My  body,"  refer  to  that  which  our  Lord  gave, 
namely,  a  broken  fragment  of  the  loaf ;  and 
they  are  exactly  in  accordance  with  the  words 
used  by  the  Jews  at  their  Passover,  "  This  is 
the  bread  of  affliction  which  our  ancestors  ate 
in  the  land  of  Egypt."  Thus  the  whole  phrase 
means,  "  This  is  the  representation  of  My  body 
which  is  given  for  you."  The  term  "  covenant " 
recalls  O.T.  facts  and  promises,  especially  the 


SUE] 


460 


[SWEET  CANE 


new  covenant  foretold  by  Jeremiah  (Jer.  31.31 ; 
Heb.  8.7-13).  "  In  remembrance  of  Me"  (Lk. 
22.19)  means  "calling  to  mind,"  or  recollection, 
which  is  the  primary  and  fundamental  purpose 
of  the  ordinance.  The  phrase  "This  do," 
means,  "  Perform  this  action." 

When  we  turn  to  the  Epistles,  we  find  one 
or  two  additional  points  in  St.  Paul's  account 
of  the  ordinance.  In  1  Cor.  10.16,  we  have 
"  the  cup  of  blessing  which  we  bless,"  which 
means,  "  the  cup  over  which  the  blessing  is 
pronounced "  (Ellicott).  Blessing  in  the 
N.T.  is  never  associated  with  things  as  its 
object,  but  only  with  God,  as  the  One  whom 
we  bless  (Westcott,  Hebrews,  p.  209).  "  The 
communion  of  the  body  of  Christ,"  means 
fellowship,  partnership,  joint  sharing  with 
persons  in  that  which  is  theirs  "  in  common." 
Thus  St.  Paul  follows  closely  the  original  in- 
stitution, in  associating  the  ordinance  with  part- 
nership in  our  Lord's  death.  It  is  to  be  ob- 
served how  the  apostle  uses  the  term  "  table," 
not  "  altar,"  for  the  Lord's  Supper.  In  1  Cor. 
11.26  there  is  the  additional  statement,  "As 
often  as  ye  eat  this  bread,  and  drink  the  cup, 
ye  proclaim  the  Lord's  death  till  He  come." 
The  apostle  warns  against  eating  and  drinking 
"  unworthily,"  that  is,  regardless  of  the  sacred 
and  solemn  meaning  of  the  ordinance ;  and  he 
says  that  any  one  so  doing  is  "guilty  of  the  body 
and  blood  of  the  Lord,"  that  is,  guilty  of  pro- 
fanation of  the  Divine  means  of  our  redemption, 
the  Lord  Himself.  The  ordinance  calls  for 
definite  spiritual  examination  and  discernment, 
"  discerning  the  Lord's  body,"  that  is,  a  spiritual 
discernment  of  its  sacred  purpose  and  intention 
(same  word  as  in  ver.  31).  These  are  all  the 
passages  in  the  N.T.  which  speak  of  the  Lord's 
Supper.  The  statement,  "  We  have  an  altar  " 
(Heb.  13.10),  cannot  refer  to  the  Supper  on 
any  proper  exegesis ;  and  none  of  the  best 
commentators  so  regard  it.  The  reference 
may  be  to  the  Jewish  altar,  in  connexion  with 
which  the  priests  did  not  eat  the  sin  offerings, 
or,  more  probably,  to  Christ  Himself  or  His 
cross.  [ALTAR.] 

In  all  this  Scripture  teaching  we  observe  the 
extreme  simplicity  of  the  institution ;  the 
place  was  a  house,  not  a  temple ;  the  persons 
were  ordinary  Jews ;  the  time  was  evening ; 
the  circumstances  were  those  of  a  social  meal, 
a  family  gathering  at  the  Passover  time.  The 
fundamental  idea  of  the  ordinance  is  found  in 
our  Lord's  words,  "  Do  this  in  remembrance  of 
Me."  We  recall  Him  and  His  sacrifice  on  our 
behalf.  But  the  bread  is  to  be  eaten  and  the 
wine  drunk ;  this  means  not  remembrance 
alone,  but  remembrance  with  appropriation. 
We  are  to  "  feed  on  Him  in  our  hearts  by 
faith."  And  this  is  to  be  done,  not  in  secret 
and  alone,  but  in  company  with  others,  as  we 
confess  to  ourselves  and  to  them  our  trust  in 
the  atoning  sacrifice  of  Christ.  We  realise 
therein  our  joint  possession  of  all  that  Calvary 
means,  and  thereby  express  and  realise  our  unity 
with  Him  who  died  for  us  on  the  cross  (1  Cor. 


10.17).  Then  again,  both  the  Lord  and  St. 
Paul  definitely  connect  the  ordinance  with  the 
future,  with  the  second  advent,  and  we  pro- 
claim His  death,  "  till  He  come."  Thus  the 
Supper  involves,  symbolises,  and  proclaims 
the  entire  Gospel  in  miniature.  Christ  for  us, 
offered  on  Calvary ;  Christ  in  us,  appropriated 
by  faith ;  Christ  among  us,  our  centre  of  unity ; 
Christ  coming,  our  Lord  and  King.  And  so, 
as  Godet  well  says,  the  Supper  of  the  Lord 
reveals  and  expresses  the  "  totality  of  salva- 
tion." It  strengthens  our  faith,  stirs  our  love, 
inspires  our  obedience  and  sustains  our  hope. 
The  message  of  the  entire  revelation  of  God  in 
Christ  is  thus  concentrated  in  this  one  ordinance. 

Sur. — Turning  aside,  removed :  a  gate  in 
Jerusalem  (2  K.  11.6).  In  2  Ch.  23.5  it  is  called 
"  gate  of  the  foundation."  The  position  of  this 
gate,  whether  it  was  of  the  city,  of  the  Temple, 
or  of  the  king's  palace,  is  unknown. 

Surety. — Becoming  surety  for  a  debt  does 
not  appear  to  have  been  sanctioned  by  the 
Law,  though  practised.  This  explains  the  ex- 
press cautions  against  it  (Prov.  11.15,  17.18, 
22.26).  Yet  there  are  instances  in  which  persons 
have  offered  to  become  surety  for  the  fulfilment 
of  a  promise  (Gen.  43.9,  44.32 ;  Job  17.3  ;  Ps. 
119.122),  and  in  Heb.  7.22  the  Saviour  is  spoken 
of  as  a  surety  for  the  fulfilment  of  the  new 
and  everlasting  covenant.  [LAW,  PLEDGE.] 

Susanch'ites  (R.V.  Shushanchites).— The  in- 
habitants of  Susa,  or  Shushan,  who  were  carried 
to  Samaria  and  settled  there  by  Shalmanezer 
(Ezra  4.9).  [SAMARIA.] 

Susan'na. — One  of  the  women  who  followed 
Christ,  ministering  to  His  wants  (Lk.  8.3). 

Su'si.— The  father  of  Gaddi,  who  was  one  of 
the  spies  sent  out  to  view  the  Promised  Land 
(Num.  13.11). 

Swallow. — Mentioned  in  Ps.  84.3  and  Prov. 
26.2 ;  also  in  Isai.  38.14  and  Jer.  8.7,  where, 
however,  the  R.V.  transposes  the  "  swallow  or 
crane "  of  A.V.  into  "  crane  or  swallow." 
These  passages  comprise  references  to  the 
swallow's  nesting  habits,  to  its  swift  and  tireless 
flight,  to  its  twittering  note,  and  to  its  annual 
migration.  Of  the  swallows  and  the  closely 
allied  martins  and  swifts  there  are  several 
varieties  in  Palestine.  The  common  swift, 
so  well  known  in  England,  arrives  in  countless 
numbers  in  Palestine  in  April,  leaving  again  in 
November. 

Swan. — Mentioned  only  twice  in  A.V.  (Lev. 
11.18;  Deut.  14.16)  in  the  list  of  "unclean" 
birds.  But  the  swan  is  practically  unknown  in 
Palestine,  and  as  it  is  a  vegetable-feeder  it 
would  have  hardly  been  classed  among  the 
"  unclean."  The  R.V.  renders  the  word 
"  horned  owl."  It  is  more  likely  that  the 
Egyptian  ibis,  an  unclean  feeder,  is  intended, 
or  some  other  water-fowl  of  the  Mediterranean 
marshes. 

Swearing.— [OATH.] 

Sweet  Cane  (Isai.  43.24 ;  Jer.  6.20).— Perhaps 
the  scented  calamus,  which  was  offered  in  the 
Assyrian  ritual.  [CALAMUS.] 


SWINE] 


461 


[SYNAGOGUE 


Swine. — No  animal  is  spoken  of  in  the 
Bible  with  such  abhorrence  as  the  pig.  It  is 
forbidden  as  unclean  by  the  Mosaic  Law  (Lev. 
11.7  ;  Deut.  14.8) ;  and  in  several  instances  the 
eating  of  swine's  flesh  is  alluded  to  as  the  very 
acme  of  abomination  (Isai.  65.4,  66.3, 17).  The 
most  orthodox  of  Jews  in  the  Middle  Ages 
would  not  even  name  the  animal,  b^t  rf  erred 
to  it  as  "  the  abomination."  Swine  r  ,  how- 
ever, referred  to  as  the  type  of  uncleanness  : 
"  As  a  jewel  of  gold  in  a  swine's  snout,  so  is 
a  fair  woman  which  it  without  discretion " 
(Prov.  11.22 ;  cf.  also  Matt.  7.6).  The  proverb 
quoted  in  2  Pet.  2.22  seems  to  be  based  on  the 
saying  in  the  Story  of  Ahikar  (fourth  or  fifth 
century  B.C.)  :  "  The  pig  who  went  to  the  hot 
bath  with  people  of  quality,  and  when  it  came 
out  of  the  hot  bath  it  saw  a  filthy  hole,  and  it 
went  down  and  wallowed  in  it."  Later,  herds 
of  swine  were  kept  for  trade  with  the  heathen 
population  of  Palestine  (Matt.  8.30-32;  Mk. 
5.11-16;  Lk.  8.32,33,  15.15,16). 

Sword. — Among  the  nations  of  antiquity  the 
sword  was  an  auxiliary  weapon,  the  warrior 
relying  chiefly  on  his  bow  and  arrows  or  spear. 
The  sword  itself  was  short  and  broad,  generally 
sharpened  on  one  edge,  but  sometimes  on  both, 
when  its  function  was  to  stab.  It  varied  greatly 
in  shape,  sometimes  straight,  sometimes  curved. 
Always  it  was  carried  on  the  left  thigh,  whence 
Ehud  could  wear  a  short  sword  or  dagger  on 
his  right  thigh  without  suspicion,  being  left- 
handed  (Judg.  3.16).  The  sword  is  the  most 
ancient  weapon  of  offence  mentioned  in  the 
Bible.  With  it  Jacob's  sons  slew  the  Shechemites 
(Gen.  34.25).  It  is  often  synonymous  with  "  war," 
"  The  Lord  shall  send  the  sword  (i.e.  war)  into 
the  land."  "  The  sword  of  the  mouth  "  (Job 
5.15  ;  Ps.  57.4)  is  pernicious  talk,  false  accusa- 
tion, slander,  calumny.  The  Word  of  God  in 
its  penetrating  power  is  likened  to  a  two-edged 
sword  (Heb.  4.12).  "  Out  of  His  mouth  went  a 
sharp  two-edged  sword  "  (Rev.  1.16)  expresses 
the  force  of  His  word,  whether  of  grace  or  of 
judgment. 

Sycamine  Tree.— The  mulberry  tree  (Lk.  17.6). 
It  is  common  in  North  Arabia,  including  Palestine, 
and  two  varieties  are  known,  black  and  white, 
both  grown  for  the  fruit  and  because  silkworms 
feed  on  its  leaves. 

Sycamore,  Sycomore  (Lk.  19.4).— The  syca- 
more is  a  true  fig,  and  is  still  common  in  warm 
and  sheltered  positions  in  Palestine.  In  Egypt, 
"  Pharaoh's  fig  trees,"  as  they  are  called,  are 
still  found,  though  not  nearly  so  abundant  as 
formerly.  It  is  easily  reared,  grows  rapidly, 
and  becomes  a  giant  in  girth,  with  wide- 
spreading  branches  and  enormous  roots.  It 
bears  several  crops  of  figs  during  the  year ;  but 
they  are  small  and  insipid.  Yet  they  form  a 
principal  article  of  food  with  the  poorer  classes. 
Amos,  describing  himself  as  a  gatherer  ("  dresser," 
R.V.)  of  sycomore  fruit,  may  refer  to  the  arti- 
ficial nipping  of  the  fruit  to  make  it  eatable 
(Amos  7.14).  In  flowers  and  foliage  it  closely 
resembles  the  common  fig.  The  wood  is  soft, 


but  durable,  and  capable  of  being  cut  into  large 
planks.  David  and  Solomon  had  special  plant- 
ations of  sycamores  in  the  low  hills  near  the 
coast,  where  the  mild  climate  was  conducive  to 
their  growth  (1  K.  10.27  ;  1  Ch.  27.28).  With 
cedars,  pine  trees,  and  oaks  the  Hebrews  might 
well  regard  the  sycamore  as  an  inferior  material 
(Isai.  9.9, 10),  just  as  the  fruit  was  not  to  be 
compared  with  the  allied  species.  [Fios.] 

Sy 'char. — A  "  city  "  of  Samaria,  near  which  was 
Jacob's  Well  (John  4.5) ;  the  modern  Askar, 
about  2  miles  east  of  Shechem.  Here  Jesus, 
weary  after  His  hot  and  dusty  journey,  met 
the  woman  of  Samaria,  and  stayed  two  <  days 
teaching.  [JESUS,  LIVING  WATER.] 

Sy'chem.— (Acts  7.16,  R.V.  Shechem,  which 
see). 

Sye'ne,  or  Seveneh.— The  last  town  of  Egypt 
on  the  southern  frontier  towards  Ethiopia 
(Ezek.  29.10,  30.6,  R.V.  Seveneh).  It  had  a 
large  garrison,  to  protect  the  adjacent  granite 
quarries  and  its  workmen  from  the  incursions 
of  wandering  bands  of  marauders.  The  forti- 
fied centre  of  Syene  was  the  island  of  the  Nile 
called  Elephantine ;  now  Assouan.  Papyri  have 
been  found  there  written  in  the  fifth  century 
B.C.,  giving  an  account  of  the  Jews  who  lived 
there  then. 

Symeon.— So  the  R.V.  for  Simeon  3,  4,  and 
also  for  5  (Acts  15.14;  2  Pet.  1.1,  marg.). 

Synagogue. — Assembly  :  literally  meaning  a 
convention  or  assembly ;  the  word,  as  in  the 
case  of  "  church,"  came  to  be  used  of  the 
building  in  which  the  assembly  met.  Local 
"  assemblies  "  for  instruction  in  the  Law  and 
worship  existed  from  early  times,  e.g.  "  tEe 
schools  of  the  prophets"  (1  Sam.  10.11, 
19.20-24  ;  2  K.  4.1) ;  and  during  the  Captivity 
meetings  of  the  elders  of  Israel  were  not  infre- 
quent (cf.  Ezek.  8.1,  and  parallel  passages) ;  but 
synagogues  proper  seem  to  have  arisen  later 
in  the  Dispersion.  From  about  200  B.C.  the 
systematic  organisation  of  these  assemblies 
rapidly  developed  in  Palestine,  and  buildings  set 
apart  f  orlreh'gious  services  multiplied.  They  were 
intimately  associated  with  the  Scribes,  as  an 
institution  for  the  instruction  of  the  people  in 
the  Law  and  its  application  to  daily  life.  In  the 
synagogues  the  costly  scrolls  of  the  Scriptures 
written  by  the  Scribes  were  carefully  preserved 
in  a  chest  or  ark  conspicuously  facing  the  seats 
of  the  people.  Stated  services  were  held  every 
Sabbath,  also  on  the  second  and  fifth  days  of 
the  week.  Special  prominence  was  given  in 
these  services  to  the  reading  of  the  Law  and 
the  Prophets;  prayers,  exhortations,  exposi- 
tion and  almsgiving  were  also  observed.  As 
the  knowledge  of  ancient  Hebrew  gradually 
died  out,  the  reading  of  the  appointed  portions 
of  Scripture  had  to  be  accompanied  by  transla- 
tion into  the  vernacular  Aramaic,  or  perhaps  even 
into  Greek,  which  seems  in  the  time  of  our  Lord 
to  have  been  understood  in  the  north  of  Pales- 
tine. Not  only  were  the  synagogues  places  of 
worship,  they  were  also  schools  for  teaching 
children  to  read,  and  likewise  minor  courts  of 


SYNTYCHE] 


462 


[SYRTIS,  THE 


justice,  in  which  the  sentence  was  not  only 
pronounced  but  executed  (Matt.  10.17).  The 
general  management  of  the  synagogue  was 
under  the  direction  of  "  elders "  (Lk.  7.3), 
the  chief  of  whom  were  "  rulers  "  (Lk.  13.14 ; 
Acts  13.15).  The  seats  of  the  elders  and  rulers 
were  in  front  of  the  ark  and  facing  the  congrega- 
tion. The  disciplinary  powers  of  excommuni- 
cating and  of  scourging  were  in  the  hands  of 
the  elders,  and  it  was  they  or  the  rulers  who 
in  the  service  called  on  fit  persons  to  read, 
pray,  and  preach.  Alms  were  collected  by 
two  or  more  "  collectors,"  and  a  "  minister  " 
(attendant,  R.V.),  Lk.  4.20,  had  charge  of  the 
sacred  books,  and  fulfilled  the  general  duties 
of  verger  or  caretaker.  The  order  of  service 
in  a  synagogue  much  resembles  that  described 
in  Neh.  8.1-8,  with  which  compare  Lk.  4.16-20. 
Synagogues  were  very  numerous.  Wherever  a 
number  of  Jews  lived  and  carried  on  business, 
they  had  their  synagogue.  Every  trading  com- 
pany had  one  of  its  own,  and  even  strangers 
built  some  for  those  of  their  own  nation.  Hence 
we  find  synagogues  "  of  the  Cyrenians,  and  of 
the  Alexandrians,  and  of  them  of  Cilicia  and 
Asia,"  belonging  to  such  as  came  up  to  Jeru- 
salem from  those  countries  (Acts  6.9).  In  our 
Lord's  time  there  was  scarcely  a  country  in  the 
whole  Roman  Empire  where  a  colony  of  Jews 
might  not  be  found. 

Syn'tyche. — A  female  Christian  of  Philippi 
and  a  fellow-worker  with  Euodia  (which  see). 
These  two  apparently  found  it  hard  to  work 
together  harmoniously,  and  so  Paul  rebuked 
them  (Phil.  4.2). 

Sy'racuse. — A  city  on  the  east  coast  of  Sicily, 
where  Paul  stayed  three  days  while  journeying 
to  Rome  (Acts  28.12);  now  Syracusa.  Before 
Paul's  day  Syracuse  had  been  a  magnificent 
city,  with  a  fine  harbour  still  used  for  the 
Alexandrian  grain  ships.  But  warfare  and 
piratical  raids  had  done  much  to  damage  it, 
though  its  harbour  was  too  important  for  the 
place  to  sink  into  insignificance. 

Syria. — Syria,  called  also  Aram  (which  see) 
from  the  patriarch  whose  descendants  peopled 
it,  comprehended  the  country  lying  between 
the  Euphrates  to  the  east  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean to  the  west — Cilicia  on  the  north  and 
Arabia  Deserta  on  the  south,  exclusive  of 
Palestine.  The  limits  of  Syria,  however,  were 
never  determined,  and  the  name  was  vaguely 
used.  Syria  had  many  famous  cities  within  its 
borders.  Of  these,  Damascus,  Antioch,  Seleucia, 
Palmyra,  Laodicea,  are  chief.  It  was,  however, 
for  the  most  part  a  collection  of  petty  states, 
striving  with  one  another  for  supremacy,  but 


with  indeterminate  results.  The  kingdom  of 
Damascus  was  the  chief ;  and,  after  the  days 
of  Abraham,  it  first  appears  in  the  Bible  history 
as  confederate  against  David  with  Hadadezer, 
king  of  Zobah  (2  Sam.  8.5).  The  result  was 
that  Syria  submitted  to  David  ;  but  in  the  days 
of  Solomon  it  revolted  under  Rezon  of  Zobah, 
who  also  captured  Damascus  (1  K.  11.23-25). 
From  that  time  the  Syrian  kingdoms  were  in- 
dependent of  Israel,  with  which  they  had  re- 
peated wars  under  the  "  Hadad "  dynasty, 
notably  in  the  siege  of  Samaria,  so  marvellously 
frustrated  (2  K.  6,  7).  Hazael  afterwards 
murdered  the  Syrian  king  and  usurped  the 
throne,  greatly  harassing  Israel,  but  was  over- 
come in  turn  by  Joash,  king  of  Israel  (2  K. 
13.22-25).  Jeroboam  n.  followed  up  the  ad- 
vantage ;  and  in  a  subsequent  reign  the  Syrian 
kingdom  under  Rezin  is  found  in  alliance  with 
Israel  against  Ahaz,  king  of  Judah.  See  the 
remarkable  passage,  Isai.  7.1-6.  The  issue  of 
the  conflict  was  that  Ahaz  invoked  the  aid 
of  the  Assyrian  Tiglath-pileser  against  the 
confederate  kings;  and  the  swiftly  following 
series  of  events  led  to  the  defeat  and  death 
of  Rezin  and  the  absorption  of  Damascus  in 
Assyria. 

From  that  time  the  Syrian  states  ceased  to 
have  any  independent  existence,  but  became  a 
part  of  the  great  Assyrian  empire,  from  which 
they  passed  to. the  Babylonians,  the  Persians, 
and  the  generals  of  Alexander,  who  for  the  first 
time  consolidated  them  into  .a  great  and  pro- 
sperous kingdom.  The  inscriptions  of  Tiglath- 
pileser  commemorate  the  fall  of  Damascus,  the 
overthrow  of  Rezin  (mentioned  by  name),  and 
give  the  name  of  Hadad  as  that  of  the  Syrian 
divinity. 

In  N.T.  times,  Syria,  as  a  Roman  province, 
included  Palestine,  which,  however,  had  a 
separate  governor  or  procurator.  Thus  about 
the  date  of  the  birth  of  our  Lord  the  "  legatus  " 
of  Syria  was  C.  Sentius  Saturninus  (9-6  B.C.), 
followed  by  P.  Quintilius  Varus  (6-4  B.C.)  and 
P.  Sulpitius  Quirinius  (3-2  B.C.).  At  the  date 
of  the  Crucifixion,  L.  JSlius  Lamia  was  legate, 
and  Pontius  Pilate  procurator. 

Syrophenician.  —  A  Phenician  inhabiting 
Syria,  as  distinguished  from  a  Phenician  of 
Carthage  or  other  colonies  on  the  Mediterranean 
(Mk.  7.26).  The  woman  so  described  is  also 
styled  a  "  Greek,"  i.e.  either  in  language  or 
religion,  or  simply  in  the  sense  of  Gentile. 
Matthew  calls  her  "  a  woman  of  Canaan  "  (Matt. 
15.22).  The  three  terms  emphasise  the  strange- 
ness of  her  appeal  to  our  Lord. 

Syrtis,  The.— [QUICKSANDS.] 


TAANACH,  TANACH] 


463 


[TABERNACLE 


Taa'nach,  Ta'nach.— Now  Tannak,  a  village 
on  the  south-west  border  of  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon,  4  miles  south  of  Megiddo ;  a  royal 
Canaanite  city  taken  by  Joshua.  Afterwards  it 
lay  within  the  territory  of  Issachar,  but  was 
allotted  to  the  west  half-tribe  of  Manasseh  ;  as- 
signed to  the  Kohathites ;  whence  the  Canaanites 
were  not  expelled  (Josh.  12.21,  17.11-13,  21.25  ; 
Judg.  1.27,  28 ;  1  Ch.  7.29).  It  was  a  gathering- 
place  of  Sisera's  host  (Judg.  5.19),  and  subse- 
quently a  part  of  one  of  Solomon's  commissariat 
districts  (1  K.  4.12). 

Taa'nath-shi'loh. — Meaning  unknown ;  pos- 
sibly threshold  of  Shiloh :  a  frontier  town  of 
Ephraim  between  Shechem  and  the  Jordan ;  the 
modern  Tana,  2  miles  north  of  Yanun  and  7  from 
Nablus  (Josh.  16.6). 

Tabba'oth.— (?)  Rings :  the  children  of  Tab- 
baoth  were  a  family  of  Nethinim  who  returned 
with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.43  ;  Neh.  7.46). 

Tab 'bath.— The  scene  of  the  flight  of  the 
Midianites  after  Gideon's  attack  (Judg.  7.22) ; 
not  identified,  apparently  about  the  middle  of 
the  Jordan  valley. 

Tabe'al,  Tabe'el.— Probably,  God  is  good 
[TABEEL]  :  Pekah  and  Rezin  sought  to  make 
"  the  son  of  Tabeal "  king  of  Judah,  in  place  of 
Ahaz  (Isai.  7.6).  Possibly  the  person  intended 
is  Pekah  himself,  for  Tabeal,  by  a  permutation 
of  letters  commonly  employed  by  later  Jews, 
can  be  read  as  Remala  (Remaliah). 

Tabe'el. — God  is  good,  or  wise :  an  officer  of 
the  Persian  government  in  Samaria  in  the  reign 
of  Artaxerxes,  who  wrote  complaints  of  the 
Jews  (Ezra  4.7). 

Taber'ah. — Burning  :  site  of  Israelite  en- 
campment where  fire  consumed  the  murmurers. 
Not  identified  (Num.  11.3  ;  Deut.  9.22). 

Tabering. —  This  obsolete  word,  used  in 
Nah.  2.7  ("tabering  upon  their  breasts"), 
brings  before  us  the  image  of  the  women  of 
Nineveh,  led  away  into  captivity,  beating  their 
breasts  in  anguish,  as  though  beating  a  tabor 
or  small  drum. 

Tabernacle.  —  1.  The  construction  of  the 
Tabernacle,  with  an  account  of  its  furniture 
and  contents,  is  described  in  Exodus,  chaps.  25, 
26,  27,  36,  37,  38.  In  the  Tabernacle,  public 
worship  was  held  from  the  time  of  the  wilder- 
ness till  the  reign  of  Solomon.  It  was  both  the 
temple  of  God  and  the  palace  of  the  invisible 
King;  His  "holy  habitation."  It  was  the 
place  where  He  met  the  people  and  communed 
with  them.  The  A.V.  phrase,  "Tabernacle  of 
the  congregation,"  should  be  rendered,  "  Taber- 
nacle or  tent  of  meeting"  (see  R.V.),  i.e.  of 
God  with  man. 

The  Tabernacle  was  an  oblong,  rectangular 
building,  55  feet  by  15  feet,  built  of  planks  of 
the  acacia,  overlaid  with  gold,  united  by  poles 
of  gold,  and  resting  on  bases  of  silver  ;  the  whole 
shielded  by  four  costly  coverings  (Ex.  26.1-14). 


The  eastern  end  was  not  boarded,  but  was  closed 
by  a  curtain  of  cotton,  suspended  from  silver 
rods,  that  were  sustained  by  five  pillars  covered 
with  gold. 

The  interior  was  divided  into  two  parts  by  a 
curtain  or  veil  made  of  rich  stuff,  and  curiously 
embroidered  with  figures  of  cherubim  and  other 
ornaments  (Ex.  26.36,  37). 

The  first  apartment  was  the  Holy  Place  (Heb. 
9.2),  30  feet  by  15 ;  the  inner  and  smaller  one, 
the  "  Holy  of  Holies,"  a  cube  of  15  feet.  In 
the  latter  was  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  an 
oblong  chest  of  wood,  covered  with  gold,  and 
surmounted  by  two  golden  figures  of  cherubim 
with  outstretched  wings.  Above  them  was 
"  the  Glory,"  the  symbol  of  the  Divine  presence. 
It  rested  between  them,  and  came  down  on  the 
lid  of  the  ark — "  the  Mercy-seat."  In  or  near 
the  ark  were  the  tables  of  stone,  the  book  of 
the  Law,  a  pot  of  manna,  and  Aaron's  rod 
(Ex.  25.21 ;  Deut.  31.26  ;  Heb.  9.4). 

In  the  first  or  ante-room  were  placed  the 
golden  altar  of  incense  (Ex.  30.1-10;  for  the 
statement  in  Heb.  9.3, 4,  see  ALTAE),  the  seven- 
branched  golden  candlestick  or  lamp  (Ex. 
25.31-39),  and  the  table  of  wood,  overlaid  with 
gold,  where  the  shewbread,  and  perhaps  the 
wine,  were  placed  (Ex.  25.23-30). 

Around  the  Tabernacle  was  an  extensive 
court,  about  150  feet  by  75,  formed  by  curtains 
of  linen,  suspended  by  silver  hooks  from  rods 
of  silver,  which  reached  from  one  column  to 
another.  These  columns  were  twenty  in  all, 
of  acacia,  probably  supported  on  bases  of 
brass,  and  eight  or  nine  feet  (five  cubits)  high. 
The  entrance  was  on  the  east  side,  and  was 
closed  by  falling  tapestry,  adorned  with  figures 
in  blue,  purple,  and  scarlet  (Ex.  27.9-19). 

In  this  court,  which  was  open  at  the  top,  all 
the  public  services  of  religion  were  performed, 
and  all  sacrifices  presented.  Near  the  centre 
was  the  great  brazen  altar  (five  cubits  square 
and  three  high),  with  prominences  at  the 
corners  called  "  horns  "  (Ex.  27.1-8 ;  Ps.  118.27). 
The  various  instruments  of  this  altar  were  of 
brass,  as  those  of  the  altar  of  incense  were  of 
gold  (Ex.  25.31-40,  27.3,  38.3).  In  the  court  of 
the  Tabernacle,  between  the  brazen  altar  and 
the  Tabernacle,  stood  the  brazen  laver,  at  which 
the  priests  performed  their  ablutions  before 
approaching  the  altar  (Ex.  30.17-21).  On  the 
altar  a  fire  burnt  continually,  at  first  miracu- 
lously kindled,  and  afterwards  kept  in  by  the 
priests  (Lev.  6.12,  9.24,  10.1).  It  is  probable 
that,  before  the  Tabernacle  proper  was  built, 
Moses  used  a  smaller  tent  for  the  purpose  of 
worshipping  God,  outside  the  camp,  which  was 
called  by  the  same  name,  "  the  tent  of  meeting" 
(Ex.  33.7).  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  all  the 
materials  for  the  Tabernacle  could  have  been 
obtained  in  the  Sinai  tic  peninsula,  and  that 
its  construction  was  simple.  See  further  the 


TABERNACLES,  FEAST  OF] 


464 


[TAHTIM-HODSHI 


articles  on  the  separate  parts  of  the  furniture 
of  the  Tabernacle.  2.  [SICCUTH.] 

Tabernacles,  The  Feast  of. — A  solemn  festival 
of  the  Hebrews,  lasting  eight  days,  and  observed 
after  the  harvest  of  corn  and  fruit  was  over, 
as  a  Feast  of  the  Ingathering  of  Fruits.  It  was 
one  of  the  three  great  solemnities  whereat  all 
the  males  were  obliged  to  present  themselves 
before  the  Lord ;  and  it  was  instituted  to 
commemorate  the  goodness  of  God,  Who  pro- 
tected the  children  of  Israel  in  the  wilderness, 
and  made  them  dwell  in  tents  or  booths  after 
they  came  out  of  Egypt.  No  work  might  be 
done  during  the  feast.  On  the  first  day  of  the 
festival  the  people  cut  down  branches  of  the 
handsomest  trees,  with  their  fruit,  branches  of 
palm  trees  and  such  as  were  fullest  of  leaves, 
and  boughs  of  the  willow  trees  that  grew  upon 
the  sides  of  the  brooks.  These  they  brought  to- 
gether, and  waved  them,  it  is  said,  towards  the 
four  quarters  of  the  world,  singing  certain  songs. 
These  branches  were  also  called  hosannoth, 
because,  when  they  carried  and  waved  them, 
the  people  shouted  hosanna,  as  the  people 
did  at  the  Saviour's  entry  into  Jerusalem. 
The  last  day  of  the  feast  was  called  the  great 
hosanna.  During  the  week  the  people  lived  in 
booths  constructed  of  branches,  in  remembrance 
of  dwelling  in  booths  as  they  came  out  from 
Egypt  (Lev.  23.34-44;  Dent.  31.10-13;  Neh. 
8.16;  Matt.  21.8,9;  John  7,  8.12-20).  In 
N.T.  times,  on  the  last  day  of  the  feast,  a  priest, 
accompanied  by  a  procession  of  worshippers, 
drew  water  in  a  golden  pitcher,  containing  a 
quarter  of  a  bin,  from  the  spring  of  Siloam, 
which  issued  from  a  rock  near  the  Temple. 
This  water  was  mingled  with  an  equal  quantity 
of  wine  (Ex.  29.40)  as  a  special  drink-oSering 
(Lev.  23.36,  37),  the  people  singing  the  words  of 
Isaiah,  "  With  joy  shall  they  draw  water  from 
the  wells  of  salvation,"  and  was  poured  on  the 
evening  sacrifice  amid  joyful  acclamations 
(John  7.37).  The  golden  candelabra  in  the 
court  of  the  Temple  were  lighted  on  the  first 
night,  and  perhaps  also  on  the  other  nights  of 
the  feast  (John  8.12).  Priests  also  ascended 
the  steps  which  separated  the  Court  of  the 
Women  from  the  inner  court,  singing  the  Psalms 
of  Degrees  (Ps.  120-134). 

Tabi'tha.— [DORCAS.] 

Tal>or.— 1.  Jebel  et-Tor ;  a  striking  isolated 
dome-like  hill,  rising  abruptly,  1312  feet  from 
its  base,  at  the  north-east  of  the  plain  of 
Jezreel,  with  rounded  top,  commanding  exten- 
sive views  (Ps.  89.12 ;  Jer.  46.18).  It  stood  on 
the  boundary  between  Issachar  and  Zebulun 
(Josh.  19.22).  Tabor  was  the  gathering-place 
of  Barak's  forces  (Judg.  4.6, 14)  for  the  war 
against  Jabin  and  Sisera ;  the  scene  of  the 
slaughter  of  Gideon's  sons  (Judg.  8.18),  and 
of  a  corrupted  form  of  the  true  faith  which  was 
characteristic  of  the  northern  kingdom  (Eos. 
5.1).  Since  the  third  century  Tabor  has  been 
revered  by  Christian  tradition  as  the  scene  of 
the  Transfiguration  (which  see),  though  the 
name  of  the  "  high  mountain  "  is  not  given 


in  the  Gospels,  and  probably  the  summit  of 
Tabor  at  that  time  was  inhabited  and  partially 
fortified.  2.  A  town  of  Zebulun,  on  or  near 
Mount  Tabor,  assigned  to  the  Merarites  (Josh. 
19.22  ;  1  Ch.  6.77).  3.  The  "  Plain,"  or  more 
correctly  the  "  Oak,"  of  Tabor  was  near  Bethel, 
in  the  route  of  Saul  after  he  was  anointed  by 
Samuel  (1  Sam.  10.3). 

Tabret.  —  1.  A  tambourine  (Gen.  31.27). 
2.  In  Job  17.6  a  mistranslation  for  "  spitting  " 
(see  R.V.  marg.). 

Tab-rim 'mon.  —  Eimmon  (the  Syrian  god) 
is  good  :  the  father  of  Benhadad  (1  A".  15.18), 
king  of  Syria. 

Tache. — An  old  word,  meaning  a  fastening 
(compare  the  derived  words,  attach,  detach), 
occurring  only  in  the  description  of  the  curtains 
of  the  Tabernacle  (Ex.  26.6,  etc. ;  R.V.  clasp). 

Tachmon'ite,  Tahchemonite. — (?)  The  wise : 
an  appellation  of  Adino,  the  chief  of  David's 
mighty  men  (2  Sam.  23.8).  In  1  Ch.  11.11  we 
read  "  Jashobeam,  the  son  of  a  Hachmonite " 
(R.V.).  [JASHOBEAM.] 

Tad'mor. — (?)  City  of  palms :  now  Palmyra, 
a  city  120  miles  north-east  of  Damascus,  in  a 
well-watered  and  fruitful  oasis,  midway  between 
the  Euphrates  and  the  Orontes  (1  K.  9.18) ;  said 
in  2  Ch.  8.4  to  have  been  built  by  Solomon ; 
and  so  also  in  the  common  text  of  1  K.  9.18, 
where  the  true  text  is  Tamar  (which  see). 
Palmyra  was  advantageously  placed  for  trade 
with  Babylon.  The  city  of  Palmyra  continued 
to  be  inhabited  until  the  downfall  of  the 
Roman  Empire.  Its  ruins  are  magnificent. 

Ta'han. — A  descendant  of  Ephraim  (Num. 
26.35;  1C*.  7.25). 

Tahan'ites. — Descendants  of  Tahan  (Num. 
26.35). 

Tahap'anes  (R.V.  Tahp'anhes),  Tehaphnehes. 
— The  classical  Daphnae,  now  Tell  Defenneh, 
where  traces  of  a  great  camp  have  been  found ; 
an  important  town  on  east  border  of  Lower 
Egypt  (Jer.  2.16),  whither  Jeremiah  and  others 
fled  from  Jerusalem  (Jer.  43.7-9,  44.1) ;  where 
he  prophesied  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar (Jer.  46.14).  Ezekiel  also  appears  to 
refer  to  the  same  town  (Ezek.  30.18). 

Tahash.— {THAHASH.] 

Ta'hath. — 1.  The  site  of  an  Israelite  encamp- 
ment (Num.  33.26,27).  2.  A  Kohathite  and 
ancestor  of  Samuel  (1  Ch.  6.24,  37).  3  and  4. 
Two  Ephraimites  (1  Ch.  7.20). 

Tahchemonite.— [TACHMONITB.] 

Tahpe'nes. —  An  Egyptian  queen,  the  wife  of 
the  Pharaoh  who  received  Hadad  the  Edomite, 
and  gave  him  her  sister  in  marriage  (1  K. 
11.19,  20). 

Tahre'a.— (?)  Shrewd  :  son  of  Micah,  and 
grandson  of  Mephibosheth  (1  Ch.  9.41).  His 
name  appears  as  Tarea  in  1  Ch.  8.35. 

Tah'tim-hod'shi. — A  place  visited  by  Joab 
when  numbering  the  people  (2  Sam.  24.6) ; 
otherwise  unknown.  It  has  been  thought  to  be 
an  error  of  the  copyist  for  "  (the  land  of)  the 
Hittites  to  Kadesh,"  which  was  the  capital  of 
the  Hittites  on  the  river  Orontes, 


TALENT] 


465 


[TARSUS 


Talent.— In  the  O.T.  the  largest  Hebrew 
weight  for  metals.  The  ancient  Hebrews  seem 
to  have  had  three  different  talents,  which  were 
derived  from  the  three  similar  talents  of  Assyria 
and  Mesopotamia.  The  weight  talent  "  of  the 
king  "  was  equal  to  over  158  Ib.  troy  ;  the  gold 
talent  to  over  131  Ib.  troy  and  £6000  ;  the  silver 
talent  to  over  117  Ib.  troy  and  £400.  The  coin 
mentioned  in  the  N.T.  is  the  Greek  talent, 
worth  about  £240.  The  sum  owed  by  the 
servant  in  the  parable  was  therefore  emonnous, 
£2,400,000  (Matt.  18.24).  [WEIGHTS.] 

Talitha  cumi.— Maiden,  arise!  the  Aramaic 
expression  addressed  by  our  Lord  to  the  daughter 
of  Jairus  (Mk.  5.41). 

Tal'mai. — 1.  One  of  the  three  children  of 
Anak  slain  by  the  men  of  Judah  under  Caleb 
(Num.  13.22;  Josh.  15.14;  Judg.  1.10).  2.  A 
king  of  Geshur,  father  of  David's  wife  Maachah, 
and  grandfather  of  Absalom  (2  Sam.  3.3,  13.37  ; 
1  Ch.  3.2). 

Tal'mon.— The  head  of  a  family  of  door- 
keepers in  the  Temple  after  the  Return  (1  Ch. 
9.17  ;  Neh.  11.19).  Some  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel  (Ezra  2.42  ;  Neh.  7.45) ;  and  their  de- 
scendants were  employed  in  their  hereditary 
office  in  the  days  of  Nehemiah  and  Ezra  (Neh. 
12.25). 

Ta'mah. — [THAMAH.] 

Ta'mar.— Palm  tree  :  1.  Wife  successively  of 
Er  and  Onan,  the  sons  of  Judah,  and  after- 
wards, by  Judah  himself,  the  mother  of  Pharez 
and  Zarah,  through  the  former  of  whom  the 
sacred  line  was  continued.  She  was  an  ances- 
tress of  our  Lord  (Gen.  38.6-30;  Matt.  1.3, 
Thamar).  2.  The  daughter  of  David  wronged 
by  Amnon,  her  half-brother,  and  avenged  by 
her  brother,  Absalom  (2  Sam.  13.1-32;  1  Ch. 
3.9).  3.  A  daughter  of  Absalom,  called  probably 
after  her  aunt,  and  inheriting  the  beauty  of 
both  aunt  and  father  (2  Sam.  14.27).  4.  A 
spot  on  the  south-east  frontier  of  Judah  (Ezek. 
47.19,  48.28,  and  probably  1  K.  9.18,  see 
TADMOR). 

Tamarisk.  —  Abraham  planted  one  (Gen. 
21.33);  Saul  sat  under  one  (1  Sam.  22.C) ; 
and  he  and  his  sons  were  buried  under  one  in 
Jabesh  (1  Sam.  31.13).  Such  is  the  rendering 
of  the  R.V.  in  all  three  places.  The  bush  may 
often  be  seen  at  English  seaside  resorts,  for  it 
thrives  in  sandy  soil  with  saltish  air.  Pre- 
sumably those  mentioned  in  Scripture  had  a 
quasi-sacred  reputation.  [TREE.] 

Tam'muz. — A  name  of  Adonis,  the  sun-god, 
the  headquarters  of  whose  worship  were  at 
Byblos  in  Phoenicia.  His  annual  festival,  in 
June  in  Babylon,  but  August  in  Palestine,  which 
took  the  form  of  lamentation  for  his  death, 
and  rejoicing  at  his  coming  to  life  again,  was 
marked  by  obscene  rites  (Ezek.  8.14).  The  river 
Adonis  (Nahr  Ibrahim),  which  flows  down  from 
the  Lebanon,  is  sometimes  tinged  with  red,  for 
the  soil  of  the  Lebanon  is  naturally  very  red- 
coloured.  Popular  fancy  converted  this  red- 
ness into  the  blood  of  Adonis.  Isai.  17.10 
is  thought  (see  R.V.  marg.)  to  refer  to  the 

30 


"  gardens  of  Adonis,"  which  were  cut  herbs 
placed  in  pots  containing  a  wooden  image  of 
the  god,  and  soon  withered  away.  In  Dan. 
11.37  "  the  desire  of  women  "  may  also  refer  to 
him.  Milton  in  Paradise  Lost,  i.  456  ff.,  has 
some  well-known  lines  on  his  worship. 

Tanhu'meth. — Consolation  :  the  father  (or 
perhaps  mother)  of  Seraiah,  a  Hebrew  captain 
after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  who  submitted  to 
Gedaliah  (2  K.  25.23  ;  Jer.  40.8). 

Tap'hath. — A  daughter  of  Solomon,  married 
to  Ben-abinadab,  one  of  the  king's  twelve 
commissariat  officers  (1  K.  4.11). 

Tappu'an.— Apple :  1.  A  place  in  the  low- 
land of  Judah,  about  12  miles  west  of  Jerusalem 
(Josh.  12.17,  15.34).  2.  A  town  on  the  bound- 
ary of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  belonging  to 
Ephraim,  which  gave  its  name  to  a  district 
belonging  to  Manasseh  (Josh.  16.8,  17.8). 
[TiPHSAH  2.]  3.  A  son  of  Hebron,  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  2.43). 

Ta'rah,  Terah. — The  site  of  an  Israelite  en- 
campment (Num.  33.27, 28). 

Tara'lah.— A  town  of  Benjamin  (Josh.  18.27). 

Tare'a.— (1  Ch.  8.35).    [TAHREA.] 

Tares.— In  Matt.  13  the  darnel,  which  is 
like  the  wheat  when  undeveloped,  though  easily 
distinguishable  when  "  both  have  grown  to- 
gether until  the  harvest."  It  is  not  unknown  in 
England,  but  in  the  low-lying  districts  of  the 
Lebanon  and  other  parts  of  Palestine  it  becomes 
alarmingly  plentiful.  If  eaten,  it  produces 
sickness,  dizziness,  and  diarrhoea.  It  has  to 
be  carefully  winnowed  and  picked  out  of  the 
wheat  grain  by  grain. 

Target.— A  larger  sort  of  shield  (1  K.  10.16; 
2  Ch.  9.15).  In  1  Sam.  17.6  the  Hebrew  word 
probably  means  "  javelin."  [SHIELD.] 

Targum.  — [  VERSIONS.] 

Tarpe'Ktes.— (?)  Beyond  the  bridge :  a  race  of 
colonists  who  were  planted  by  Shalmaneser  in 
the  cities  of  Samaria  after  the  captivity  of  the 
northern  kingdom  of  Israel  (Ezra  4.9). 

Tar'shish,  Thar'shish.— 1.  In  Gen.  10.4  and 
1  Ch.  1.7,  Tarshish  is  one  of  the  sons  of  Javan. 
Prof.  Sayce  takes  this  to  mean  that  Tarshish 
was  colonised  by  settlers  of  Ionian  Greeks. 
2.  An  emporium  of  commerce,  probably  the 
same  as  Tartessos,  in  Spain ;  almost  certainly 
the  ancient  city  of  Seville,  and  one  of  the  chief 
(and  most  remote)  settlements  of  the  Phrenicians 
(1  K.  10.22 ;  2  Ch.  9.21 ;  Isai.  2.16 ;  Jer.  10.9 ; 
Ezelc.  27.12 ;  Jon.  1.3).  Silver,  iron,  tin,  and 
lead  were  brought  from  Tarshish.  "  Ships  of 
Tarshish  "  came  to  mean  large  vessels  bound 
for  other  ports.  Colonel  Conder  still  follows 
Josephus  in  identifying  Tarshish  with  Tarsus 
in  Cilicia.  3.  A  great-grandson  of  Benjamin 
(1  Ch.  7.10).  4.  One  of  the  seven  princes  of 
Persia  who  saw  the  king's  face  at  pleasure 
(Esth.  1.14). 

Tar'sus.— The  chief  town  of  Cilicia,  Asia 
Minor,  the  birthplace  and  early  residence  of 
Paul  (Acts  9.11,  30, 11.25,  21.39,  22.3).  It  was 
renowned  as  a  place  of  education  under  the 
early  Roman  emperors,  and  its  university 


TARTAK] 


466 


[TEL-ABIB 


rivalled  those  of  Athens  and  Alexandria.  It 
was  made  a  free  city  by  Antony,  and  Pumpey, 
Julius  Caesar,  Antony,  and  Augustus  all  con- 
ferred Roman  citizenship  on  some  of  its  in- 
habitants, among  them  being,  presumably,  St. 
Paul's  ancestors  (Acts  22.28).  It  is  now  a  very 
poor  little  place,  inferior  in  importance  to  the 
quite  modern  port  Mersina,  and  to  Adana. 

Tar'tak. — One  of  the  gods  of  the  Avite,  or 
Avvite,  colonists  who  were  planted  in  the  cities 
of  Samaria  after  the  removal  of  the  tribes  by 
Shalmaneser  (2  K.  17.31).  Nothing  is  known 
about  the  name. 

Tar'tan. — Used  as  a  proper  name  in  2  K. 
18.17  and  Isai.  20.1,  but  in  reality  an  Assyrian 
title  signifying  commander-in-chief.  He  ranked 
next  to  the  king. 

Tat'nai,  Tattenai. — A  satrap  of  the  province 
west  of  the  Euphrates  in  the  time  of  Darius 
Hystaspis  and  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  5.3, 6,  6.6, 13). 
He  was  hostile  to  the  Jews,  and  wrote  to 
Darius  to  stop  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple. 

Taverns,  Three.— [THREE  TAVERNS,  THE.] 

Taxes. — Apart  from  dues  for  the  maintenance 
of  religious  worship,  the  Hebrews  seem  to  have 
been  free  from  taxation  (in'  our  sense  of  the 
word)  until  the  days  of  the  kings.  Then  the 
burdens  laid  upon  the  inhabitants  included  a 
tithe  of  the  produce  both  of  the  soil  and  of  live 
stock  (1  Sam.  8.15, 17) ;  gifts  to  the  king, 
theoretically  voluntary  but  really  compulsory, 
at  the  beginning  of  his  reign  or  in  time  of  war 
(1  Sam.  10.27,  16.20,  17.18) ;  import  duties, 
chiefly  on  the  produce  of  the  spice  districts  of 
Arabia  (1  K.  10.15) ;  the  monopoly  of  certain 
branches  of  commerce,  as,  for  example,  that  of 
gold,  fine  linen  from  Egypt,  and  horses  (1  K. 
9.28,  10.28,  29,  22.48) ;  and  the  appropriation 
to  the  king's  use  of  the  early  crop  of  hay  (Amos 
7.1).  That  these  burdens  were  oppressive  may 
be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  in  the  time  of 
Saul  exemption  from  taxes  is  looked  on  as  a 
sufficient  reward  for  great  military  services 
(1  Sam.  17.25).  Under  the  outward  prosperity 
and  splendour  of  the  reign  of  Solomon  there 
lay  the  deep  discontent  of  an  overtaxed  people, 
which  contributed  largely  to  the  revolution  that 
followed.  The  people  complained,  not  of  Solo- 
mon's idolatry,  but  of  their  taxes  (1  K.  12.4). 
Of  all  the  king's  officers  he  whom  they  hated 
most  was  Adoram  or  Adoniram,  who  was  "  over 
the  tribute"  (1  K.  12.18).  While  under  subjec- 
tion to  the  Persian  Empire,  and  to  the  Egyptian 
and  Syrian  kings,  the  Jews  were  subjected  to 
very  heavy  taxation  in  order  to  pay  the  tribute 
demanded.  As  regards  the  Persian  exactions, 
particulars  are  found  in  Ezra  4.13,  20,  7.24. 
The  people  were  compelled  to  mortgage  their 
vineyards  and  fields,  borrowing  money  at 
12  per  cent.  (Neh.  5.1-11).  In  default  of  re- 
payment the  debtors  were  seized  and  treated  as 
slaves.  When  Judaea  became  formally  a  Roman 
province,  the  taxes  were  farmed  and  the 
publicans  (which  see)  appeared  as  a  new  curse 
to  the  country.  The  customs  which  Matthew 
(Matt.  9.9)  received  would  go  not  to  Rome, 


but  to  the  tetrarchy  of  Herod  Antipas.  The 
taxes  called  Portoria  were  levied  at  harbours, 
piers,  and  the  gates  of  cities.  In  addition,  there 
was  a  poll-tax  paid  by  every  Jew  (Mk.  12.15). 
It  was  about  the  lawfulness  of  this  payment  that 
the  rabbis  disputed  (Matt.  22.17 ;  Mk.  12.13 ; 
Lk.  20.22).  This  poll-tax  was  specially  ob- 
noxious to  the  Jews,  being  regarded  as  a  mark  of 
servitude.  Hence  the  eagerness  of  the  enemies 
of  Jesus  to  entrap  Him  into  a  statement  about 
it  which  would  either  put  Him  wrong  with  the 
people  or  with  the  Roman  authorities.  The 
tribute  mentioned  in  Matt.  17.24  was  the  re- 
demption-money to  be  paid  to  the  Temple 
authorities  (Ex.  30.13-16).  [PUBLICAN.] 

Taxing. — The  taxing  referred  to  in  Lk.  2.1-5 
in  connexion  with  the  birth  of  the  Saviour  was 
probably  a  census  of  persons.  [CYRENIUS.] 
The  other  taxing  in  Acts  5.37  was  probably  an 
assessment  of  the  value  of  property  in  Syria, 
with  a  view,  no  doubt,  to  the  levying  of  taxes 
upon  it.  Hence  the  revolt  of  Judas  of  Galilee 
(which  see).  [JUDAS  4.] 

Tetah.— (?)  Slaughter  :  a  son  of  Nahor,  and 
hence  a  nephew  of  Abraham  (Gen.  22.24). 

Tebali'ah. — Jehovah  hath  dipped  (i.e.  baptized 
or  purified) :  a  porter  of  the  line  of  Merari,  of 
the  time  of  David  (1  Ch.  26.11). 

Te'beth.— The  tenth  Jewish  month,  December 
to  January.  Perhaps  Assyri an  =  muddy  month 
(Esth.  2.16). 

Tehaphne'hes.— (Ezek.  30.18).    [TAHAPANES.] 

Tehin'nah. — Supplication :  a  member  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  4.12). 

Teil  Tree. — An  old  name  for  the  lime  tree  ; 
but  the  Hebrew  word  translated  "  teil  tree  "  in 
Isai.  6.13  is  rendered  "  oak  "  in  Isai.  1.30.  In 
the  former  passage,  however,  the  teil  tree  is 
distinguished  from  the  oak,  and  is  translated 
terebinth  in  the  R.V. 

Tekel.— [MENE.] 

Teko'a,  Teko'ah. — Perhaps,  pitching  of  tents  or 
blowing  of  trumpets  (see  Jer.  6.1) :  now  Tekua, 
5  miles  south  of  Bethlehem,  7  miles  north-east  of 
Beth-zur,  in  a  pastoral  district  on  the  range  of 
hills  which  rise  near  Hebron  and  stretch  east- 
ward towards  the  Dead  Sea.  Ashur,  a  grandson 
of  Judah,  is  called  its  "  father,"  i.e.  apparently 
its  founder  (1  Ch.  4.5).  It  was  the  home  of 
the  wise  woman  sent  to  reconcile  David  with 
Absalom  (2  Sam.  14.2),  of  one  of  David's 
mighty  men  (2  Sam.  23.26 ;  1  Ch.  11.28,  27.9), 
and  of  Amos  the  prophet  (Amos  1.1).  It  was 
fortified  by  Rehoboam  (2  Ch.  11.6) ;  and  re- 
occupied  after  the  return  from  Captivity  (Neh. 
3.5,  27).  The  people  who  lived  in  the  region 
must  have  been  occupied  mainly  as  shepherds, 
and  Tekoa  could  have  been  little  more  than  a 
cluster  of  tents,  to  which  the  men  returned  at 
intervals  from  the  neighbouring  pastures,  and  in 
which  their  families  dwelt  during  their  absence. 
This  is  still  the  character  of  the  hamlet. 

Teko'ite.— An  inhabitant  of  Tekoa  (2  Sam. 
23.26  ;  1  Ch.  11.28  ;  Neh.  3.5). 

Tel-a'bib. — Possibly,  hitt  of  green  corn :  city 
of  Babylonia  on  the  river  Chebar  (Ezek.  3.15), 


TELAH] 


467 


[TEMPLE 


Te'lah.— An  Ephraimite  and  ancestor  of 
Joshua  (1  Ch.  7.25). 

Tela'im. — Young  lambs  :  a  gathering-place 
of  Saul's  forces  before  his  attack  on  Amalek 
(1  Sam.  15.4).  [TELEM.] 

Tela'ssar,  Thela'sar.— The  hill  of  Assar  (a 
name  of  the  god  Merodach,  whose  temple  at 
Telassar  was  famous) :  mentioned  in  2  K.  19.12 
and  /sat.  37.12  as  a  city  inhabited  by  the  children 
of  Eden,  which  had  been  conquered,  and  was 
held  in  the  time  of  Sennacherib  by  the  Assyrians. 
It  must  have  been  in  western  Mesopotamia. 

Te'lem. — 1.  A  town  in  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  15.24) ;  perhaps  the  same  as  Telaim 
(which  see).  2.  A  porter  or  doorkeeper  of  the 
Temple  in  the  time  of  Ezra,  who  had  married  a 
foreign  wife  (Ezra  10.24). 

Tel-har'sa,  Tel-hare'sha  (R.V.  Tel-harsha).— 
Hill  of  woodland :  Babylonian  town  whence 
Jews  returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.59 ;  Neh. 
7.61);  not  identified. 

Tel-me'lah. — Hill  of  salt :  Babylonian  town 
whence  Jews  returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
2.59  ;  Neh.  7.61) ;  not  identified. 

Te'ma. — (?)  South  country  :  a  son  of  Ishmael, 
the  tribe  called  after  him,  and  the  land  occupied 
by  them  (Gen.  25.15  ;  1  Ch.  1.30 ;  Job  6.19  ; 
/sat.  21.14  ;  Jer.  25.23).  Teyma  is  still  a  well- 
known  town  and  district  in  North  Arabia  on  the 
road  of  the  Damascus  pilgrim-caravan. 

Temah.— {THAMAH.] 

Te'man,  Tema'ni. — South  :  1.  A  grandson  of 
Esau  and  **  duke  "  of  Edom  (Gen.  36.11 ;  1  Ch. 
1.36,  53).  2.  A  town  and  district  in  the  south 
of  Edom  (Jer.  49.7,  20  ;  Ezek.  25.13  ;  Amos 
1.12  ;  Obad.  9  ;  Hob.  3.3). 

Te'manite. — An  inhabitant  of  Teman;  used 
of  Eliphaz  (Job  2.11). 

Tem'eni. — A  son  of  Ashur,  the  grandson  of 
Judah  (1  Ch.  4.6). 

Temple. — Account  is  to  be  taken  of  three 
Temples  at  Jerusalem — Solomon's  Temple,  the 
Temple  rebuilt  under  Nehemiah,  and  Herod's 
Temple. 

1.  Solomon's  Temple. — The  building  of  the 
Temple  was  the  great  task  of  Solomon's  reign. 
The  timber  used  was  brought  from  Lebanon 
by  Phoenician  workmen,  who  were  employed 
for  this  and  other  purposes  in  large  numbers. 
It  was  not  merely  prepared,  but  dressed  before 
it  was  brought  to  the  sea,  to  be  conveyed 
in  floats  to  Joppa,  whence  the  distance  to 
Jerusalem  was  only  about  40  miles  (1  K. 
5.9).  Similarly  the  great  hewed  stones  were 
all  chiselled  and  carefully  marked  before  being 
sent  to  Jerusalem  (1  K.  6.7).  A  very  large 
number  of  workmen  were  employed.  There 
were  160,000  Palestinians  divided  into  two 
classes.  The  first  comprised  native  Israelites, 
of  whom  30,000 — or  about  1  in  44  of  the  able- 
bodied  male  population  —  were  raised  by  a 
"  levy."  These  men  worked  by  relays,  10,000 
being  employed  during  one  month,  after  which 
they  returned  for  two  months  to  their  homes. 
The  second  class  of  workmen  (1  K.  5.15 ;  2  Ch. 
2.17, 18)  numbered  150,000,  of  whom  70,000 


were  burden-bearers  and  80,000  stone-cutters. 
The  former  class  being  Hebrews  were  free 
labourers,  who  worked  under  the  direction  of 
Hiram's  skilled  men,  while  the  others,  who  were 
the  representatives  of  the  ancient  heathen 
inhabitants  of  Palestine,  were  really  bond- 
servants (1  K.  9.20,  21 ;  2  Ch.  2.17, 18,  8.7-9). 
Over  these  men  3300  officers  were  appointed 
(1  K.  5.16),  with  550  "  chiefs  "  (1  K.  9.23),  of 
whom  250  were  apparently  native  Israelites 
(2  Ch.  8.10).  The  bargain  between  Solomon 
and  Hiram  was,  that  Solomon  would  undertake 
to  provide  for  the  support  and  salary  of  Hiram's 
men,  wheat,  barley,  and  oil,  to  the  amount 
specified  in  2  Ch.  2.10 ;  while,  so  long  as  build- 
ing materials  were  required,  Hiram  charged  for 
them  at  an  annual  rate  of  20,000  measures  of 
wheat,  and  20  measures  (about  10  hogsheads) 
of  the  best  oil  in  the  market.  Phoenicia  was 
chiefly  dependent  on  Palestine  for  its  supply 
of  grain  and  oil  (Ezek.  27.17  ;  Acts  12.20).  The 
master-workman  whom  Hiram  sent  was  Huram 
or  Churam,  a  man  of  Jewish  descent  by  the 
mother's  side  (2  Ch.  2.13,  14).  The  details  with 
regard  to  the  size  and  structure  of  the  Temple 
have  been  the  subject  of  wide  diversity  of 
opinion,  but  the  general  appearance  and  pro- 
portions, as  described  by  Edersheim,  can  be 
realised  without  much  difficulty. 

The  Temple  itself  faced  east— that  is  to  say, 
the  worshippers  entered  by  the  east,  and,  turning 
to  the  Most  Holy  Place,  would  look  west ;  while, 
if  the  veil  had  been  drawn  aside,  the  Ark  in  the 
innermost  Sanctuary  would  have  been  seen  to 
face  eastwards.  Entering  then  by  the  east, 
the  worshipper  would  find  himself  in  front  of 
"  a  porch,"  which  extended  along  the  whole 
width  of  the  Temple — that  is  about  30  feet— 
and  went  back  a  depth  of  15  feet.  The  Sanctuary 
itself  was  90  feet  long,  30  feet  wide,  and  45  feet 
high.  The  Sanctuary  consisted  of  the  Holy 
Place  and  the  Most  Holy  Place.  These  measure- 
ments apply  to  the  interior ;  when  thinking 
of  the  area  of  the  Temple,  one  has  to  consider 
the  walls  and  the  encircling  row  of  side  buildings. 
These  chambers  served  for  the  storage  of  sacred 
vessels,  and  also  perhaps  as  sleeping  apartments 
for  the  ministering  priesthood.  Access  to 
these  "  chambers  "  was  gained  by  a  door  in 
the  middle  of  the  southern  facade,  whence  also 
a  winding  stair  led  to  the  upper  tiers  (1  K.  6.8). 
The  windows  of  the  Temple  itself,  which  would 
be  above  the  roof  of  the  "  chambers,"  were  with 
"  fixed  lattices"  (1  K.  6.4,  R.V.)  which  could 
not  be  opened. 

Edersheim  supposes  that  the  porch  of  the 
Temple  presented  the  appearance  of  an  open 
colonnade  of  cedar,  set  in  a  pavement  of  hewn 
stones,  and  supporting  a  cedar-roof  covered 
with  marble.  The  most  prominent  objects  here 
were  the  two  great  pillars,  Jachin  and  Boaz, 
which  Hiram  cast  by  order  of  Solomon  (1  K. 
7.15-22).  Jachin  ("  He  supports  ")  and  Boaz 
("  in  Hun  is  strength ")  pointed  to  God,  on 
Whom  not  only  the  Sanctuary  but  every  one 
who  would  truly  enter  it  must  rest  for  support 


TEMPLE] 


468 


[TEMPLE 


and  strength.  The  idea  of  such  pillars  was 
probably  derived  from  the  great  pillars  custom- 
ary in  Phoenician  temples. 

The  "  porch "  opened  into  the  Holy  Place 
by  folding  doors,  each  of  two  leaves.  These 
doors  were  made  of  cypress  wood,  and  hung 
by  golden  hinges  on  door-posts  of  olive  wood. 
They  were  decorated  with  carved  figures  of 
cherubim  between  palm  trees,  and  above  them 
opening  flower-buds  and  garlands.  Within  the 
Sanctuary  all  the  sacred  furniture  was  of  gold, 
while  that  outside  of  it  was  of  brass.  The  floor, 
the  walls  (encrusted,  it  is  said,  with  gems),  and 
the  ceiling  were  overlaid  with  gold.  It  must 
have  glittered  and  shone  in  the  light  of  the 
sacred  candlesticks — ten  of  them  in  the  Holy 
Place,  each  seven-branched,  and  of  pure  gold. 
They  were  ranged  right  and  left  before  the 
Most  Holy  Place  (1  K.  7.49).  The  entrance  to 
the  Most  Holy  Place  was  covered  by  a  veil  of 
"  blue  and  purple,  and  crimson,  and  byssus," 
with  "  wrought  cherubs  thereon  "  (2  Ch.  3.14). 
Between  the  candlesticks  stood  the  "  altar  of 
incense  "  made  of  cedar  wood  and  overlaid  with 
gold  (1  K.  6.20,  22,  7.48) ;  while  ten  golden 
tables  of  shewbread  (2  Ch.  4.8)  were  ranged 
right  and  left.  The  implements  necessary  for 
the  use  of  this  sacred  furniture  were  also  of 
pure  gold  (1  K.  7.49,  50). 

Two  folding  doors  of  olive  wood  opened  from 
the  Holy  Place  into  the  Most  Holy.  Within 
the  Most  Holy  Place  was  the  Ark,  the  same 
which  had  stood  in  the  Tabernacle.  Solomon 
placed  on  either  side  of  it  (south  and  north)  a 
gigantic  figure  of  a  Cherub,  carved  out  of  olire 
wood,  and  overlaid  with  gold.  Each  was  15  feet 
high ;  and  the  two,  with  their  outspread  wings, 
which  touched  over  the  Mercy-Seat,  15  feet  wide. 

Descending  from  "  the  Porch  "  we  stand  in 
the  "  inner  court  "  (1  K.  6.36)  or  "  Court  of 
the  Priests  "  (2  Ch.  4.9).  This  was  paved  with 
great  stones,  as  was  also  the  outer  or  "  Great 
Court "  (2  Ch.  4.9)  of  the  people.  Within  the 
"  inner  "  or  Priests'  Court,  facing  the  entrance 
to  the  Sanctuary,  was  "  the  altar  of  burnt- 
offering  "  (1  K.  8.64),  made  of  brass,  15  feet 
high,  and  30  feet  in  length  and  breadth  at  the 
base.  Between  the  altar  and  the  porch  stood 
the  colossal  "  sea  of  brass,"  7J  feet  high  and 
45  feet  in  circumference  (1  K.  7.23-26 ;  2  Ch. 
4.2-5).  This  immense  basin  rested  on  a  ped- 
estal of  twelve  oxen,  three  looking  to  each  point 
of  the  compass.  Its  object  was  to  hold  the 
water  in  which  the  priests  of  the  Levites  per- 
formed their  ablutions.  For  the  washing  of  the 
things  belonging  to  the  sacrifices,  ten  smaller 
"  lavers  "  of  brass  were  provided,  which  stood 
on  the  right  and  left  "  side  of  the  House  " 
(1  K.  7.38;  2  Ch.  4.6).  These  lavers  were 
movable  on  wheels.  Lastly,  in  the  Priests' 
Court  stood  the  brazen  platform  (2  Ch.  6.13) 
from  which  king  Solomon  offered  his  dedicatory 
prayer,  and  which  seems  to  have  always  been 
the  place  occupied  in  the  Temple  by  the  kings 
(2  K.  11.14,  23.3).  The  Priests*  Court  was 
enclosed  by  a  wall. 


From  the  "  Court  of  the  Priests  "  steps  led 
down  to  the  "  outer  court  "  of  the  people,  which 
was  surrounded  by  a  solid  wall,  from  which 
four  massive  gates,  covered  with  brass,  opened 
upon  the  Temple-mount  (2  Ch.  4.9).  In  this 
court  were  large  colonnades  and  chambers  and 
rooms  for  the  use  of  the  priests  and  Levites, 
for  the  storage  of  what  was  required  in  the 
services,  and  for  other  purposes. 

The  services  at  the  consecration  of  Solomon's 
Temple  are  described  in  1  K.  8. 

2.  The    Second    Temple.— Solomon's  Temple 
was    sacked    by    Nebuchadnezzar's    troops    in 
586  B.C.,  and  allowed  to  fall  into  ruins  during 
the  captivity  in  Babylon.     We  have  very  few 
particulars   regarding   the    Temple    which   the 
Jews  erected  after  their  Return.     The  height 
of  the  Second  Temple  was  less  than  that  of  the 
First,  but  the  width  of  the  Temple-area — not 
necessarily  the  Holy  Place  or  the  Most  Holy 
Place — was  greater   than   in   Solomon's   time. 
The  Second  Temple  was  far  inferior  in  splendour 
to  that  of  Solomon,  and  it  is  to  be  remembered 
that   it   was   magnificence   of   decoration   and 
costliness    of    utensils — not    mere    size — that 
were  reckoned.    Many  a  parish  church  is  larger 
than  was  Solomon's  Temple.    Ezekiel's  narrative 
(chaps.  40,  41,  and  42)  is  merely  a  sketch  of  an 
ideal  Temple,  not  of  one  that  ever  was  built. 

The  later  history  of  Zerubbabel's  or  the 
Second  Temple.  Two  centuries  before  the  birth 
of  Christ,  the  people  began  to  neglect  the 
worship  of  God  more  than  they  had  ever  done 
since  their  return  from  the  Captivity.  God  saw 
fit  to  punish  the  Jews  for  this  defection  by  the 
hand  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  king  of  Syria, 
who  came  with  an  army  and  plundered  Jerusalem 
and  the  Temple.  The  daily  sacrifice  was  at 
this  time  suspended ;  the  Temple  itself  was 
dedicated  by  Antiochus  to  Jupiter  Olympus, 
whose  statue  was  erected  on  the  altar  of  burnt- 
offering  (168  B.C.)  ;  the  worship  of  Jehovah 
and  the  observance  of  His  law  were  prohibited 
under  the  severest  penalties ;  every  copy  of 
the  sacred  writings  that  could  be  seized  was 
burnt ;  and  the  people  were  required,  under 
pain  of  death,  to  sacrifice  to  idols.  Judas 
Maccabaeus,  however,  led  a  successful  revolt 
against  Antiochus,  and  gained  possession  of 
Jerusalem;  and  his  first  care  was  to  repair 
and  purify  the  Temple  for  the  restoration  of 
the  Divine  worship.  This  reconsecration  of  the 
Temple  (165  B.C.)  and  revival  of  its  worship 
was  ever  after  celebrated  by  an  annual  feast  of 
eight  days,  called  the  Feast  of  the  Dedication 
(John  10.22).  In  65  B.C.  Rome  subjugated 
Syria,  and  two  years  later  Pompey  marched 
his  army  into  Judaea,  besieged  and  took 
Jerusalem,  profaned  the  Temple  by  entering 
the  Holy  of  Holies,  and  made  the  country 
tributary  to  the  Romans,  though  it  was  still 
governed  by  the  Maccabsean  princes. 

3.  The    "  Third "     or     Herod's     Temple.— 
During  the  reigns  of  the  later  princes  of  this 
family,  Herod  Antipater,  an  Idumaean  by  birth, 
obtained  a  position  of  power  and  influence  in 


TEMPTATION,  THE] 


469 


[TEREBINTH 


the  land  ;  and  after  his  death  his  son,  known 
to  history  as  Herod  the  Great,  so  ingratiated 
himself  with  the  Romans  that  he  was  made 
king  of  Judaea  in  the  place  of  the  Maccabaean 
Antigonus.  But,  to  make  good  his  position, 
Herod  was  obliged  to  take  Jerusalem  by 
storm  (37  B.C.),  and  shortly  afterwards  he 
put  Antigonus  to  death.  In  order  to  gain 
popularity  with  his  new  subjects,  Herod  rebuilt 
the  Temple  at  vast  expense ;  making  it,  in  some 
respects,  more  magnificent  than  that  of  Solomon. 
In  the  thirty-sixth  year  of  the  reign  of  Herod, 
while  Augustus  was  emperor  of  Rome,  the 
Saviour  of  the  world  was  born.  It  was  with 
Herod's  Temple,  then,  that  our  Lord  and  His 
disciples  were  familiar.  Herod  began  it  in 
20  or  19  B.C.,  and  after  forty-six  years  (John 
2.20)  it  was  still  unfinished,  and,  indeed,  was 
not  completed  till  64  A.D. 

It  should  be  noted  that,  generally  speaking, 
the  Jews  have  not  considered  Herod's  Temple 
as  the  third,  but  rather  only  as  an  enlargement 
of  the  second.  With  this  agrees  Rag.  2.9  and 
MaL  3.1. 

Whatever  the  exact  appearance  of  the  details 
may  have  been — and  concerning  this  there  are 
wide  differences  of  opinion — it  may  safely  be 
asserted  that  the  triple  Temple — the  lower 
court,  standing  on  its  magnificent  terraces — 
the  inner  court,  raised  on  its  platform  in  the 
centre  of  this — and  the  Temple  itself,  rising  out 
of  this  group  and  crowning  the  whole — must 
have  formed,  when  combined  with  the  beauty 
of  its  situation,  one  of  the  most  splendid  archi- 
tectural combinations  of  the  ancient  world. 

For  the  various  parts  of  the  Temple,  see  under 
the  separate  titles. 

Temptation,  The.— The  temptation  of  our 
Lord  is  recorded  by  the  three  Synoptists 
(Matt.  4.1-11 ;  Mk.  1.12,  13  ;  Lk.  4.1-13),  but 
not  by  John.  Mark  summarises  the  account. 
The  order  of  the  second  and  third  temptations 
as  given  by  Matthew  is  inverted  in  Luke.  The 
Evangelists  describe  an  actual  fact,  and  not  only 
a  vision  ;  a  conflict  with  the  power  of  evil,  and 
not  with  a  human  tempter.  The  traditional 
scene  of  the  temptation  is  the  wilderness  of 
Jericho  (Josh.  16.1 ),  the  mountain  of  Quarantania, 
north  of  Jericho,  being  deemed  the  site  of  the 
third  temptation.  The  fast  of  our  Lord  recalls 
that  of  Moses  (Ex.  34.28)  and  Elijah  (1 K.  19.8). 
Our  Lord  was,  in  His  human  soul,  free  from 
the  tendency  to  sin,  yet  was  open  to  temptation 
from  without.  He  had  the  power  not  to  sin, 
and  "knew  no  sin"  (2  Cor.  5.21;  and  cf. 
Heb.  2.18,  4.15). 

Tempter,  The. — The  agent  in  the  temptation 
of  our  Lord  is  so  named  (Matt.  4.3).  He  is 
called  "the  devil"  (Matt.  4.1  ;  Lk.  4.2), 
Satan  (Mk.  1.13).  The  title  Tempter  also 
appears  in  1  Thess.  3.5.  [DEVIL,  SATAN.] 

Ten  Commandments. — The  commandments 
are  recorded  in  Ex.  20.3-17  ;  Deut.  5.6-21,  and 
the  circumstances  under  which  they  were  de- 
livered to  Moses  are  described  in  Ex.  19-24. 
The  ten  commandments  were  inscribed  on 


two  tables  of  stone,  and  placed  within  the 
Ark.  They  are  also  called  the  Tables  of  Testi- 
mony, sometimes  simply  "  the  testimony," 
the  witness  to  men  of  the  Divine  will,  righteous 
itself,  demanding  righteousness  in  man  (Ex.  25.16, 
31.18).  As  examples  of  the  way  in  which  they 
are  to  be  understood  by  Christians,  see  our 
Lord's  words  in  Matt.  5.21-32. 

Tent. — The  same  form  of  dwelling,  the  tent, 
has  been  preserved  among  the  nomadic  Arabs 
from  the  earliest  days  of  ancient  Israel  to  the 
present  time.  The  tents  were  originally  made 
of  skins,  subsequently  out  of  wool  or  goats' 
hair,  or  occasionally  camels'  hair.  The  tent- 
cloth  rested  upon  one  or  several  poles,  according 
to  the  size  of  the  tent,  and  it  was  firmly  fixed  to 
the  ground  by  means  of  tent-pegs  or  tent-pins. 
The  latter  were  driven  into  the  earth  by  means 
of  a  mallet.  The  form  of  the  tent  varied  accord- 
ing to  the  size — the  smaller  ones  being  round 
and  the  larger  ones  oblong.  A  larger  tent 
would  be  divided  by  hangings  or  carpets  into 
three  spaces,  the  front  space  being  reserved  for 
the  commoner  people  along  with  the  cattle,  the 
second  for  the  male  part  of  the  family,  while  the 
third  or  hindermost  space  was  reserved  for  the 
women.  But  in  the  case  of  the  more  important 
personages  there  would  be  a  separate  tent  for 
each  of  the  wives.  Thus  Jacob's  tent  stood 
apart  from  Leah's  and  from  Rachel's,  while  a 
single  tent  sufficed  for  his  two  concubines  (Gen. 
31.33).  Similarly  Sarah  had  a  separate  tent 
of  her  own  (Gen.  24.67).  The  tents  of  the 
wandering  nomad  tribes  were  arranged  in 
circular  encampments,  in  the  midst  of  which 
the  cattle  were  secured.  A  newly  married 
couple  had  a  special  tent  (Ps.  19.5),  as  cus- 
tomary among  the  Arabs  to-day.  The  trade 
which  St.  Paul  had  been  taught  was  that  of 
tent-making,  perhaps  because  the  cloth  made 
of  the  hair  of  Cilician  goats  was  famous  for 
this  purpose  (Acts  18.3). 

Te'rah.— 1.  The  father  of  Abraham,  Nahor, 
and  Haran,  and  through  them  the  ancestor  of 
the  Israelites,  Ishmaelites,  Midianites,  Moabites, 
and  Ammonites  (Gen.  11.24-32).  He  was  an 
idolater  (Josh.  24.2),  and  dwelt  beyond  the 
Euphrates  in  Ur  of  the  Chaldees  (Gen.  11.28). 
He  went  with  Abraham,  Sarah,  and  Lot  (his 
grandson)  "  to  go  into  the  land  of  Canaan ;  and 
they  came  unto  Haran,  and  dwelt  there  "  (Gen. 
11.31).  At  Haran  he  died,  aged  205  (Gen. 
11.32).  [HAEAN.]  In  Lk.  3.34  the  name  is 
spelled  Thara  in  the  A.V.  2.  [TABAH.] 

Tera'phim. — Images,  sometimes  in  size  and 
shape  like  a  man  (1  Sam.  19.13-16),  connected 
with  magical  rites.  They  were  idolatrous  objects 
used  in  household  worship  (Gen.  31.19, 30 ; 
Judg.  17.5,  18.14-20) ;  consulted  for  oracular 
purposes  by  the  Israelites  (Zech.  10.2),  and  by 
the  Babylonians  in  the  case  of  Nebuchadnezzar 
(Ezek.  21.21). 

Terebinth,  or  turpentine  tree. — Only  in  the 
R.V.  in  Isai.  G.13  (teil  tree,  A.V.),  and  Hos. 
4.13  (elm,  A.V.).  It  has  a  short,  gnarled  trunk, 
growing  in  all  nearly  20  feet,  often  alone,  and 


TERESH] 


470 


[THEOLOGY 


therefore  easily  recognised  at  a  distance,  and 
suitable  for  special  religious  observance.  Klse- 
where  than  in  Palestine  turpentine  is  made  to 
exude  from  it  for  commercial  purposes.  [OAK, 
TREB.] 

Te'resh. — Perhaps  (carnal)  desire  :  one  of 
the  two  eunuchs  who  kept  the  door  of  the  palace 
of  Ahasuerus.  His  association  with  the  plot 
to  assassinate  the  king  was  discovered  by 
Mordecai,  and  he  was  hanged  (Estii.  2.21,  6.2). 

Tertius. — The  amanuensis  of  Paul  in  writing 
the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  (Rom.  16.22). 

Tertul  lus. — An  orator  who  was  retained  by 
the  high-priest  and  the  Sanhedrin  to  accuse 
the  Apostle  Paul  at  Caesarea  before  the  Roman 
Procurator,  Antonius  Felix  (Acts  24.1).  Ter- 
tullus  would  be  of  Roman,  or  at  least  Italian, 
origin,  but  he  probably  spoke  in  Greek,  not 
Latin.  He  belonged  to  the  class  of  professional 
orators,  multitudes  of  whom  were  scattered 
throughout  the  Empire,  in  the  hope  of  finding 
employment  at  the  provincial  tribunals. 

Testament.— [COVENANT.] 

Testament,  New.— [NEW  TESTAMENT.] 

Testament,  Old.— [OLD  TESTAMENT.] 

Tetrarch.  —  Ruler  of  a  fourth  part:  the 
word  is  applied  to  Herod  Antipas,  tetrarch  of 
Galilee,  Herod  Philip,  tetrarch  of  Ituraea,  and 
Lysanias,  tetrarch  of  Abilene  (Lk.  3.1).  The 
Romans  seem  to  have  used  the  title^in  N.T. 
times,  to  designate  tributary  princes  who  were 
not  of  sufficient  importance  to  be  called  kings. 
As  it  happens,  Herod  Antipas,  tetrarch  of 
Galilee,  is  styled  king  by  courtesy  in  Matt.  14.9 
and  Mk.  6.14,  22.  Herod  Antipas  and  Herod 
Philip  were  sons  of  Herod  the  Great. 

Thad'dseus. — Perhaps  a  form  of  the  Greek 
Theudas,  perhaps  an  Aramaic  word  meaning 
the  female  breast ;  if  so,  it  would  be  a  pet  name. 
His  real  name  seems  to  have  been  Jude.  One  of 
the  twelve  apostles  (Matt.  10.3,  where  he  is 
also  called  Lebbeeus  in  the  A.V.;  Mk.  3.18). 
He  is  also  called  Judas  the  brother  (or  rather 
son)  of  James  (Lk.  6.16  ;  Acts  1.13).  [JUDAS  5.] 

Tha'hash  (R.V.  Tahash). — A  son  of  Nahor, 
and  therefore  nephew  of  Abraham  (Gen.  22.24). 

Tha'mah,  Ta'mah  (R.V.  Temah).  —  The 
children  of  Tamah  were  a  family  of  Nethinim 
who  returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.53 ; 
Neh.  7.55). 

Tha'mar.— [TAMAR  1.] 

Thank-offering  or  Peace-offering.— The  cere- 
monial of  this  is  described  in  Lev.  3,  7.11-18, 
29-34,  23.20.  The  general  principle  of  the 
thank-offering  or  peace-offering  was  that  it 
should  be  entirely  spontaneous,  offered  as 
occasion  should  arise,  from  the  feeling  of  the 
sacrificer  himself  (Lev.  19.5).  After  the  sacrifice 
proper  the  offering  was  used  for  a  sacrificial 
meal.  Peace-offerings  were  offered  for  the 
people  on  a  great  scale  at  periods  of  unusual 
solemnity  and  rejoicing ;  as  at  the  inaugura- 
tion of  the  Covenant  (Ex.  24.5),  at  the  con- 
secration of  Aaron  and  the  Tabernacle  (Lev. 
9.18),  at  the  solemn  reading  of  the  Law  in 
Canaan  by  Joshua  (Josh.  8.31),  at  the  accession 


of  Saul  (1  Sam.  11.15),  at  the  bringing  of  the 
Ark  to  Mount  Zion  by  David  (2  Sam.  6.17),  at, 
the  consecration  of  the  Temple  by  Solomon 
(1  K.  8.63,  9.25),  and  at  the  great  Passover 
of  Hezekiah  (2  Ch.  30.22).  [SACRIFICES.] 

Tha'ra.— [TERAH  1.] 

Tha'rshish. — [TARSHISH.] 

Theatre.— The  multitude  at  Ephesus  rushed 
to  the  theatre,  on  the  occasion  of  the  excite- 
ment stirred  up  against  Paul  by  Demetrius, 
in  order  to  consider  the  matter  (Acts  19.29,  31). 
The  word  bears  its  ordinary  significance,  a 
place  where  dramatic  performances  are  exhibited, 
but  often  used  for  public  meetings. 

Theses.— [No.] 

TheT)ez.— Now  Tubas ;  10  miles  north-east  of 
Nablus.  A  town  of  Ephraim  taken  by  Abime- 
lech,  where  he  met  his  death  (Judg.  9.50 ; 
2  Sam.  11.21). 

Thel'asar.— [TELASSAR.] 

Theology.  —  Theology  is  the  doctrine  or 
science  of  God  :  Christian  Theology,  with  which 
alone  we  are  here  concerned,  is  in  common 
acceptation  the  whole  science  of  the  Christian 
religion,  as  revealed  in  the  Bible,  developed  in 
history,  and  carried  forward  in  the  progressive 
life  and  thought  of  the  Christian  Church. 
Religion  and  theology  are  related  to  one 
another  as  life  and  knowledge,  as  practice  and 
theory.  A  Christian  is  of  necessity  a  sharer  in 
Christ's  revelation  of  God  :  faith  is  based  on 
knowledge,  and  to  theologise  is  simply  for  faith 
to  become  intellectually  aware  of  itself,  to 
define  and  systematise  tie  knowledge  on  which 
it  rests,  and  to  which  in  turn  it  leads.  The 
religious  life  may  be  full  and  vigorous,  and  the 
intellectual  apprehension  of  its  grounds  very 
meagre,  yet  "  the  universal  and  supernatural 
character  of  the  Christian  religion  imposes  upon 
its  adherents  the  duty  of  finding  a  statement 
of  it  which  will  not  be  impaired  by  our  wavering 
knowledge  of  nature  and  history  ;  and,  indeed, 
which  will  be  able  to  maintain  itself  before  any 
possible  theory  of  nature  or  of  history." 

The  main  divisions  or  aspects  of  theological 
study  are  Biblical,  Systematic,  Historical,  and 
Practical.  Of  these,  since  Christianity  rests 
upon  the  revelation  contained  in  the  Scriptures, 
Biblical  or  Exegetical  Theology  is  primary 
and  fundamental :  it  is  the  main  business  of 
the  theologian  to  interpret  and  systematise  the 
teaching  of  the  O.T.  and  N.T.  And  it  is  obvious 
that  Biblical  Theology  separates  into  O.T. 
Theology  and  N.T.  Theology,  the  former 
dealing  with  the  progressive  revelation  of  God 
to  the  Hebrew  people,  which  culminated  in  the 
Christ.  "  Biblical  Theology  is  the  knowledge 
of  God's  great  operation  in  introducing  His 
kingdom  among  men,  presented  to  our  view 
exactly  as  it  lies  presented  in  the  Bible.  .  .  . 
But  in  the  Bible  we  have  writings  contemporary 
with  this  operation,  and  reflecting  it  for  more 
than  a  thousand  years.  .  .  .  This  at  once  suggests 
to  us,  therefore,  when  we  consider  that  God's 
operation  extended  over  this  long  period,  and  yet 
that  it  took  end  at  last  in  the  coming  of  His 


THEOLOGY] 


471 


[THEOLOGY 


Son,  that  two  characteristics  belong  to  it.  It 
is  historical,  and  it  is  progressive ;  it  covers  a 
long  period,  and  it  advances  from  less  to  more, 
and  finally  culminates"  (A.  B.  Davidson,  The 
Theology  of  the  O.T.,  pp.  1,  2).  Dr.  Davidson 
further  points  out  that  in  the  O.T.  we  have  pre- 
sented to  us  an  actual  historical  religious  life,  men 
filled  with  the  profoundest  thoughts  of  God,  a 
body  of  profoundly  religious  men  speaking  the 
truth  to  their  countrymen  and  seeking  to  turn 
them  to  God.  We  do  not  find  a  theology  in  the 
O.T. ;  we  find  a  religion — religious  conceptions 
and  religious  hopes  and  aspirations.  It  is  we 
ourselves  who  create  the  theology,  when  we 
give  to  those  religious  ideas  and  convictions  a 
systematic  or  orderly  form.  It  follows  that 
the  method  must  be  historical :  O.T.  theology 
is  really  the  history  of  the  religion  of  Israel 
as  represented  in  the  O.T.  Dr.  Davidson 
distinguishes  five  great  liistorical  periods  : — 

1.  Before  the  Exodus. 

2.  From   the   Exodus   to   written   prophecy, 
B.C.  800. 

3.  From  800  to  the  Exile,  B.C.  586. 

4.  From  the  Exile  to  the  close  of  the  pro- 
phetic Canon,  B.C.  400. 

5.  From  400  to  the  Christian  era. 

To  these  periods  the  O.T.  literature  i.s  severally 
assigned,  and  through  each  is  traced  out  the 
growth  of  the  great  religious  ideas — the  doctrine 
of  God,  of  man  and  sin,  of  redemption  and  of 
the  last  things. 

The  N.T.,  equally  with  the  O.T.,  is  a  book  of 
religion  rather  than  of  theology.  But  the 
religious  life  which  its  literature  presents  has 
these  two  features  :  it  is  the  life  of  a  single 
generation  of  men,  and  the  life  is  absolutely 
dominated  and  fashioned  by  Jesus  Christ. 
The  N.T.  is  the  apostolic  witness  to  Him:  it 
is  the  task  of  N.T.  theology  to  interpret  and 
systematise  that  witness,  to  gather  from  the 
writings  of  men  whom,  in  Pauline  phrase, 
He  "  apprehended,"  laid  hold  of  and  possessed, 
their  thought  and  conviction  as  to  Himself, 
His  teaching  and  His  work  for  man.  No 
doubt  these  writings  show  development,  and 
we  may  not  ignore  the  help  given  by  the  his- 
torical method  in  tracing  their  successive 
testimony.  But  as  they  are  nearly  contem- 
poraneous, and  as  they  witness  to  the  same 
final  fact  of  the  revelation  of  God  in  Jesus 
Christ,  it  is  of  less  importance  to  place  them  in 
chronological  order  than  to  isolate  and  then 
combine  their  testimony.  The  writings  of  St. 
Paul  extend  over  a  space  of  twelve  years  or  more, 
and  it  has  been  customary  to  emphasise  the 
growth  of  his  thought  from  the  simplicities 
of  Thessalonians  to  the  profundities  of  Col- 
ossians  and  Ephesians.  Perhaps,  however, 
the  differences  are  more  due  to  the  needs  of 
those  addressed  than  to  development  in  the 
Apostle's  thinking.  Behind  his  earliest  writing 
there  lay  nearly  twenty  years  of  Christian 
experience  and  service.  The  Pauline  Epistles 
may  be  treated  as  a  unit,  and  compared  with 
the  distinctive  testimony  afforded  by  other  N.T. 


writings    to    their   one   common    theme,   Jesus 
Christ. 

Following  this  plan,  the  companion  volume 
to  that  already  referred  to  on  the  O.T.  (The 
Theology  of  the  N.T.,  G.  B.  Stevens,  D.D.), 
falls  into  seven  main  divisions  : — 

1.  The  teaching  of   Jesus    according  to  the 
Synoptip  Gospels. 

2.  The  teaching  of    Jesus  according  to  the 
Fourth  Gospel. 

3.  The  primitive    apostolic    teaching    (Acts, 
Jas.,  1  Pet.,  Jude,  and  2  Pet.). 

4.  The  theology  of  Paul. 

5.  The    theology    of    the     Epistle    to     the 
Hebrews. 

6.  The  theology  of  the  Apocalypse. 

7.  The  theology  of  John. 

But  though  it  is  convenient  to  distinguish 
the  theology  of  the  N.T.  from  that  of  the 
O.T.,  it  must  be  remembered  that  these  are 
not  two,  but  one.  Christ  came  to  fulfil  the  Law 
and  the  Prophets  :  His  own  ministry  and  that 
of  His  apostles  appropriated  and  completed 
the  revelation  given  to  Israel  through  the 
Jewish  Scriptures.  Hence  the  same  great 
themes  of  religion  are  continued.  What  is 
most  distinctive  in  the  teaching  of  Jesus — 
apart  from  His  testimony  to  Himself — is  His 
revelation  of  the  Fatherhood  of  God  and  His 
doctrine  of  the  Kingdom  of  God  :  the  main 
truths  which  possessed  His  followers  and  inter- 
preters are  those  connected  with  the  Person 
and  the  Work  of  Christ — Christology  and 
Soteriology,  or  the  way  of  salvation. 

In  the  successive  "  theologies "  of  the 
Church  which  make  up  the  "  history  of  Christian 
doctrine,"  these  truths  have  received  varying 
stress.  To  the  apologetic  literature  of  the 
second  century,  in  which  Christianity  was 
defended  against  heathen  attacks  and  heretical 
perversion,  there  succeeded  the  long  contro- 
versy as  to  -the  Person  of  Christ,  the  Incarnation 
and  the  Trinity,  the  issue  of  which  was  the 
"Catholic  faith."  [TRINITY.]  In  the  West 
there  were  controversies  on  sin  and  grace :  in 
the  Church  of  the  Reformation  soteriology, 
justification  by  faith  alone,  as  the  one  way  of 
salvation,  was  the  decisive  issue.  With  these 
three  periods  are  linked  the  names  of  Athan- 
asius,  Augustine,  and  Luther.  Calvin  syste- 
rnatised  the  Protestant  theology,  with  special 
emphasis  upon  the  sovereignty  of  God.  It 
may  be  added  that  tliroughout  the  whole  history 
varying  stress  has  been  laid  upon  three  factors 
which  go  to  the  making  of  theological  belief — 
the  authority  of  Scripture,  the  permanent 
guidance  of  the  Spirit,  the  rights  of  the  intellect. 
The  theology  of  every  age  must  reckon  with 
and  interpret  for  itself  each  of  the  three.  And 
perhaps  the  most  determinative  factor  in 
recent  theological  movements  has  been  the 
first :  modern  theology  is  primarily  historical, 
secondarily  doctrinal,  and  its  main  object  has 
been  to  get  back  to  the  historical  Christ.  "  What 
a  contrast,"  writes  Dr.  Fairbairn  (Christ  in 
Modern  Theology,  p.  18),  "  does  the  workshop 


THEOPHILUS] 


472   [THESSALONIANS,  EPISTLES  TO 


of  a  living  theologian  present  to  the  library 
of  the  older  divine!  Dogmatics  and  apolo- 
getics have  almost  disappeared  from  it,  and  in 
their  place  stand  books  on  almost  every  possible 
question  in  the  textual,  literary,  and  historical 
criticism  of  the  O.T.  and  N.T.  Harmonies 
have  almost  ceased  to  be,  and  instead  we 
have  discussions  as  to  the  sources,  sequence, 
dependence,  independence,  purpose,  dates,  of 
the  Four  Gospels.  Lives  of  Christ  by  men  of  all 
schools,  tendencies,  Churches,  abound,  each 
using  some  more  or  less  rigorous  critical  method. 
Besides  these,  and  supplementary  to  them,  are 
histories  of  N.T.  tunes,  which  show  us  the 
smaller  eddies  as  well  as  the  greater  movements, 
and  supply  both  the  background  and  the  light 
and  shade  needed  to  throw  the  central  Figure 
into  true  perspective."  The  outcrop  of  Biblical 
literature,  especially  of  Dictionaries  of  the  Bible, 
in  the  seventeen  years  since  this  was  written, 
amply  confirms  the  main  contention.  This 
renewed  study  of  the  Scriptures  may  alter  their 
perspective  without  at  all  impairing  their 
authority.  To  that  authority  the  earlier 
movement,  with  its  watchword,  "  Back  to 
Christ,"  kept  entirely  loyal :  not  so  the  later 
development,  with  its  question,  "  Jesus  or 
Christ?" 

There  may  be  perils  in  the  new  path ;  but 
if  He  be  kept  steadily  in  view,  and  the  ways  of 
Biblical  study  be  faithfully  and  fearlessly 
traversed  under  the  conviction  of  His  own 
declaration,  "These  are  they  which  testify 
of  Me,"  the  future  of  theology  cannot  be  in 
peril.  "The  Lord  hath  more  truth  yet  to 
break  forth  from  out  of  His  holy  Word,"  and 
under  guidance  of  the  Spirit  of  Him  who  is 
"the  same  yesterday,  and  to-day,  yea,  and 
for  ever,"  with  ever  deepening  satisfaction 
to  mind  and  heart  and  will,  each  succeeding 
generation  may  look  for  yet  fuller  entrance  into 
the  meaning  of  the  revelation  of  the  grace  of 
God  in  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord. 

Theophilus.— Beloved  of  God:  the  person  to 
whom  Luke  inscribes  his  Gospel  and  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  (Lk.  1.3  ;  Acts  1.1).  It  is  believed 
that  he  was  a  Gentile  of  high  rank  who  had 
come  under  the  influence  of  the  gospel.  "  Most 
excellent "  is  probably  a  title  (see  also  Acts 
23.26,  24.3,  26.25).  In  the  second  century  A.D. 
it  was  used  of  the  Roman  knights. 

Thessalonians,  Epistles  to  the.— For  the 
Church  to  which  these  letters  were  addressed, 
see  THBSSALONICA.  Their  authorship  is,  with 
increasing  confidence,  ascribed  to  Paul,  though 
a  few  scholars  still  refer  the  Second  Epistle  to 
some  other  pen.  In  all  probability  they  were 
the  first  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles.  Their  date 
must  fall  within  the  second  missionary  journey, 
which  included  his  first  visit  to  Europe,  and  may 
be  placed  between  49-51  A.D.,  or  perhaps 
51-53  A.D.  The  place  of  writing  was  Corinth. 
The  occasion  for  their  writing  appears  from 
the  statements  of  the  Epistles.  The  gospel 
had  been  first  proclaimed  at  Thessalonica  by 
Paul  and  Silas,  shortly  after  their  release  from 


imprisonment  at  Philippi.  For  the  Church 
appears  from  the  Epistle  to  have  mainly  con- 
sisted of  Gentiles  (1  Thess.  1.9),  gathered  there- 
fore after  these  three  weeks.  The  references  by 
the  apostle  to  his  manner  of  life  among  the 
Thessalonians  implies  a  lengthened  residence. 
Paul  addressed  himself  first,  agreeably  to  his 
constant  practice,  to  the  Jews,  and  afterwards, 
with  still  more  success,  to  the  Gentiles.  But 
the  violence  of  the  Jews  drove  the  apostle 
away.  He  left  the  newly-planted  Church  in 
difficulty.  Anxiety  led  him  to  send  Timothy 
from  Athens,  to  encourage  and  comfort  its 
members  under  the  persecutions  to  which  they 
were  exposed  (1  Thess.  3.1,  2).  Timothy  re- 
joined the  apostle  at  Corinth,  and  brought  him 
an  account  of  the  steadfastness  of  the  Thessa- 
lonian  Christians  which  filled  him  with  joy  and 
gratitude  (1  Thess.  3.6-9),  and  reawakened  his 
desire  to  visit  them.  Having  been  repeatedly 
disappointed  in  his  plans  for  that  purpose,  he 
wrote  the  First  Epistle  from  Corinth. 

The  contents  of  the  First  Epistle  fall  into 
two  parts:  (1)  In  the  first  portion  of  this 
Epistle  (1-3)  the  apostle  expresses  his  gratitude 
and  joy  on  account  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
Thessalonians  had  received  the  gospel,  and  for 
their  fidelity  and  constancy  in  the  midst  of 
persecutions  and  afflictions ;  vindicates  the  con- 
duct of  himself  and  his  fellow-labourers  in 
preaching  the  gospel,  and  declares  his  affec- 
tionate concern  for  their  welfare.  (2)  The  re- 
mainder of  the  Epistle  is  taken  up  with  practical 
admonitions ;  warning  them  against  the  sin  for 
which  their  city  was  notorious  ;  and  exhorting 
them  to  the  cultivation  of  all  Christian  virtues, 
particularly  to  a  watchful,  sober,  and  holy  life, 
becoming  their  happy  condition  and  exalted 
hopes  (4.1-12,  5).  Special  words  of  consolation 
are  addressed  to  those  who  had  been  bereaved. 
Speaking  by  express  Divine  authority,  he  assures 
them  of  the  resurrection  of  the  pious  dead  on 
Christ's  coming,  to  be  followed  by  the  trans- 
formation of  the  living ;  and  exhorts  them  to 
take  the  comfort  of  this  glorious  hope  (4.13, 5.11), 
adding  a  series  of  brief  emphatic  counsels — an 
epitome  of  the  practical  gospel  (5.12-23),  end- 
ing with  the  injunction  to  "  abstain  from  every 
form  of  evil  "  (R.V.),  with  prayer  and  benedic- 
tion (5.22-28). 

The  Second  Epistle  was  written  not  long  after 
the  First.  Its  occasion  was  the  necessity  of 
correcting  a  belief  found  among  the  Christians 
at  Thessalonica,  that  the  appearance  of  the 
Lord  and  the  end  of  the  world  were  at  hand, 
as  well  as  to  protest  against  some  practical 
misapplications  of  the  belief.  These  had  been 
grounded  in  part  upon  a  misconstruction  of 
expressions  in  the  former  Epistle,  and  appear  to 
have  been  supported  by  some  who  laid  claim  to 
inspiration,  and  even  produced  fictitious  letters 
in  the  apostle's  name.  There  were  also  persons 
who,  on  religious  pretences,  neglected  their 
secular  employments,  and  were  guilty  of  dis- 
orderly conduct. 

The   contents   of   the   Second   Epistle   are   as 


THESSALONICA] 


473 


[THREE  TAVERNS,  THE 


follows  : — After  the  salutation,  and  expressions 
of  thankfulness  for  the  character  of  the  Thessa- 
lonian  Christians  (1.1-10)  and  the  assurance  of 
his  prayer  (1.11, 12),  the  apostle  exposes  the 
error  of  anticipating  the  near  approach  of  the 
day  of  the  Lord.  Reminding  the  Thessalonian 
Christians  of  what  he  had  said  when  he  was  with 
them,  he  tells  them  that  he  had  spoken  rather 
of  the  unexpectedness  of  the  event  than  of  its 
nearness,  and  that  it  must  be  preceded  by  "  the 
apostasy,"  and  by  the  temporary  ascendency  of 
the  "  man  of  sin,"  the  spiritual  usurper,  who, 
after  certain  obstacles  were  removed,  should 
establish  a  system  of  error  and  delusion  by 
which  many  would  be  carried  away  (2.1-12). 
He  then  passes  to  thanksgiving  and  practical 
exhortations  (2.13-3.5),  followed  by  directions 
as  to  dealing  with  "disorderly"  members,  final 
messages,  and  subscription  (3.6-18). 

The  characteristic  feature  of  the  two  Epistles 
is  the  absence  of  general  doctrinal  statement 
and  the  stress  laid  upon  "  the  last  things  " — 
the  Coming  of  our  Lord  (1  Thess.  1-2.19,  3.13, 
4.15-5.3,23;  2  Thess.  1.7-2.12);  the  resur- 
rection and  future  glory  of  believers  (1  Thess. 
4.13-18,  5.10;  2  Thess.  1.5,  2.14).  For  the 
passage  2  Thess.  2.6-10,  see  ANTICHBIST. 

Thessalonica. — A  city  of  Macedonia,  form- 
erly named  Therma — a  title  corresponding  to 
our  Bath  or  Hotwells — situated  on  the  Thermaic 
Gulf.  It  was  called  Thessalonica  by  the 
Macedonian  general  Cassander,  in  honour  of  his 
wife,  half-sister  to  Alexander  the  Great.  Under 
the  Roman  Government,  it  was  the  capital  of  one 
of  the  four  districts  of  Macedonia,  and  the  seat 
of  the  provincial  governor  or  praetor,  although 
itself  a  free  city,  administered  by  "  politarchs  " 
(Acts  17.6,8),  a  peculiar  appellation  still  pre- 
served on  a  triumphal  arch  in  the  city.  The 
position  of  Thessalonica,  as  the  central  station 
on  the  great  Egnatian  road  from  Illyria  through 
Macedonia  to  Thrace,  and  at  the  head  of  an 
excellent  harbour,  augmented  its  trade  and 
wealth ;  and  brought  to  it  a  mixed  population 
of  Greeks,  Romans,  and  Jews.  It  is  still,  as  it 
has  ever  been,  a  flourishing  commercial  town, 
bearing  the  but  slightly  changed  name  of 
Saloniki.  Its  geographical  position  and  mari- 
time importance  fitted  it  to  become  one  of  the 
starting-points  of  the  gospel  in  Europe.  Here 
Paul  laboured  for  a  time  during  his  second 
missionary  journey  (Acts  17.1-13).  Whilst  he 
was  there,  the  Philippians  sent  him  help  "  once 
and  again  "  (Phil.  4.16).  It  was  the  home  of 
Aristarchus  (Acts  27.2),  and  thither  went  Demas 
after  leaving  Paul  (2  Tim.  4.10).  The  narrative 
in  Acts  17  lays  stress  upon  Paul's  preaching  to 
the  Jews  and  proselytes  ("  devout  Greeks  "). 
The  Epistles  suggest  that  the  ultimate  members 
of  the  Church  were  mainly  Gentile  converts 
(1  Thess.  1.9,  2.14).  The  high  character  of  the 
Church,  as  to  faith,  zeal,  and  brotherly  love, 
appears  from  the  Epistles. 

Theu'das. — Perhaps  contracted  from  Theo- 
dorus,  the  gift  of  God :  the  name  of  an  insurgent 
mentioned  in  Gamaliel's  speech  before  the 


Jewish  Council  (Acts  5.35-39)  at  the  time  of  the 
arraignment  of  the  apostles.  He  appeared  at  the 
head  of  about  400  men ;  he  sought  not  merely  to 
lead  the  people  astray  by  false  doctrine,  but  also 
to  accomplish  his  designs  by  violence.  He 
entertained  a  high  conceit  of  himself,  but  was 
slain  at  last,  and  his  party  was  dispersed  and 
brought  to  nothing.  Josephus  (Antiq.  xx.  5.  1) 
mentions  a  man  of  the  same  name  who  rebelled 
some  ten  years  after  Gamaliel's  speech.  The 
relation  of  the  two  statements  is  not  known,  but 
there  is  no  reason  to  think  that  Josephus  is 
more  worthy  of  credit  than  St.  Luke. 

Thieves,  The  Two. — The  men  who  under  this 
name  appear  in  the  history  of  the  Crucifixion 
were  robbers  or  bandits  rather  than  thieves, 
belonging  to  the  lawless  bands  by  which  Palestine 
was  at  the  time  infested.  The  parable  of  the 
Good  Samaritan  shows  how  common  it  was  for 
them  to  attack  and  plunder  travellers  even  on 
the  high  road  from  Jerusalem  to  Jericho  (Lk. 
10.30).  It  was  necessary  to  use  an  armed  police 
to  encounter  them  (Lk.  22.52).  Often,  as  in 
the  case  of  Barabbas,  the  wild  robber  life  was 
connected  with  a  fanatic  zeal  for  freedom  which 
turned  the  marauding  attack  into  a  popular 
insurrection  (Mk.  15.7).  For  crimes  such  as 
these  the  penalty  was  crucifixion. 

Thimna'thah.— [TIMNAH.] 

Thomas. — Twin:  Greek  Didymus  (John 
11.16,  20.24,  21.2),  one  of  the  twelve  apostles 
(Matt.  10.3;  Mk.  3.18;  Lk.  6.15).  In  him, 
loyalty  to  his  Master  (John  11.16)  co-existed 
with  a  certain  lack  of  faith  ( John  14.5,  20.25), 
especially  app  arent  at  the  Resurrection.  His  mind 
had  dwelt  much  on  the  Crucifixion  (compare 
his  detailed  declaration  in  John  20.25),  and  the 
test  be  proposed  was  in  accordance  with  a 
prior  suggestion  by  our  Lord  Himself  (Lk. 
24.39, 40).  The  Risen  Lord  gave  Thomas  the 
proof  he  demanded,  and  he  expressed  belief, 
in  the  words,  "  My  Lord  and  my  God  "  (John 
20.26-29).  He  afterwards  saw  our  Lord  again, 
at  the  Sea  of  Tiberias  (John  21.2).  Late  legends 
state  that  Thomas  preached  the  gospel  to  "  the 
Indians,  and  the  Chinese,  and  the  Cushites,  and 
all  the  islands  far  and  near."  The  Christians  of 
the  Church  of  St.  Thomas  on  the  Malabar  Coast 
claim  him  as  their  founder. 

Thorn  in  the  Flesh. — Paul's  statements  in 
2  Cor.  12.7-10;  Gal.  4.14;  and  see  possibly 
1  Cor.  2.3 ;  2  Cor.  1.8,  10.10 ;  1  Thess.  2.18, 
have  been  variously  interpreted.  The  "  stake 
for  the  flesh"  of  which  he  spoke  was,  ap- 
parently, some  bodily  affliction,  a  trial  to  "  the 
flesh,"  comparable  to  blows  with  the  fist  (2  Cor. 
12.7) ;  connected,  however,  with  his  spiritual 
visions.  It  has  therefore  been  conjectured  to 
have  been  epilepsy,  or  some  obscure  nervous  dis- 
order allied  with  it.  Others  suggest  ophthalmia 
(Acts  23.5;  Gal.  4.15;  and  cf.  Gal.  6.11). 

[PAUL.] 

Three  Taverns,  The. — A  place  near  Cisterna, 
and  about  25  miles  south-east  of  Rome,  at  which 
Paul,  on  his  way  to  the  imperial  city,  was 
met  by  Christians  (Acts  28.15). 


THRESHING] 


474 


TIGLATH-PILESEK 


Threshing. — [AGRICULTURE.] 

Throne. — The  use  of  a  chair  in  a  country 
where  the  usual  postures  were  squatting  and 
reclining  was  regarded  as  a  symbol  of  dignity 
(2  K.  4.10  ;  Prov.  9.14).  When  a  royal  throne 
is  specially  meant,  we  usually  find  such  ex- 
pression as  "  the  throne  of  the  kingdom " 
(Deut.  17.18  ;  1  K.  1.46 ;  2  Ch.  7.18).  Solo- 
mon's throne  was  approached  by  six  steps  (1  K. 
10.19;  2  Ch.  9.18),  it  was  inlaid  with  ivory, 
overlaid  with  pure  gold  in  all  parts  except 
where  the  ivory  was  apparent,  and  furnished 
with  arms.  In  Col.  1.16  "  thrones  "  represents 
a  high  order  of  angelic  beings,  according  to 
the  representations  of  the  apocalyptic  writers. 

[NOX-CANONICAL  BOOKS.] 

Thum'min. — [URIM  AND  THUMMIN.] 

Thunder. — Thunder  is  very  rare  during  the 
summer  months  in  Palestine.  The  Hebrews 
poetically  interpreted  thunder  as  the  voice  of 
Jehovah  (Job  37.2;  Ps.  18.13;  /sat.  30.30). 
Thunder  was  to  them  the  symbol  of  Divine 
power  (Ps.  29.3)  and  vengeance  (1  Sam.  2.10 ; 
Rev.  8.5).  It  was  either  the  sign  or  instrument 
of  God's  wrath  on  various  occasions  (Ex.  9.23, 
19.16;  1  Sam.  7.10,  12.18).  In  Job  39.19 
"  thunder "  is  a  mistranslation  for  "  the 
quivering  mane  "  (R.V.).  The  term  "  Sons  of 
Thunder"  (Boanerges,  Mk.  3.7)  appears  to  be 
used  of  twins  in  some  countries,  but  whether 
this  fact  has  any  connexion  with  our  Lord's 
use  of  it  is  very  doubtful. 

Thyati'ra. — Now  Akhissar;  a  city  on  the 
boundary  of  Lydia  and  Mysia  (both  being 
included  in  the  Province  of  Asia) ;  with  which 
Lydia,  the  seller  of  purple  goods  at  Philippi, 
was  connected  (Acts  16.14).  Many  trade-guilds 
existed  there.  It  has  been  thought  that  the 
"  purple  "  was  "  turkey-red,"  the  dye  for  which 
still  grows  in  the  neighbourhood.  Thyatira 
was  the  seat  of  one  of  the  seven  Churches  of 
Asia  to  whom  the  apocalyptic  letters  were 
addressed  (Rev.  1.11,  2.18).  The  obscure 
passage  Rev.  2.20,  21  has  been  explained  as  a 
reference  to  the  worship  of  the  sibyl  Sambatha. 
A  temple  of  Sambatha  stood  outside  the  walls 
of  Thyatira.  It  may  be  that  the  Judaeo- 
Christian  Church  at  Thyatira  had  not  dis- 
countenanced this  corruption  so  severely  as  it 
ought  to  have  done.  Another  explanation — 
which  does  not  exclude  the  former  one — is 
that  the  reference  is  to  the  rites  attending  the 
worship  of  Apollo,  the  principal  deity  of  the 
city.  But  perhaps  it  is  better  to  see  in  the 
words  a  reference  to  a  Christian  prophetess 
who  supported  the  false  teaching  of  the 
Nicolaitans. 

Thyine  Wood.— Only  in  Rev.  18.12.  The 
reference  is  to  a  very  costly  wood  known  to  the 
Romans  as  citrus,  yielded  by  a  tree  known  as 
Callitris  quadrivalvis,  a  coniferous  tree  closely 
allied  to  the  better-known  arbor  vitae.  The 
wood  was  in  great  request  for  furniture  on 
account  of  its  colour  and  fragrance. 

Tibe'rias. — Now  Tubaiiya ;  a  town  on  west 
shore  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  giving  its  name  to  the 


sea  (John  6.1,  23,  21.1).  It  still  retains  traces 
of  ancient  grandeur.  The  city  was  built  by 
Herod  Antipas,  named  by  him  in  honour  of 
the  emperor  Tiberius,  and  made  the  capital 
of  Galilee.  Herod,  the  murderer  of  John  the 
Baptist,  resided  at  Tiberias.  This  accounts 
for  the  fact  that  (as  our  Lord  does  not  seem  ever 
to  have  visited  the  city)  Herod  had  never, 
until  their  meeting  at  Jerusalem,  seen  Jesus 
nor  witnessed  any  of  His  miracles.  •  Tiberias 
was  predominantly  a  Gentile  city,  and  our 
Lord's  work  lay  among  the  dense  populations 
at  the  head  of  the  lake,  who  were  thoroughly 
Jewish. 

Tiberias,  The  Sea  of.— [GALILEE,  SEA  OF.] 

Tibe'rius.  —  Tiberius  Claudius  Nero,  the 
second  Roman  Emperor,  after  being  made 
co-emperor  with  Augustus  in  11  A.D.,  reigned 
independently  from  14  A.D.  to  37  A.D.,  so  that 
the  public  life  of  our  Lord  and  the  introductory 
events  of  the  apostolic  age  fell  within  the  limits 
of  his  administration.  Before  his  accession  to 
the  imperial  throne,  he  had  distinguished  him- 
self as  orator,  warrior,  and  statesman,  but  as 
emperor  his  reign  was  stained  with  the  blackest 
crimes  and  vices.  Probably  the  fifteenth  year 
(Lk.  3.1)  dates  from  11  A.D.,  and  refers  to 
25  or  26  A.D.  The  city  of  Tiberias,  built  by 
Herod  Antipas,  took  its  name  from  this  emperor. 

Tib'hath.— (?)  Slaughter  :  a  city  of  Hadadezer, 
king  of  Zobah,  taken  by  David  (1  Ch.  18.8) ; 
the  same  as  Betah  (2  Sam.  8.8). 

Tib'ni.— The  son  of  Gimath,  whom  some  of 
the  people  in  the  northern  kingdom  wished  to 
make  king  after  Zimri.  He  was  defeated  and 
slain  by  Omri  (1  K.  16.21,  22). 

Ti'daL— One  of  the  four  confederate  kings 
who  invaded  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  when 
Lot  was  among  their  captives  (Gen.  14.1,  9). 
Nothing  is  known  of  his  name,  but  his  description 
"  king  of  the  nations n  (Goiim)  seems  to  be  a 
rendering  of  the  "  hordes  "  of  various  nations 
living  on  the  east  of  Assyria. 

Tig'lath-pileser,  Tilgath-pilneser.  —  Tiglath- 
pileser,  king  of  Assyria  (the  third,  or  more 
properly  the  fourth,  king  of  that  name).  His 
Babylonian  name  was  Pul,  and  it  was  to  him  that 
Menahem,  king  of  Israel,  paid  tribute  in  738  B.C. 
(2  K.  15.19).  He  attacked  Samaria  in  the 
reign  of  Pekah,  took  several  cities,  and  carried 
their  inhabitants  captive  to  Assyria,  732  B.C. 
(2  K.  15.29).  It  happened  that  after  this 
invasion  Pekah  entered  into  alliance  with  Rezin, 
king  of  Syria,  and  together  they  proceeded  to 
attack  Jerusalem.  Ahaz,  the  king  of  Judah, 
appealed  for  help  to  Tiglath-pileser,  who  marched 
against  Damascus,  took  it,  and  killed  Rezin. 
He  then  proceeded  to  chastise  Pekah,  over- 
running the  whole  district  to  the  east  of  Jordan, 
and  carrying  into  captivity  the  Reubenites, 
the  Gadites,  and  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh, 
and  placing  them  in  Upper  Mesopotamia. 
The  result  of  this  invasion  may  be  succinctly 
described  as  the  absorption  of  Syria  and  of  an 
important  part  of  Samaria  into  the  Assyrian 
Empire,  and  the  reduction  of  Judah  into  the 


TIKVAH,  TIKVATH,  TOKHATH]    475 


[TIME 


condition  of  a  mere  tributary  of  the  Assyrian 
Empire  (2  K.  15.37,  16.10,11;  1  Ch.  5.26; 
2  Ch.  28.16-21). 

Tik'vah,  Tik'vath,  Tok'hath.— Hope :  1.  The 
father-in-law  of  the  prophetess  Huldah  (2  K. 
22.14 ;  2  Ch.  34.22).  2.  The  father  of  Jahaziah 
in  the  time  of  Ezra  (Ezra  10.15). 

Tile,  Tiling.  —  1.  In  Ezek.  4.1  the  word 
usually  rendered  "  brick  "  is  translated  "  tile." 
2.  Syrian  roofs  in  general  consist  of  plaster, 
not  of  tiles,  and  the  expression  in  Lk.  5.19 
"through  the  tiling"  (R.V.,  "through  the 
tiles "),  may  mean  that  the  plaster  had 
cracked  in  a  part  of  the  roof,  and  that  in  that 
spot  the  bearers  of  the  paralytic  made  an 
opening  through  which  they  dropped  the  man 
down  in  front  of  the  Lord.  Or  it  may  be  that 
Luke,  writing  for  Greek  readers,  used  the  ex- 
pression "  tiles"  as  the  form  of  roof  which  was 
most  familiar  to  them,  without  reference  to  the 
particular  material  of  the  roof  in  question. 
[HOUSE.] 


a  fresh  day  begin  ?  We,  like  the  Romans, 
say  at  midnight,  the  moment  of  greatest 
distance  from  the  light  of  day.  But  this  is 
the  result  of  thought  and  comparison.  In  the 
earliest  ages  it  would  be  more  natural  to  reckon 
either  from  the  rising  of  the  sun,  as  did  the 
Babylonians,  or  from  its  setting,  as  did  the 
Hebrews  and  the  Arabs.  This  is  perhaps  the 
easiest  mode  of  all,  for  the  prosaic  reason  that 
men  have  always  been  more  likely  to  see  the 
setting  than  the  rising  of  the  sun.  Hence  in 
the  prehistoric  cosmogony  recorded  in  Gen.  1  we 
read :  "  There  was  evening  and  there  was 
morning,  one  day.  This  method  of  computing 
each  day  is  found  throughout  the  Bible  (see 
2  c.),  and  is  customary  among  the  Jews  until 
now. 

2.  Divisions  of  the  Day.—z.  The  threefold 
designation,  morning,  noon,  and  evening 
(cf.  Ps.  55.17),  is  self-evident,  b.  Connected 
with  this  is  that  of  WATCHES  in  the  night ; 
three  according  to  the  Hebrew  reckoning,  four 


Canaanite  Names. 

Babylonian-  Hebrew  Names. 

Time  of  Year. 

1 

AB1B      .... 

NISAN. 

March  -April. 

2 

ZIV  (ZIF)      . 

lyyar    .... 

April—  May. 

3 

SIVAN. 

May-  June. 

4 

Tammuz        — 

June-July. 

5 

Ab         .         7        . 

July-  August. 

6 

ELUL  .         .   •      . 

August-September. 

7 

ETHANIM     . 

Tishri    .... 

September-October. 

8 

BUL      .... 

Marcheshvan  . 

October-November. 

9 

KISLEV  (CHISLEU)      . 

No  vemb  er-D  ec  ember. 

10 

TEBETH       .         . 

December-January. 

11 

SHEBAT  (SEBAT) 

January-February. 

12 

ADAR  .... 

February—  March. 

Tilgath-pilneser. — A  corrupt  form  of  TIGLATH- 
PILESEB. 

Ti'lon. — A  member  of  the  tribe  of  Judah 
(1  Ch.  4.20). 

Timae'us. — Mark  (10.46)  gives  in  Greek  the 
words  "  the  son  of  Timaeus  "  as  an  equivalent 
of  the  Aramaic  "  Bartimaeus." 

Timbrel. — The  English  word  means  "  a 
small  tambourine."  Women  of  the  East  still 
dance  to  the  music  of  the  timbrel  (Ex.  15.20  ; 
2  Sam.  6.5  ;  Job  17.6,  21.12).  [TABRET  1.] 

Time. — The  two  great  factors  employed  by 
primitive  man  in  determining  time  (as  in 
common  practice  by  us  all)  must  have  been  the 
Sun  and  the  Moon,  the  former  fixing  both  the 
simplest  unit  of  calculation,  the  Day,  and  also 
the  greater  unit,  the  Year  ;  the  latter  suggesting 
the  Month,  and  from  it  the  Week.  The  cal- 
culation of  Time  with  the  Hebrews,  as  with 
ourselves,  employs  both  systems  of  reckoning, 
with  more  or  less  satisfactory  attempts  to 
reconcile  them. 

1.  The  Day— horn  Sun  to  Sun  ;  i.e.  as  we 
now  say,  24  hours.  But  at  what  point  does 


by  the  Roman,  c.  Another  is  that  of  HOURS. 
The  origin  of  the  division  of  the  Day  into 
12  or  24  parts  seems  to  be  lost  in  antiquity,  but 
it  has  come  down  to  us  by  way  of  Babylon. 
The  Hours  in  each  day  were  reckoned  among 
the  Hebrews,  and  even  the  Romans,  from  sun- 
rise to  sunset.  The  one  passage  that  presents 
difficulty  is  John  19.14,  but  even  there  it  is 
better  to  give  John  the  credit  of  maintaining  his 
usual  method.  Hence  the  duration  of  each  hour 
was  not  fixed,  as  with  us,  as  one  24th  of  the  full 
day,  but  represented  one  12th  of  the  daylight, 
which  naturally  varied  according  to  the  season, 
d.  The  further  division  into  minutes  and  seconds 
appears  not  to  have  been  known  to  the  Hebrews 
(though  it  also  is  traced  back  to  Babylon),  and 
indeed  was  hardly  convenient  with  so  variable 
a  quantity  as  the  Biblical  Hour. 

3.  The  Month. — This  was  the  lunar  month 
of  rather  more  than  29  days,  there  being  thus 
12  months  and  about  11  £  days  in  each  year. 
It  is  perhaps  convenient  here  to  give  a  Table 
of  the  Hebrew  montiis,  those  which  are  mentioned 
in  the  Bible  being  in  capital  letters,  and  forming 


TIMNA,  TIMNAH] 


476      [TIMOTHY,  THE  EPISTLES  TO 


subjects  of  special  articles.  In  order  to  complete 
the  solar  year  approximately,  a  few  days,  or  even 
two  or  three  weeks,  were  sometimes  intercalated, 
apparently  as  the  priestly  directors  of  the  Calen- 
dar thought  best.  But  it  is  uncertain  how  far 
this  system  obtained  in  Biblical  times.  The 
addition  was  made  after  Adar,  and  was  called 
a  second  Adar.  The  twelve  solar  months  appear 
to  be  a  later  division  of  the  solar  year,  for  which 
the  twelve  lunar  months  formed  a  basis. 

5.  The  Year.— a.  When  does  it  begin? 
With  us,  as  with  the  Romans,  from  the  time 
when  the  Sun  is  approximately  at  its  lowest. 
Not  so  with  the  Hebrews.  They  had  two 
systems  :  i.  The  sacred  system,  derived  from 
Babylon,  beginning  about  the  spring  equinox. 
By  this  the  times  of  the  sacred  Feasts  were 
arranged.  It  is  also  mentioned  in  reference 
to  secular  events,  as  "  in  the  return  of  the  year, 
at  the  time  when  kings  go  out  to  battle  "  (2  Sam. 
11.1).  ii.  The  civil  system,  from  the  autumnal 
equinox,  when  the  harvest  operations  were 
concluded,  b.  For  the  groups  of  years,  in 
sevens  and  seven  times  seven,  see  YEAE.  c.  For 
the  methods  of  computing  a  series  of  years, 
see  CHRONOLOGY.  In  addition  to  the  eras  there 
given  mention  may  be  made  of  the  late  Jewish 
mode  of  reckoning  from  the  Creation  of  the 
world,  based  on  Biblical  data.  According  to 
this  the  year  1240  was  5000  anno  mundi.  But 
in  affixing  this  date  to  a  book  or  a  monument 
it  is  usual  to  omit  the  thousand.  Thus,  if  a 
modern  Jewish  book  is  dated  674,  this,  in  addi- 
tion to  1240,  represents  1914  A.D. 

Tim'na,  Tim'nah. — (?)  Restraint :  1.  A  con- 
cubine of  Eliphaz,  son  of  Esau  (Gen.  36.12).  2. 
The  sister  of  Lotan  and  daughter  of  Seir  the 
Horite  (Gen.  36.22  ;  1  Ch.  1.39).  3.  A  "  duke" 
or  chief  of  Edom  descended  from  Esau  (Gen. 
36.40 ;  1  Ch.  1.51).  4.  A  son  of  Eliphaz  and 
grandson  of  Esau  (1  Ch.  1.36) ;  apparently  the 
same  as  Eorah  in  Gen.  36.16. 

Tim'nah,  Tim'nath,  Thim'nathah.— Portion : 
1.  Now  Tibnah,  2  miles  west  of  'Ain  Shems,  near 
where  Wady  Surar  issues  on  the  Philistine  plain ; 
a  border  town  in  north  of  Judah  (Josh  15.10), 
but  assigned  to  Dan  in  Josh.  19.43,  held  by 
Philistines  (Judg.  14.1-5),  and  again  taken  by 
them  in  the  time  of  Ahaz  (2  Ch.  28.18).  2.  A 
town  in  mountains  of  Judah;  site  unknown 
(Gen.  38.12-14;  Josh.  15.57). 

Tim'nath-he'res  (Portion  (sacred)  to  the  sun), 
or  Tim'nath-se'rah  (Portion  of  excess)  (reversing 
the  letters,  to  avoid  any  suggestion  of  idolatry) : 
either  Kefr  Haris,  10  miles  south  of  Nablus,  or 
Tibneh,  about  14  miles  north-east  of  Lydda ;  a 
town  in  south-west  portion  of  Mount  Ephraim  ; 
portion  and  burial-place  of  Joshua  ( Josh.  19.50, 
24.30 ;  Judg.  2.9). 

Tim'nite,  The.— That  is,  the  Timnathite, 
Samson's  father-in-law  (Judg.  15.6) ;  inhabitant 
of  Timnah  1. 

Ti'mon. — He  who  honours  (?  God) :  one  of 
the  seven,  commonly  called  "deacons,"  who 
were  appointed  to  act  as  almoners,  on  the  occa- 
sion of  complaints  of  partiality  being  raised 


by  the  Hellenistic  Jews  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  6.5). 
Nothing  is  known  of  him. 

Timo'theus.— H onouring  God :  the  Greek  form 
of  the  name  Timothy,  retained  in  the  A.V.  in 
every  case  except  2  Cor.  1.1 ;  Philem.  1 ;  Heb. 
13.23;  and  in  the  Epistles  addressed  to  him. 
[TIMOTHY.] 

Timothy.  —  Honouring  God:  one  of  the 
younger  companions  of  Paul,  was  an  inhabitant, 
possibly  a  native,  of  Lystra  in  Lycaonia,  where 
Paul  first  met  him  (Acts  16.1,  2).  His  father 
was  a  Greek ;  his  mother  and  grandmother 
devout  Jewesses,  by  whom  he  was  carefully 
trained  in  a  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures  (2  Tim. 
3.14).  He  was  probably  converted  by  Paul 
when  but  a  boy  on  the  apostle's  first  visit  to 
Lystra  (Acts  14.6,  16.1 ;  1  Cor.  4.17 ;  1  Tim. 
1.2;  2  Tim.  1.2).  After  the  separation  be- 
tween Paul  and  Barnabas,  over  the  matter 
of  John  Mark  (Acts  15.37-39),  Timothy  was 
chosen  by  Paul  as  the  helper  of  himself  and  Silas. 
He  was  therefore  circumcised,  and  entered  on 
a  career  of  association  with  Paul,  marked  by 
much  affection.  He  helped  to  found  the 
Churches  of  Philippi  and  Thessalonica  (Acts 
17.14),  for  the  former  of  which  he  seems  to 
have  felt  especial  concern  (Phil.  2.19).  Left 
at  Berea  (Acts  17.13, 14),  he  probably  rejoined 
Paul  at  Athens,  and  was  sent  to  Thessalonica 
(1  Thess.  3.2),  rejoining  Paul  at  Corinth  with 
news  of  the  Church.  He  is  linked  with  Paul 
and  Silas  in  the  opening  of  the  two  Epistles  to 
the  Thessalonians.  Timothy  appears  next  at 
Ephesus  (Acts  19.22),  his  work  at  which  is 
suggested  by  the  salutation  in  Colossians  and 
Philemon.  Thence  he  was  sent  with  Erastus 
to  Macedonia  and  Achaia  (Acts  19.22),  with  a 
special  mission  to  the  Church  at  Corinth  (1  Cor. 
4.17).  Later,  he  is  joined  with  others  in  a 
greeting  to  the  Roman  Church  (Rom.  16.21) ; 
and  then  goes  with  Paul  into  Asia  (Acts  20.4). 
It  is  uncertain  whether  he  journeyed  with  Paul 
to  Rome.  Probably  Timothy  joined  him  there, 
and  was  thence  sent  to  Philippi  (Phil.  2.19). 
The  Apostle  bids  him  hasten  to  him  during  his 
last  imprisonment  (2  Tim.  4.9-13).  Heb.  13.23 
speaks  of  Timothy's  release  from  imprisonment, 
but  our  ignorance  of  the  date  and  place  of  the 
writing  of  that  Epistle  prevents  our  understand- 
ing the  allusion.  Ecclesiastical  tradition  makes 
Timothy  the  first  Bishop  of  Ephesus,  and  says 
that  he  died  a  martyr's  death  there  during  the 
exile  of  John  at  Patmos. 

Timothy,  The  Epistles  to.— The  authorship 
of  the  Epistles  to  Timothy  has  been,  from  the 
first  century  to  the  present,  attributed  to  Paul. 
The  internal  evidence  of  the  Epistles  has,  however, 
been  regarded  by  some  as  against  the  author- 
ship by  Paul ;  but  the  peculiarities  of  thought 
and  language  can  be  explained  by  the  develop- 
ment of  events,  and  reconciled  with  the  accepted 
belief.  The  date  of  the  First  Epistle  was  some 
period  after  the  apostle's  first  imprisonment 
at  Rome,  possibly  the  year  66.  The  place  may 
have  been  Troas,  possibly  at  the  house  of  Carpus 
(cf.  2  Tim.  4.13).  The  purpose  of  the  letter 


TIN] 


477 


[TISHBITE,  THE 


appears  from  its  contents.  The  Epistle  has 
two  chief  objects  :  1.  To  counteract  the  false 
doctrines  of  Jewish  teachers,  who,  whilst  pro- 
fessing adherence  to  the  Law,  taught  doctrines 
at  variance  with  its  holy  requirements.  2.  To 
guide  and  encourage  Timothy  in  the  duties  of 
his  office ;  directing  him  as  to  (1)  public  devo- 
tions (2.1-8) ;  (2)  the  duties  and  behaviour  of 
Christian  women  (2.9,12;  cf.  1  Cor.  11.3-16, 
14.34-40;  1  Pet.  3.1-6);  (3)  Church  officers 
(3.1-13) ;  (4)  his  own  teaching  (3.14,  4) ;  (5)  his 
personal  hoKness  (4.11-16) ;  and  (6)  his  Church 
administration  in  the  treatment  of  offenders,  of 
widows,  of  good  elders  and  bad,  of  slaves,  of  the 
rich ;  and  the  duties  of  those  several  classes  of 
persons  (5,  6 ;  cf.  Tit.  1.10-3.11).  With  this 
teaching  are  mingled  many  urgent  and  affection- 
ate appeals,  tender  references  to  Paul's  own  con- 
version, and  solemn  anticipations  of  the  coming 
of  Christ. 

The  date  of  the  Second  Epistle,  the  last  written 
by  Paul,  must  be  the  period  of  his  close  im- 
prisonment at  Rome,  not  long  before  his 
martyrdom,  perhaps  the  early  months  of  the 
year  67.  The  interval  between  Paul's  two 
imprisonments  he  seems  to  have  spent  in 
Asia  (Philem.  1.22),  afterwards  in  Macedonia 
(1  Tim.  1.3),  wintering  in  Nicopolis  of  Epirus 
(Tit.  3.12).  Why  he  returned  to  Rome  we 
are  not  told,  but  he  was  soon  imprisoned  as 
an  evil-doer  (2  Tim.  2.9).  The  contents  of  the 
Epistle  are  invested  with  peculiar  interest  as 
containing  the  last  counsels  of  the  apostle. 
After  an  affectionate  greeting  with  thanks- 
giving (1.1-5),  the  apostle  exhorts  Timothy  to 
courage,  zeal,  and  stedfastness  in  the  ministry 
(1.6-14) ;  recalls  some  who  were  faithless,  and 
the  good  works  of  Onesiphorus  (1.15-18) ;  ex- 
horts to  endurance,  recalling  his  own  sufferings 
for  the  gospel  (2.1-13),  and  to  faithfulness  in 
the  ministry  and  personal  uprightness  (2.14-26) ; 
predicts  the  perilous  times  of  "  the  last  days  " 
(3.1-9) ;  and  returns  to  exhortation  (3.10-4.5) ; 
ending  with  certain  personal  messages. 

In  the  Epistles  to  Timothy  and  Titus— the 
Pastoral  Epistles — we  have  the  clearest  revela- 
tion given  in  Scripture  of  the  character,  qualifica- 
tions, and  duties  of  the  Christian  minister. 
These  Epistles  contain  also  the  fullest  account 
of  the  approaching  corruption  of  Christianity, 
and  of  the  extensive  prevalence  of  infidelity,  in 
what  Scripture  calls  the  last  times.  It  is  note- 
worthy that  Polycarp  (§  4),  writing  about  117 
A.D.,  quotes  1  Tim.  6.7. 

Tin. — Tin  is  enumerated  among  the  various 
metals  found  in  the  spoils  of  the  Midianites 
(Num.  31.22).  It  was  known  to  the  Hebrew 
metal-workers  as  an  alloy  of  other  metals 
(Isai.  1.25;  Ezek.  22.18,20).  The  markets 
of  Tyre  were  supplied  with  it  by  the  ships  of 
Tarshish  (Ezek.  27.12).  It  was  used  for  plummets 
(Zech.  4.10).  The  mines  of  Britain  (Cornwall 
and  part  of  Devonshire)  were  the  chief  source 
of  supply  to  the  ancient  world. 

Tiph'sah.— Ford :  1.  A  city  on  Euphrates; 
the  limit  of  Solomon's  empire  (1  K.  4.24) ;  now 


Kal'at  Dibse.  2.  A  town  in  Ephraim  attacked 
by  Menahem  (2  K.  15.16),  but  we  should  prob- 
ably read  TAPPUAH. 

Ti'ras.  —  Prof.  Sayce,  who  interprets  the 
tenth  chapter  of  Genesis  geographically,  not 
ethnologically,  suggests  that  Tiras  may  represent 
the  river  Tyras,  the  early  home  of  the  Kim- 
merians.  Prof.  Driver  sees  a  reference  to  the 
Turs-enoi,  "  a  people  dwelling  anciently  on  the 
north  shore  and  islands  of  the  JEgean  Sea,  and 
much  dreaded  by  the  Greeks  as  pirates."  Possibly 
the  word  is  connected  with  the  names  of  two 
countries  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Carchemish, 
mentioned  by  the  Egyptian  king,  Rameses  m., 
namely,  Tarsh-kha  and  Tarsh-ba  (Gen.  10.2; 
1  Ch.  1.5). 

Tirathi'tes. — A  family  or  race  of  scribes, 
belonging  to  the  Kenites  (1  Ch.  2.55). 

Tire. — 1.  The  precise  character  of  the  head- 
dress or  turban  denoted  by  the  Hebrew  word 
translated  "  tire "  is  not  at  all  clear.  It  is 
used  of  men  (Ezek.  24.17,  23),  of  a  bridegroom 
(Isai.  61.10,  "  ornaments "  A.V.),  of  priests 
(Ezek.  44.18,  "  bonnets  "),  of  ladies  (Isai.  3.20, 
"  bonnets ").  2.  The  word  in  Isai.  3.18 
"  round  tires  like  the  moon  "  means  "  crescent- 
shaped  ornaments."  See  Judg.  8.21,  26  in  the 
R.V. 

Tirha'kali.— A  king  of  Ethiopia  (roughly,  the 
modern  Egyptian  Soudan)  and  Egypt,  691-665 
B.C.  When  Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria,  in  701 
B.C.,  was  waging  war  upon  Hezekiah,  he  heard  of 
the  advance  of  Tirhakah  (who  seems  to  have 
been  called  in  to  help  the  king  of  Egypt  at 
that  time)  to  fight  him,  and  sent  a  second  time 
to  demand  the  surrender  of  Jerusalem  (2  K. 
19.9 ;  Isai.  37.9).  It  is  probable  that  he  was 
a  negro,  as  his  later  enemy  and  conqueror, 
Esar-haddon,  represents  him. 

Tirha'nah. — Son,  or  daughter,  of  Caleb 
(1  Ch.  2.48). 

Ti'ria.— A  son  of  Jehaleleel  of  Judah  (1  Ch. 
4.16). 

Tirsha'tha. — His  Excellency,  or,  the  feared : 
a  Persian  title  given  to  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.63 ; 
Neh.  7.65,  70)  and  Nehemiah  (Neh.  8.9, 10.1)  as 
governors  of  Judah  under  the  king  of  Persia. 
It  denoted  the  governor  of  a  province  of  less 
extent  than  a  satrapy. 

Tir/zah. — Pleasure,  beauty:  1.  The  youngest 
of  the  five  daughters  of  Zelophehad.  It  was 
the  case  of  these  daughters  which  originated  the 
law  that  in  the  event  of  a  man  dying  without 
male  issue  his  property  should  pass  to  his 
daughters  (Num.  26.33,  27.1,  36.11 ;  Josh.  17.3). 
2.  A  royal  Canaanite  city  taken  by  Joshua 
(Josh.  12.24);  the  residence  of  kings  of  Israel, 
Jeroboam,  Baasha,  Elah,  Zimri,  and  Omri ;  the 
burial-place  of  Baasha  and  Zimri  (1  K.  14.17, 
15.21,33,  16.6-23);  the  scene  of  Menahem's 
conspiracy  against  Shallum  (2  K.  15.14, 16).  It 
was  famed  for  its  beauty  (Cant.  6.4).  Now, 
perhaps,  Teiasir. 

Tish'bite,  The. — The  well-known  designation 
of  Elijah  (1  K.  17.1,  21.17,  28 ;  2  K.  1.3,  8, 
9.36).  The  reference  is  believed  to  be  to  Thisbe 


TITHE] 


478 


[TITUS,  THE  EPISTLE  TO 


in  Naphtali,  orTishbi  (Thisbe,  Tisboh,  or  Teshcb) 
in  Gilead.  It  is  thought  that  the  words  "  who 
was  of  the  inhabitants  of  Gilead"  should  be 
read,  "  who  was  of  Thisbe  of  Gilead,"  in  accord- 
ance with  the  Septuagint.  This  involves  the 
alteration  only  of  the  Hebrew  "  points "  or 
vowels,  not  of  the  consonants. 

Tithe. — A  tenth  part :  Abram  presented 
"  tithes  of  all "  to  Melchizedek,  the  priest  of 
the  most  high  God  (Gen.  14.20).  Jacob,  after 
his  vision  of  the  angels,  promised  a  tenth  of 
his  possessions  unto  God,  if  Jehovah  brought 
him  again  to  his  father's  house  in  peace  (Gen. 
28.22).  The  Law  of  Moses  declared  that  the 
tenth  of  all  produce,  as  well  as  of  flocks  and 
cattle,  belonged  to  Jehovah,  and  must  be 
offered  to  Him.  The  tithe  was  to  be  paid  in 
kind,  or,  if  redeemed,  with  an  addition  of  one- 
fifth  to  its  value  (Lev.  27.30-33).  In  tithing 
sheep,  the  custom  was  to  enclose  them  in  a 
pen,  and  as  the  animals  went  out  at  the  opening 
every  tenth  one  was  marked  with  a  rod  dipped 
in  vermilion.  This  was  the  "  passing  under 
the  rod."  This  tenth  was  received  by  the 
Levites,  who,  again,  devoted  a  tenth  part  of 
it  to  the  maintenance  of  the  high-priest  (Num. 
18.21-28).  This  legislation  was  modified  or 
extended  at  a  later  time  (Deut.  12.5-18, 
14.22-27,  26.12,13).  These  passages  seem  to 
show  that,  in  addition  to  the  first  tithe  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  Levites  and  the  high-priest, 
there  was  a  second  tithe  applied  to  festival  pur- 
poses. Every  third  year  the  Levites  and  the  poor 
had  a  share  in  the  festival  tithe.  Under  the 
kings  an  additional  tithe  was  apparently  taken 
for  secular  purposes  (1  Sam.  8.15, 17),  but  the 
religious  tithe  system,  with  other  parts  of  the 
Law,  fell  into  neglect.  Hezekiah,  however, 
revived  it  (2  Ch.  31.5, 12, 19),  as  also  did 
Nehemiah  after  the  return  from  the  Captivity 
(Neh.  12.44).  Special  officers  were  appointed 
to  take  charge  of  the  stores  and  storehouses  for 
the  purpose.  The  practice  of  tithing,  especially 
for  relief  of  the  poor,  was  practised  even  in  the 
Northern  Kingdom,  for  Amos  speaks  of  it, 
though  in  an  ironical  tone,  as  existing  in  his 
day  (Amos  4.4).  Malachi  complains  that  the 
tithe  is  neglected  (Mai.  3.8, 10).  The  system 
was  carried  out  minutely  by  those  who,  like 
the  Pharisees,  afiected  peculiar  exactness  in 
observance  of  the  Law  (Matt.  23.23 ;  LJc.  18.12  ; 
Heb.  7.5-8). 

Title.— In  2  K.  23.17  this  should  rather  be 
rendered  "  monument  "  (R.V.). 

Tittle. — In  Hebrew,  some  letters  are  much 
alike,  and  only  to  be  distinguished  by  the 
"  thorn  "  or  "  horn  "-like  upward  stroke  at  a 
corner.  Thus  T  is  "  d,"  n  is  "  r."  [Jor.] 

Titus. — A  friend  and  trusted  helper  of  Paul, 
by  birth  a  Greek  (Gal.  2.3),  converted  by  Paul, 
and  so  called  "  mine  own  son  after  the  common 
faith  "  (Tit.  1.4 ;  cf.  1  Tim.  1.2).  Nothing  is 
known  as  to  his  family  or  birthplace.  Titus 
appears  first  as  accompanying  Paul  and  Barnabas 
on  their  visit  to  Jerusalem  (Gal.  2.1 ;  and  see 
Acts  15.2).  A  few  years  later  he  reappears  in 


connexion  with  the  Church  of  Corinth,  from 
which  he  carried  a  message  to  the  apostle 
(2  Cor.  7.6) — a  report  very  anxiously  awaited 
(2  Cor.  2.13).  The  interest  of  Titus  in  that 
Church  seems  to  have  been  marked  (2  Cor.  8.23), 
and  his  purity  of  motive  beyond  dispute 
(2  Cor.  12.17, 18).  He  was  left  by  Paul  in 
Crete  (Tit.  1.5).  There  is  no  record  of  any  visit 
by  the  apostle  to  that  island  save  in  Acts  27.7, 
but  he  may  have  been  at  Crete  after  bis  first 
imprisonment  at  Rome.  Titus  was  to  rejoin 
Paul  at  Nicopolis  (Tit.  3.12).  This  he  appar- 
ently did,  subsequently  leaving  the  apostle  in 
order  to  visit  Dalmatia  (2  Tim.  4.10).  Nothing 
is  known  of  his  later  life.  He  has  by  some  been 
identified  with  the  Justus  of  Acts  18.7,  and  with 
Silas  ;  but  his  name  does  not  appear  in  Acts. 

Titus,  The  Epistle  to.— This  letter  is  joined 
with  1  and  2  Timothy,  the  three  being  known  as 
the  Pastoral  Epistles.  As  to  the  place  and  date 
of  writing,  it  is  probable  that  Paul,  sailing  to 
Asia  after  his  first  imprisonment  in  Rome, 
took  Crete  in  his  way  and  left  Titus  there, 
and  that  he  wrote  this  Epistle  from  Macedonia, 
when  on  his  way  to  the  Thracian  Nicopolis. 
It  is  further  supposed  that  Titus,  according  to 
Paul's  desire,  joined  the  apostle  at  Nicopolis, 
and  afterwards  accompanied  him  on  his  last 
journey  to  Rome,  being  with  him  there  during 
part  of  his  second  imprisonment  (2  Tim.  4.10) ; 
and  having  then  been  sent  into  Dalmatia, 
to  preach  the  gospel,  or  to  visit  Churches  already 
formed  there.  We  know  nothing  of  the  first 
introduction  of  the  gospel  into  Crete,  but  as 
there  were  Jews  from  that  island  among  Peter's 
audience  on  the  Day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  2.11), 
it  is  probable  that  the  Christian  faith  was  carried 
thither  by  converts  from  among  them.  It 
appears  also  from  this  Epistle  that  Paul  had 
laboured  there,  and  probably  with  considerable 
success ;  but  that  by  some  means  he  had  been 
hurried  thence  before  he  could  order  the  state 
of  the  Churches  in  a  regular  manner. 

The  work  of  Titus  in  Crete  was  difficult. 
The  character  of  the  people  was  unsteady,  in- 
sincere, and  quarrelsome  :  they  were  notoriously 
given  to  licentiousness  and  intemperance  (1.12). 

The  resemblance  between  this  Epistle  and 
1  Timothy  is  obvious ;  and  they  are  generally 
supposed  to  have  been  written  about  the  same 
time.  The  contents  may  be  summarised  thus  : — 
Paul  describes  the  qualifications  required  in 
those  who  were  to  be  ordained  to  the  ministry; 
and  which  were  the  more  necessary  on  ac- 
count of  the  dangerous  principles  of  the  false 
teachers  whom  they  had  to  oppose,  and  the 
general  character  of  the  Cretans  (c.  1).  He  next 
describes  the  instructions  which  were  to  be 
given  to  various  classes  of  persons,  enjoining 
upon  the  aged  and  the  young  the  virtues 
which  ought  severally  to  distinguish  them ; 
exhorting  Titus  (himself  a  young  man)  to  set  a 
pattern,  in  his  own  conduct,  of  the  virtues  he 
was  to  inculcate ;  teaching  servants  to  be 
obedient  and  faithful ;  for  the  salvation  of  the 
gospel  was  designed  for  all  orders  and  classes  of 


TITUS  JUSTUS] 


479 


[TONGUES,  GIFT  OF 


mankind,  making  them  holy  in  this  life,  and 
preparing  them  for  a  higher  and  better  (c.  2). 
Titus  is  instructed  to  enjoin  obedience  to  rulers, 
and  a  peaceable  and  gentle  behaviour  to  all 
men;  for  they  themselves  once  were  sinful, 
and  owed  their  salvation  to  the  free  grace 
of  God.  The  indispensable  obligation  which 
believers  are  under  to  excel  in  good  works  is 
insisted  upon ;  cautions  are  given  against 
engaging  in  frivolous  inquiries  and  unprofitable 
disputations ;  and  after  some  other  brief 
directions  to  Titus  the  Epistle  is  closed  with 
salutations  and  a  benediction  (e.  3). 

In  this  Epistle  those  of  the  humblest  rank 
are  exhorted  to  adorn  the  gospel  (2.10).  While 
our  salvation  is  ascribed  exclusively  to  grace 
(2.11),  to  the  "  kindness  and  love  of  God  our 
Saviour"  (3.4),  this  fact  is  made  the  ground  of 
most  urgent  exhortations  to  holiness  (2.14,  3.8). 

Titus  Justus.— The  full  name,  in  the  R.V. 
only,  of  JUSTUS  2.  Some  authorities  read 
Titius  Justus. 

Tiz'ite,  The. — An  appellation  of  Joha,  one 
of  David's  chief  warriors  (1  Ch.  11.45).  The 
meaning  and  reference  are  quite  unknown. 

To 'ah. — A  Kohathite  and  an  ancestor  of 
Samuel  (1  Ch.  6.34).  He  is  called  Nahath  in 
1  Ch.  6.26  and  Tohu  in  1  Sam.  1.1. 

Tob. — Good:  now  Taiyibeh,  in  southern 
Bashan.  The  Land  of  Tob  was  a  district  east 
of  Gilead,  where  Jephthah  took  refuge  uhen 
expelled  from  home  by  his  half-brothers  (Judg. 
11.2),  and  where  he  remained,  at  the  head  of  a 
band  of  freebooters,  till  he  was  brought  back 
by  the  elders  of  Gilead  (Judg.  11.5).  It  is 
mentioned  again  in  2  Sam.  10.6, 8  as  one  of 
the  petty  Aramaean  states  which  supported  the 
Ammonites  in  their  great  conflict  with  David. 

Tob-adoni'jah. — Good  is  the  Lord  Jehovah  : 
a  Levite  sent  by  Jehoshaphat  to  teach  the  Law 
in  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Ch.  17.8). 

Tobi'ah,  Tobi'jah.— Jehovah  is  my  good : 
1.  A  Levite  sent  by  Jehoshaphat  to  teach  the 
Law  in  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Ch.  17.8).  2. 
Tobijah  is  mentioned  in  Zech.  6.10  as  having 
returned  from  Babylon  to  Jerusalem.  In  his 
presence,  and  the  presence  of  others,  Zechariah 
was  commanded  to  crown  Joshua,  the  son  of 
Josedech,  as  high-priest.  3.  The  children  of 
Tobiah  returned  with  Zerubbabel,  but  could  not 
prove  their  connexion  with  Israel  (Ezra  2.60 ;  Neh. 
7.62).  4.  An  Ammonite  who  bitterly  opposed 
Nehemiah  in  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem.  His 
crowning  act  of  insult  was  to  take  up  his  resi- 
dence in  the  Temple,  in  spite  of  the  Mosaic  edict 
that  the  Ammonite  and  the  Moabite  should  not 
come  into  the  congregation  of  God  for  ever. 
Nehemiah  "  cast  forth  all  the  household  stuff 
of  Tobiah  out  of  the  chamber"  (Neh.  2.19 ff.). 

Tobit,  Book  of.— [NON-CANONICAL  BOOKS.] 

To'chen. — (?)  Measurement :  town  of  Simeon 
(1  Ch.  4.32). 

Togar'inah. — A  son  of  Gomer  (Gen.  10.3). 
Prof.  Sayce,  who  interprets  the  chapter  geo- 
graphically, not  ethnologically,  places  Togarmah 
in  Armenia  or  Asia  Minor,  Horses  were  im- 


ported  from  Togarmah   (Ezek.  27.14),   and    in 
Ezek.  38.6  it  forms  part  of  the  hosts  of  Gog. 
To'hu. — An  ancestor  of  Samuel  (I  Sam.  1.1). 

[TOAH.] 

To'i. — King  of  Hamath  on  the  Orontes.  He 
was  at  enmity — "  had  wars  " — with  Hadadezer, 
king  of  Syria,  and  when  the  latter  was  defeated 
by  an  army  of  David,  Toi  sent  bis  son,  Joram, 
with  presents  of  gold  and  silver  and  brass  to  the 
conqueror  (2  Sam.  8.9, 10).  It  may  have  been 
that  he  wanted  to  buy  off  the  anticipated  hos- 
tility of  David.  He  is  called  Tou  in  1  Ch. 
18.9,  10. 

Tokhath.— [TiKVAH.] 

To'la. — Scarlet :  1.  The  first-born  of  Issachar 
and  therefore  grandson  of  Jacob  (Gen.  46.13  ; 
Num.  26.23 ;  1  Ch.  7.1,  2).  2.  A  judge  of  Israel 
(Judg.  10.1,  2). 

To'lad.— •{?)  Generation  :  a  town  of  Simeon 
(1  Ch.  4.29).  [ELTOLAD.] 

To'laites. — The  descendants  of  Tola  1  (Num. 
26.23).  [TOLA.] 

Tomb. — [BURIAL.] 

Tongues,  Confusion  of. — For  some  time  after 
the  Flood  "  the  whole  earth  was  of  one  language." 
The  human  family  attempted  to  maintain  this 
unity  by  the  establishment  of  a  great  central 
edifice  and  a  city  which  should  serve  as  the 
metropolis  and,  doubtless,  the  religious  centre  for 
the  whole  world.  They  proposed  to  carry  out 
this  project  in  the  wide  plain  of  Babylon,  a 
locality  admirably  suited  to  such  an  object 
by  its  physical  and  geographical  peculiarities. 
Jehovah  defeated  the  project  by  "  confounding 
their  language,  so  that  they  might  not  under- 
stand one  another's  speech.  From  thence  did 
the  Lord  scatter  them  abroad  upon  the  face  of 
all  the  earth."  The  memory  of  the  great  event 
was  preserved  in  the  name  Babel,  which  to  a 
Hebrew  suggests  the  word  Balal,  "  confound " 
(Gen.  11.1-9).  [BABEL,  BABYLON.] 

Tongues,  Gift  of.— The  chief  passages  from 
which  we  have  to  draw  our  conclusion  as  to 
the  nature  and  purpose  of  the  gift  in  question 
are  Mk.  16.17  ;  Acts  2.1-13,  10.46, 19.6  ;  1  Cor. 
12.10, 14.1-19.  On  the  Day  of  Pentecost,  as  re- 
corded in  Acts,  there  appeared  to  the  120  dis- 
ciples "  tongues  like  as  of  fire,"  and  "  they  began 
to  speak  with  other  tongues  as  the  Spirit  gave 
them  utterance."  The  disciples  were  heard  to 
speak  hi  languages  of  which  they  had  no  know- 
ledge previously,  so  that  persons  present  in 
Jerusalem,  belonging  to  many  nationalities, 
heard  themselves  addressed,  or  more  probably 
God  addressed  in  prayer  and  praise,  in  their 
own  languages.  It  is  well  to  recognise,  however, 
that  the  subject  is  beset  with  difficulties. 
The  gift  of  being  able  to  speak  in  many 
languages,  if  a  permanent  possession,  must 
have  been  of  the  greatest  value  hi  evangelising 
work,  and  in  that  case  one  could  not  under- 
stand how,  as  it  seems,  Paul  did  not  understand 
the  Lycaonian  language  (Acts  14.11),  nor  how 
Paul  could  have  placed  it  lowest  in  the  scale  of 
epiritual  gifts  (1  Cor.  12.8-10,  28-30),  nor  would 
the  apostle  have  insisted  that  the  gift  should 


TOPAZ] 


480 


[TRANSFIGUEATlUTT,  THE 


not  be  coveted  or  stirred  up  (1  Cor.  14.39). 
Indeed,  the  reference  in  1  Corinthians  seems  to 
be  to  something  different  from,  though  analo- 
gous to,  that  described  in  Acts.  The  gift  in 
tongues  in  the  former  case  is  associated  with 
unintelligibility,  in  marked  difference  from  the 
scene  described  as  occurring  at  Pentecost.  The 
gift,  whatever  its  precise  nature,  did  not  descend 
beyond  the  first  age  of  the  Church.  The 
"  tongues "  are  already  "  ceasing "  (1  Cor. 
13.8),  as  a  thing  belonging  to  the  past.  It  is 
probable  that  the  disappearance  was  gradual. 
The  "  gift  of  tongues "  in  modern  times  has 
generally  been  either  unintelligible  gibberish, 
or  the  reminiscence  of  languages  heard  earlier 
but  forgotten.  But  there  appear  to  have  been 
cases  where  the  spiritual  influence  present  was 
so  strong  that  persons  understood  the  message 
of  a  preacher,  even  though  he  spoke  in  a  language 
foreign  to  them. 

To'paz. — A  green  gem  of  golden  hue.  It  is 
said  by  Hilary  to  as  far  surpass  other  stones 
as  gold  surpasses  all  other  metals.  Hence  the 
topaz  of  Cush  ;  an  island  in  the  Red  Sea  being 
called  Topaz  Island  (Ex.  28.17;  Job  28.19; 
Ezek.  28.13 ;  Rev.  21.20).  The  descriptions  in 
Revelation  are  closely  connected  with  those 
in  Exodus  and  Ezekiel.  The  topaz  was  a  stone 
in  the  high-priest's  breastplate ;  it  adorned 
the  apparel  of  the  king  of  Tyre ;  it  glittered  in 
the  foundations  of  the  heavenly  Jerusalem. 
In  Job  the  statement  is  that  the  topaz  of 
Ethiopia  does  not  equal  wisdom. 

To'pheL — (?)  Chalky  ground :  probably  Wady 
et-Tuftleh,  15  miles  south-east  of  the  Dead  Sea 
(Deut.  1.1). 

To'phet,  To'pheth.— Place  of  turning  :  place 
in  the  valley  of  Hinnom,  perhaps  at  its  junction 
with  the  valley  of  Kidron.  It  is  believed  to 
have  been  at  first  a  place  of  special  beauty,  but 
afterwards  it  was  defiled  by  idols  and  polluted 
by  the  sacrifices  of  Baal  and  the  fires  of  Moloch. 
Josiah  "  defiled  "  it— that  is,  threw  down  its 
altars  and  high  places,  and  it  became  a  re- 
ceptacle for  all  the  filth  of  Jerusalem.  In 
Jeremiah  (7.32,  19.6)  it  is  declared  that  Tophet 
and  Gehinnom  were  to  be  called  "  the  valley  of 
slaughter."  And  accordingly  we  find  that  in 
succeeding  ages  blood  has  flowed  there  in 
streams,  the  blood  of  Romans,  Persians,  Jews, 
Greeks,  Crusaders,  and  Moslems  (2  K.  23.10; 
Isai.  30.33).  [GEHINNOM,  HINNOM.] 

Torches.— The  "  torches  "  of  Nah.  2.3  is  a 
mistranslation  of  a  word  found  only  there, 
meaning  the  "  steel "  fittings  or  "  scythes  "  for 
war  chariots.  In  ver.  4  it  has  its  usual  signi- 
fication. 

Tortoise.— The  unclean  animal  mentioned  in 
Lev.  11.29  is  a  large  species  of  lizard,  found  in 
Southern  Judaea,  Sinai,  and  Egypt.  It  is  a 
foot  in  length,  with  a  powerful  spiny  tail  which 
is  a  formidable  weapon  of  defence.  It  feeds 
upon  beetles.  Of  tortoises,  correctly  so  called, 
there  are  several  species  found  in  abundance  in 
Palestine,  but  the  common  green  tortoise  does 
not  occur  there. 


Tou.— [Toi.] 

Tower. — Besides  towers  forming  a  part  of 
the  fortifications  of  walls,  towers  were  built  in 
the  midst  of  the  plain  in  which  shepherds  and 
herdsmen  might  lodge,  look  after  their  charge, 
and  keep  watch  on  wild  beasts  and  human 
enemies.  King  Uzziah  caused  several  towers 
to  be  built  for  the  shepherds  in  the  desert, 
because  he  had  a  great  number  of  flocks  (2  Ch. 
26.10).  The  tower  built  in  the  midst  of  a 
vineyard  (Isai.  5.2),  and  the  tower  of  the 
flock  (Mic.  4.8),  were  of  the  same  kind.  Several 
towers  for  ordinary  purposes  of  defence  are 
mentioned — the  tower  of  David  (Cant.  4.4),  the 
tower  of  Edar  (Gen.  35.21),  the  tower  of  the 
Furnaces  (Neh.  3.11),  the  tower  of  Hananeel 
(Jer.  31.38),  the  tower  of  Lebanon  (Cant. 
7.4),  the  tower  of  Meah  (Neh.  3.1),  the  tower 
of  Penuel  (Judg.  8.17),  the  tower  of  Shechem 
(Judg.  9.46),  the  tower  of  Syene  (Ezek.  29.10). 

Town-clerk. — The  officer  described  as  the 
town-clerk  (Acts  19.35)  occupied  a  position  of 
dignity  and  influence.  The  town -clerk  of 
Ephesus  was  in  immediate  touch  with  the 
proconsul  of  Asia.  Luke's  account  of  him  in 
Acts  is  hi  strict  agreement  with  what  we  learn 
from  other  sources.  The  original  duties  of  the 
office  were  to  be  responsible  for  the  form  of 
laws  and  decrees  of  the  State,  and  to  read  them 
to  the  people.  To  these  functions  was  added  the 
duty  of  presiding  at  public  assemblies  and  taking 
the  vote.  In  some  instances  they  were  the 
rulers  of  the  community,  in  others  they  were 
associated  with  a  superior  magistrate.  In  the 
absence  or  death  of  this  superior  the  town-clerk 
performed  his  duties  until  his  return  or  his 
successor  was  appointed. 

Trachoni'tis. — Rugged  place :  a  small  Roman 
province  which  included  somewhat  more  than 
the  modern  el-Lejah  in  Arabia.  Part  of  the 
tetrarchy  of  Philip  (Lk.  3.1).  Same  as  AEGOB. 
[ITTTRZBA.] 

Trance. — The  Greek  word  translated  "  trance  " 
is  used  only  by  Luke,  the  physician  (Acts  10.10, 
11.5,  22.17).  Peter  was  in  a  trance  when  he  saw 
heaven  opened  and  all  manner  of  four-footed 
beasts  of  the  earth  descend,  etc.  In  this  trance 
he  was  taught  concerning  the  calling  of  the 
Gentiles.  Paul  describes  a  trance  into  which  he 
fell  at  Jerusalem,  on  his  return  from  Damascus, 
when  he  received  the  command  from  God  to  go 
to  the  Gentiles.  There  is  a  brief  notice  of 
another  trance  in  2  Cor.  12.1-4.  Though  the 
word  "  trance  "  is  not  in  the  O.T.— it  is  inserted 
in  italics  in  the  A.V.  of  Num.  24.4,14— the 
phenomenon,  or  an  analogous  phenomenon,  is 
described  in  several  instances.  Deep  sleep  and 
a  horror  of  great  darkness  fell  on  Abraham  (Gen. 
15.12).  Balaam  saw  the  vision  of  God  (Num. 
24.4).  Saul  prophesied  and  fell  into  an  ecstasy 
(1  Sam.  19.24).  Ezekiel  sat  motionless  for 
seven  days  till  the  word  of  the  Lord  came  to 
him  (Ezek.  3.15,  8.3).  [DREAM,  VISION.] 

Transfiguration,  The. — The  transfiguration 
of  our  Lord  took  place  probably  on  the  slopes 
of  Hermon.  It  is  described  in  Matt.  17.1-8; 


TREASUEE  CITIES] 


481 


[TRINITY 


Mk.  9.2-8;  Lie.  9.28-36.  Peter,  who  was 
present,  makes  mention  of  the  event  in  2  Pet. 
1.16-18.  The  scene  represented,  by  anticipa- 
tion, the  coming  heavenly  glory  of  Christ,  and 
indicated  by  the  presence  of  Moses  and  Elijah 
the  fulfilment  of  the  O.T.  [Jssus  CHBIST.] 

Treasure  Cities. — Pithom  and  Raamses  were 
"treasure  cities"  built  for  Pharaoh  by  the 
Israelites.  The  treasure  in  this  case  was  prob- 
ably stores  of  grain.  [PITHOM.] 

Treasury. — The  rich  people  and  the  poor 
widow  cast  in  their  offerings  into  the  treasury 
(Mk.  12.41).  Our  Lord  spake  in  the  treasury 
(John  8.20).  The  priests  could  not  put  into  the 
treasury  the  thirty  pieces  of  silver  that  Judas 
had  given  back  to  them,  because  they  were 
the  price  of  blood  (Matt.  27.6).  There  was  no 
special  building  called  the  treasury.  The 
name  was  given  to  the  thirteen  brazen  chests 
into  which  the  offerings  of  the  Temple  wor- 
shippers were  put.  When  John  says  that  Jesus 
spake  in  the  treasury,  he  means  in  the  outer 
court  of  the  women,  where  these  brazen  chests 
were  placed. 

Tree. — In  almost  every  country  certain  trees 
are  held  sacred,  and  Palestine  is  no  exception. 
It  is  still  common  to  see  there  trees  on  which 
rags  are  fastened,  in  sign  of  prayer  by  wor- 
shippers, which  are  thought  to  acquire  a  sacred 
character  and  power  to  remove  diseases.  This 
reverence  goes  back  to  very  early  times,  long 
before  those  of  the  patriarchs,  and  accounts  for 
some  of  the  instances  in  which  special  mention 
is  made  of  trees.  The  Asherah  [GROVE],  a  trunk 
or  post,  is  only  a  conventionalised  form  of  a 
tree,  and  as  such  is  connected  with  false  wor- 
ship. 

Trespass-offering.— [SIN-OFFERING.] 

Trial — The  charge  against  our  Lord  was 
treason,  punishable  with  death  (Lk.  23.2,38; 
John  19.12,15).  Paul  and  Silas  at  Philippi 
were  accused  of  innovation  in  religion,  punish- 
able with  banishment  or  death  (Acts  16.19-21). 
The  Jewish  prosecutors  of  Paul,  in  the  trial  at 
Caesarea  before  Felix,  employed  a  professional 
Roman  "  banister "  to  plead.  [TERTULLUS.] 
The  effect  of  Paul's  appeal  to  Caesar,  in  the  trial 
before  Festus,  was  to  remove  the  case  at  once  to 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Emperor.  This  right  of 
appeal  to  ultimate  authority  was  one  of  the 
privileges  of  Roman  citizenship  (Acts  24,  25,  26). 
The  use  of  the  plural  "  deputies,"  before  whom 
Demetrius  and  the  craftsmen  were  urged  to 
lay  their  case,  is  best  explained  as  a  general 
statement.  For  the  word  really  means  "  pro- 
consuls," and  there  was  only  one  proconsul. 
It  is  just  possible  that  reference  is  made  to 
assessors  for  him  in  the  law  courts  (Acts  19.38). 
[JUDGE,  SANHEDRIM.] 

Tribes,  The  Ten.— The  tribes  composing  the 
Northern  Kingdom,  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  which 
were  led  into  captivity  into  Assyria  and  the 
countries  about  the  Caspian  Sea,  by  Tiglath- 
pileser,  732  B.C.  There  have  been  many  con- 
jectures as  to  their  subsequent  history,  but  the 
most  plausible  theory — it  is  only  a  theory — 

31 


seems  to  be  that  they  were  absorbed  by  the 
people  among  whom  they  lived.  Of  modern 
"  identifications "  that  of  the  Afghans  has 
most  to  be  said  in  its  favour.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  may  be  that  they,  and  the  captives  of 
the  two  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  amal- 
gamated during  their  joint  exile  in  Babylon,  and 
returned  together  as  one  people,  in  consequence 
of  the  edicts  issued  by  the  Persian  kings.  Cer- 
tainly some  members  of  the  Ten  Tribes  so  re- 
turned (Lk.  2.36). 

Tribute.— The  Hebrews  acknowledged  the 
sovereign  dominion  of  God  by  an  annual  tribute 
of  half  a  shekel  a  head  (Ex.  30.13).  That  is  the 
tribute  referred  to  in  Matt.  17.24.  It  was  applied 
to  defray  the  general  expenses  of  the  Temple. 
The  tribute  paid  to  the  Roman  Emperor  was 
another  matter  (Matt.  22.17).  Some  commenta- 
tors consider  that  in  the  former  passage  there  is 
a  reference  to  a  recent  controversy  between  the 
Pharisees  and  the  Sadducees  as  to  whether 
tribute  money  for  the  Temple  should  be  com- 
pulsory or  voluntary.  The  Pharisees  had  won 
the  day,  and  the  tribute  remained  a  binding 
obligation  of  ecclesiastical  law.  Our  Lord,  it 
is  contended,  condemned  that  decision,  which 
treated  every  Israelite  as  if  he  were  a  conquered 
subject  of  a  foreign  power,  from  whom  tribute 
is  exacted,  as  a  "stranger,"  not  as  a  "son." 
But  more  probably  the  usual  interpretation  is 
right,  that  He  claimed  for  Himself,  as  Son  of  God, 
freedom  from  the  tribute,  the  plural  being  only 
part  of  the  simile.  It  is  important  to  note  that, 
though  Christ  said  this,  He  nevertheless  complied 
with  the  payment,  "lest  we  should  offend 
them."  The  Israelites  were  frequently  subdued 
by  foreign  princes,  who  laid  taxes  and  tribute  on 
them,  to  which  necessity  compelled  them  to  sub- 
mit. The  statement  of  the  Jews  in  John  8.33, 
"  We  were  never  in  bondage  to  any  man,"  was 
far  from  being  founded  on  fact,  if  it  was  meant 
to  be  understood  literally.  Indeed,  at  the  very 
time  they  were  spoken,  the  Jews  were  subject  to 
the  Romans  (cf.  John  19.15).  But  perhaps  the 
Jews  were  claiming  moral  superiority  to  their 
conquerors.  Our  Lord  replies  that  even  their 
boasted  moral  freedom  was  a  delusion.  They 
were  in  bondage  to  sin.  [TAXES.] 

Trinity.—"  When  we  open  the  New  Testa- 
ment, we  find  ourselves  in  presence  of  a  glowing 
religious  life.  .  .  .  And  from  beginning  to  end, 
in  all  its  parts  and  aspects  and  elements,  this 
religious  life  is  determined  by  Christ.  .  .  . 
Christianity  never  existed  in  the  world  as  a 
religion  in  which  men  shared  the  faith  of  Jesus, 
but  was  from  the  very  beginning,  and  amid  all 
undeniable  diversities,  a  religion  in  which 
Jesus  was  the  object  of  faith.  To  all  believers 
Jesus  belonged  to  the  Divine  as  truly  as  to 
the  human  sphere.  In  the  practical  sense  of 
believing  in  Him  they  all  confessed  His  God- 
head. .  .  .  They  all  set  Him  in  the  same 
incomparable  place.  They  all  acknowledge 
to  Him  the  same  immeasurable  debt.  He 
determines,  as  no  other  does  or  can,  all  their 
relations  to  God  and  to  each  other.  While 


TEINITY] 


482 


[TRINITY 


His  true  manhood  is  unquestionably  assumed, 
He  is  set  as  unquestionably  on  the  side  of 
reality  which  we  call  Divine,  and  which 
confronts  man  :  He  embodies  for  faith  that 
Divine  love  and  power  which  work  out  man's 
salvation.  It  is  the  place  thus  assigned  to 
Christ  which  gives  its  religious  unity  to  the 
N.T.,  and  which  has  kept  the  Christian  religion 
one  all  through  its  history "  (Denney,  Jesus 
and  the  Gospel,  pp.  1,  12,  373). 

With  the  main  theme  of  Dr.  Denney's 
admirable  book — the  proof  that  Christ  thought 
about  Himself  as  the  first  Christians  thought 
about  Him,  and  claimed  to  be  the  person  whom 
they  made  the  object  of  their  adoring  faith — 
we  have  not  here  to  do.  But  of  the  fact  set 
forth  in  the  above  quotations  there  can  be 
no  question.  It  is  affirmed  in  the  earliest 
Christian  preaching,  under  the  terms  "  Lord 
and  Christ "  (Acts  2.36  :  cf.  4.12,  5.31,  10.36, 
etc.),  and  the  earliest  Epistle  of  St.  Paul 
already  embodies  this  faith  in  the  significant 
title  "  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ "  (1  Thess.  1.1,  3, 
5.23,  28).  The  most  characteristic  expression 
given  to  this  belief  is  the  title  "  Son  of  God," 
applied  to  Christ  not  simply  in  the  sense  of 
Divine  appointment  to  office  (Mk.  1.11  :  cf. 
Ps.  2.7),  but  of  Divine  nature,  involving  the 
truths  of  pre-existence  and  incarnation.  It 
is  noteworthy  that  the  solitary  instance  of 
this  term  in  the  Book  of  Acts  is  in  connexion 
with  the  first  preaching  of  the  converted  Saul 
of  Tarsus  (Acts  9.20).  The  sense  is  Messianic 
(cf.  its  equivalent  in  ver.  22,  "  the  Christ"),  but 
the  vision  on  the  way  to  Damascus  had  convinced 
Saul  that  Jesus,  the  Messiah,  was  a  Divine 
person.  Hence  the  term  "  Son  of  God " 
acquired  to  him  a  new  significance.  From  the 
first  it  appears  in  his  writings,  unobtrusively, 
the  natural  utterance  of  an  established  faith 
(1  Thess.  1.10;  Gal.  1.16,  2.20,  4.4,6;  1  Cor. 
1.9,  15.28 ;  2  Cor.  1.19  ;  Rom.  1.3,  4, 9,  5.10, 
8.3,29,32;  Eph.  4.13).  St.  Paul  nowhere 
formulates  a  specific  doctrine  of  the  person 
of  Christ,  but  the  passages  cited  (especially 
Rom.  8.3;  Gal  4.4;  1  Cor.  15.28,  and  add 
1  Cor.  8.6 ;  2  Cor.  4.4,  8.9  ;  Phil  2.6-11  ; 
Col  1.13-19)  clearly  show  that  to  him  "  Christ 
was  a  wholly  unique  Being,  who,  before  His 
advent  to  earth,  shared  the  Divine  nature  and 
glory,  and  who,  in  His  exaltation  after  the 
resurrection,  only  enters  in  a  formal  and 
demonstrative  manner  upon  a  dignity  which 
corresponds  to  His  essence  and  inherent  right." 

That  this  view  of  Christ  was  accepted, 
emphasised,  and  developed  by  the  later  N.T. 
writers  needs  here  no  detailed  proof.  The 
very  theme  of  the  writer  to  the  Hebrews  is  the 
necessary  finality  of  a  revelation  in  God's 
"  Son  "  (Heb.  1.1-4,  and  passim)  :  the  prologue 
to  St.  John's  Gospel,  with  its  announcement 
of  "  the  Word  "  made  flesh,  and  of  revelation 
to  men  through  "  the  only  begotten  Son, 
which  is  in  the  bosom  of  the  Father,"  prepares 
us  for  the  exalted  Christology  of  the  whole 
Gospel  and  first  Epistle.  Without  reference  to 


any  controverted  passages,  it  may  be  decisively 
shown  that  to  the  N.T.  writers  Jesus  had  the 
religious  significance  of  God.  They  held 
tenaciously  to  the  monotheism  reached  by 
the  Hebrew  religion  :  to  them  there  was  "  one 
God"  (Rom.  3.30;  1.  Cor.  8.6;  Gal  3.20; 
Eph.  4.6  ;  1  Tim.  2.5  ;  Jas.  2.19),  but  there 
was  also  to  them  "  one  Lord  "  (1  Cor.  8.6 ; 
Eph.  4.5),  so  vitally  related  to  God  in  all  the 
Divine  dealings  with  men  that  the  apostolic 
benediction  naturally  and  inevitably  assumes 
the  dual  form,  "  Grace  to  you  and  peace  from 
God  our  Father,  and  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  " 
(Rom.  1.7  ;  1  Cor.  1.3  ;  2  Cor.  1.2  ;  Gal  1.3  ; 
Eph.  1.2  :  Phil  1.2 ;  1  Thess.  1.1 ;  2  Thess.  1.2  ; 
I  Tim.  1.2;  2  Tim.  1.2;  Tit.  1.4  ;  Philem.S). 

Further,  the  history  of  the  Christian  Church 
starts  from  Pentecost  and  the  gift  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  "  the  promise  of  the  Father," 
poured  forth  by  Jesus  (Acts  1.4,  2.33 ;  Lk. 
24.49).  It  is  not  necessary  for  the  purpose 
of  this  article  to  consider  in  detail  the  N.T. 
teaching  concerning  the  Spirit.  Broadly 
speaking,  the  operation  of  God  in  the  world, 
and  especially  in  human  lives,  to  sanctify  and 
empower,  is  ascribed  to  the  Spirit  of  God  :  the 
Spirit  is  God  at  work  in  the  world.  But  two 
points  need  special  mention — 

(1)  In  the  passages  just  cited  the  gift  of  the 
Spirit  is  closely  connected  with  the  exaltation 
of  Christ.     It  is  because  He  has  passed  through 
death  to  the  right  hand  of  God  that  a  Divine 
life,   filled   with  the  energies  of  the  Spirit,  is 
possible   to   man.     This  is   confirmed   by  the 
teaching  of   the  Fourth   Gospel,   "  The  Spirit 
was  not  yet,  because  Jesus  was  not  yet  glori- 
fied "  ( John  7.39) :    "  It  is  expedient  for  you 
that  I  go  away  :    for  if  I  go  not   away,  the 
Comforter    (Paraclete,    i.e.    advocate,    helper) 
will  not  come  unto  you  ;    but  if  I  depart,  I 
will  send  Him  unto  you  "  (16.7  ;  cf.  14.16,  26, 
15.26).     It  is  only  another  illustration  of  what 
has  been  said  as  to  the  virtual  deification  of 
Jesus,  that  the  term  "  Spirit  of  God  "  is  inter- 
changeable with  the  terms  "  Spirit  of  Jesus," 
"  Spirit  of  Christ,"  "  Spirit  of  Jesus  Christ  " 
(Acts  16.7  ;    Rom.  8.9 ;    Phil  1.19),  and   that 
in   1   John   2.1    Jesus    Christ   is   Himself    the 
"  Paraclete." 

(2)  Side    by  side  with  a  conception  which 
would   seem   to   identify   the   Spirit   with   the 
operation   of   God    or   of   the   exalted    Christ, 
we  find  a  conception  which  distinguishes  the 
Spirit  from  the  Father  and  the  Son.     This  is 
involved  in  passages  already  referred  to,  and 
finds  development  in   Paul's   teaching,   if  not 
into  a  consistent  doctrine,  at  least  into  a  quasi- 
personification  of  the  Spirit.     His  work  on  the 
heart  of  believers  is  personal  work  (1  Cor.  2.13, 
12.11 ;  Rom.  8.9, 14, 16,  26) :  He  is  co-ordinated 
with   God    the    Father    and    with   Christ   the 
Lord     (1    Cor.    12.4-6;      Eph.    4.4-6).      The 
habitual  dual  benediction   already  cited  does 
not  exhaust  Paul's  conception  of  the  Godhead  : 
only  once  does  he  give  full  expression  to  the  faith 
winch  possesses  him  in  the  threefold  formula, 


TROAS] 


483 


[TROPHIMUS 


now  so  familiar,  "  The  grace  of  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  and  the  love  of  God,  and  the  communion 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  be  with  you  all "  (2  Cor.  13.14 ; 
cf.  the  baptismal  formula  of  Matt.  28.19). 

These,  then,  are  the  N.T.  data  for  a  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity — the  recognition  of  one  God, 
and  yet  the  distinction  within  the  Godhead 
of  Father,  Son,  and  Spirit.  The  problem  to 
which  the  data  give  rise,  of  how  the  Three 
co-exist  in  One,  is  not  even  formulated  in  the 
N.T.,  much  less  solved.  Tertullian  (c.  200  A.D.) 
first  used  the  term  Trinity,  which  was  not 
received  into  any  creed  before  the  so-called 
"  Athanasian  Creed "  (late  fifth  century),  a 
formulary  of  unknown  authorship,  largely 
influenced  by  the  theology  of  St.  Augustine 
(De  Trinitate,  c.  415  A.D.).  The  story  of  the 
long  controversies  through  which  the  elaborate 
definitions  of  this  creed  were  reached  belongs 
to  the  history  of  doctrine.  Earlier  and 
simpler  statements  are  that  of  the  "  Apostles' 
Creed,"  representing  in  general  the  pre- 
Nicene  belief,  and  that  of  the  creed  adopted  at 
the  Council  of  Nicaea,  325  A.D.,  and  of  the 
Palestinian  creed,  enlarged  at  the  Council  of 
Constantinople,  381  A.D.,  and  now  called  the 
"  Nicene"  creed.  The  occasion  of  the  former 
Council  was  the  outbreak  of  the  Arian  con- 
troversy as  to  the  Person  of  the  Son  of  God, 
in  which  Arius  and  Athanasius  were  the  pro- 
tagonists on  either  side,  "  and  the  Creed, 
in  the  fulness  and  precision  of  its  state- 
ments on  this  great  subject,  plainly  declares 
its  origin.  In  fact,  as  it  left  the  Council,  the 
Creed  was  rather  a  manifesto  on  the  Deity 
and  humanity  of  Christ  than  in  any  general 
sense  a  Christian  confession  "  (all  that  follows 
the  words,  "  I  believe  in  the  Holy  Ghost,"  was 
added  in  381).  The  centre  of  the  controversy 
lies  in  the  phrase  "  being  of  one  substance 
(homoousion)  with  the  Father  "  :  the  acceptance 
of  this  word,  in  opposition  to  the  Arian  formula, 
homoiousion  (of  like  substance),  marked  in 
325  the  temporary,  and  in  381  the  final, 
triumph  of  Athanasius  and  the  attainment 
of  the  "  Catholic  Faith."  The  struggle,  indeed, 
was  for  the  maintenance  of  the  N.T.  doctrine 
of  the  Person  of  our  Lord  indicated  at  the 
outset  of  this  article :  as  Harnack  puts  it, 
"  Is  the  Divine,  which  has  appeared  upon 
the  earth  and  reunited  man  with  God,  identical 
with  the  highest  Divine  Being  who  rules  heaven 
and  earth,  or  is  the  same  semi-divine  ?  That 
was  the  decisive  question  of  the  Arian  con- 
troversy." In  view  of  an  interest  so  vital  to 
Christian  faith,  the  sneer  of  Gibbon  as  to 
"  the  furious  contests  which  the  difference  of  a 
single  letter  excited  between  the  Homoousians 
and  the  Homoiousians  "  loses  its  point.  Mr. 
Froude  relates  a  conversation  with  Carlyle, 
then  in  his  eighty-third  year  : — "  In  earlier 
years  Carlyle  had  spoken  contemptuously  of 
the  Athanasian  controversy,  of  the  Christian 
world  torn  to  pieces  over  a  diphthong  ;  and 
he  would  ring  the  changes  in  broad  Annandale 
on  the  Homoousion  and  the  Homoiousion. 


But  now  he  told  me  that  he  perceived 
Christianity  itself  to  have  been  at  stake.  If 
the  Arians  had  won,  it  would  have  dwindled 
away  into  a  legend." 

The  metaphysical  subtleties  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity  in  its  fuller  expressions,  still 
more  of  the  discussions  through  which  it  was 
attained,  may  perplex  and  repel.  It  begins 
and  ends  in  mystery :  "  Canst  thou  by 
searching  find  out  God  ?  Canst  thou 
find  out  the  Almighty  unto  perfection  ? " 
But  it  helps  us  to  conceive  of  God  not  as 
abstract  Deity,  but  in  all  the  concrete  fulness 
of  a  living,  loving  personality,  transcendent 
yet  immanent,  absolute  and  perfect,  yet  Creator 
of  a  world  which  in  His  incarnate  Son  He  stooped 
to  redeem.  Each  of  its  constituent  elements — 
Father,  Son,  Spirit— brings  "  the  thought  of 
God  in  a  different  way  home,  closely  and 
effectually  home,  to  the  human  heart ;  while 
together  they  embrace  and  satisfy  all  the 
demands  of  our  religious  instinct "  (Illing- 
worth,  The  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  p.  164 :  see 
especially  chaps,  vii.-x.). 

Tro'as.— Now  Eski-Stamboul ;  a  seaport  of 
Mysia,  the  chief  point  of  embarkation  and 
arrival  for  voyagers  between  Western  Asia  and 
Macedonia  ;  whence  Paul  sailed  on  two  occasions 
for  Philippi,  and  to  which  he  returned  (Acts 
16.8,  11,  20.5,  6 ;  2  Cor.  2.12  ;  2  Tim.  4.13).  It 
was  at  Troas  that  Paul  raised  Eutychus  from  the 
dead  during  his  protracted  midnight  discourse. 
Here,  too,  many  years  afterwards,  he  left  a  cloak 
and  some  parchments  at  the  house  of  Carpus. 
It  was  connected  by  good  roads  to  other  places 
on  the  coast  and  in  the  interior.  It  stands 
a  little  to  the  south  of  the  site  of  ancient 
Troy. 

Trogyriium.— A  promontory  of  Asia  Minor, 
opposite  the  island  of  Samos  ;  according  to  the 
A.V.  of  Acts  20.15,  Paul  anchored  there  for  a 
night  on  returning  to  Jerusalem  from  his  third 
missionary  tour.  But  the  sentence  is  no  part 
of  the  original  text.  The  channel  between  the 
promontory  and  the  island  is  only  about  a  mile 
wide,  and  the  navigation  of  it  is  difficult.  There 
is  an  anchorage  in  the  neighbourhood  still  called 
St.  Paul's  Port. 

Troph'imus.— A  native  of  Ephesus.  He 
travelled  with  Paul,  in  the  course  of  the  third 
missionary  journey,  from  Macedonia  to  Jerusalem. 
He  was  a  Gentile,  and  a  false  report  was  spread 
that  Paul  had  taken  him  into  the  Temple. 
Hence  the  tumult  in  which  Paul  was  appre- 
hended, and  from  which  the  vovage  to  Rome 
ultimately  resulted  (Acts  20.4/21.29).  Paul, 
writing  from  Rome,  states  in  2  Tim.  4.20  that 
he  left  Trophimus  behind,  in  infirm  health,  at 
Miletum  (Miletus),  near  Ephesus.  This  could 
not  have  been  an  incident  of  the  first  voyage  to 
Rome,  as  a  glance  at  the  map  will  show ;  for,  on 
that  occasion,  the  ship  had  "  scarce  come  over 
against  Cnidus "  when  the  wind  compelled  it  to 
sail  south-west  to  the  east  end  of  Crete  (Acts 
27.7).  Miletus  is  quite  50  miles  north  of  Cnidus. 
All  difficulty  vanishes  on  the  supposition  of  two 


TRUMPET] 


484 


[TYRE,  TYRUS 


imprisonments  of  Paul,  and  a  journey  in  the 
Levant  between  them. 

Trumpet. — Usually  the  shophar  or  ram's  or 
cow's  horn  (Josh.  6.4,  and  often),  still  used  by 
the  Jews  on  solemn  occasions.  Mention  is  made 
of  straight  silver  trumpets  used  only  by  the 
priests  (Num.  10.2,  and  elsewhere).  [CORNET.] 

Trumpets,  The  Feast  of.— The  new  moon  was 
celebrated  at  the  beginning  of  every  month,  but 
at  the  beginning  of  the  month  Tisri  (about  the 
middle  of  September)  there  was  a  special  cele- 
bration called  the  Feast  of  Trumpets.  Trumpets 
were  blown,  and  there  were  extra  sacrifices  (Lev. 
23.24 ;  Num.  29.1).  It  introduced  the  seventh 
or  Sabbatical  month  of  the  religious  year,  the 
month  which  contained  the  Day  of  Atonement 
and  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles.  Further,  it  was 
the  New  Year's  Day  of  the  civil  year.  Some 
scholars  think  this  was  the  Feast  mentioned  in 
John  5.1 

Tryphfflna,  Tryphe'na,  and  Trypho'sa.  — 
Delicate,  dainty :  women  engaged  in  Christian 
service  at  Rome,  to  whom  Paul  sent  a  saluta- 
tion (Rom.  16.12).  They  were  probably  sisters, 
and  perhaps  deaconesses.  Perhaps  also  members 
of  the  Emperor's  household,  for  their  names 
appear  in  a  cemetery  used  for  the  burial  of  such 
persons. 

TuT>al.— [MESHECH.] 

Tu'bal-cain. — A  descendant  of  Cain ;  described 
as  "  an  instructor  of  every  artificer  in  brass  and 
iron  "  (Gen.  4.22),  or,  as  the  R.V.  has  it,  "  the 
forger  of  every  cutting  instrument  of  brass  [or 
copper]  and  iron." 

Turtle,  Turtle-dove.— [DOVE.] 

Tyoh'icus.— A  native  of  the  province  of  Asia, 
though  probably  not  of  Ephesus,  and  certainly 
not  of  Colossae.  He  was  a  companion  and 
fellow-labourer  of  Paul.  He  accompanied  the 
apostle  during  part  of  the  journey  from  Macedonia 
to  Jerusalem,  which  concluded  the  third  mission- 
ary tour  (Acts  20.15,38).  He  was  with  Paul 
during  his  imprisonment  at  Rome  (Col.  4.7,  8). 
The  language  of  these  verses  leads,  naturally,  to 
the  supposition  that  Tychicus,  with  Onesimus, 
carried  the  epistle  to  the  Colossians.  The  words 
of  Eph.  6.21,  22  convey  the  idea  that  on  the 
same  journey  he  carried  the  epistle  to  the 
Ephesians,  a  sort  of  circular  letter  for  the 
Churches  of  Asia.  In  the  letter  to  Titus  (3.12) 
he  is,  as  it  seems,  with  St.  Paul  at  Nicopolis 
(probably  in  Epirus)  and  about  to  be  sent  to 
Crete.  Tychicus  is  again  mentioned  in  2  Tim. 
4.12,  written  at  Rome  during  the  second  im- 
prisonment. He  was  obviously  closely  associated 
with  the  great  apostle  in  some  of  the  most 
critical  episodes  of  his  life.  He  must  have  been 
a  man  of  energy  and  sympathy. 

Type. — The  word  occurs  only  in  the  margin 
of  1  Cor.  10.11;  the  original  Greek  word 
"  tupos  "  being  rendered  variously  as  "  figure," 
"  pattern,"  "  ensample,"  and  has  the  same 
ambiguity  as  our  word  "  copy "  :  either  an 
imitation,  or  something  that  is  to  be  imitated.  In 
its  customary  acceptation  it  expresses  a  symbol 
of  that  which  is  to  come,  whether  a  personage, 


incident,  or  institution.  Since  the  beginning 
there  has  been  a  series  of  representatives,  each 
embodying  some  truth,  and  all  tending  to  illus- 
trate the  office  and  work  of  our  Lord,  or  the 
character  and  history  of  His  people.  Jewish 
history  and  worship  formed  one  grand  type.  The 
O.T.  is  the  N.T.  veiled,  and  the  N.T.  is  the  O.T. 
unveiled.  The  ancient  Jewish  people,  for  ex- 
ample, sustained  to  God  the  same  relation  as  is 
now  sustained  by  the  Christian  Church,  and  by 
each  Christian.  Their  sufferings  in  Egypt,  their 
deliverance  under  Moses,  their  wanderings  in 
the  desert,  their  entry  into  Canaan,  prefigure 
the  experience  of  all  Christians.  The  Israelites 
not  only  lived  under  the  same  authority  with 
us,  and  were  governed  by  an  economy  of  dis- 
cipline like  our  own,  but  the  facts  of  their 
history  were  typical  of  the  history  of  the 
Church  (Rom.  2.28 ;  1  Cor.  10 ;  Heb.  4 ;  1  Pet. 
2.5-10 ;  Rev.  15.5).  It  is  observable,  too,  that 
the  relation  between  the  Jewish  people  and 
some  of  the  nations  that  surrounded  them  is 
a  type  of  the  relation  between  the  Christian 
Church  and  its  adversaries :  Sodom  and  Ishmael, 
Egypt  and  Babylon,  have  all  their  representatives 
in  the  history  of  the  true  Israel  (Gal.  4.25; 
Rev.  14.8).  It  may  be  added,  that  while  in  one 
aspect  Israel  as  the  Servant  of  Jehovah  is  the 
representative  of  our  Lord,  individual  Israelites 
were  types  of  Him ;  as  Moses  among  the 
prophets,  David  and  Solomon  among  the  kings  ; 
and  hence  expressions  which  were  originally 
true  of  the  type  are  applied  to  Christ  as  the 
antitype  or  fulfilment  (Acts  13.34). 

And  as  the  people,  so  the  rites  and  worship  of 
the  O.T.  were  typical.  The  whole  dispensation 
was  the  shadow  of  good  things  to  come,  not  the 
very  image  or  substance  of  them.  That  substance 
was  Christ  (Heb.  10.1). 

Tyran'nus. — Paul  for  two  years  disputed 
daily  "  in  the  school  of  one  Tyrannus "  at 
Ephesus  (Acts  19.9).  This  is  the  only  reference 
to  Tyrannus.  The  presumption  is  that  he  was 
a  Gentile  teacher  of  philosophy.  He  may  also 
have  been  a  Christian,  or  at  least  well  disposed 
towards  the  new  doctrines.  The  idea  that  he 
was  a  Jew  who  conducted  a  private  synagogue 
is  not  probable,  because  his  name  is  Greek, 
and  it  is  not  stated"  that  he  was  a  proselyte. 
[SCHOOL.] 

Tyre,  Tyrus.  —  Now  Es-Sur,  a  miserable 
little  village ;  an  ancient  fortified  Phoanician 
city,  on  a  rocky  peninsula,  formerly  an  island, 
on  the  east  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  appar- 
ently colonised  from  Zidon  (Isai.  23.2, 12 ;  cf. 
Gen.  10.15).  It  was  allotted  to  Asher,  and  occu 
pied,  but  its  inhabitants  were  not  expelled 
(Josh.  19.29 ;  Judg.  1.31, 32 ;  2  Sam.  24.7).  Tyre 
supplied  workmen  and  materials  for  building 
David's  palace  and  Solomon's  Temple  (2  Sam. 
5.11 ;  1  K.  5,  7.13, 14,  9.11-14,  27, 10.22,  16.31 ; 
1  Ch.  14.1,  22.4 ;  2  Ch.  2).  It  was  denounced 
by  prophets  (Isai.  23  ;  Jer.  25.22,  47.4  ;  Ezek. 
26,  27,  28;  Joel  3.4-8;  Amos  1.9,10;  Zech. 
9.2-4).  Tyre  rose  to  power  and  splendour. 
It  established,  about  150  years  after  the  build- 


0CAL] 


485 


[UNDERGIBDING 


ing  of  Solomon's  Temple,  the  great  colony  of 
Carthage ;  it  possessed  Cyprus,  with  its  valuable 
copper  mines,  and  exercised  sway  over  Zidon. 
It  was  unsuccessfully  besieged  by  Shalmaneser 
(Ezek.  27) ;  a  siege  by  Nebuchadnezzar  lasted 
for  thirteen  years,  and  was  followed  by  light 
rule  or  alliance  with  Babylon  (Jer.  27.3-8 ; 
Ezek.  29.18-20).  Tyre  supplied  materials  for 
building  the  second  Temple  and  other  wares 
(Ezra  3.7;  Neh.  13.16).  The  neighbourhood 
was  visited  by  our  Lord,  Tyre  being  not  more 
than  40  miles  from  Nazareth  (Matt.  11.21, 15.21 ; 
Mk.  3.8,  7.24;  Lk.  6.17,  10.13).  It  was  the 
residence  of  Christian  disciples  (Acts  21.3-6). 

Tyre,  differing  from  other  celebrated  inde- 
pendent commercial  cities  of  the  ancient 
world,  was  governed  by  a  monarchy,  not 
a  commonwealth.  It  retained  this  form  of 
government  until  its  final  loss  of  independence. 
The  Tyrians  from  an  early  period  had  great  skill 
in  artistic  work  in  copper  or  brass.  The  cedar 


wood  for  the  Temple  was  taken  in  floats  from 
Tyre  to  Joppa,  a  distance  of  74  miles.  From 
Joppa  to  Jerusalem  the  distance  is  about  32 
miles.  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  gave  Solomon 
sailors  for  the  voyage  to  Ophir  and  India.  On 
the  other  hand,  Palestine  was  the  granary  of 
Tyre,  supplying  it  besides  with  oil,  honey,  and 
balm.  Tyre  was  celebrated  for  the  manufacture 
of  a  certain  purple  dye.  [PURPLE.]  Down  to 
the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century  of  our  era, 
Tyre,  having  survived  the  power  of  the  Mace- 
donian and  the  Roman  Empires,  remained  a 
great  city,  in  comparison  with  which  Rome  itself 
was  of  recent  date.  It  eventually  fell  before  the 
conquering  arms  of  the  followers  of  Mahomet. 
Tyre  lost  its  character  of  an  island  when  it  was 
besieged  by  Alexander  the  Great,  who  built  a 
mole,  connecting  the  city  with  the  mainland. 
The  mole  has  been  widened  by  deposits  of  sand, 
and  now  the  tongue  of  land  is  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
broad. 


U'cal.— {Prov.    30.1;  but    see    R.V.  marg.). 

[ITHIEL.] 

U'el. — One  who  had  married  a  foreign  wife 
during  the  Captivity  (Ezra  10.34). 

Uknaz.— 1  Ch.  4.15  A.V.  marg.,  where  A.V. 
text  has  "  even  Kenaz "  and  R.V.  "  and 
Kenaz." 

Ul'ai.— A  river  near  Susa,  and  the  scene  of 
some  of  Daniel's  visions  (Dan.  8.2-16).  The 
Ulai,  called  by  the  Greeks  "  Eulaeus,"  joined 
the  Euphrates  some  distance  below  that  river's 
junction  with  the  Tigris.  Its  modern  name  is 
Kerkhah. 

U'lam.— 1.  A  son  of  Sheresh  (1  Ch.  7.16, 17). 
2.  A  son  of  Eshek,  a  Benjamite  (1  Ch.  8.39,  40). 

Ul'la.— An  Asherite  (1  Ch.  7.39). 

Um'mah.— A  town  of  Asher  (Josh.  19.30). 

Unclean  Meats.— The  Law  of  Moses  had  ex- 
act directions  as  to  food  which  might  or  might 
not  be  eaten.  That  which  was  permitted  was 
"  clean  "  ;  that  which  was  prohibited  was  "  un- 
clean." The  purpose  of  the  distinction  was  the 
separation  of  the  Hebrews  as  the  peculiar 
people  of  Jehovah  (Lev.  11.43-47,  20.24-26). 
Peter's  vision  before  the  reception  of  Gentile 
converts  accords  with  this  view  (Acts  10.12). 
The  law  as  to  meats  applied  to  the  whole 
people,  and  not,  as  with  similar  restrictions 
under  other  religions,  to  a  class  or  to  classes 
only.  The  distinctions,  fully  stated  in  Lev.  11 
and  Deut.  14.3-21,  agree,  as  Cyril,  one  of  the 
Fathers  of  the  Church,  long  ago  pointed  out, 
with  our  natural  instincts  and  observations, 
though  custom  may  (as  in  the  case  of  the  use 
of  swine's  flesh)  overcome  widespread  repug- 
nance. But  the  cause  of  many  of  the  restric- 
tions may  be  traced  to  avoidance  of  food  deemed 
sacred  by  the  heathen.  The  preparatory  nature 


of  the  restrictions  as  to  clean  and  unclean 
meat,  and  as  to  uncleanness  in  man,  is  clearly 
indicated  in  Heb.  9.9, 10.  [FOOD,  UNCLEAN- 
NESS.] 

Uncleanness.— Under  the  Mosaic  Law  certain 
acts  and  conditions  entailed  ceremonial  defile- 
ment for  which  ceremonial  purification  or  offering 
was  enjoined.  This  uncleanness  might  arise 
from  childbirth  (Lev.  12),  from  leprosy  (Lev.  13, 
14),  from  discharge  of  certain  secretions  (Lev. 
15),  from  contact  with  the  dead  (Num.  19.11-22, 
31.19,  20),  or  with  the  body  of  a  clean  animal 
that  died  of  itself  (Lev.  11.39, 40,  17.15, 16, 
22.8),  or  from  certain  acts  at  the  sacrifice  of 
the  red  heifer  (Num.  19.1-10).  Where  the 
uncleanness  was  at  once  observed,  simple  forms 
of  purification  were  provided  (Lev.  11.24,  25,  28, 
39,  40,  15.5,  8,  21 ;  Num.  19.11,  22).  Where 
the  defilement  was  unnoticed,  and  purification 
thus  disregarded,  a  sin-offering  was  demanded. 
The  law  of  uncleanness  finds  its  root  partly  in 
the  sense  of  man's  sinfulness,  and  partly  in 
the  primitive  idea  of  taboo,  according  to  which 
a  thing  or  person  consecrated  to  God  made, 
if  touched,  other  things  or  persons  also  con- 
secrated, and  unfit  for  ordinary  use.  In  later 
Jewish  life  the  spiritual  meaning  of  the  cere- 
monials of  purification  was  obscured  by  the 
multiplied  forms  of  cleansing  (cf.  Mk.  7.2-8). 
[UNCLEAN  MEATS.] 

Unction.  —  Named  only  in  1  John  2.20, 
where  R.V.  has  "  anointing."  [ANOINT,  OIL.] 

Undergirding.— Only  in  Acts  27.17.  Cables 
were  passed  around  the  hull  of  the  ship  under 
its  keel  and  fastened  on  the  deck.  Under- 
girdles  were  provided  amongst  the  stores  of 
Athenian  galleys.  The  process  has  been  used 
in  modern  times,  and  is  called  trapping. 


UNDERSETTERS] 


486 


[TTRIM  AND  THUMMIM 


Undersetters. — The  supports  of  the  brazen 
laver  (1  A'.  7.30,  34;  lit.  "  shoulders"). 

Unicorn.  —  The  A.V.  translation  of  the 
Hebrew  re'em.  It  is  clear  that  there  is  no 
allusion  to  the  mythical  "unicorn"  (the  re'em 
is  not  one-horned;  see  Deut.  33.17,  R.V.),  but 
to  some  well-known  animal,  fierce  and  strong, 
and  notable  for  its  horns  (Num.  23.22,  24.8; 
Deut.  33.17  ;  Job  39.9,  10 ;  Ps.  22.21,  29.6, 
92.10;  Isai.  34.7).  The  R.V.  has  "wild  ox," 
with  marg.  "  or  ox-antelope."  The  wild  ox 
or  urus,  once  very  plentiful  over  Europe  and 
Western  Asia,  is  pictured  on  the  bas-reliefs  of  the 
Assyrian  monuments.  It  is  distinguished  from 
the  domestic  ox  by  a  number  of  marks  on  the 
body,  intended  to  represent  long  and  shaggy 
hairs.  Its  nature  was  fierce,  and  it  was  con- 
sidered a  scarcely  less  noble  game  than  the  lion 
in  the  days  of  Semiramis  and  Sennacherib. 
There  is  reason  to  believe  that  it  became  extinct 
in  the  Holy  Land  at  an  early  period.  The 
exact  characteristics  of  this  swift  and  terrible 
ox  are  unknown.  Canon  Tristram  discovered 
four  teeth  in  the  bone  breccia  of  the  Lebanon, 
which  were  identified,  as  belonging  to  some 
gigantic  wild  ox,  no  doubt  the  auroch  or  urus. 
This  is  confirmed  by  a  broken  obelisk  discovered 
at  Nineveh,  on  which  an  Assyrian  king  pro- 
claims "  Wild  rimi  destructive,  which  he  slew  at 
the  foot  of  Lebanon." 

Unknown  God. — Paul,  preaching  at  Athens, 
told  his  hearers  that  he  had  seen  there  an  altar 
inscribed  "  To  the  Unknown  God  "  (R.V.  "  To 
an  Unknown  God ").  It  was  not  an  altar  to 
the  God  of  the  Jews,  nor  did  it  necessarily 
denote  a  wish  for  something  not  provided  by 
the  worship  of  other  divinities.  Such  altars 
appear  to  have  been  familiar  objects  in  Athens, 
and  witnessed  to  the  desire  of  the  superstitious 
to  propitiate  any  god  who  might  be  unknown  to 
them.  Hence  Paul's  words  in  Acts  17.22. 

Unleavened.— (Gen.  19.3 ;  Matt.  26.17,  etc.). 
[BREAD,  LEAVEN,  PASSOVER,  YEAST.] 

Un'ni,  Unno.  —  1.  A  Levite  musician  who 
assisted  in  the  Tabernacle  service  as  appointed 
by  David  (1  Ch.  15.18,  20).  2.  Another  Levite, 
who  assisted  with  the  music  of  the  Temple 
after  the  return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity 
(Neh.  12.9). 

Uphar'sin.— (Dan.  5.25).    [MENE.] 

U'phaz.— ( Jer.  10.9 ;  Dan.  10.5).  Possibly  the 
same  as  Ophir  (which  see). 

Ur.— 1.  "  Ur  of  the  Chaldees  "  is  mentioned  as 
the  home  of  Terah,  father  of  Abraham,  from 
whence  he  migrated  to  Canaan  with  Abraham, 
Lot,  and  Sarah  (Gen.  11.28,  31, 15.7).  Probably 
to  be  identified  with  the  Babylonian  Uru,  now 
Mugheir,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Euphrates, 
about  125  miles  from  the  Persian  Gulf.  2.  One 
of  David's  mighty  men  (1  Ch.  11.35). 

Urbane  (R.V.  Urbanus).— The  dweller  in  the 
city,  urban :  a  Roman  Christian  saluted  by  Paul 
(Bum.  16.9). 

Ur'i. — Flaming  fire  :  1.  The  son  of  Hur, 
and  father  of  Bezabel  (Ex.  31.2,  35.30,  38.22; 
1  Ch.  2.20;  2  Ch.  1.5).  2.  The  father  of 


Gebo-r,  one  of  Solomon's  officers  (1  K.  4.19). 
3.  A  gatekeeper  of  the  Temple  who  had  married 
a  foreign  wife  (Ezra  10.24). 

Uri'ah,  Urijah.—  Jehovah  is  fire:  1.  Uriah. 
One  of  David's  captains  and  the  husband  of 
Bath-sheba  (2  Sam.  11.3-26,  12.9-15 ;  1  K.  15.5  ; 
1  Ch.  11.41).  He  was  a  Hittite  convert  to  the 
Jewish  faith.  His  wife  was  a  beautiful  woman, 
the  daughter  of  a  brother  officer,  Eliam  (2  Sam. 
23.34).  While  he  was  on  a  campaign  under 
Joab  against  the  Ammonites,  Bath-sheba  fell  a 
victim  to  the  passion  of  David,  who,  to  hide  his 
own  infamy,  first  of  all  tried  to  induce  Uriah  to 
return  home,  and  when  this  plan  failed,  pro- 
cured his  death  by  having  him  sent  on  a  hope- 
less military  expedition.  David,  who  had  shown 
great  anger  at  the  news  of  the  disastrous  repulse 
from  the  wall  of  Rabbath-ammon,  was  appeased 
when  he  heard  that  Uriah  was  among  the  slain 
officers.  After  the  usual  period  of  mourning, 
Bath-sheba  was  married  to  the  king. 
•  Uriah  was  an  upright  and  devoted  soldier, 
and  evidently  a  man  of  high  character.  His 
refusal  to  enjoy  the  comfort  and  luxury  of  his 
home,  while  his  comrades  were  bearing  the 
hardships  of  the  field,  exhibits  his  soldier-like 
and  manly  qualities.  [BATH-SHEBA,  DAVID.] 

2.  (A.V.  Urijah).  A  priest  who  built  an 
idolatrous  altar  for  Ahaz  from  a  pattern  sup- 
plied by  the  latter  (2  K.  16.10-16).  He  was 
also  a  witness  for  Isaiah  (Isai.  8.2).  3.  (A.V. 
Urijah).  A  priest  in  the  time  of  Nehemiah, 
and  the  father  of  Meremoth  (Ezra  8.33  ;  Neh. 
3.4).  4.  (A.V.  Urijah).  A  priest  who  stood  at 
Ezra's  right  hand  during  the  reading  of  the 
recovered  Law  (Neh.  8.4).  5.  (A.V.  Urijah). 
A  prophet,  the  son  of  Shemaiah.  Jehoiakim 
put  him  to  death  because  he  prophesied  evil 
to  the  country,  and  especially  to  Jerusalem. 
He  had  escaped  into-  Egypt,  but  was  discovered 
and  brought  back  by  Elnathan  (which  see)  slain, 
and  his  body  cast  among  the  common  graves 
(Jer.  26.20-23). 

Uri'as.— (Matt.  1.6,  R.V.  Uriah).    [URIAH  1.] 

U'riel.— Flame  of  God  :  1.  A  Kohathite  chief 
who  assisted  David  in  bringing  the  Ark  from 
Obed-edom  (1  Ch.  6.24, 15.5, 11).  2.  A  Gibeon- 
ite,  and  the  father  of  one  of  Rehoboam's  wives 
(2  Ch.  13.2). 

Urijah.— [UKIAH.] 

Urim  and  Thummim  (Lights  and  Perfec- 
tions :  so  R.V.  marg.). — As  considerable  doubt 
attaches  both  to  the  names  and  the  things, 
it  will  be  well  to  examine  the  Scripture  refer- 
ences in  detail :  (1)  "  And  thou  shalt  put  in 
the  breastplate  of  judgment  the  Urim  and  the 
Thummim ;  and  they  shall  be  upon  Aaron's 
heart,  when  he  goeth  in  before  the  Lord " 
(Ex.  28.30 ;  cf.  Lev.  8.8).  This  points  to  some 
small  objects,  connected  with  the  high-priestly 
interpretation  of  the  Divine  will,  and  worn  in  a 
fold  or  pocket  of  the  breastplate.  Stones  used 
as  lots  would  seem  to  be  indicated,  or,  perhaps, 
a  single  stone  with  two  faces  on  which  were 
engraved  Urim  and  Thummim  respectively.  In 
the  "  Blessing  of  Moses  "  (Deut.  33)  the  privilege 


USURY] 


487 


[UZZA,  UZZAH 


of  possessing    the  "  Thummim  and   Urim "  is 
received  from  the  tribe  of  Levi  (ver.  8). 

(2)  In  other  passages  the  use  of  the  Urim  and 
Thummim  as  means  of  divination  is  expressly 
referred    to.     At    the   Divine    appointment    of 
Joshua,  we  read :    "  And  he  shall  stand  before 
Eleazar  the  priest,  who  shall  inquire  for  him  by 
the  judgment  of  the  Urim  before  the  Lord  " 
(Num.    27.21).     The    extremity    which    drove 
Saul  to  consult  the  "  Mitch  of  Endor  "  was  that 
"  when  Saul  inquired  of  the  Lord,   the  Lord 
answered  him  not,  neither  by  dreams,  nor  by 
Urim,  nor  by  prophets"   (1  Sam.  28.6).     By 
the  days  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  the  method  had 
fallen  into  disuse,  and  Zerubbabel  the  governor 
defers  his  decision  as  to  the  right  of  certain 
families  to  the  priesthood  till  there  should  arise 
"a   priest   with   Urim   and   with   Thummim" 
(£zra2.63;  Neh.  1. Go). 

(3)  It  is  not  unlikely  that  the  same  method 
of  divination  may  have  been  employed  in  some 
cases  where  the  Urim  arid  Thummim  are  not 
expressly  mentioned  (e.g.  Josh.  7.14-18  ;    Judg. 
20.28;    1  Sam.  10.20-24;   2  Sam.  2.1,  5.19,23). 
In  one  passage  of  great  obscurity,  if  the  Hebrew 
text  may  be  restored  by  help  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  Versions  (LXX  and  Vulgate),  there  is  a 
more  explicit  reference  to  the  use  and  to  the 
significance  of  Urim  and  Thummim  than  in  any 
yet  considered.     In   the  story  of  1  Sam.  14, 
Saul,  in  order  to  discover  who  had  violated  the 
vow   of   fasting,   set   the  people   on  one  side, 
himself  and  Jonathan  on  the  other.    Then  he 
prayed  for  Divine  guidance  (ver.  41)  in  words 
variously     rendered,     "  Give    a    perfect    lot " 
(A.V.  and  R.V.  marg.)  or,  "  Shew  the  right " 
(R.V.).     But  neither  rendering  is  justified,  and 
"  all  attempts  to  make  sense  of  the  words  as 
they  stand  are  vain."     It  is  generally  agreed 
that  the  fuller  version  of  the  LXX  and  Vulgate 
here  preserves  the   original  Hebrew  text,  and 
that  Saul's  prayer  (ver.  41)  was  to  this  effect, 
"  Lord  God  of  Israel,  why  hast  Thou  not  an- 
swered   Thy   servant   this   day  ?     If   the   guilt 
be  in  me,  or  in  Jonathan  my  son,  give  Urim  : 
but  if  Thou  sayest  thus,  The  guilt  is  in  the  people, 
give    Thummim."      The  lot,  so  arranged,  fell 
upon  the  king  and  his  son,  and,  used  a  second 
time  to  decide  between  these  two,  marked  out 
Jonathan  as  the  guilty  one. 

The  Urim  and  Thummim,  then,  were  a  means 
of  appeal  by  lot  to  the  Divine  will  or  knowledge 
in  cases  involving  two  alternatives,  and  natur- 
ally belonged  to  the  priestly  prerogative.  So 
much  is  clear  :  the  precise  method  of  employ- 
ment or  significance  of  the  two  names  cannot  be 
determined. 

Usury.— The  laws  respecting  debts  had  many 
enactments  peculiar  to  the  circumstances  of 
the  Jews.  All  profit,  or  interest,  or  benefit, 
over  and  above  the  return  of  the  article 
intended,  was  forbidden  among  their  own 
countrymen,  though  they  might  take  interest 
from  strangers.  This  regulation  was  calculated 
to  retain  the  mass  of  the  nation  in  the  middle 
station  of  life,  and  therefore  the  happiest.  The 


Mosaic  Laws  were  quite  as  much  opposed  to 
the  habits  and  practices  that  would  produce 
pauperism  as  to  the  vast  accumulation  of 
property.  The  Jews  seem  to  have  learnt  the 
practice  of  usury  during  the  Captivity,  though 
the  Law  forbade  (Lev.  25.36,  37  ;  Ezek.  18.8, 13, 
17).  The  amount  of  interest  charged  was 
probably  1  per  cent,  per  month  (Neh.  5.11)  or  12 
per  cent,  per  annum  (a  rate,  by  the  way,  which  is 
common  in  the  East  to-day).  After  the  Return, 
the  poor  complained  of  the  exactions  of  their 
richer  brethren  (Neh.  5.1-5),  who  were  publicly 
rebuked  by  Nehemiah  (vers.  6-13).  The  rebuke 
was  felt  to  be  just,  and  restoration  was  made. 
Although  their  exile  in  Babylon  had  cured  the 
Jews  of  idolatry,  they  were  still  much  given  to 
covetousness  and  oppression,  and  through  the 
means  of  mortgages  the  richer  had  become 
possessed  of  the  land,  and  even  of  the  person? 
of  the  poorer  sort,  in  return  for  food  and  other 
necessaries.  Among  the  Egyptians  accumu- 
lated interest  was  never  to  exceed  twice  tbr 
amount  of  the  original  sum  borrowed. 

U'thai. — 1.  The  son  of  Ammihud,  who  re- 
turned to  Jerusalem  after  the  Captivity  (1  Ch. 
9.4).  He  appears  in  Neh.  11.4  as  Athaiah. 
2.  A  chief  of  the  Bigvai  who  returned  with 
Ezra  (Ezra  8.14). 

Uz. — 1.  A  district  in  Northern  Arabia,  south- 
east of  Palestine.  It  was  the  home  of  Job  ( Job 
1.1 ;  Jer.  25.20  ;  Lam.  4.21).  2.  The  eldest  son 
of  Aram,  and  grandson  of  Shem  (Gen.  10.23 ; 
1  Ch.  1.17).  3.  A  son  of  Dishon  (Gen.  36.28). 
4.  The  son  of  Nahor  and  Milcah  (Gen.  22.21). 
In  this  pasage  the  A.V.  has  Huz  (which  see). 

U'zai.— The  father  of  Palal.  Uzai  assisted 
in  the  rebuilding  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh 
3.25). 

U'zal. — The  sixth  son  of  Joktan  the  Shemita 
(Gen.  10.27;  1  Ch.  1.21).  His  descendants 
peopled  the  Yemen,  in  South  Arabia.  San'a, 
the  chief  settlement,  was  an  important  place, 
its  principal  rival  being  Sheba. 

Uz'za,  Uz'zah.—  Strength:  1.  A  son  of 
Abinadab  (2  Sam.  6.3).  After  the  Philistines, 
afraid  any  longer  to  retain  the  Ark,  had  sent 
it  away,  it  rested  for  twenty  years  in  Uzzah's 
house  at  Kirjath-jearim.  When  David  had 
decided  to  remove  it  to  Jerusalem,  Uzzah  and  his 
brother  Ahio  went  with  the  cart  on  which  it 
was  placed  (1  Ch.  13.7).  At  the  threshing-floor 
of  Chidon  the  Ark  slipped,  and  Uzzah,  attempting 
to  prevent  it  falling,  put  out  his  hand,  and  was 
immediately  struck  dead  (1  Ch.  13.10).  Uzzah's 
death  made  so  deep  an  impression  that  the  Ark 
was  taken  no  farther,  and  the  name  of  the  spot 
was  changed  to  Perez-uzzah,  the  "  breaking  of 
Uzzah  "  (2  Sam.  6.8  ;  1  Ch.  13.11).  2.  One  in 
whose  garden  two  kings  of  Judah,  Manasseh  and 
Amon,  were  buried  (2  K.  21.18,  26).  Perhaps 
the  word  should  be  emended  to  Uzziah,  the 
king.  3.  A  descendant  of  Merari  (1  Ch.  6.29). 
4.  A  Benjamite  (1  Ch.  8.7).  5.  One  whose 
descendants,  a  family  of  Nethinim,  returned  to 
Palestine  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.49;  Neh. 
7.51). 


XJZZEN-SHEEBAH] 


488 


[VANITY 


Uzzen-shee'rah,  Uz'zen-she'rah.  —  Ear,  or 
ridge,  of  Sherah :  a  place  3  miles  south-west  of 
the  lower  Beth-horon.  The  town  was  built  by 
Sherah,  a  woman  of  Ephraim  (1  Ch.  7.24).  It 
is  now  known  as  Beit  Sira. 

Uz'zi. — 1.  A  son  of  Bukki,  and  descendant  of 
Aaron,  who  lived  about  the  time  of  Eli  (1  Ch. 
6.5,6,51;  Ezra!  A).  2.  Son  of  Tola,  and  father 
of  five  chiefs  (1  Ch.  7.2,3).  3.  Son  of  Bela 
(1  Ch.  7.7).  4.  Father  of  Elah,  whose  de- 
scendants returned  to  Jerusalem  after  the 
Captivity  (1  Ch.  9.8).  5.  An  overseer  of  the 
Levites  (Neh.  11.22).  6.  A  priest  in  the  days 
of  Joiakim  (Neh.  12.19,  42). 

Uzzi'a. — One  of  David's  principal  warriors 
(1  Ch.  11.44). 

Uzzi'ah. — Jehovah  is  my  strength  :  1.  King  of 
Judah,  and  son  of  the  murdered  King  Arnaziah, 
who  was  placed  on  the  throne  by  the  people 
at  the  age  of  sixteen  (2  Ch.  26.1  ff.).  He  was  a 
wise  and  capable  ruler,  who  strengthened  and 
consolidated  his  kingdom  during  a  long  reign 
of  fifty-two  years,  808-9  to  756-7  B.C.  His 
name  also  appears  as  Azariah. 

His  first  successful  campaign  was  against  the 
Edomites,  from  whom  he  wrested  Elath  (which 
see),  which  they  had  taken  from  the  feebler 
hands  of  Jehoram  eighty  years  previously.  This 
important  port  on  the  Gulf  of  Akabah  he  forti- 
fied and  made  the  headquarters  of  his  foreign 
trade  (2  K.  14.22  ;  2  Ch.  26.2).  He  then  pro- 
ceeded against  the  Philistines  and  certain 
Arabian  tribes  of  the  south,  defeating  them  and 
exacting  tribute.  The  Ammonites  were  also 
compelled,  either  from  prudence  or  of  necessity, 
to  pay  tribute  (2  Ch.  26.6-8).  He  also  greatly 
strengthened  the  defences  of  Jerusalem,  erect- 
ing on  the  walls  new  and  terrible  engines  of 
destruction.  To  Uzziah  is  attributed  the 
invention  of  the  catapulta  and  the  balista  for 
throwing  huge  stones  and  darts  (2  Ch.  26.15). 
These  engines  are  represented  in  Assyrian  sculp- 
tures. He  equipped  an  army  said  to  be  of 
307,500  men  with  the  best  weapons  procurable, 
so  that  he  was  feared  by  the  surrounding  nations 
&  Ch.  26.7,8.).  In  the  interests  of  his  people 


he  dug  wells,  and  encouraged  agriculture,  himself 
setting  the  example  by  planting  vineyards  and 
fields.  For  the  flocks  and  herds  he  built  pro- 
tective towers,  as  a  defence  against  predatory 
bands  and  wild  beasts  (2  Ch.  26.10). 

Uzziah  was  a  constant  and  true  worshipper 
of  Jehovah,  seeking  the  advice  of  the  prophet 
Zechariah  (2  Ch.  26.5).  But  he  became  proud, 
and  his  pride  brought  upon  him  a  terrible 
punishment.  He  attempted  to  burn  incense  on 
the  altar  of  God,  which  only  the  high-priest 
might  do,  and  was  strongly  opposed  by  the 
high-priest  Azariah  and  some  others.  Angry  at 
their  resistance,  he  was  pressing  forward  to  the 
profane  act  when  God  smote  him  with  leprosy 
(2^.15.5;  2  Ch.  26.16  ff .).  As  a  leper  he  had  to 
leave  his  royal  palace  and  live  without  the  city, 
while  his  son  Jotham  (which  see)  was  made 
regent.  On  his  death  he  was  buried  in  a  special 
royal  sepulchre  (2  Ch.  26.23).  [AZARIAH.] 

2.  Son  of  Uriel.  A  Levite  and  ancestor  of 
Samuel  (1  Ch.  6.24).  3.  One  of  David's  store- 
keepers  or  overseers  (1  Ch.  27.25).  4.  A  priest 
who  had  taken  a  strange  wife  in  the  time  of  Ezra 
(Ezra  10.21).  5.  Father  of  Athaiah  (Neh.  11.4). 

Uz'ziel.  —  Strength  of  God:  1.  A  son  of 
Kohath  and  grandson  of  Levi.  His  descendants 
were  called  Uzzielites  (Ex.  6.18,  22  ;  Lev.  10.4  ; 
Num.  3.19,  30  ;  1  Ch.  6.2,  23.12,  20).  2.  A  son 
of  Ishi.  He  was  a  captain,  and  with  500  com- 
panions went  on  an  expedition  against  the 
Amalekites  at  Mount  Seir.  The  Amalekites 
were  driven  out,  and  Uzziel  and  his  men  took 
possession  of  their  country  (1  Ch.  4.42).  3.  A 
grandson  of  Benjamin  (1  Ch.  7.7).  4.  A  son 
of  Heman;  who  was  placed  by  David  over  the 
service  of  song  (1  Ch.  25.4).  In  ver.  18  he 
is  called  Azareel.  5.  A  Levite  who  helped  to 
cleanse  the  Temple  in  the  days  of  Hezekiah 
(2  Ch.  29.14).  6.  A  goldsmith  who  took  part 
in  the  repairs  to  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  3.8). 

Uz'zielites,  The.— The  family  or  house  of 
Uzziel  1.  They  numbered  112  grown  persons 
when  David  brought  the  Ark  up  to  Jerusalem 
(1  Ch.  15.10).  The  head  of  the  house  was 
Amminadab  (Num.  3.27  ;  1  Ch.  26.23). 


Vaheb.—  Only  in  Num.  21.14,  R.V.,  as  the 
name  of  a  place,  otherwise  unknown,  on  the 
borders  of  the  river  Arnon.  [SUPHAH.] 

Vail.— [VEIL.] 

Vaiza'tha,  Vajeza'tha.  —  Perhaps  a  Persian 
word  meaning  Given  of  the  Best  One :  the  tenth 
son  of  Haman  (Esth.  9.9),  slain  with  his  brethren 
by  the  Jews. 

Vale,  Valley. — Palestine  is  a  land  of  hills  and 
valleys,  and  hence  we  find  many  place-names 
with  the  name  of  the  valley  or  height  on  which 
they  M'ere  built  attached  to  them.  Generally, 
when  "  valley  "  is  mentioned  it  should  be  more 


properly  "  gorge  "  or  "  ravine  "  ;  for  the  abrupt 
and  rugged  nature  of  the  Palestine  heights, 
and  the  narrowness  of  the  spaces  between, 
render  these  terms  more  suitable.  In  a  few 
places  Vale  and  Valley  represent  the  Shephelah, 
or  lowland,  which  is  the  district  of  low  hills 
between  the  hill-country  and  the  maritime 
plain  (Josh.  9.1,  10.40;  1  K.  10.27).  [PALES- 
TINE.] 

Vani'ah. — One  who  put  away  his  foreign  wife 
in  the  time  of  Ezra  (Ezra  10.36). 

Vanity.— In  the  Bible  this  word  never  has 
the  meaning  of  conceit  and  pride,  but  nearly 


VASHNI] 


489 


[VERSIONS 


always  of  emptiness.  The  well-known  phrase 
"  vanity  of  vanities  "  is  literally  "  breath  of 
breaths,"  or  "  vapour  of  vapours  "  (Eccles.  1.2). 
In  Isai.  41.29  ;  Zech.  10.2  it  translates  a  word 
meaning  sorrow  and  iniquity. 

Vash'ni. — The  first  son  of  the  prophet  Samuel 
(1  Ch.  6.28).  As  Samuel's  eldest  son  is  given 
as  Joel  in  1  Sam.  8.2,  it  is  thought  that "  Vashni  " 
is  a  corruption  of  the  Hebrew  words  meaning 
"  and  the  second  "  ;  the  passage  would  then 
read,  "  The  first-born  [Joel  dropped  out]  and 
the  second  Abijah." 

Vash'ti. — A  Persian  word  meaning  Best :  the 
queen  whom  the  Persian  monarch  Ahasuerus 
(Xerxes)  deposed  when  he  raised  Esther  to  his 
side  (Esth.  1.9-19,  2.1-17).  Vashti  had  refused 
to  show  herself  before  the  banqueters  at  the 
royal  table,  an  act  which  would  have  been 
unwomanly  and  bold.  Her  refusal,  though 
natural,  so  angered  Ahasuerus  that  she  was 
dismissed  from  the  court  in  disgrace.  Nothing 
further  is  known  of  Vashti.  [ESTHER.] 

Vedan  (Ezek.  27.19,  R.V.).— Perhaps  the  town 
Waddan,  midway  between  Mecca  and  Medina. 

[DAN  3.] 

Veil.— The  veil  is  still  a  conspicuous  detail 
of  woman's  dress  in  the  East.  Rebekah  covered 
her  face  on  first  seeing  Isaac  (Gen.  24.65). 
Moses  veiled  his  face  in  speaking  with  the  people 
on  his  descent  from  the  mount  (Ex.  34.33-35), 
probably  using  his  robe  for  the  purpose.  Pos- 
sibly the  word  translated  "  kerchiefs  "  in  the 
A.V.  and  R.V.;of  Ezek.  13.18,21  means  a  kind 
of  veil.  The  rare  word  translated  veil  in  Ruth 
3.15  is  translated  wimple  (A.V.)  or  shawl  (R.V.) 
in  Isai.  3.22,  but  may  have  been  the  large  veil 
down  the  back  of  the  Bedouin  women,  used  for 
carrying  all  kinds  of  things.  [TABERNACLE.] 

Venison. — The  English  word  and  the  Hebrew, 
of  which  it  is  a  translation,  denote  the  edible 
flesh  of  animals  killed  in  the  chase.  The  use 
which  confines  venison  to  the  flesh  of  deer  is 
more  modern.  Venison  appears  only  in  the 
O.T.  in  the  story  of  Esau  and  Jacob  (Gen.  25.28, 
27.3,  5,  etc.). 

Venom. — Used  of  the  poison  of  asps  (Deut. 
32.33). 

Vermilion. — The  ancient  vermilion  was  prob- 
ably oxide  of  lead,  or  perhaps  a  bi-sulphate  of 
mercury,  and  was  used  largely  for  decorative 
work  on  ceilings  and  for  the  painting  of  images 
(Jer.  22.14  ;  Ezek.  23.14).  The  cochineal  insect, 
however,  is  plentiful  in  North  Arabia,  and  may 
have  been  used  for  colouring  vermilion  paint, 
as  it  was  undoubtedly  used  for  dyeing. 

Versions. — Every  commentary  on  the  Bible 
refers  so  often  to  renderings  in  the  chief  versions, 
particularly  those  of  early  date,  and  those  in 
English,  that  it  is  convenient  to  the  Bible 
student  to  have  a  few  facts  in  a  readily  access- 
ible form. 

1.  The  Versions  of  the  Old  Testament.— (1) 
The  Greek  Versions  have  been  described  suffi- 
ciently under  SEPTUAGINT.  (2)  Samaritan. 
(i)  The  Samaritan  Pentateuch  is  not  a  version, 
but  is  the  Hebrew  in  Samaritan  letters.  Its  date 


is  warmly  disputed,  but  in  any  case  its  original 
form  cannot  be  later  than  333  B.C.  It  often, 
but  by  no  means  always,  agrees  with  the 
Septuagint  against  the  common  Hebrew  text, 
(ii)  There  is  also  a  Samaritan  version,  or  rather 
Targum,  i.e.  a  version  which  is  more  para- 
phrastic than  a  strict  translation  should  be, 
whose  date  is  placed  about  200  A.D.  (3) 
Aramaic.  These  are  the  Targums  proper. 
The  oldest  is  attributed  to  Onqelos,  a  word 
which  is  thought  to  be  the  Jewish  rendering  of 
the  name  Aquila,  of  the  second  century  A.D. 
It  contains  the  Pentateuch  only.  There  are 
also  so-called  Targums  of  Jerusalem  on  the 
Pentateuch,  which,  however,  are  some  centuries 
later.  The  Targum  on  the  "  Prophets " 
[BIBLE]  is  attributed  to  Jonathan  ben  Uzziel, 
who  lived  near  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
era,  but  in  its  present  form  it  belongs  to  the 
fifth  century  A.D.  It  is  often  very  paraphrastic. 
The  Targums  on  the  "  Holy  Writings  "  [BIBLE] 
are  by  various  writers,  not  earlier  than  the 
seventh  century  A.D.  (4)  Syriac.  The  Pe- 
shitta  seems  to  have  been  made  in  the  first  hah* 
of  the  second  century  A.D.,  for  the  use  of  the 
large  Syriac-speaking  population  in  the  districts 
north  and  north-east  of  Palestine.  Perhaps  it 
was  intended  for  proselytes  to  Judaism,  or 
perhaps  even  made  by  a  Jewish  Christian. 
(5)  Latin,  (i)  The  Old  Latin  is  a  direct  trans- 
lation from  the  Septuagint,  perhaps  composed 
in  North  Africa,  and  apparently  of  post- 
Christian  date,  (ii)  The  Vulgate  was  made 
by  Jerome,  in  the  greater  part  directly  from 
the  Hebrew,  between  the  years  392  and  405  A.D. 

2.  The  Versions  of  the  New  Testament. — [NEW 
TESTAMENT,  TEXT  OF.] 

3.  English     Versions.  —  (1)    Pre-Reformation 
Period,    (i)  Csedmon,  who   died   about  680,  is 
said  to  have   written    the    Anglo-Saxon    Para- 
phrase of  the  chief  events  in  Genesis,  Exodus, 
and  Daniel,  and  also  of  portions  of  the  life  of 
Christ,     (ii)  Bede,  who  died  in  735,  translated 
into  Anglo-Saxon  parts  of  the  Bible  (how  much 
is  not  known  for  certain),  including  St.  John. 
But  none  of  his  translation  has  survived,    (iii) 

\John  Wycliffe,  who  died  in  1384,  was  the  first 
to  make  any  serious  and  connected  attempt  to 
translate  the  Scriptures  into  English.  This  he 
did  from  the  Vulgate,  though  it  is  doubtful  how 
far  his  version  is  entirely  his  own  work.  It  was 
issued  in  a  revised  form  by  Purvey  about  1388. 
It  was,  of  course,  only  in  manuscript,  for  printing 
was  not  invented  till  some  seventy  years  later. 

(2)  Reformation  Period  till  1611.  William 
Tindal  issued  the  Pentateuch  at  Marburg  in 
1530,  and  the  N.T.  in  1526  and  1534.  The 
latter  was  from  the  Greek,  and  has  been  the 
basis  upon  which  all  the  succeeding  editions 
of  the  N.T.  in  English  have  been  built.  Cover- 
dale  published  a  complete  Bible  in  1535,  which 
for  beauty  of  English  has  perhaps  never  been 
surpassed.  The  version  of  the  Psalms  con- 
tained in  the  Anglican  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
is  very  nearly  as  he  wrote  it,  though  technically 
it  was  taken  from  the  Great  Bible,  seven  editions 


VESTMENT,  VESTURE] 


490 


[VINE,  VINEYAED 


of  which  were  printed  in  1539-1541.  This  was, 
as  it  seems,  the  first  complete  Bible  which 
was  professedly  translated  from  the  original. 
The  Geneva  Bible  of  1560,  sometimes  called  the 
Breeches  Bible,  from  its  translation  of  Gen.  3.7, 
passed  through  several  editions,  and  may  still 
be  purchased  very  cheaply.  As  it  contained 
many  notes,  not  always  acceptable  to  English 
Churchmen,  the  Bishops  brought  out  their  own 
edition  in  1568.  We  can  hardly  wonder  that 
then  even  the  Roman  Catholics  felt  the  need  of 
meeting  the  Protestant  appeal  to  Scripture  by 
a  version  of  their  own,  the  N.T.  being  issued 
at  Douay  in  1582,  and  the  O.T.  in  1609.  Both 
were  taken  directly  from  the  Vulgate,  with  only 
reference  to  the  Hebrew  or  the  Greek,  instead 
of  following  the  example  of  the  preceding 
English  Versions,  and  translating  from  the 
original.  The  Version  is  marred  not  only  by 
passages  in  which  misunderstanding  arose  from 
the  use  of  a  secondary  source,  but  also  by  the 
introduction  of  many  Latinisms.  Before  the 
Douay  O.T.  was  published,  bodies  of  English 
Churchmen  had  been  set  to  work  to  improve 
the  Bishops'  Bible,  in  what  is  known  as.  the 
Authorised  Version.  This  was  the  result  of  the 
Hampton  Court  Conference  of  1604,  and  was 
largely  due  to  the  personal  influence  of  James  i. 
He  appointed  fifty-four  scholars  to  carry  out  the 
work,  the  best  known  of  them  being,  perhaps, 
Andrewes,  Overall,  Reynolds,  and  Sir  Henry 
Saville.  It  appeared  in  1611. 

(3)  The  Revised  Femon,N.T.  1881,  O.T.  1885. 
Among  those  who  took  part  in  this  may  be 
mentioned  Professors  Cheyne,  Driver,  Sayce, 
Robertson  Smith,  Dr.  Ginsburg,  and  Mr.  J.  D. 
Geden,  for  the  O.T.,  and  Bishop  Ellicott,  Dr. 
Angus,  Dr.  W.  F.  Moulton,  and,  in  particular, 
Professors  Hort,  Lightfoot,  and  Westcott  for 
the  N.T.,  the  last  three  having  a  preponderating 
influence  in  all  that  belonged  to  questions 
concerning  the  Greek  text  which  was  to  be 
translated,  and  even  in  the  rendering  of  it  as 
regards  minutiae.  The  value  of  the  Revisers' 
work  is  disputed.  Its  English  is  sometimes 
deplorable,  especially  in  the  N.T.  But  they 
frankly  desired  to  render  the  Greek  as  exactly 
as  was  compatible  with  the  possibilities  of  the 
English  language,  and  as  a  whole  their  accuracy 
is  unimpeachable,  although,  it  is  true,  they 
lived  before  the  discovery  of  the  potsherds  and 
papyri  of  Egypt.  Sometimes,  no  doubt,  they 
have  given  too  much  weight  to  the  purely  classi- 
cal use  of  words  and  phrases,  whereas  recent 
discoveries  have  shown  that  in  the  popular 
language,  in  which,  as  we  now  know,  the  N.T. 
writers  expressed  themselves,  the  meaning  was 
sometimes  different,  or  even  less  exact.  But, 
generally  speaking,  the  Revisers  were  so  con- 
vinced of  the  immediate  presence  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  in  the  hearts  of  the  sacred  writers,  that 
they  desired  to  express  in  English  every  shade 
of  difference  which  they  found  in  the  Greek. 
Hence,  whatever  may  have  been  the  result  on 
the  English  itself,  the  R.V.  is  an  exceedingly 
minute  reproduction  of  every  turn  and  change 


in  the  Greek,  the  text  of  this  being  that  which 
was  esteemed  the  best,  certainly  in  the  second 
century,  and  probably  even  in  the  first. 

(4)  Among  "  private "  versions  may  be 
mentioned  Weymouth's  New  Testament  in 
Modern  Speech,  1902,  an  admirable  and  scholarly 
attempt  to  render  the  thoughts,  rather  than  the 
words,  of  the  N.T.  into  modern  English ;  and 
Sir  Edward  Clarke's  translation  of  the  N.T., 
1913,  in  which  he  tries  to  preserve  each  detail 
of  the  A.V.,  where  it  is  at  all  possible  to  do  so. 
Dr.  James  MoSatt  has  also  published  a  new 
translation  of  the  N.T.,  which  aims  at  being 
both  accurate  and  idiomatic  (1913). 

Vestment,  Vesture.— Vestures  of  fine  linen 
(or  cotton,  R.V.  marg.)  were  put  upon  Joseph 
when  Pharaoh  raised  him  to  office  (Gen.  41.42). 
Fringed  garments  were  enjoined  for  use  by  the 
children  of  Israel  (Num.  15.38,  39 ;  Dent.  22.12). 
The  worshippers  of  Baal  wore  vestments 
(2  K.  10.22).  For  the  dress  of  the  priests  under 
the  Mosaic  Law  see  Ex.  28.40-43,  39.27-29  ;  and 
for  that  of  the  high-priest  see  Ex.  28,  39.  The 
"  vesture  "  of  our  Lord  for  which  the  soldiers 
cast  lots  (Matt.  27.35;  John  19.24)  was  the 
usual  seamless  coat  or  tunic  worn  by  nearly 
every  one  in  the  East.  [COAT,  DRESS,  JESUS, 

PfilEST.] 

Vial.— In  the  O.T.  only  in  1  Sam.  10.1,  where 
the  prophet  poured  anointing  oil  from  a  flask  or 
jar  called  "  vial."  In  the  N.T.  only  in  Revelation. 
In  5.8  the  twenty-four  elders  have  golden  vials 
full  of  odours.  These  vials  were  not  small 
bottles,  such  as  we  call  vials  or  phials,  but 
rather  of  the  shape  of  saucers,  used  for  pouring 
out  libations  of  wine  (bowl,  R.V.).  Thus  also 
in  the  other  passages  in  Revelation  (15.7, 
16.1,  2,  3, 17,  17.1,  21.9). 

Village. — Palestine  villages  were  generally 
to  be  found  clustered  round  the  walls  of  a 
fortified  town,  but  they  were  themselves 
without  walls  or  other  protection,  the  rural 
inhabitants  relying  on  their  strong  neighbour 
for  support  in  the  day  of  trouble.  As  they 
might  have  to  be  deserted  at  any  moment  in 
troubled  times,  the  houses  of  the  villages  were 
slightly  built,  with  mud-plastered  wattle  walls 
and  thatched  roofs.  This  was  the  case  with 
Heshbon  and  Jaazer,  Amorite  towns,  with  their 
daughter  villages  (Num.  21.25  ff.). 

Besides  having  no  walls,  a  village  in  later 
times  had  no  synagogue,  which  a  town  had, 
but  its  people  were  provided  with  a  service 
in  the  town's  synagogue  when  they  went  into 
the  town  on  market  days.  [CiTY,  TOWN.] 

Vine,  Vineyard. — First  named  in  connexion 
with  Ararat,  perhaps  its  primitive  habitat, 
where  Noah  planted  a  vineyard  (Gen.  9.20). 
It  was  a  known  and  cultivated  plant  in  Egypt, 
as  illustrated  in  the  dream  of  Pharaoh's  "  chief 
butler  "  (Gen.  40),  and  the  destruction  of  the 
Egyptian  vineyards  by  hail-storms  (Ps.  78.47). 
The  extent  and  importance  of  this  industry 
are  abundantly  and  graphically  depicted  on  the 
monuments,  where  the  whole  process  of  training 
the  vines, — usually  on  trellis-work  supported 


VINE,  VINEYARD] 


491 


[VINEGAE 


by  pillars, — of  gathering  the  fruit,  and  of  con- 
verting it  into  wine,  is  exhibited.  In  prophetic 
language,  Israel  itself  was  a  vine  brought  out  of 
Egypt  (Ps.  80.8).  In  the  insulting  challenge  of 
Rabshakeh  to  the  Jens  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah, 
he  offers  to  "  take  them  away "  to  a  land  like 
their  own — "  a  land  of  corn  and  wine,  a  land  of 
bread  and  vineyards  "  (2  K.  18.32). 

The  culture  of  the  vine  by  the  Canaanitish 
races,  anterior  to  the  Hebrew  invasion,  is 
manifest  from  such  incidents  as  the  meeting  of 
Abraham  and  Melchizedek,  the  report  of  the 
spies,  and  the  allusions  of  Moses  to  the  promised 
inheritance  (Gen.  14.18  ;  Num.  13.20,  24  ;  Deut. 
6.11).  Even  at  that  early  period  the  district 
in  which  this  branch  of  agriculture  reached 
its  highest  perfection  in  Southern  Palestine 
may  be  inferred  from  the  Patriarchal  promise 
to  Judah :  "  Binding  his  foal  unto  the  vine, 
and  his  ass's  colt  unto  the  choice  vine "  ; 
while  the  well-beloved  Joseph  is  compared  to 
the  "  fruitful  bough  "  of  a  vine  growing  "  by  a 
well,"  whose  branches  run  over  the  stone  "  wall  " 
of  the  terraced  plantation  (Gen.  49.11, 22). 
The  valley  of  Eshcol  (grape  cluster)  yielded  the 
huge  sample  of  grapes  carried  to  Moses  by  the 
spies,  and  received  its  name  from  the  circum- 
stance (Num.  32.9).  The  valley  of  Sorek 
(vineyard)  in  the  Philistine  plain  was  similarly 
named  (Judg.  14.5,  15.5,  16.4).  So  also  "  the 
plain  of  the  vineyards "  (Abel-keramim),  east 
of  Jordan  (Judg.  11.33).  Later  on,  the  vine- 
yards of  En-gedi,  on  the  western  shore  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  are  specially  mentioned  (Song  of  Sol. 
1.14) ;  and  Jeremiah  laments  for  the  wasting 
of  the  Moabite  vineyards  of  Sibmah  (Jer.  48.32). 
The  wine  of  Helbon  in  Anti-Lebanon  was  ex- 
ported to  Tyre,  according  to  Ezekiel  (27.18); 
and  the  "  scent  of  the  vine  of  Lebanon"  is  alluded 
to  by  Hosea  (14.7). 

In  our  own  day,  Canon  Tristram  reports 
that  the  raisins  of  Eshcol  are  delicious ;  Mr. 
Fisk  mentions  the  luxuriance  of  the  vines  of 
Hebron,  whose  fruit,  according  to  Dr.  Thomson, 
is  finer  than  those  in  most  other  parts  of  the 
country.  At  En-gedi  (Ain  Jidy)  the  terraces 
still  remain,  though  the  vineyards  have  dis- 
appeared. In  present  years  the  systematic 
cultivation  of  the  vine  has  led  to  a  large  trade 
being  done  in  "  Palestine  wine "  of  various 
kinds.  It  is  needless  to  quote  passages  for  the 
purpose  of  proving  the  extent  and  importance 
of  the  vine,  and  the  value  attached  to  its 
produce  in  Palestine,  during  the  long  periods 
covered  by  O.T.  and  N.T.  history;  or  to  the 
abundance  and  excellence  of  the  Syrian  vintage. 
It  will  suffice  to  mention  the  original  promises 
made  to  the  Israelites  before  they  had  been 
consolidated  into  a  nation ;  the  imagery  of 
psalm  and  prophecy ;  and  the  fact  that  no  less 
than  five  of  the  parables  of  the  Great  Teacher 
relate  to  vines  and  their  culture.  Equally 
significant  is  it  to  note  that  about  a  dozen  words 
are  found  in  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  languages 
(chiefly  the  former)  to  denote  this  plant  and  its 


The  ancient  inhabitants  of  Palestine  imi- 
tated the  Egyptians  in  training  the  vines  over 
trellises,  and  the  grape  was  the  emblem  of 
prosperity  and  peace.  The  character  of  the 
soil  taught  the  Canaanites  and  their  successors 
the  construction  of  terraces.  In  the  court- 
yards of  large  houses,  and  on  the  walls  of 
cottages,  the  vines  spread  their  interlacing 
tendrils  :  and  it  is  probable  that  they  were  also 
allowed  to  climb  round  fig  and  other  trees.  In 
the  north  they  are,  and  probably  were,  trained 
along  the  ground  with  but  slight  support 
(Ps.  80.10,  128.3;  Ezek.  17.6).  As  now,  the 
vineyards  were  surrounded  with  rude  stone  walls 
or  with  a  hedge,  or  both  (Isai.  5.5  ;  Mk.  12.1). 
Between  such  walls  Balaam  rode.  "  Cottages," 
or  huts,  of  rough  unhewn  stone,  roofed  with 
earth,  are  built  for  the  keepers,  as  in  O.T.  days  ; 
and  "  towers  "  were  erected,  whence  a  look  out 
might  be  kept  against  the  depredations  of  man 
or  beast,  of  prowling  robber  or  "  boar  out  of 
the  forest,"  or  the  young  jackals  that  "  spoiled 
the  vines"  (Ps.  80.13;  Song  of  Sol.  2.15; 
Isai.  1.8,  5.2 ;  Matt.  21.33).  The  autumnal 
vintage,  like  the  grain  harvest  which  preceded 
it,  was  a  season  of  special  rejoicing  (Isai.  16.10  ; 
Jer.  25.30).  The  general  arrangements  are 
described  in  Isaiah's  parable  (5),  and  in  that 
of  our  Lord  (Mk.  12.1,  etc.).  The  poor  were 
allowed  to  glean  in  the  vineyards,  as  in  the 
cornfields  (Lev.  19.10) ;  the  "  vine-dressers  " 
also  belonged  to  the  poorer  classes  (Isai.  61.5). 
Vineyards,  like  cornfields,  enjoyed  a  Sabbatic 
year  of  rest,  that  is,  lay  fallow  every  seventh 
year  (Ex.  23.11 ;  Lev.  25.3  ff.).  Also,  when  the 
owner  had  gathered  his  harvest  he  was  to  allow 
the  poor  entrance  to  glean  any  remaining 
bunches  (Lev.  19.10;  Deut.  24.21). 

Beside  the  ordinary  terms  used  in  the  O.T. 
for  the  vine  and  its  produce,  there  are  several 
others,  translated  with  varying  degrees  of 
accuracy,  in  the  English  Version ;  such  as 
"  noble  vine  "  (probably  indicating  one  of  the 
numerous  varieties  of  the  cultivated  plant), 
"  tender  grapes "  (possibly  the  blossom), 
"  raisins,"  "  grape-gleanings,"  "  new,"  "  red," 
"  strong,"  "  sweet,"  "  mixed,"  or  "  spiced  " 
wine,  and  others. 

In  the  figurative  language  of  Scripture  the 
vine  is  emblematic  of  the  chosen  people,  of  the 
blessings  of  the  gospel  dispensation,  and  also 
of  Him  in  whom  the  Church  in  its  various 
members  lives  and  grows,  and  of  His  blood  shed 
for  the  ransom  of  mankind  (Isai.  5.7,  55.1 ; 
Matt.  26.27-29;  John  15.1).  The  "treading 
of  the  winepress  "  is  emblematic  of  Divine  judg- 
ments (Isai.  63.2  ;  Lam.  1.15  ;  Rev.  14.19,  20). 
[WiNE,  WINEPRESS.] 

Vine  of  Sodom.— [SODOM.] 

Vinegar. — A  weak  acid  wine,  much  used  by 
labourers  in  vine-growing  countries,  and  both 
cheap  and  refreshing.  Boaz  told  Ruth  that 
she  might  come  and  dip  her  bread  in  vinegar 
with  his  people  (Ruth  2.14).  In  this  case, 
vinegar  seems  to  have  the  meaning  usual  with 
us.  For  the  light  Palestine  wine  soon  goes  bad. 


VINEYARDS,  PLAIN  OF  THE]       492 


[VOW 


Labourers  in  Palestine  still  dip  their  bread  in 
vinegar.  The  Nazirite  was  to  drink  no  "  vinegar 
of  wine,  or  vinegar  of  strong  drink  "  (Num.  6.3), 
the  same  prohibition  that  was  given  in  the  case 
of  John  the  Baptist  (Lk.  1.15).  The  vinegar 
which  refreshed  the  dying  Saviour  was  the  posea, 
or  common  drink  of  the  Roman  soldiers  (John 
19.28-30),  a  cheap  tart  wine  diluted  with  water. 
He  had  previously  refused  the  stupefying  mixture 
of  wine  and  myrrh  (Matt.  27.34 ;  Mk.  15.23). 

Vineyards,  Plain  of  the  (Judg.  11.33).— The 
same  as  Abel-cheramim. 

Viol. — A  word  used  four  times  in  the  Bible 
to  translate  the  common  Hebrew  word  nebel. 
This  is  a  stringed  instrument,  either  a  portable 
harp  or  of  the  shape  of  a  guitar.  Perhaps 
the  Hebrew  word  included  both  forms.  Nebel 
is  more  often  translated  Psaltery  (which  see). 
The  old  English  viol  was  a  guitar  with  six 
strings.  The  strings  were  struck  or  plucked 
with  the  fingers  (/sot.  5.12,14.11;  Amos  5.23, 
6.5).  [Music.] 

Viper.— Thrice  named  in  the  O.T.  (Job  20.16  ; 
/sat.  30.6,  59.5).  In  the  N.T.  the  word  that  is 
translated  "  viper  "  was  a  Greek  word  used  for 
any  poisonous  serpent  (Matt.  3.7, 12.34,  23.33  ; 
Lk.  3.7).  The  viper  that  fastened  on  Paul's 
hand  was  presumably  the  common  Mediterranean 
species,  Vipera  aspis  (Acts  28.3). 

Virgin. — A  virgin  was,  under  the  law,  the 
property  of  her  father,  to  whom  a  dowry  was 
payable  on  her  marriage  (Ex.  22.16,  and  see 
Gen.  29.15-18).  Her  honour  was  protected 
from  slander,  but  lapse  from  virtue  was  severely 
punished  (Dent.  22.13-21).  There  is  no  trace 
in  the  N.T.  of  a  recognised  order  of  virgins, 
though  this  has  been  wrongly  inferred  from 
Acts  21.9.  The  question  of  marriage  is  dealt 
with  by  Paul,  in  the  light  of  the  circumstances 
of  the  time,  in  1  Cor.  7.25-38.  The  word 
"  virgin  "  is  used  of  men  in  Rev.  14.4. 

Virgin-birth. — Jesus  Christ  was  "  born  of  the 
Virgin  Mary."  In  Matt.  1.22,  23  this  is  declared 
to  be  a  fulfilment  of  the  prophecy  in  Isai.  7.14. 
The  prediction  has  been  variously  interpreted. 
(1)  Some  refer  the  sign  exclusively  to  an  event 
shortly  to  take  place— the  birth  of  a  child 
either  of  the  prophet,  or  of  Ahaz,  or  of  some 
other  person  then  present.  But  this  appears 
inconsistent  with  the  use  of  the  passage  as 
quoted  in  Matt.  1.22,23,  and  with  the  terms 
of  other  parts  of  this  prophecy  (see  9.6,  7)— 
terms  wholly  inapplicable  to  any  ordinary 
human  child.  (2)  Others  apply  the  passage 
exclusively  to  the  Messiah.  It  is  difficult, 
however,  to  see  how  the  birth  of  a  child  seven 
hundred  years  afterwards  could  be  a  sign  of 
present  deliverance ;  and  the  language  of 
w.  15,  16  points  to  such  a  deliverance  within 
the  infancy  of  the  child.  (3)  Others  again  give 
the  passage  a  double  reference  :  first,  to  some 
birth  speedily  to  take  place  in  the  ordinary 
course  of  nature ;  and,  secondly,  to  the  miraculous 
incarnation  of  our  Lord,  of  which  the  terms 
selected  are  peculiarly  descriptive.  This  appears 
the  more  natural,  as  the  prophecy  evidently 


points  both  to  a  speedy  deliverance,  and  to  one 
more  remote,  but  more  glorious.  The  birth  of 
the  first  child  was  a  pledge  of  the  former ;  that 
of  the  Messiah  a  more  wonderful  pledge  of  the 
second  and  greater. 

It  is  in  this  higher  fulfilment  of  the  prediction 
that  the  appropriateness  of  the  term  "  virgin," 
and  the  full  meaning  of  the  name  "  Immanuel," 
become  apparent  (Matt.  1.23  ;  Lk.  1.35  ;  John 
1.14).  The  Hebrew  word  almah,  rendered 
"  virgin  "  in  Isai.  7.14  and  three  other  passages, 
means,  etymologically,  a  young  woman,  whether 
virgin  or  not ;  but  hi  fact  its  use  is  restricted 
to  a  virgin.  The  pre-Christian  translators  of  the 
Septuagint  rendered  almah  here  by  parthenos, 
which  is  almost  exclusively  used  of  virgins. 

Virtue.— In  Mk.  5.30  this  is  used  in  the  old 
sense  of  power. 

Vision.— Employed  both  in  O.T.  and  N.T.  to 
represent  a  manifestation,  whether  by  dream 
or  otherwise,  by  which  a  Divine  message  was 
conveyed  to  man — as  to  Abraham  (Gen.  15.1), 
Jacob  (Gen.  28.12),  Moses  (Ex.  3.2),  Balaam 
(Num.  24.4,16),  Ezekiel  (Ezek.  37.1-14),  etc. 
To  the  prophets  God  spoke  "  in  divers  manners," 
most  frequently  revealing  His  truth  by  producing 
that  supernatural  state  of  the  sentient,  intel- 
lectual, and  moral  faculties  which  the  Scriptures 
call  vision.  In  this  state,  things  remote  in  time 
and  place,  or  merely  symbolical  representations 
of  these  things,  became  to  the  prophet's  mind 
present  living  realities,  and  are  described  as 
such.  Hence  prophetic  announcements  are 
often  called  "  visions,"  i.e.  things  seen,  and 
the  prophets  themselves  are  called  "  seers " 
(2  Ch.  26.5  ;  Isai.  1.1 ;  Obad.  I ;  Hob.  2.2,  3, 
etc.).  For  N.T.  visions  see  Matt.  3.16, 17.1-9  ; 
Acts  2.2, 3,  7.55, 56,  9.3, 10, 12,  10.3, 19,  16.9, 
18.9,  22.17,18,  23.11;  2  Cor.  12.1-4.  [PRO- 
PHECY.] 

Vision,  The  Valley  of  (Isai.  22.1,5).— The 
phrase  is  unintelligible,  but  apparently  refers  to 
Jerusalem.  If  so,  Jerusalem  is  called  a  "  valley," 
because,  though  it  stood  on  hills,  it  was  itself 
dominated  by  still  greater  heights  immediately 
round,  with  valleys  between  them ;  perhaps 
also  because  "  a  valley  is  a  lonely,  quiet  depres- 
sion, shut  in  and  cut  off  by  mountains  ;  similarly 
is  Jerusalem  the  sheltered,  peaceful  place  closed 
against  the  world,  which  Jehovah  has  chosen 
in  order  to  show  there  to  His  prophets  the 
secrets  of  His  government  of  the  world " 
(Delitzsch).  It  was  the  valley  "  of  vision  "  as 
the  place  where  God's  presence  was  manifested. 

Voph'si.— Father  of  Nabhi,  the  spy  selected 
from  the  tribe  of  Naphtali  (Num.  13.14). 

Vow. — A  voluntary,  solemn  promise  to  God, 
made  by  a  person  to  bind  himself  to  the  per- 
formance of  some  act  for  the  promoting  of  His 
glory,  or  to  abstain  from  some  act  with  the  same 
end  in  view.  Under  the  O.T.  dispensation 
vows  were  common  (Num.  30 ;  Judg.  11). 
The  law  provided  a  redemption  price  for  vows, 
which  might  be  substituted  for  the  person  or 
property  so  consecrated  (Lev.  27).  Some, 
however,  suppose  that  this  money  was  to  be 


VULTURE] 


493 


[WANDERINGS 


paid  in  addition  to  the  offering  of  the  person, 
as  a  visible  declaration  that  he  had  devoted 
himself  to  God  (Gen.  28.20,  22  ;  Judg.  11.30,  31  ; 
1  Sam.  1.11,  28).  Vows  were  voluntary  (Deut. 
23.22  ;  Eccks.  5.5  ;  Acts  5.4),  and  were  binding 
(Num.  30.2,  4,  7,  11, 12  ;  Deut.  23.21-23  ;  Judg. 
11.35  ;  Job  22.27  ;  Ps.  50.14, 76.11 ;  Prov.  20.25  ; 
Eccles.  5.4-7  ;  Jon.  2.9  ;  Ndh.  1.15),  with  certain 
exceptions  (Num.  30.3-13).  Violation  of  vows 
was  punished  (1  Sam.  14.24, 39).  Particular  vows 
recorded  in  the  O.T.  were  those  of  Jacob  (Gen. 
28.20-22),  Jephthah  (Judg.  11.30,  31),  Micah's 
mother  (Judg.  17.2,  3),  Hannah  (1  Sam.  1.11), 
Elkanah  (1  Sam.  1.21),  the  sailors'  vow  (Jon. 
1.16),  Jonah's  (Jon.  2.9). 

In  Acts  18.18,  21.23  we  have  evidence  for  the 
operation  of  laws  about  vows  in  the  times  of  the 
apostles.  [CoRBAN,  NAZIEITE.] 


Vulture. — Vulture  occurs  in  the  list  of 
unclean  birds  (Lev.  11.14;  Deut.  14.13).  It  is 
also  mentioned  in  Isai.  34.15.  There  are  three 
kinds  of  kite  in  Palestine,  and  the  term  may 
include  all  three,  or  even  other  of  the  smaller 
birds  of  prey,  but  the  Hebrew  word,  day  ah,  so 
translated,  is  still  to  be  found  in  a  modified 
form  in  modern  Arabic  hadaiyeh,  used  to 
designate  the  black  kite.  In  Job  28.7  the  word 
ayah  is  also  rendered  vulture,  but  falcon  in  R.V. 
The  black  kite  is  a  summer  visitant  to  Palestine, 
and  is  never  seen  there  in  winter.  It  appears 
in  vast  numbers  in  March,  and  at  once  seeks 
out  places  likely  to  provide  plenty  of  garbage, 
about  the  towns  and  villages.  It  is  harmless 
and  useful,  chiefly  confining  itself  to  waste  and 
offal,  thus  performing  the  useful  office  of 
scavenger. 


Wafer. — Thin  flat  cakes  of  unleavened  bread, 
used  for  offerings  (Ex.  29.2 ;  Lev.  2.4,  etc.). 
[BREAD,  LEAVEN,  OFFERINGS.] 

Wages.— {HIRE,  SERVANT.] 

Waggon. — Though  the  common  mode  of 
travelling  in  the  East  was  by  palanquin  or 
horse-  or  mule-back,  yet  waggons  were  also 
employed.  These  were  rude  carts,  with  solid 
wheels,  drawn  by  oxen,  and  were,  of  course, 
springless.  The  representations  of  waggons  on 
monuments  show  them  employed  for  conveying 
harvests  from  the  fields,  and  for  women  and 
children  when  travelling.  Joseph  sent  waggons 
for  the  transport  of  his  father  and  family  with 
their  household  goods  (Gen.  45.19,  21,  27,  46.5). 
At  the  dedication  of  the  Tabernacle  the  offerings 
of  the  chiefs  or  "  princes "  were  brought  in 
six  waggons,  each  drawn  by  two  oxen  (Num. 
7.3,  6,  7).  It  is  another  Hebrew  word  which 
is  rendered  "  waggon"  in  EzeJc.  23.24  (R.V.  marg. 
"  wheels  "). 

Wall  of  Partition.— In  Eph.  2.14  the  work  of 
Christ  in  making  both  Jew  and  Gentile  one, 
so  that  the  Gentile  world  is  admitted  freely 
into  all  the  privileges  of  "  the  commonwealth  of 
Israel,"  is  expressed  under  the  figure,  "  He  brake 
down  the  middle  wall  of  partition."  The 
reference  is  to  the  balustrade  in  the  Temple 
separating  the  outer  court  of  the  Gentiles  from 
the  court  of  Israel.  This  barrier,  with  its 
warning  notices,  is  described  by  Josephus  (Wars, 
V.  v.  2).  One  of  these  notices  (in  Greek)  was 
discovered  in  1871,  and  is  now  at  Constanti- 
nople. It  reads  as  follows  :  "  No  foreigner  must 
enter  within  the  fence  and  enclosure  round  the 
Temple.  And  whoever  is  caught  will  have 
himself  to  blame  that  the  consequence  is  death." 
Paul  was  charged  falsely  with  having  dis- 
regarded this  law  (Acts  21.28,  29). 

Wanderings. — The  wanderings  of  the  children 
of  Israel  in  their  journey  from  Egypt  to  Canaan 


were  an  important  element  in  the  instruction 
and  training  of  the  nation.  It  was  at  Rameses 
that  the  march  of  the  Israelites  began.  From 
Rameses  the  direct  course  to  Canaan  would  have 
been  "  the  way  of  the  Philistines,"  by  the  north 
of  the  Bitter  Lakes,  and  thence  along  the 
northern  edge  of  the  Wilderness  of  Shur.  This 
route,  however,  was  prohibited  (Ex.  13.17, 18), 
and  after  pursuing  for  awhile  an  eastward  course, 
the  Israelites  continued  their  journey  south- 
wards ;  no  doubt  to  the  secret  exultation  of 
Pharaoh,  into  whose  power  they  seemed  thus 
delivered.  They  encamped  the  first  night  at 
Succoth,  which  cannot  have  been  far  from 
Rameses.  By  the  second  evening  they  arrived 
at  the  "  edge  of  the  wilderness,"  at  Etham. 
They  now  probably  would  have  pursued  their 
journey  eastward ;  but  they  were  commanded 
to  "  turn,"  or  remove,  "  to  Pi-hahiroth,  between 
Migdol  and  the  sea,  over  against  Baal-zephon  " 
(Ex.  14.2) ;  which,  it  is  thought,  was  a  narrow 
defile,  not  far  from  the  western  shore  of  the 
Gulf,  between  the  mountains  which  skirt  the 
sea  and  a  small  bay  on  the  south.  They  were 
now  "  entangled  in  the  land."  This  movement 
had  the  effect  of  drawing  Pharaoh  after  them, 
and  the  design  in  thus  altering  the  line  of  their 
march  was  revealed  to  Moses  (Ex.  14.17).  The 
Egyptians  came  upon  the  Israelites  as  they 
were  encamped  before  the  western  arm  of  the 
Red  Sea.  But  the  extent  and  depth  of  the  Gulf 
of  Suez  have  undergone  considerable  change  in 
the  course  of  the  last  three  thousand  years,  and 
much  of  the  ancient  bed  has  been  filled  up  by 
the  accumulation  of  sand.  It  is  impossible  to 
say  where  the  Israelites  crossed.  The  Israel- 
ites passed  through  the  sea  upon  dry  ground, 
and  came  on  the  eastern  side,  near  what  is  now 
called  Ayun  Musa  (Wells  of  Moses). 

The  country  at  this  point  is  the  Wilderness 
of  Shur  (Ex.  15.22),  or  the  Wilderness  of  Etham 


WANDERINGS] 


494 


[WANDERINGS 


(Num.  33.8).  Both  terms  apply  to  the  upper 
portion  of  the  desert,  extending  from  .Egypt 
down  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Red  Sea,  and 
upwards  to  Palestine.  The  route  which  the 
Israelites  took  is  a  broad  stony  track,  between 
the  mountains  and  the  shore,  broken  by  pebbly 
torrent  beds,  where  the  winter  streams  come 
down  from  the  hills.  At  this  season  all  would 
be  dry.  Their  first  station  in  this  wilderness 
was  Marah,  or  "  bitter,"  where  the  miracle  of 
rendering  bitter  water  sweet  occurred  (Ex. 
15.23-25).  The  spot  where  this  event  took 
place  is  probably  Ain  Hawara,  near  the  torrent 
bed  called  Wady  Amarah,  which  is  the  same  in 
sound  and  meaning  as  Marah. 

Their  next  station  was  Elim,  "  where  were 
twelve  wells  of  water,  and  threescore  and  ten 
palm  trees  "  (Ex.  15.27),  the  site  of  which  is 
fixed  by  Niebuhr  and  Burckhardt  in  the  vale  of 
Ghurundel,  which  is  the  largest  of  all  the  torrent 
beds  on  the  west  side  of  the  peninsula.  The 
valley  now  contains  many  date  trees,  tamarisks, 
and  acacias  of  different  species.  Water  may  be 
obtained  here  in  abundance  by  digging  wells  ; 
there  is  also  a  copious  spring,  with  a  small 
rivulet.  The  Israelites  then  came  to  the 
Wilderness  of  Sin,  "  between  Elim  and  Sinai " 
(Ex.  16.1),  at  the  foot  of  the  mountainous  ridge 
of  ei-Tih,  a  name  which  signifies  "  the  wander- 
ing." Burckhardt  describes  it  as  "a  frightful 
desert,  almost  wholly  destitute  of  vegetation." 
It  was  immediately  after  they  had  entered  this 
desert  that  they  obtained  the  miraculous  supply 
of  quails  and  of  manna.  Dr.  Robinson  and 
others  suppose  that  the  Israelites  now  bore 
south-eastward  into  the  Sinaitic  group  of 
mountains.  Their  entrance,  in  that  case, 
would  be  through  the  broad  valley,  called  by 
the  Arabs  Wady  Feiran.  On  their  way  they 
passed  Dophkah  and  Alush,  the  sites  of  which 
stations  are  doubtful.  The  Wady  Feiran  is 
the  most  fertile  in  the  whole  region,  and  here 
we  must  look  for  Rephidim.  Here  the  Israel- 
ites were,  for  the  first  time,  attacked  by  the 
Amalekites  (Ex.  17.8-13).  Jethro,  the  father- 
in-law  of  Moses,  visited  him  also  at  Rephidim, 
and,  by  his  advice,  judges  were  appointed  to 
assist  the  Jewish  leader  in  his  judicial  capacity 
(Ex.  18).  And  here,  amidst  the  lofty  granite 
peaks,  was  the  rock  which  Moses  smote  at  the 
command  of  God,  whence  issued  a  miraculous 
supply  of  water. 

The  next  encampment  was  in  the  desert  of 
Sinai.  Here  the  Almighty  made  known  His 
will,  through  Moses,  to  the  multitude.  Here 
the  Decalogue  was  given,  and  the  Covenant 
made  (Ex.  20.1-17,  24.7,8).  In  this  desert, 
also,  the  worship  of  the  golden  calf  took  place, 
the  people  were  numbered,  the  tabernacle  was 
erected,  Aaron  and  his  sons  were  consecrated, 
the  second  passover  was  celebrated,  and  Nadab 
and  Abihu  were  destroyed  for  offering  strange 
fire  unto  the  Lord.  The  mountain  from  which 
the  Law  was  given  is  called  in  Deuteronomy, 
Horeb,  in  other  books  of  the  Pentateuch,  Sinai. 
The  distinction  between  the  two  names  prob- 


ably is  that  the  former  denotes  the  whole  dis- 
trict, the  latter  the  mountain  where  the  Law 
was  given.  In  the  desert  of  Sinai  the  Israelites 
abode  for  rather  less  than  one  year,  when  the 
signal  for  them  to  go  forward  again  appeared. 
Their  marchings  and  encampments  in  all  their 
subsequent  wanderings  were  directed  by 
Jehovah.  A  cloud,  in  token  of  His  presence, 
covered  the  tabernacle  by  day,  and  "  at  even 
there  was  upon  the  tabernacle  as  it  were  the 
appearance  of  fire,  until  the  morning  "  (Num. 
9.15).  The  rising  of  this  cloud  was  the  signal 
for  them  to  advance,  as  it,  overhanging  the 
tabernacle,  should  lead  the  way ;  and  the 
settling  of  the  cloud  upon  the  tabernacle  was 
the  signal  for  them  again  to  encamp. 

Wilson  and  Robinson  supposed  the  Israelites 
to  have  passed  northwards  from  Sinai,  along 
the  Wady  esh-Sheikh,  into  a  large  plain  called 
el-Hadharah,  somewhere  in  which  was  Taberah, 
or  "  burning,"  a  name  given  to  it  from  the 
destruction  by  fire  from  heaven,  which  came 
down  upon  the  people  for  their  complainings 
(Num.  11.1-3).  Their  next  station  was  Kib- 
roth-hattaavah,  or  "  the  graves  of  lust " 
(Num.  11.34, 33.16).  From  Kibroth  the  Israelites 
came  to  Hazeroth,  where  the  sedition  of  Miriam 
and  Aaron  occurred  (Num.  12).  Robinson, 
after  Burckhardt,  places  Hazeroth  at  a  spot 
now  called  A  in  Hudherah,  where  is  a  fountain, 
together  with  palm  trees.  Their  stations  in  this 
part  of  the  desert  were  Rithmah,  Rimmon-parez, 
Libnah,  and  Kadesh-barnea ;  the  latter  place 
they  probably  reached  about  June.  As  they 
were  now  not  far  from  the  borders  of  the  Promised 
Land,  spies  were  sent  out  to  examine  it,  upon 
whose  evil  report  the  people  were  so  intimidated 
that  they  rebelled,  and  were  sentenced  to  wander 
in  the-  wilderness  forty  years.  The  pass  up 
which  the  Israelites,  after  this  sentence,  rashly 
ascended,  to  fight  with  the  Amalekites  and 
Canaanites  (Num.  14.40-45),  is  extremely  steep 
and  difficult.  The  remains  of  an  ancient  road, 
formed  of  steps  hewn  in  the  rocks,  are  per- 
ceptible in  many  places.  The  narrative  in  the 
early  part  of  Numbers  goes  at  once  from 
Hazeroth  to  Kadesh  ;  while  the  second  account 
in  the  same  book  mentions  other  places,  which 
seem  properly  to  belong  to  a  second  route,  and 
a  second  visit  to  Kadesh.  In  the  movement  of 
the  Israelites  from  Kadesh-barnea,  after  their 
second  visit,  when  the  Lord  was  "  provoked 
by  the  people  at  the  waters  of  strife,"  or  Meribah, 
they  came  to  Mount  Hor,  near  Petra,  where 
Aaron  died — a  mount  which  is  "  the  very  throne 
of  desolation  itself,"  consisting  of  "  broken, 
shattered,  and  frowning  heights,  ruin  piled  upon 
ruin,  and  dark  devouring  depth  added  unto 
depth."  The  Arabs  call  it  Jebel  Neby  Hauran, 
that  is,  the  "  mountain  of  the  prophet  Aaron  "  ; 
and  to  the  present  day,  when  an  Eastern 
caravan  comes  in  sight  of  its  summit,  a  lamb 
is  sacrificed  to  his  memory.  Passing  down  the 
Wady  Arabafi  (probably  the  "  Wilderness  of 
Zin")  to  Ezion-geber  (a  second  time)  and 
Elath,  the  people  turned  at  the  head  of  the 


WANDERINGS] 


495 


[WAR,  WARFARE 


eastern  gulf  of  the  Rod  Sea,  to  niter  on  the 
great  eastern  desert  of  Arabia.  At  this  place 
a  large  defile  comes  down  steeply  from  the 
north-east,  through  the  mountains,  forming  the 
main  passage  out  of  the  Wady  Arabali  into 
the  desert.  The  ascent  of  the  Israelites  was, 
doubtless,  through  this  pass,  when  they  de- 
parted from  the  Red  Sea,  and  turned  to  "  com- 
pass Edom."  At  this  point  of  their  wanderings 
the  people  were  "  much  discouraged  because 
of  the  way,"  and  murmured  against  God  and 
His  servant  Moses.  As  a  punishment,  fiery 
serpents  wore  sent  among  them,  and  many 
died ;  but,  at  the  command  of  Jehovah,  a 
brazen  serpent  was  raised,  and  those  who 
looked  in  faith  were  cured.  They  again  pur- 
sued their  journey  along  the  eastern  sides  of 
the  mountains  of  Seir.  The  Edomites,  who  had 
refused  them  a  passage  through  their  land, 
now  suffered  them  to  pass  unmolested  along 
their  borders,  and  even  supplied  them  with 
provisions  for  their  march  (Deut.  2.3-6). 
Nothing  is  known  of  their  halting-places  until 
they  come  to  Zared,  Zered,  or  "  the  brook,"  a 
small  stream  which  flows  through  the  moun- 
tains into  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Dead 
Sea.  They  next  "  removed,  and  pitched  on 
the  other  side  of  Arnon,  which  is  in  ...  the 
border  of  Moab,  between  Moab  and  the  Amor- 
ites"  (Num.  21.13).  This  brought  them  to 
Beer,  or  Beer-elim,  "  the  well  of  heroes  "  ;  where, 
finding  that  they  were  now  nearly  at  the  end  of 
the  wilderness,  and  in  prospect  of  a  speedy 
entrance  into  the  Promised  Land,  they  broke 
forth  into  the  "  song  of  the  well "  (Num. 
21.17, 18). 

The  Israelites  now  defeated  a  formidable  foe 
in  Sihon,  king  of  the  Amorites,  who  dwelt  at 
Heshbon,  and  whose  territories  extended  along 
the  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  up  the  valley 
east  of  the  Jordan  to  the  river  Jabbok.  The 
next  conquests  of  the  Israelites  were  over  Og, 
who  ruled  in  the  territories  east  of  the  Sea  of 
Gah'lee,  and  the  north-eastern  portion  of  the 
valley  of  the  Jordan.  These  conquered  lands, 
being  fit  for  pasturage,  were  allotted  to  the  tribes 
of  Reuben  and  Gad  and  the  half-tribe  of  Man- 
asseh,  who  had  much  cattle,  on  the  condition  of 
their  assisting  the  other  tribes  in  the  conquest 
of  the  Promised  Land  westward  of  Jordan  (Num. 
32;  Deut.  3.8-20;  Josh.  1.12-18).  It  was  from 
hence  the  next  station  was  called  Dibon-gad, 
in  order  to  distinguish  it  from  another  Dibon 
belonging  to  the  Reubenites  (Josh.  13.17).  The 
ruins  of  this  place,  under  the  name  of  Dibon,  are 
shown  about  4  miles  north  of  the  river  Arnon. 
Thence  they  passed  to  Almon-diblathaim,  or 
Diblathaim,  from  whence  they  proceeded  to 
the  mountains  of  Abarim,  before  Mount  Nebo. 
Finally  they  encamped  near  the  Jordan,  from 
Beth-jeshimoth  to  Abel-shittim,  opposite  Jericho 
(Num.  33.49). 

Thus  ended  a  journey  of  forty  years,  chiefly 
through  deserts,  which  might  have  been  ac- 
complished in  a  few  weeks.  The  direct  route 
from  Egypt  to  Palestine,  through  the  desert, 


now    occupies    only    two    or    three    days    by 
carriage. 

War,  Warfare. — The  circumstances  of  the 
Hebrew  people  involved  them  in  frequent  wars, 
and  the  conditions  under  which  warfare  was  con- 
ducted in  O.T.  times  plainly  appear  from  the 
O.T.  narratives.  Before  opening  war,  heathen 
nations  consulted  oracles,  soothsayers,  necro- 
mancers, and  the  lot  (18am.  28.3-10;  EzeJc.  21.21). 
The  Hebrews,  to  whom  things  of  this  kind  were 
interdicted,  were  in  the  habit,  in  the  early  part 
of  their  history,  of  inquiring  of  God  by  means 
of  Urim  and  Thummim  (Judg.  1.1,  20.27,  28  ; 

1  Sam.   23.2,   28.6,   30.8).    They   also  carried 
the  Ark  into  the  field  (1  Sam.  4.4-18,  14.18). 
After  the  time  of  David,  the  kings  who  reigned 
in  Palestine  consulted,  according  to  the  different 
characters  which  they  sustained,  and  the  feelings 
which  they  exercised,  sometimes  true  prophets, 
and  sometimes  false,  in  respect  to  the  issue  of 
war  (1  K.  22.6-13  ;  2  K.  19.2,  etc.).    Sacrifices 
were   also   offered,   in  reference   to   which  the 
soldiers  were  said  to  consecrate  themselves  to 
the  war  (Isai.  13.3 ;  Jer.  6.4,  51.27  ;   Joel  3.9  ; 
Obad.   1).     There  are  instances  of  formal  de- 
clarations of  war,  and  sometimes  of  previous 
negotiations     (Judg.    11.12-28 ;     2    K.    14.8 ; 

2  Ch.  25.27) ;  but  ceremonies  of  this  kind  were 
not  always  observed  (2  SUM.  10.1-12).     When 
the  enemy  made  a  sudden  incursion,  or  when 
the    war    was    unexpectedly    commenced,    the 
alarm  was  given  to  the  people  by  messengers 
rapidly  sent  forth,   by   the  sound  of   warlike 
trumpets,  by  standards  floating  on  the  loftiest 
places,  by  the  clamour  of  many  voices  on  the 
mountains,  that  echoed  from  summit  to  sum- 
mit (Judg.  3.27,  6.34,  7.22,  19.29,  30 ;  1  Sam. 
11.7,8;    Isai.  5.26,   13.2,   18.3,  30.17,  62.10). 
Military  expeditions  commonly  commenced   in 
the  spring  (2  Sam.  11.1),  and  were  continued 
in  the  summer ;    in  winter  the  soldiers  went 
into    quarters.     It    was    the    practice    of    the 
Roman   armies  to  stand  still  in  the  order  of 
battle,  and  to  receive  the  shock  of  the  opposers. 
To  this  practice  there  may  be  allusions  in  the 
following  passages:    1  Cor.  16.13;    Eph.  6.14. 
The  Greeks,  while  they  were  yet  three  or  four 
furlongs  distant  from  the  enemy,  commenced  the 
song  of  war;  something  resembling  this  occurs 
in   2   Ch.   20.21.     They   then  raised   a  shout, 
which  was  also  done  among  the  Hebrews  (Josh. 
6.5 ;  1  Sam.  17.52 ;  Isai.  5.29,  30,  17.12 ;  Jer. 
4.19,    25.30).     The    war-shout    in    Judg.   7.20 
was  "  The  sword  of  the  Lord  and  of  Gideon." 
In  some  instances   it  seems    to   have   been  a 
yell  or  inarticulate  cry.    The  mere  march  of 
armies  with  their  weapons,  chariots,  and  tramp- 
ling coursers,  occasioned  a  great  and  confused 
noise,  which  is  compared  by  the  prophets  to 
the  roaring  of  the  ocean,  and  the  dashing  of  the 
mountain  torrents  (Isai.  9.5  (R.V.),  17.12, 13, 
28.2).     The  victors  in  a  fight  were  intoxicated 
with  joy ;  the  shout  of  triumph  resounded  from 
mountain    to    mountain   (Isai.   42.11,   52.7, 8 ; 
Jer.  50.2  ;   Ezek.  7.7  ;   Nah.  1.15).     The  whole 
of  the  people,  led  by  the  women,  went  out  to 


WARS  OF  THE  LORD,  BOOK  OF]     496 


[WEAVER,  WEAVING 


meet  the  returning  conquerors  with  singing 
and  with  dancing  (Judg.  11.34-37;  1  Sam. 
18.6,  7).  Triumphal  songs  were  uttered  for  the 
living,  and  elegies  over  the  dead  (Ex.  15.1-21 ; 
Judg.  5.1-31 ;  2  Sam.  1.17-27 ;  2  Ch.  35.25). 
Monuments  in  honour  of  the  victory  were 
erected  (1  Sam.  7.12,  and,  according  to  some 
interpreters,  2  Sam.  8.13),  and  the  arms  of 
the  enemy  were  hung  up  as  trophies  in  the 
tabernacle  (1  Sam.  31.10;  2  K.  11.10).  The 
soldiers  who  conducted  themselves  meritori- 
ously were  honoured  with  presents,  and  had  the 
opportunity  of  entering  into  honourable  matri- 
monial connexions  ( Josh.  14 ;  1  Sam.  17.25, 
28.17  ;  2  Sam.  18.11). 

Wars  of  the  Lord,  Book  of.— A  quotation  is 
made  from  this  otherwise  unknown  collection 
of  hymns  (?)  about  the  wars  waged  by  Israel 
in  the  name  of  the  Lord  in  Nwn.  21.14, 15. 
It  is  perhaps  a  part  of  the  Book  of  Jasher. 

[JASHEE.] 

Wash,  Washing.  —  Ablutions  were  either 
ceremonial  (Lev.  11.25, 28,  etc.)  or  non-cere- 
monial (Gen.  18.4;  2  Sam.  12.20,  etc.).  Wash- 
ing the  hands  as  a  sign  of  innocency  is  noticed 
in  Deut.  21.6;  Ps.  26.6;  Matt.  27.24.  The 
Law  had,  in  the  time  of  our  Lord,  been  overlaid 
with  numberless  directions  involving  ablutions 
(Matt.  15.2;  Mk.  7.3).  Conditions  of  travel 
and  the  nature  of  the  footgear  explain  the 
many  allusions  to  washing  the  feet.  It  held 
a  high  place  among  the  rules  of  hospitality. 
When  a  guest  presented  himself  at  the  door, 
whether  of  tent  or  house,  he  was  offered  water 
for  the  washing  of  his  feet  (Gen.  18.4, 19.2,  24.32  ; 
Judg.  19.21).  If  the  host  wished  to  show  par- 
ticular respect  to  his  guest,  and  to  express  his 
own  humility  in  comparison,  he  would  himself 
perform  the  office  (1  Sam.  25.41 ;  Lk.  7.38,  44  ; 
John  13.5-14;  1  Tim.  5.10).  [CiJSAN,  UNCLEAN.] 

Watch. — The  Jews  had  three  night-watches: 
"  Beginning  of  the  watches  "  (Lam.  2.19),  sunset 
to  10  p.m. ;  "  the  middle  watch  "  (Judg.  7.19), 
10  p.m.  to  2  a.m. ;  "  the  morning  watch  "  (1  Sam. 
11.11),  2  a.m.  to  sunrise.  In  later  times  the 
Roman  custom  of  dividing  the  night  (6  p.m.  to 
6  a.m.)  into  four  watches  of  three  hours  each 
was  adopted  (Matt.  14.25;  Lie.  12.38).  In 
Mk.  13.35  the  four  are  enumerated  by  name. 
[DAY,  HOUB,  TIME.] 

Watchers.— Heavenly  messengers  (Dan.  4.13, 
17,  23),  the  term  implying  the  Divine  watchful- 
ness over  the  affairs  of  men.  In  the  Book  of 
Enoch  [NON-CANONICAL  BOOKS]  it  is  used  of 
archangels,  and  also  of  fallen  angels  who  had 
neglected  their  duty  of  watching.  [ANGEL.] 

Water.— [WELL.] 

Water  of  Jealousy.— [JEALOUSY.} 

Waters  of  Merom.— [MEROM.] 

Waters  of  Strife.— {MERIBAH-KADESH.] 

Wave-offering. — Portions  of  the  sacrifices 
that  were  waved,  or  swung,  towards  the  altar 
instead  of  being  burnt,  and  which  were  after- 
wards eaten  by  the  priests  and  the  offerer.  The 
portion  "  waved "  was  swung  by  the  offerer 
from  right  to  left,  and  up  and  down  (Ex. 


29.24,26;  Lev.  7.30,34;  Num.  18.11,18). 
[HEAVE  -  OFFERING,  MEAT  -  OFFERING,  PEACE- 
OFFERING.] 

Wax. — Used  metaphorically  to  denote  some- 
thing soft,  yielding,  or  melting  (Ps.  22.14,  68.2, 
97.5 ;  Mic.  1.4). 

Way.— The  word  was  used  in  Old  English 
almost  entirely  for  "road,"  and  in  that  sense 
appears  in  the  Bible  (Gen.  16.7 ;  Num.  14.25 ; 
Mk.  10.32).  Ways  often  mean  either  the  rules 
or  the  ordinary  habits  of  life — "  Make  your 
ways  straight  "  — "  All  flesh  had  corrupted 
his  way  upon  the  earth"  (Gen.  6.12,  19.31; 
Jer.  32.19).  The  way  of  the  Lord  expresses 
His  conduct  to  us :  "  My  thoughts  are  not  your 
thoughts,  neither  are  your  ways  my  ways  "  (Isai. 
55.8).  To  go  the  way  of  all  the  earth  (Josh. 
23.14)  signifies  dying  and  the  grave.  A  hard 
way  represents  the  way  of  sinners  (Judg.  2.19). 
Jesus  Christ  is  called  the  Way  (John  14.6),  be- 
cause it  is  by  Him  alone  that  believers  obtain 
access  to  the  Father.  "  The  way,"  "  this  way," 
were  expressions  used  of  Christian  belief  and 
practice  (Acts  9.2,  19.9,23,  22.4,  24.14,22), 
perhaps  in  contrast  to  the  Jewish  system  of 
rules  for  daily  life  called  Halachoth  or  Ways. 

Waymarks  (Jer.  31.21). — Apparently  stones 
set  up  to  show  where  the  road — a  mere  track 
in  the  East — runs.  The  same  word  is  used  in 
2  K.  23.17 ;  Ezek.  39.15  of  stones  placed  to 
mark  a  corpse  or  a  human  bone.  [ ROADS, 
TRAVELLING.] 

Weapon.— [ARMS.] 

Weasel. — This  word  occurs  only  in  Lev.  11.29 
amongst  the  unclean  creeping  things.  There 
are  several  animals  of  the  weasel  kind  in  Pales- 
tine, and  it  is  supposed  the  one  intended  is  the 
common  ichneumon,  which  is  found  in  abund- 
ance amongst  the  scrub  and  rocky  places  along 
all  the  cultivated  plains.  It  resembles  the 
weasel  in  some  respects,  and  is  also  allied  to 
the  ferret,  fairly  common  in  Palestine,  which 
the  true  weasel  is  not.  Its  long  body  and  short 
legs  probably  caused  it  to  be  classed  among  the 
creeping  things. 

Weaver,  Weaving.  —  Weaving  was  mainly 
the  work  of  women.  During  the  period  of  the 
kings  even  fabrics  of  an  elaborate  description 
were  woven  by  them,  as  an  interesting  reference 
in  2  K.  23.7  clearly  proves.  Probably  most 
of  the  finer  textures  were  imported,  as  linen 
from  Egypt,  and  silken  damask,  in  which 
the  nobles  of  the  time  of  Amos  indulged  (3.12, 
R.V.).  The  looms  of  Babylonia  were  celebrated 
for  their  products,  as  the  "  Shinar  mantles  " 
which  excited  Achan's  cupidity  (Josh.  7.21) 
testify.  The  inscriptions  of  Assyrian  monarchs 
(ninth  to  seventh  century  B.C.)  frequently 
mention  embroidered  linen  garments  among 
the  spoil  captured  by  them  from  the  Western 
Asian  nations  that  surrounded  them.  Among 
the  materials  used  for  the  making  of  cloth 
were  silk,  flax,  cotton,  hair  of  goat  and  camel, 
and  wool.  It  is  impossible  to  tell  how  early 
the  Hebrews  learned  the  use  of  the  shuttle. 
The  word  so  translated  in  Job  7.6  is  rather 


WEDDING] 


497 


[WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


a  hand-loom,  as  also  in  Judg.  16.14.  The 
weaver's  beam,  to  which  the  staS  of  Goliath's 
spear  is  compared  (1  Sam.  17.7  ;  cf.  2  Sam. 
21.19),  was  a  stout  piece  of  wood  belonging  to 
the  framework  of  the  loom,  running  either 
horizontally  or  perpendicularly. 

Wedding. — [BRIDE,  MARRIAGE.] 

Wedge  (Josh.  7.21,  24).— [MONEY.] 

Wedlock  (Ezek.  16.38).— [MARRIAGE.] 

Week.— The  division  of  time  into  weeks 
is  founded  in  the  Bible  on  the  institution  of 
the  Sabbath  (Gen.  2.2),  but  doubtless  has  also 
some  connexion  with  the  phases  of  the  moon. 
[TiME.]  Under  the  name  of  "seven  days"  it 
is  mentioned  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  the 
Deluge  (Gen.  7.4, 10,  8.10, 12,  and  by  its  usual 
name  of  Shabua  in  Gen.  29.27,  28).  The  days 
were  numbered,  not  named  ;  and  the  enumera- 
tion commenced  at  Sunday,  the  first  day,  to 
Saturday  the  last,  or  seventh,  which  is  the 
Jewish  Sabbath,  or  day  of  rest.  From  the  cir- 
cumstance that  the  Sabbath  was  the  principal 
day  of  the  week,  the  whole  period  of  seven  days 
was  sometimes  called  Shabat,  perhaps  even  in 
the  Hebrew  of  the  O.T.  (Lev.  23.15,  25.8),  in 
Syriac,  Shabblha,  and  in  the  N.T.,  Sabbaton, 
Sabbata  (Mk.  16.2,9;  Lk.  24.1 ;  John  20.1,19). 

In  addition  to  the  week  of  days  the  Jews  had 
three  other  periods  of  time  denominated  "  weeks  " 
(Lev.  25.1-17  ;  Deut.  16.9, 10). 

The  Week  of  Weeks,  Feast  of  Weeks,  was  a 
period  of  seven  weeks,  or  49  days,  which  was 
succeeded  on  the  fiftieth  by  the  Day  of  Pente- 
cost, generally  called  the  "  Feast  of  Weeks." 
[FEASTS,  PENTECOST.] 

The  Week  of  Years  was  a  period  of  seven 
years,  during  the  last  of  which  the  land  re- 
mained un tilled,  and  the  people  enjoyed  a  Sab- 
bath, or  season  of  rest. 

The  Week  of  49  Years  was  a  week  of  seven 
Sabbatical,  or  49  years,  which  was  succeeded 
by  the  year  of  Jubilee  (Lev.  25.1-22,  26.34). 
[JUBILEE.]  After  the  Resurrection  the  first  day 
of  the  week  was  observed  by  Christians,  and 
gradually  superseded  the  seventh  day  as  the  day 
of  rest  (Acts  20.7  ;  1  Cor.  16.2).  [SABBATH.] 

Weights  and  Measures. — This  subject  is  one 
of  considerable  uncertainty.  While  the  relative 
value  of  the  weights  and  measures  in  the  Bible 
may  be  gathered  from  various  Bible  passages, 
their  absolute  determination  in  relation  to 
modern  measurements  is  a  matter  of  much 
difficulty. 

The  early  date  at  which  influence  of  the  Baby- 
lonians was  predominant  in  Palestine  makes  it 
highly  probable  that  their  system  of  weights  and 
measures  was  the  earliest  in  use  in  the  land,  and 
as  some  of  these  can  be  determined  from  actual 
discoveries  we  have  a  good  basis  for  comparison. 
It  must,  however,  be  remembered  that  ancient 
weights  of  supposed  equivalent  value,  which 
have  been  examined  by  modern  instruments  of 
precision,  are  found  to  vary  considerably.  The 
differences  may  sometimes  be  accounted  for 
by  the  stone  being  chipped  or  worn  away,  but 
this  does  not  explain  all.  A  further  confusion 

32 


arises  from  the  facts  that  during  the  long 
period  covered  by  the  O.T.  weights  arid 
measurements  of  the  same  name  changed  their 
value,  and  that  at  least  two  systems  seem  to 
have  been  in  use  at  the  same  time  for  different 
purposes.  That  there  was  a  recognised  standard 
in  the  markets  is  implied  by  Amos  8.5. 

1.  Weights. — The  earliest    weights    were    of 
stone.     The  Hebrew  ebhen  (lit.  stone)  is  trans- 
lated "  weight "  in  2  Sam.  14.26,  "  after  the 
king's  weight,"   and  in  Prov.   16.11,   "  all  the 
weights  of  the  bag."     Not  infrequently  such 
weights  were  made  in  the  shape  of  animals  or 
birds.     We  may  have  a  reference  to  this  in  such 
passages  as  Gen.  33.19 ;  Josh.  24.32,  where  the 
Hebrew  kesitah,  "  pieces  of  money,"  is  trans- 
lated in  LXX  "  lambs  "  (see  marg.  A.V.). 

The  standard  weight  in  the  O.T.  was  the 
shekel,  a  word  (from  Hebrew  root  meaning 
"  to  weigh ")  which  does  not  signify  coined 
metal  till  after  the  Exile.  By  the  ordinary 
Babylonian  system,  60  shekels =1  mina  (corre- 
sponding to  the  MANAH  of  Ezek.  45.12,  which  is 
translated  "  pound,"  1  K.  10.17 ;  Ezra  2.69 ;  and 
Neh.  7.71  f.)  and  60  minas  (or  manahs)=l 
TALENT  (Ex.  38.24 f.;  2  K.  5.5,  etc.).  In 
weighing  gold,  however,  a  mina  was  only 
reckoned  as  50  shekels,  and  a  talent  of  gold  was 
only  3000  instead  of  3600  shekels.  In  such 
cases  the  value  of  the  shekel-weight  remained 
the  same,  but  from  2  Sam.  14.26  ("  200  shekels 
after  the  king's  weight  ")  it  seems  to  be  implied 
that  among  the  Hebrews,  as  we  know  was  the 
custom  among  the  Babylonians,  a  higher  weigh- 
ing shekel  was  used  in  making  payments  into  the 
royal  treasury. 

Of  smaller  weights  we  have  the  half-shekel  or 
BEKAH  (Gen.  24.22  ;  Ex.  38.26),  and  the  GERAH 
or  -5^  of  a  shekel  (cf.  Ex.  30.13;  Num.  3.47, 
"  a  shekel  is  20  gerahs  "  ;  also  Lev.  27.25 ;  Num. 
18.16). 

The  evidence  with  respect  to  the  absolute 
weight  of  the  shekel  is  very  conflicting,  but  the 
probability  is  that  the  ancient  Hebrew  shekel 
was  originally  about  12  grammes  (about  185 
grains),  and  that  later  it  was  (as  the  Talmud 
states)  increased  about  £  more,  to  about  14-3 
grammes  (say  220£  grains).  The  Tyrian  shekel- 
coin  weighs  about  14' 3  grammes,  and  the  Jewish 
silver  shekel-coin  about  14-5  grammes. 

In  the  N.T.  the  POUND  of  John  12.3, 19.39  was 
the  Roman  pound  of  about  11  ounces,  and  the 
TALENT  of  Rev.  16.21  perhaps  the  Attic  talent  of 
about  £  cwt. 

2.  Measures  of  Length. — The  original  shorter 
measurements  were  taken  from  the  human  body 
(cf.  "  the  cubit  of  a  man,"  Deut.  3.11).     The 
ammah  or  CUBIT  was  the  measurement  from  the 
bend  of  the  elbow  to  the  tip  of  the  middle  finger. 
It  is  a  measure  common  to  all  lands  :  in  England 
the  cubit  is  18  inches.    It  was  divided  into  2  SPANS 
(zereth,  Ex.   28.16;   1  Sam.  17.4),  the  distance 
measured  between  the  outstretched  thumb  and 
little  finger,  or  into  6  palms  or  HANDBREADTHS 
(tophah,   Ex.   25.25),    or   24    FINGER-BREADTHS 
(etzba,ct.  Jer.  52.21). 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES] 


498 


[WELL 


In  the  O.T.  we  have  evidence  of  two  cubits  of 
varying  size  in  use.  Ezekiel  (chap.  40)  refers  to  a 
measuring  reed  (kanah)  of  6  cubits  length,  each 
cubit  being  "  a  cubit  and  a  handbreadth  "  (Ezek. 
40.5,  43.13).  The  same  measurement  is  probably 
referred  to  in  2  Ch.  3.3  as  the  "  cubit  after  the 
first  (i.e.  ancient)  measure."  These  measure- 
ments probably  refer  to  the  cubit  upon  which 
Solomon's  temple  had  been  built,  an  ancient 
standard  f  longer  than  that  commonly  used  in 
later  O.T.  times. 

The  earliest  standard  of  measurement  we  know 
is  that  shown  on  the  statue  of  King  Gudea 
(e.  2500  B.C.)  found  at  Telloh.  On  this  the 
cubit  was  495  millimetres,  or  nearly  19J  inches. 
The  cubit  of  later  times  more  approximated  the 
Greek  cubit,  which  was  about  17£  inches. 

More  indefinite  measurements  of  distance  are  the 
"  step  "  (1  Sam.  20.3),  the  "  pace  "  (2  Sam.  6.13), 
and  the  "  bowshot  "  (Gen.  21.16). 

For  estimating  longer  distances  we  have  men- 
tion of  a  "  measuring  line  "  in  Jer.  31.39  and 
Zech.  2.1. 

In  the  N.T.  occur  :— 

The  FURLONG  or  stadium  (Lk.  24.13 ;  John 
6.19, 11.18 ;  Rev.  14.20,  21.16)  was  689  feet ;  the 
MILE  (Matt.  5.41  )=7i  furlongs =1722  yds.  1  ft. 
5  in. 

The  FATHOM  (Acts  27.28),  originally  the  dis- 
tance between  the  outstretched  hands, =4  cubits, 
or  between  6  and  7  feet. 

The  SABBATH  DAY'S  JOURNEY  was  tradition- 
ally 2000  cubits  (cf .  Jerusalem  Targ.  in  Ex.  16.29, 
"  Let  no  man  go  walking  from  the  place  beyond 
2000  cubits  on  the  7th  day  ").  This  distance  was 
also  a  mile  in  at  any  rate  some  passages  in  the 
Talmud,  and  a  "  day's  journey  "  was  40  such 
miles,  the  meaning  of  the  word  "  mile "  being 
probably  a  Roman  mile  of  1000  paces,  or  a 
tune-distance  of  about  18  minutes'  walk. 

In  Lk.  22.41  we  have  mention  of  a  short  in- 
definite distance — "  A  STONE'S  CAST." 

3.  Measure  of  Area. — The  only  measure  of  area 
mentioned  in  the  O.T.  is  the  tzemed  (1  Sam.  14.14 ; 
Isai.   5.10),    translated    ACRE.     This    was    the 
area  which  could  be  ploughed  in  one  day  by  a 
yoke  of  oxen,  but  the  relation  of  this  to  the 
Roman  or  English  measures  of  area  is  unknown. 
The  corresponding   Egyptian  measurement  was 
about  half  an  English  acre. 

4.  Measures  of  Capacity. — The  correspondence 
here  with  the  Babylonian  system  is  close  :   the 
earliest  measures  are  based  upon  the  sexagesimal 
system. 

The  LOO  may  be  considered  the  unit  of  capa- 
city, and  was  probably  equivalent  to  the  Baby- 
lonian unit,  which  measured  -505  litre  (half  a  litre), 
or  rather  over  ^  gallon.  It  was  probably  used 
both  as  a  dry  and  liquid  measure,  but  it  only 
occurs  in  connexion  with  the  latter  (Lev.  14.10), 
and  the  corresponding  dry  measure  may  have 
been  J  cab. 

A  CAB  (2  K.  6.25)  was  a  dry  and  liquid  measure 
nqual  to  4  logs  or  about  2  litres  or  3J  pints. 

A  HIV  (Ex.  29.40,  30.24  ;  Lev.  19.3G,  23.13  ; 
Num.  15.4  f. ;  Ezek.  441,  45  24,  46.5  f.)  was  a 


liquid  measure  equal  to  12  logs  or  3  cabs,  and  was 
equivalent  to  6  litres  or  about  10J  pints. 

A  SEAH,  the  "  measure  "  of  Gen.  18.6  ;  1  Sam. 
25.18  ;  2  K.  7.1, 16, 18  ;  Hag.  2.16  was  equal  to 
6  cabs  and  to  £  of  an  ephah.  In  Isai.  5.10  the 
LXX  translation  of  ephah  is  "  three  measures  " 
(cf.  Matt.  13.33).  It  is  used  both  of  dry  and 
liquid  things,  but  especially  of  the  former.  It 
equals  12-1  litres  or  over  21£  pints. 

The  EPHAH  for  dry  measure  and  its  equivalent 
the  BATH  for  liquids  were  each  equal  to  3  seahs. 
"  The  ephah  and  the  bath  shall  be  of  one  mea- 
sure" (Ezek.  45.11).  These  measures=a  little 
over  64  pints  or  8  gallons. 

A  HOMEE  (Lev.  27.16  ;  Isai.  5.10;  Ezek.  45.11, 
13, 14  ;  Hos.  3.2)  is  used  for  both  measures,  and 
is  equivalent  to  the  COR  (Ezek.  45.14) — the  koros 
of  Lk.  16.7 — which  was  especially  a  dry  measure. 
Both  homer  and  cor =10  ephahs  or  baths,  and 
therefore  =363  litres  or  80  gallons. 

The  measure 'OMER  (Ex.  16.16)  is  equivalent 
to  the  ISSARON  or  "  tenth  "  (i.e.  of  an  ephah) 
(Ex.  29.40 ;  Lev.  14.10,  23.13, 17 ;  Num.  15.4,  9). 
This  is  a  dry  measure  which,  like  the  homer,  is 
founded  upon  a  decimal  instead  of  a  sexagesimal 
system.  It=f  of  a  gallon. 

Tradition  translates  lethek  (Hos.  3.2)  by  half- 
homer,  but  this  is  doubtful. 


Dry  Measure. 


6  cabs=l  seah  ("  measure  ") 
3  seahs=l  ephah 
10'omers  or  issarons= 

1  ephah 
10  ephahs=l  homer  (cor) 


Liquid  Measure. 


4  logs =1  cab 
3  cabs=l  bin 
6  hins=l  bath 
10  baths=l  homer 
(cor) 


In  the  N.T.  :— 

The  POT  (Mk.  7.4=Gr.  xestes),  which  is  the 
Latin  sextarius,  measuring  about  a  pint. 

The  FIRKIN  (John  2.6)= Gr.  me*r^es=about 
9  gallons. 

The  choinix,  the  MEASURE  of  Rev.  6.6,  was  a 
little  over  2  pints. 

Well— In  many  places  in  the  Holy  Land 
are  to  be  found  fountains  of  "  living "  or 
"  springing "  water.  Such  a  fountain  was 
called  ayt'n,  "  eye,"  a  word  which  appears  in 
local  names  as  En — "  En-gedi,"  "  En-rogel." 
Distinguished  from  this  is  the  word  Beer,  a  well 
or  pit  excavated  in  favourable  situations,  to 
catch  and  store  the  water  from  whatever  source. 
This  also  is  often  compounded  with  place-names 
— Beer-sheba,  Beerah,  Beeroth.  Besides  private 
wells  there  were  many  public  ones,  constructed 
by  great  chiefs  for  the  general  convenience, 
and  as  acts  of  benevolence.  Abraham's  Well 
and  Jacob's  Well  are  examples.  The  value  of 
such  wells  in  a  hot  and  generally  dry  climate 
was  great,  and  occasionally  conflicts  took  place 
for  the  possession  of  them.  In  the  days  of  the 
patriarchs  there  were  contests  between  Abraham 
and  Abimelech,  and  between  Isaac  apd  the 


WHALE] 


499 


[WIFE 


Philistines  for  wells  (Gen,  21.25,  26.18).  Moses 
was  received  by  Reuel,  on  account  of  the 
assistance  he  rendered  to  his  daughters,  when 
some  shepherds  attempted  to  drive  them  away 
from  the  well  (Ex.  2.16, 17).  The  woman  of 
Samaria  seems  to  have  thought  the  possession 
of  a  well  a  proof  of  Jacob's  greatness  and  power 
(John  4.12) ;  and  Caleb's  daughter  considered 
her  father's  gift  of  land  incomplete  without 
wells  (Judg.  1.14, 15). 

To  protect  the  water  from  wasting,  and  to 
prevent  the  wells  from  filling  up  with  sand, 
they  were  covered  over  (Gen.  29.2),  and  some- 
times even  locked.  Others  were  only  allowed 
to  be  opened  at  certain  times,  and  in  the  presence 
of  the  proprietors  or  their  servants.  Rachel 
probably  had  command  over  the  well  on  this 
occasion  (Gen.  29.3  ff.),  for  it  was  not  opened 
until  she  came.  The  water  was  generally 
drawn  up  from  the  wells  in  earthen  or  leathern 
pitchers,  but  nowadays  some  sort  of  winch  is 
often  employed. 

Whale.— The  Hebrew  word  which  is  four 
times  translated  "  whale "  (Gen.  1.21  ;  Job 
7.12;  Ezek.  32.2;  Malt.  12.40)  is  elsewhere 
rendered  dragon,  leviathan,  or  fish.  In  Lam. 
4.3  it  is  "sea-monster"  (A.V.,  but  "jackal" 
R.V.),  which  from  the  context  is  clearly  a 
mammal.  The  Greek  word  Ketos,  translated 
"  whale "  in  Matt.  12.40,  denotes  any  sea- 
monster.  Whales  are  found  on  the  coasts  of 
Spain,  and  are  said  occasionally  to  enter  the 
Mediterranean.  Two  species  of  Hyperoodon- 
tidae,  or  beaked-whale,  are  also  found  in  the 
Mediterranean.  Of  the  smaller  cetaceans,  the 
grampus  and  porpoise  inhabit  the  Mediterranean, 
which  is  also  a  home  of  the  seal  and  the  dugong. 
Any  of  these  animals  might  come  under  the 
heading  "  sea-monsters  which  give  suck  to 
their  young  ones,"  as  they  are  all  air-breathing 
aquatic  mammals,  which  give  birth  to  their 
young  alive,  and  suckle  them.  The  sperm-whale, 
which  might  perhaps  stray  into  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  also  the  shark,  could  easily  swallow 
a  man  whole.  [JONAH.] 

Wheat. — Wheat  early  appears  as  an  object 
of  culture  in  Palestine,  Egypt,  and  the  neigh- 
bouring countries  (Gen.  26.12,  27.28,  30.14). 
Egypt  was  renowned  for  her  superabundant 
production  of  grain  (Gen.  12.10  ff.).  The  wheat 
grown  in  Palestine  now,  and  probably  in  Bible 
days,  does  not  diSer  from  the  species  with  which 
we  are  acquainted — the  Triticum  vulgare  of 
botanists  ;  but  there  are  sundry  varieties.  In 
Palestine  wheat  is  sown  in  November  or 
December,  and  reaped  in  May  or  June,  accord- 
ing to  the  precise  climate  and  locality.  In 
Egypt  the  harvest  was  about  a  month  earlier, 
in  both  countries  the  barley  preceding  the 
wheat  by  three  or  four  weeks.  Wild  wheat  was 
rediscovered  in  Palestine  a  few  years  ago,  as 
quite  a  small  plant. 

Widow. — Widowhood,  like  barrenness,  was  a 
kind  of  shame  and  reproach  in  Israel  (see,  e.g., 
Isai.  54.4).  It  was  presumed  that  a  woman  of 
merit  and  reputation  might  have  found  a  hus- 


band either  in  the  family  of  her  deceased  hus- 
band [Rura]  if  he  died  childless  (Dent.  25.5-10), 
or  in  some  other  family. 

In  relation  to  the  laws  respecting  inheritance 
by  woman  it  is  difficult  to  determine  how  far 
they  were  operative  in  pre-exilian  times.  It 
should  be  noticed,  however,  that  Boaz,  belong- 
ing to  the  same  class  as  Naomi's  husband, 
marries  Ruth  the  Moabitess,  as  joint-owner  with 
Naomi  of  the  land  belonging  to  the  deceased 
Elimelech,  "  to  raise  up  the  name  of  the  dead 
upon  his  inheritance  "  ;  and  it  is  possible  that 
the  law  contained  in  Deut.  25.5-10,  which  re- 
quired that  a  widow  without  a  son  should  be 
married  by  her  husband's  brother,  may  have 
been  enacted  not  merely  to  raise  up  male 
posterity,  but  in  order  to  guarantee  the  con- 
tinuance of  any  property  she  might  possess  in 
the  clan  of  her  late  husband.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  absence  of  any  express  regulation 
respecting  female  inheritance  in  Deuteronomy, 
and  the  repeated  reference  to  the  widow  in  con- 
nexion with  the  orphan  and  the  stranger  (Deut. 
14.29,  16.11,  26.12  S.)  as  participating  in  tithes 
and  festival  offerings,  render  it  only  too  prob- 
able that  the  position  of  widows  was  a  precarious 
one.  And  this  may  also  be  gathered  from  Isai. 
10.2  and  Jer.  7.6. 

Scripture  contains  frequent  injunctions  to 
relieve  the  widow  and  the  orphan  (Ex.  22.22 ; 
Deut.  10.18,  14.29).  God  is  even  called  the  hus- 
band of  the  desolate  one,  and  says,  "  Let  your 
widows  trust  in  Me  "  (Jer.  49.11).  Paul  enjoins 
the  honouring  of  widows  (1  Tim.  5.3).  There 
were  widows  in  the  primitive  Christian  Church 
who,  because  of  their  poverty,  were  placed  on 
the  list  of  those  supported  by  the  Church  (Acts 
6.1).  Others  had  employment  provided  for  them, 
such  as  visiting  the  sick,  assisting  women  at 
baptism,  etc.  But  women  so  chosen  had  to  be 
at  the  least  sixty  years  of  age  (1  Tim.  5.9). 

Wife. — The  position  of  a  wife  in  a  Hebrew 
household  suffered  from  the  prevalence  of  poly- 
gamy. Generally  she  was  married  so  young  that 
she  was  unequal  to  the  duties  of  the  mistress  of 
the  house.  Childlessness  led  to  another  partner 
being  sought,  in  order  to  obtain  posterity;  or 
the  wife  might  induce  her  husband  to  accept  a 
concubine  of  her  own  choice,  whose  offspring 
she  would  regard  as  her  own  (Gen.  16.2,  30.3,  9). 
Child-bearing,  therefore,  conferred  dignity  on 
the  wife.  Though  a  man  had  the  power  at  will 
to  cancel  the  marriage,  the  wife  had  not.  Still, 
she  possessed  certain  rights.  Even  if  a  second- 
ary wife,  her  master  had  no  right  to  sell  her, 
though  he  could  espouse  her  to  his  son.  He  also 
had  to  support  her,  unless  she  was  claimed  by 
her  kindred,  in  which  case  she  was  free  to  marry 
another  (Ex.  21.7-11). 

If  a  wife  was  divorced,  the  husband  was  bound 
to  give  into  her  hand  the  writ  of  divorce  (Deut. 
24.1,  3).  This  regulation  existed  for  the  benefit 
of  the  wife,  who  was  now  definitely  released,  and 
was  free  to  marry  again.  The  Deuteronomic 
legislation  aimed  at  greater  strictness  in  the 
married  relation,  so  as  to  correct  those  lax  prat-- 


WILDERNESS,  WANDERINGS]       500 


[WINE 


tices  at  which  the  higher  moral  consciousness 
of  Israel  revolted  (Ezek.  22.10;  Amos  2.7). 
In  earlier  times,  as  among  the  Arabs,  the  father's 
wives,  with  the  exception  of  the  mother,  came 
into  the  son's  possession  with  the  rest  of  the 
property  (see  2  Sam.  16.22  ;  cf.  2  Sam.  3.7). 

The  lot  of  a  wife  who  brought  property  with 
her  was  more  favourable  than  that  of  one  who 
had  not.  A  woman  in  such  a  position  would 
have  the  right  to  own  such  property  apart  from 
her  husband.  Thus  Hagar  is  recognised  by 
Abraham  as  the  slave  of  Sarah,  who  had 
absolute  right  to  dispose  of  her  bondmaid  as 
she  pleased  (Gen.  16.6 ;  cf.  1  Sam.  25.42).  That 
the  position  of  a  wife  in  a  wealthy  Hebrew 
household  became,  in  later  times,  a  very  honour- 
able one,  is  shown  in  Proverbs  (31.10  fl.),  and  by 
the  recognition  of  her  moral  influence  and  in- 
struction, conjointly  with  that  of  the  husband,  in 
the  training  of  the  children  (Ex.  20.12;  Deut. 
5.16  ;  Prov.  1.8,  6.20,  etc.). 

From  the  earliest  times  considerable  freedom 
was  permitted  to  the  Hebrew  woman.  Rebekah 
moved  freely  about  with  uncovered  face  until 
she  approached  Isaac  (Gen.  24.64,65).  The 
maidens  of  Shiloh  danced  in  the  vineyards  at 
the  annual  festival  (Judg.  21.21);  women  sang 
and  danced  in  public  to  greet  Saul  and  David 
(1  Sam.  18.6, 7) ;  women  became  prophets 
[HULDAH],  judges  like  Deborah  (Judg.  5),  and 
exercised  regal  functions  like  Jezebel  (1 K.  18.13), 
or  Athaliah  (2  K.  11.3),  or  Bathsheba  (1  K.  2.19). 
[MARRIAGE.] 

Wilderness,  Wanderings  in  the. — [Exoous, 
WANDERINGS.] 

Wilderness  of  Judaea.— This  was  the  hill- 
country  of  Judah,  lying  east  and  south  of 
Jerusalem.  It  is  a  rugged  and  precipitous 
region,  honeycombed  with  caverns,  and  deep 
watercourses  dry  most  of  the  year.  The  flocks 
of  a  few  wandering  tribes  crop  the  scanty 
herbage,  which  they  share  with  the  wild  goats 
and  "  conies "  (Judg.  1.16).  Here  David 
wandered,  and  encountered  the  churlish  Nabal 
on  Mount  Carmel,  on  the  west,  while  on  the 
eastern  border  of  the  region  he  had  the  memor- 
able meeting  with  Saul  at  the  cave  of  En-gedi 
(which  see).  It  was  here  that  John  the  Baptist 
preached  (Matt.  3.1),  and  here  also,  it  is  generally 
believed,  our  Lord  passed  through  His  Tempta 
tion.  [DESERT.] 

Willow. — The  willow  is  common  in  Palestine 
and  neighbouring  countries,  growing  beside  the 
rivers  and  winter  torrents,  especially  on  the 
banks  of  the  Jordan,  the  Arnon,  and  the  Callirhoe. 
Willows  also  flourish  in  the  glens  bordering  the 
Dead  Sea  (Job  40.22  ;  Isai.  44.4). 

The  willow  appears  first  as  one  of  the  trees 
whose  boughs  were  to  be  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  booths  at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles 
(Lev.  23.40).  The  willow  of  Ps.  137.2  is  the 
Salix  Babylonica,  or  "  weeping  willow  "  now 
common  in  England,  though  a  comparatively 
recent  importation. 

The  "  brook  of  the  willows  "  (Isai.  15.7)  is 
mentioned  »*  one  of  the  boundaries  of  Moab. 


A  second  Hebrew  word  translated  "  willow  " 
occurs  but  once,  in  Ezekiel's  parable  of  the 
planted  vine,  which  was  set  beside  many  waters 
"  as  a  willow  tree  "  (Ezek.  17.5). 

Wimple. — A  particular  kind  of  head-covering 
or  veil  worn  by  women  of  rank.  Its  precise 
character  is  not  known,  but  it  was  worn  by 
ladies  at  weddings  and  other  festive  occasions 
(Isai.  3.22 ;  R.V.  shawls).  The  Old  English  word 
"  wimple  "  is  properly  a  covering  for  the  neck. 

Wind. — The  Hebrews  recognised  the  four 
principal  winds,  north,  south,  east,  and  west,  as 
coming  from  the  four  cardinal  points.  The 
north  wind  clears  the  air  ;  the  south  wind  warms 
and  ripens  the  crops  ;  while  the  east  and  west 
winds  are  both  stormy,  the  east,  coming  from 
the  desert,  being  very  dry,  and  shrivelling  the 
herbage,  the  west  bringing  gusty  rain.  The 
north  wind  was  cooling  and  moist,  and  its 
beneficent  character  is  referred  to  by  Solomon 
(Song  4.16).  In  Job  (1.19)  the  raging  of  the 
violent  east  wind  is  graphically  described 
(see  also  Isai.  21.1 ;  Jer.  4.11 ;  Zech.  9.14).  The 
Sea  of  Tiberias  is  subject  to  sudden  storms, 
caused  by  its  being  surrounded  by  high  ground. 
[TIBERIAS,  GREAT  SEA,  PALESTINE  (climate), 

EUROCLYDON.] 

Window. — Generally,  all  the  windows  of 
Eastern  houses  open  on  the  inner  courtyard, 
excepting  sometimes  a  latticed  window  or 
balcony  overhanging  the  street.  It  was  only 
on  the  occasion  of  a  public  festival  that  these 
outward-looking  windows  were  opened.  Jezebel 
was  using  the  freedom  of  action  allowed  to 
women  during  a  popular  reception  when  she 
looked  out  of  her  window  in  the  upper  storey 
at  Jehu  (2  K.  9.30).  As  a  rule,  windows  were 
quite  small  and  high  up  in  the  common  houses, 
which  had  only  one  storey,  but  in  the  greater 
dwellings  of  the  rich  more  elaborate  arrange- 
ments were  made  for  the  admission  of  light 
and  air  (1  K.  7.2-12).  [EUTYCHUS,  HOUSE, 
JEZEBEL.] 

Wine. — The  juice  of  the  grapes  produced 
several  sorts  of  wine.  The  grape  juice  trodden 
out  (Isai.  63.2,  3)  from  the  grapes  in  the  wine- 
press flowed  into  the  vat  below,  in  its  un- 
fermented  condition  as  "  must,"  called  by  the 
Jews  "  new  wine,"  and  drunk  in  this  state, 
but  it  very  rapidly  began  to  ferment.  The 
fermented  wine  was  called  by  a  variety  of 
names.  Some  wine  was  little  better  than 
vinegar,  and  formed  the  common  drink  of 
workmen,  or  of  the  reapers  during  the  heat  of 
harvest  (Ruth  2.14).  This  is  the  wine  pro- 
vided in  such  enormous  quantities  by  Solomon 
for  Hiram's  woodcutters  in  Lebanon  (2  Ch.  2.10). 
The  "  vinegar  "  given  to  the  Saviour  on  the 
cross  (Mk.  15.36)  was  probably  the  "  posca," 
a  mixture  of  wine  and  water  supplied  to  the 
Roman  legionaries :  the  "  wine  mingled  with 
myrrh  "  (ver.  23)  was  a  stupefying  draught.  Wine 
was  not  only  mixed  with  water,  but  was  some- 
times flavoured  with  spices  (Ps.  75.8 ;  Prov. 
9.2,5,  23.30).  That  the  Hebrews,  like  other 
peoples  of  antiquity,  frequently  drank  to  excess, 


WINEFAT] 


501 


[WITNESS,  WITNESSES 


and  that  their  vintage  festivals  became  scenes 
of  drunken  orgies,  is  obvious  from  many  allusions 
in  the  O.T.  This  was  rendered  the  more  easy, 
not  only  by  the  fact  that  considerable  portions 
of  Palestine  were  a  rich,  vine-growing  country, 
but  also  from  the  close  proximity  of  the  more 
civilised  and  pleasure-loving  Canaanites.  So 
also  Belshazzar  and  Xerxes  had  their  "  banquets 
of  wine,"  Nehemiah  appears  as  cupbearer  to 
Artaxerxes,  and  Nahum  and  Habakkuk  denounce 
the  Ninevites  and  Chaldaeans  for  their  shameful 
intemperance  (Neh.  1.11,  2.1  ;  Dan.  5.1, 2 ; 
Nah.  3.11 ;  Hab.  2.15, 16).  In  accordance  with 
these  passages  we  find  the  use  and  the  abuse 
of  the  fruit  of  the  vine  repeatedly  exemplified 
on  the  Assyrian  sculptures.  The  references  in 
the  prophets  of  the  eighth  century  B.C.  to  the 
drinking  banquets  of  the  wealthier  classes  of 
the  community  are  frequent.  Amos  vividly 
describes  the  revelry  of  those  princes  of  Samaria 
who  stretch  themselves  on  beds  of  ivory, 
drinking  "  wine  in  bowls "  (6.4-6).  Hosea 
describes  how  the  nobles  made  themselves  ill 
with  the  feverish  glow  of  wine  upon  the  king's 
birthday  (Hos.  7.5,  R.V.);  while  Isaiah  exclaimed 
(28.1),  "  Woe  to  the  proud  crown  of  Ephraim's 
drunkards  .  .  .  who  are  smitten  with  wine." 
The  same  prophet  denounces  the  inhabitants 
of  Jerusalem,  "  Woe  to  those  that  rise  up  early, 
pursuing  strong  drink,  who  tarry  till  late  in  the 
dusk,  while  wine  inflames  them  "  (Isai.  5.11). 

Our  Lord  at  Cana  of  Galilee  changed  water 
into  wine,  but  whether  in  a  large  quantity,  or 
only  as  it  was  drawn  from  the  vessels,  is  not 
certain  (John  2.9,  10).  Indications  that  wine 
was  sometimes  drunk  to  excess  are  found 
in  John  2.10;  Acts  2.13;  1  Cor.  5.11,  6.10; 
Eph.  5.18.  Paul  (Rom.  14.21)  suggests  the 
law  of  abstinence  for  the  welfare  of  others,  but 
recommends  "  a  little  wine  "  to  Timothy,  in  view 
of  bodily  weakness  (1  Tim.  5.23).  [VINE,  WINE- 
PRESS.] 

Winefat. — I.e.  wine-vat  or  winepress,  fat 
being  Old  English  for  vat  (Isai.  63.2  ;  Mk.  12.1). 

Winepress. — Each  vineyard  had  its  own 
winepress.  This  was  generally  a  cistern  about 
8  feet  long  and  5  feet  wide,  cut  into  the  solid 
rock.  It  had  a  vent  near  the  bottom,  from 
which  the  expressed  juice  ran  into  a  lower 
cistern,  the  "  winefat  "  as  distinguished  from 
the  "  winepress."  The  two  are  clearly  dis- 
tinguished in  Joel  3.13 :  elsewhere  both 
Hebrew  words  are  rendered  "  winepress." 
The  whole  was  covered  with  a  thatched  roof, 
from  the  beams  of  which  depended  cords  used 
for  the  support  of  the  workmen  who,  with  bare 
limbs,  trod  the  grapes  as  they  were  emptied 
from  the  baskets  in  which  they  were  gathered. 

The  treading  of  the  winepress  was  laborious, 
but  joyful  work,  and  was  performed  with 
singing  and  the  playing  of  musical  instruments 
(Isai.  16.9  ;  Jer.  25.30,  48.32,  33). 

Figuratively,  vintage,  gleaning,  and  treading 
the  winepress,  signified  battles  and  great 
slaughter  (Isai.  17.6,  63.1-3  ;  Jer.  49.9  ;  Lam. 

1.15).      [VlNBYAED.] 


j  Winnow. — The  grain  was  winnowed  or 
separated  from  the  chaff  by  being  thrown  into 
the  air  with  a  broad  wooden  shovel,  while  a  fan 
was  used  to  blow  away  the  chaff  (Ruth  3.2  ; 
Isai.  30.24).  John  the  Baptist  alludes  to  this 
when  he  speaks  of  the  separation  of  the  righteous 
from  the  wicked  (Matt.  3.11, 12). 

Wisdom. — The  word  "  wisdom "  in  most 
parts  of  the  Bible,  and  especially  in  Proverbs, 
means  a  considerate,  thoughtful  state  of  mind 
in  relation  to  truth  and  duty,  religious,  moral, 
or  prudential.  In  Prov.  1.3  the  word  means 
prudence  or  circumspectness,  the  "  wise  dealing  " 
of  the  A.V.  It  is  the  part  of  wisdom  to  be 
willing  to  learn  ;  only  the  conceited  and  foolish 
refuse  to  learn  and  profit  by  the  counsels  of 
the  more  experienced  (Prov.  1.5).  Wisdom  is 
personified  (Prov.  1.20)  in  plural  form,  as  if  to 
suggest  its  all-comprehending  character  and 
variety  of  application.  In  contrast  with  the 
secret  enticement  of  the  wicked,  wisdom  is 
represented  as  publicly  appealing  to  men. 

"  Wisdom  Literature  "  is  the  title  given  to 
certain  parts  of  the  O.T. — Job,  some  of  the 
Psalms,  Proverbs,  and  Ecclesiastes,  together 
with  the  non-canonical  Ecclesiasticus  and 
Wisdom  of  Solomon.  These  writings  deal  not 
with  the  national  affairs  of  Israel,  but  with 
principles  of  belief  and  conduct  common  to 
all ;  they  are  not  national  but  cosmopolitan. 
Their  aim  is  rather  ethical  than  religious, 
though  behind  the  instruction  as  to,  or  the 
reflections  on,  life  lie  convictions  as  to  the 
authority  and  the  ways  of  God.  They  present 
a  Hebrew  philosophy,  more  or  less  popular,  as 
the  abundance  of  proverbs  suggests.  [ECCLESI- 
ASTES, JOB,  PROVERBS.] 

Wise  Men.— [MAGI.] 

Witch,  Witchcraft.—  Witchcraft  is  first  noted 
in  Ex.  22.18,  "  Thou  shalt  not  suffer  a  witch 
to  live."  It  is  condemned  also  in  Lev.  20.27  ; 
Deut.  18.9-12.  Witchcraft  was  regarded  as  an 
appeal  to  another  power  than  Jehovah,  and 
so  was  open  rebellion  against  Him.  [ENDOR, 
WITCH  OF  ;  MAGIC.] 

Withs. — Ropes  of  twisted  osier  or  willow 
twigs  (Judg.  16.7-9).  Such  primitive  ropes  or 
cords  have  been  used  by  agriculturalists  in  all 
countries  and  ages. 

Witness,  Witnesses.— In  Jewish  law,  the 
concurrent  testimony  of  two  or  more  credible 
witnesses  was  required  to  establish  or  uphold 
a  statement  of  fact  in  order  to  convict  of  a 
capital  crime  (Num.  35.30 ;  Deut.  17.6,  7, 19.15). 
Every  one  solemnly  adjured  by  legal  authority 
(Lev.  5.1)  was  constrained  to  reply.  Thus  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ  replied  to  the  high-priest 
when  he  cried,  "  I  adjure  thee  by  the  living 
God  "  (Matt.  26.63),  and  bore  true  witness  to 
His  power.  The  bearing  of  false  witness  was 
severely  punished  (Ex.  23.1-3  ;  Deut.  19.16-21). 
This  was  a  strong  protection  to  the  poor  man, 
who  would  otherwise  have  been  at  the  mercy 
of  the  unscrupulous.  The  Witneas,  or  the 
Testimony  (R.V.),  is  sometimos  used  of  the 
Ten  Commandments  on  the  Tables  in  the  Ark, 


WIZARD] 


502 


[WORMWOOD 


and  thus  in  the  Tabernacle.  Hence  the  phrases 
the  Ark  of  the  Testimony  (Witness)  and  the 
Tabernacle  of  the  Testimony  (Witness). 

Wizard. — [DIVINATION,  MAGIC,  WITCH.] 

Wolf. — Wolves  are  still  found  in  Palestine 
and  Syria,  though  the  lack  of  woods  drives 
them  to  seek  refuge  mostly  among  rocky  wilds. 
Although  they  do  not  appear  to  hunt  in  packs 
in  Syria,  as  they  do  in  other  places,  they  never- 
theless are  most  destructive  to  sheep.  The  wolf 
is  mentioned  twelve  times  in  Scripture,  always 
in  a  metaphorical  sense,  to  illustrate  cruelty  or 
some  such  quality,  and  almost  always  in  con- 
nexion with  its  ravages  amongst  flocks.  Its 
habit  of  attacking  prey  at  eventide  is  often 
referred  to  (Jer.  5.6  ;  Hab.  1.8  ;  Zeph.  3.3).  Its 
fierceness  is  mentioned  also  in  Gen.  49.27 ; 
Ezek.  22.27,  and  its  devastation  amongst  the 
lambs  is  singled  out  by  Ezekiel,  and  also  by  our 
Lord  (Ezek.  22.27  ;  Lk.  10.3  ;  John  10.12).  In 
striking  symbol  of  the  peace  which  shall  attend 
Messiah's  reign,  Isaiah  affirms  that  the  wolf  shall 
dwell  with,  feed  with,  the  lamb  (Isai.  11.6,  65.25). 

Woman. — Among  the  Jews,  the  social  equality 
of  woman  with  man  contrasted  with  the  customs 
generally  prevailing  in  the  East,  especially  in 
more  modern  times.  A  large  amount  of  liberty 
was  enjoyed  by  Hebrew  women.  They  were 
not  immured  in  harems,  or  made  to  appear  with 
covered  faces ;  they  mixed  openly  with  the  men 
and  youths  both  in  the  duties  and  amenities  of 
ordinary  life.  Women  managed  all  household 
affairs.  [WIFE.]  They  drew  the  water,  pre- 
pared the  food  (Gen.  18.6,  24.15 ;  2  Sam.  13.8), 
spun  the  yarn  and  made  the  clothing  (Ex.  35.26 ; 
1  Sam.  2.19).  They  also  engaged  in  trade  (Prov. 
31.14-24).  Most  of  the  privileges  of  religion  were 
open  to  women,  and  some  even  took  rank  as 
prophetesses.  [DEBORAH,  HULDAH,  MIKIAM.] 

The  place  taken  by  women  in  the  N.T.  shows 
the  equalising  and  inclusive  effect  of  a  gospel 
in  which  "  there  can  be  no  male  and  female  " 
(Gal.  3.28).  They  ministered  to  the  needs  of 
Jesus  and  His  disciples  (Lk.  8.1-3,  23.55),  were 
sharers  in  the  gift  of  Pentecost  (Acts  2.1-4, 
cf.  1.14),  and  were  prominent  in  some  of  the 
Pauline  Churches  (Acts  16.14,  17.4;  cf.  Phil. 
4.2, 3).  Paul's  view  of  the  equality  of  the  sexes 
appears  especially  in  1  Cor.  7,  and  with  this  his 
recognition  of  a  wife's  subjection  to  her  husband 
is  not  inconsistent  (Eph.  5.21-33;  Col.  3.18,  19; 
cf.  1  Pet.  3.1-9).  It  appears  from  1  Cor.  11.5 
that  he  allowed  women  to  exercise  their  gifts 
of  prayer  and  prophecy  in  the  Church  assembly, 
though  the  practice  of  doing  so  with  head 
unveiled  is  condemned  by  appeal  to  the  Divine 
ordinance  of  woman's  subjection  to  man 
(1  Cor.  11.3-16).  But  in  the  same  epistle  he  seems 
to  withdraw  the  permission  (1  Cor.  14.34-36), 
and  again,  with  greater  severity,  in  1  Tim. 
2.8-15.  Among  the  women  mentioned  in 
Rom.  16  one  at  least  seems  to  have  held  an 
official  position,  Phoebe,  the  "  deaconess " 
(R.V.  marg.)  of  the  Church  at  Cenchrese.  For 
the  services  required  from  widows  maintained 
by  the  Church,  see  WIDOW. 


Wool. — Wool  was  one  of  the  chief  materials 
used  for  clothing,  as  may  be  inferred  from  the 
frequent  references  to  sheep-shearing  (Gen.  31.19, 
38.12  ;  Job  31.19,  20),  and  the  existence  of  a 
religious  festival  in  primitive  times  connected 
with  it  (2  Sam.  13.23  fi.).  A  portion  of  Mesha's 
tribute  consisted  of  wool  (2  K.  3.4),  and  it  is 
mentioned  among  the  offerings  of  first-fruits,  not 
only  by  Hosea  (2.7-11),  but  also  in  Deuteronomy 
(18.4).  In  the  later  times  of  the  Jewish  common- 
wealth it  was  regarded  as  the  business  of  a 
good  housewife  in  a  well-appointed  household  to 
be  able  to  spin  the  wool  and  manufacture  the 
garments  (Prov.  31.13).  [CLOTHING,  WEAVING.] 

Word,  The.— [Locos.] 

World. — Five  words  are  rendered  "  world  " 
in  the  O.T.,  and  four  in  the  N.T.  Of  the  O.T. 
words  the  most  frequent,  tebel,  implies  the 
fertile  and  inhabited  earth  (as  in  Ps.  33.8 ; 
Isai.  27.6).  Eretz,  usually  rendered  "  earth  " 
(as  in  Gen.  1.1),  appears  four  times  as  "  world  "  ; 
but  in  two  of  these  passages  (Ps.  22.27 ;  Isai. 
62.11)  the  R.V.  has  "earth."  In  the  N.T. 
the  most  frequent  word  is  kosmos.  This 
originally  implied  "  order,"  and  came  into  use  in 
the  philosophy  of  Pythagoras  for  the  world  or 
universe  in  its  orderly  arrangement  as  opposed 
to  chaos.  It  is  John's  word  for  "  the  world  " 
in  various  aspects,  e.g.  the  sum  of  created  being 
apart  from  God,  and  transitory,  humanity  as 
the  object  of  God's  care,  humanity  in  opposi- 
tion to  God  (see,  e.g.,  John  1.9,  3.16,  14.17; 
1  John  2.2, 15,  5.19).  Next  in  frequency  is  aion, 
originally  a  lifetime,  and  then  also  eternity,  an 
era  or  even  period.  It  is  used  of  "  the  end 
of  the  world"  (Matt.  13.49),  "this  world" 
("  age ")  and  "  the  world  to  come "  (Matt. 
12.32;  Mk.  4.19;  Lk.  18.30;  Rom.  12.2);  and 
in  Heb.  1.2,  11.3  of  the  "  worlds"  as  made  by 
the  Son  (R.V.  marg.  "  Gr.  ages  ").  Oikoumene, 
the  world  as  inhabited,  especially  the  Roman 
Empire,  occurs  in  Matt.  24.14  ;  Lk.  2.1 ;  Acts 
17.6;  Rev.  12.9,  etc.  Ge,  the  earth,  appears 
only  in  Rev.  13.3,  and  is  so  rendered  in  R.V. 

Worm.  —  Not  exclusively  earth-worms,  but 
any  elongated  crawling  animal,  such  as  cater- 
pillars. Earth-worms  may  be  meant  in  Mic. 
7.17  (R.V.  "  crawling  things ") ;  the  larva  of 
flies  in  Ex.  16.20  ;  Job  7.5,  etc.  (cf.  Mk.  9.48) ; 
the  caterpillar  of  a  clothes-moth  in  Isai.  51.8  ; 
some  insect  larva  in  Dent.  28.39 ;  Jon.  4.7. 
Death  by  worms  befell  Herod  Agrippa  (Acts 
12.23). 

Wormwood.  —  There  are  several  species  in 
Palestine,  the  commonest  being  the  Artemisia 
absinthium  of  botanists.  A  plant  with  medicinal 
qualities  belonging  to  the  family  of  the  Com- 
positte,  called  also  southernwood,  or  "  old  man." 
The  Greeks  used  it  in  medicine,  but  called  it 
"  the  undrinkable."  It  grows  chiefly  on  sandy 
coasts  and  on  bare  mountain  slopes  and  deserts. 

Its  bitterness  gives  point  to  the  numerous 
figurative  passages  of  Scripture  where  the  word 
is  found.  "  Wormwood  and  gall  "  are  the  types 
of  bitterness — of  affliction,  remorse,  and  punitive 
suffering.  Under  this  figure,  the  Israelites  were 


WOESHIP]  503 

warned  by  Moses  against  secret  idolatry  (Deut. 
29.18).  In  like  terms  Solomon  warns  the  young 
man  against  indulgence  (Prov.  5.4).  Jeremiah 
twice  uses  the  word  as  expressive  of  the  punish- 
ment that  will  overtake  -wrong-doing  Israel  (Jer. 
9.15,  23.15);  and  later  bewails  the  fulfilment 
of  the  prophecy  in  the  desolation  following  the 
capture  of  Jerusalem  (Lam.  3.15, 19). 

The  Mystic  "  Star "  of  apocalyptic  vision, 
which  was  called  "  Wormwood,"  is  described  as 
falling  into  the  waters  of  the  earth,  rendering 
them  fatally  bitter  (Rev.  8.11).  In  Amos  6.12 
the  R.V.  has  "  wormwood  "  for  A.V.  "  hemlock." 

Worship.— Originally  "  worthship,"  the  "  th  " 
being  lost  in  the  fourteenth  century.  In  the 
O.T.  the  two  words  most  frequently  rendered 
"  worship "  imply  doing  obeisance.  One  is 
peculiar  to  Daniel  (2.46,  3.5,  etc.).  The  other 
is  used  of  the  worship  of  Jehovah  (Gen.  24.26,  48, 
etc.),  of  "  other  gods  "  or  objects  of  reverence 
(Ex.  34.14 ;  Deut.  4.19,  etc.) ;  and  of  the 
"  captain  of  the  Lord's  host "  (Josh.  5.14). 
In  the  N.  T.  the  word  most  frequently  employed 
originally  meant  to  kiss  the  hand  to  another 


[YOKEFELLOW 


as  a  mark  of  respect,  and  so  to  do  obeisance. 
It  is  used  for  the  worship  of  God  (Matt.  4.10), 
the  reverence  shown  to  our  Lord  (Mk.  5.6) ; 
idolatrous  worship  (Acts  7.43,  and  cf.  Rev. 
9.20,  14.9,  22.8).  In  Lk.  14.10  the  K.V.  reads 
"  glory."  For  the  A.V.  use  of  worship  here 
compare  our  phrase,  "  your  worship." 

Wrath  of  God.— God's  attitude  towards  sin 
and  the  sinner  is  presented  as  one  of  wrath  and 
anger  (Ex.  22.24 ;  Ps.  21.9,  etc.).  The  phrase  is 
used  of  distinct  manifestations  of  God's  righteous 
judgment  (Rom.  1.18,  3.5) ;  especially  of  "  the 
wrath  to  come  "  (Matt.  3.7  ;  Lk.  3.7  ;  1  Thess. 
1.10).  By  reason  of  their  sinful  nature  men 
are  "  the  children  of  wrath  "  (Eph.  2.3). 

Writing. — Genesis  has  no  allusions  to  writing, 
though  archaeology  shows  us  that  the  art  was 
practised  in  the  age  of  the  patriarchs,  and,  in 
particular,  by  almost  all  classes  of  Egyptians  at 
the  time  of  the  Exodus.  The  first  allusion  is 
in  Ex.  24.4.  By  the  times  of  the  prophets  the 
references  to  it  are  frequent  (Isai.  8.1,  30.8; 
Jer.  30.2  ;  Hob.  2.2,  etc.).  [BOOK,  INK,  PAPER, 
PARCHMENT.] 


X 

Xerxes. — For  Ahasuerus  (Esth.  1.1)  the  R.V.  |  marg.  has  "  Or,  Xerxes."     [AHASUEKUS.] 


Yarn.— The  term  *'  linen  yarn  "  in  1  K.  10.28 
and  2  Ch.  1.16  is  rendered  in  the  R.V.,  "  And 
the  horses  which  Solomon  had  were  brought  out 
of  Egypt ;  the  king's  merchants  received  them 
in  droves,  each  drove  at  a  price."  Others  read 
the  disputed  word  as  from  Kue,  an  Assyrian 
name  for  Cilicia,  but  Cilicia  was  not  a  horse- 
breeding  country. 

Year.— A  comparison  of  Dan.  7.25,  12.7  with 
Rev.  11.2,3,  12.6  shows  that  the  reference 
is  to  a  year  of  360  days.  A  time,  times,  and  a 
half=3J  years =42  months =1260  days.  But 
a  year  of  360  days  would  soon  have  had  this 
awkward  result — that  the  seasons,  seed-time 
and  harvest  and  the  like,  would  gradually  have 
been  separated  from  the  months  with  which 
they  had  originally  been  associated.  It  is 
conjectured  that  to  obviate  this  an  intercalary 
(called  the  second  month  Adar)  month  was  put 
in  occasionally.  The  Sacred  Year  began  with 
the  month  Abib  (Nisan),  about  the  time  of 
the  vernal  equinox.  On  the  16th  day  of  Abib, 
ripe  ears  of  corn  were  to  be  offered  as  first- 
fruits  of  the  harvest  (Lev.  2.14,  23.10,11). 


After  the  Captivity,  a  thirteenth  month  was 
added  to  the  year  whenever  the  twelfth 
ended  too  long  before  the  equinox  for  the 
offering  of  the  first-fruits  to  be  made  at  the 
time  fixed.  The  Civil  Year  began  about  the 
time  of  the  autumnal  equinox.  [CHRONOLOGY, 
TIME.] 

Yoke. — Generally  the  wooden  apparatus  by 
which  oxen  used  for  ploughing  are  linked 
together ;  but  frequently  used  metaphorically 
for  subjection.  An  "  iron  yoke "  represents 
an  unusually  galling  bondage  (Deut.  28.48 ; 
Jer.  28.13). 

Yokefellow  (Phil.  4.3).— Not  Paul's  wife,  for 
the  Greek  shows  that  a  man  is  addressed, 
and  Paul  was  either  unmarried  or  a  widower 
(1  Cor.  7.8).  He  evidently  refers  to  a  prominent 
worker  at  Philippi,  possibly  Epaphroditus,  who 
carried  the  letter,  or  it  is  possible  that  the 
Greek  word  for  yokefellow,  Synzygus  (Syzygus), 
is  a  proper  name,  "  true  "  then  suggesting  a 
word-play  on  the  meaning  of  the  name  (cf. 
Philem.  10,  11,  20),  but  it  does  not  appear  to 
be  found  anywhere  else. 


ZAANAIM,  ZAANANNIM] 


504 


[ZADOK 


Zaana'im,  Zaanannim.  —  1.  The  site  of 
Heber's  tent  in  which  Sisera  was  slain  (Judg. 
4.11).  2.  A  place  on  the  border  of  Naphtali 
(Josh.  19.33).  R.V.  has  "from  the  oak  in 
Zaanannim,"  marg.  "  Or,  oak  (or  terebinth)  of 
Bezaanannim."  Probably  1  and  2  are  identical. 

Zaa'nan  (M ic.  1.11).— Probably  Zenan,  which 
see. 

Zaavan.  —  Grandson  of  Seir  the  Horite 
(Gen.  36.27;  1  Ch.  1.42,  where  the  A.V.  has 
Zavan). 

Za'bad. — 1.  One  of  David's  mighty  men 
(1  Ch.  2.36,  37) ;  described  in  1  Ch.  11.41  as 
"  son,"  i.e.  descendant  of  Ahlai.  Ahlai,  as  the 
genealogy  of  1  Ch.  2.31,34-36  shows,  was  his 
great-grandmother,  a  descendant  of  Judah,  who 
married  Jarha,  an  Egyptian.  Her  name  is 
mentioned,  probably  to  indicate  the  tribal  con- 
nexion. 2.  An  Ephraimite  (1  Ch.  7.21).  3.  An 
accomplice  of  Jehozabad  in  the  assassination 
of  King  Joash  (2  Ch.  24.26).  They  were  both 
put  to  death  by  Amaziah,  the  son  and  successor 
of  Joash.  The  name  of  Zabad  is  given  as 
Jozachar  in  2  K.  12.21.  4,  5,  and  6.  Israelites 
who  had  married  foreign  wives  (Ezra  10.27, 
33,  43). 

Zab'bai. — 1.  A  descendant  of  Bebai  who  had 
married  a  foreign  wife  (Ezra  10.28).  2.  The 
father  of  Baruch  (Neh.  3.20). 

Zab'bud. — One  who  returned  from  exile  with 
Ezra  (Ezra  8.14). 

Zab'di. — 1.  The  grandson  of  Judah,  and  the 
grandfather  of  Achan  (Josh.  7.1, 17, 18).  2.  A 
Benjamite  (1  Ch.  8.19).  3.  An  officer  who 
attended  to  the  supply  of  David's  wine-cellars 
from  the  vineyards  (1  Ch.  27.27).  4.  The  son 
of  Asaph,  the  minstrel  (Neh.  11.17) ;  called  else- 
where Zaccur  (Neh.  12.35)  and  Zichri  (1  Ch. 
9.15). 

Zabdi'el. — 1.  Father  of  Jashobeam,  the  chief 
of  David's  guard  (1  Ch.  27.2).  2.  A  priest  who 
had  the  oversight  of  128  of  his  brethren  after 
the  return  from  Babylon  (Neh.  11.14). 

Za'bud. — One  who  held  the  confidential  post 
of  king's  friend  at  the  court  of  Solomon  (1  K.  4.5). 

Zabu'lon  (R.V.  Zebulun).— (Matt.  4.13, 15  ; 
Rev.  7.8).  [ZEBULUN.] 

Zac'cai. — Pure :  the  sons  of  Zaccai,  to  the 
number  of  760,  returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
2.9 ;  Neh.  7.14).  It  is  the  original  form  of  the 
name  Zacchaeus. 

Zacchse'us. — Pure:  the  incident  in  which 
Zacchaeus  figures  is  related  in  Lk.  19.1-10.  His 
position  was  that  of  superintendent  of  collectors 
of  taxes,  he  himself  being  subject  to  a  Roman 
superior.  Zacchaeus  himself  was  a  Jew,  "  a 
son  of  Abraham,"  as  our  Lord  says,  to  give 
point  to  the  suggestion  that  even  his  occupa- 
tion did  not  put  him  beyond  the  pale  of  the 
commonwealth  of  Israel.  The  eagerness  of  Zac- 
chaeus to  see  Jesus  was  something  more  than 
mere  curiosity,  or  he  would  not  so  readily 
have  responded  to  the  invitation  of  the 


Master.  Jesus  had  reached  Jericho  on  his 
way  to  Jerusalem  for  the  celebration  of  the 
Passover.  Jericho,  by  reason  of  its  palm  groves 
and  gardens  of  balsam,  was  at  this  time  a  very 
flourishing  district,  hence  Zacchaeus  had  become 
a  rich  man. 

Zac'chur,  Zac'cur. — Mindful :  1.  Shammua, 
the  spy  selected  from  the  tribe  of  Reuben,  was 
the  son  of  Zaccur  (Num.  13.4).  2.  A  Simeonite 
(1  Ch.  4.26).  3.  A  Merarite  (1  Ch.  24.27). 
4.  Son  of  Asaph,  the  singer,  and  chief  of  the 
third  division  of  the  Temple  choir  as  arranged 
by  David  (1  Ch.  25.2,  10  ;  Neh.  12.35).  5.  One 
who  assisted  Nehemiah  in  rebuilding  the  city 
wall  (Neh.  3.2).  6.  A  Levite,  or  family  of 
Levites,  who  signed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  10.12).  7.  The  father  of  Hanan  (Neh. 
13.13). 

Zachari'ah  (R:V.  Zechariah).— Jehovah  re- 
members :  1.  A  king  of  Israel,  the  last  of  the 
house  of  Jehu,  who  reigned  only  six  months. 
He  was  killed  in  a  conspiracy  of  which  Shallum 
was  the  head.  He  maintained  the  idolatrous 
practices  of  the  nation  (2  K.  14.29,  15.8,  11). 
2.  Hezekiah's  mother,  Abi  or  Abijah,  was  the 
daughter  of  Zachariah  (2  K.  18.2).  He  is 
called  Zechariah  in  2  Ch.  29.1.  [ZECHAEIAH.] 

Zachari'as. — 1.  The  son  of  Barachiah,  who 
was  slain  by  the  Jews  between  the  altar  of  the 
Temple  (Malt.  23.35  ;  Lfc.11.51 ;  R.V.  Zachariah). 
The  reference  is  probably  to  Zacharias  (Zec- 
hariah), the  son  of  Jehoiada  (2  Ch.  24.20, 21). 
Barachiah  was  the  father  of  the  prophet  Zec- 
hariah. Chronicles,  in  which  the  murder  of 
Zacharias  is  recorded,  came  last  in  the  Hebrew 
Canon.  Thus  this  murder  was  the  last,  as  that 
of  Abel  was  the  first,  in  the  sacred  books.  2. 
The  father  of  John  the  Baptist,  a  priest  of  the 
course  of  Abia.  When  the  promise  of  a  son 
was  made  known  to  him  he  craved  a  sign,  and 
was  struck  dumb.  On  the  naming  of  the  child 
John,  the  dumbness  was  removed.  Zacharias 
was  "filled  with  the  Holy  Ghost,"  and  gave 
utterance  to  the  hymn  known  as  the  Benedictus 
(Lk.  1.5-25, 57-79). 

Za'cher,  Zecher.— A  son  of  Jehiel  (1  Ch. 
8.31),  called  Zechariah  (1  Ch.  9.37). 

Za'dok.— Righteous  :  1.  One  of  the  two  chief 
priests  in  the  time  of  David  (2  Sam.  8.17), 
whom  (if  he  is  the  Zadok  of  1  Ch.  12.28)  ho 
joined  at  Hebron  after  Saul's  death.  Zadok  re- 
mained conspicuously  faithful  to  David  through- 
out all  the  troubles  of  his  reign.  When  Absalom 
rebelled,  and  David  was  compelled  to  flee  from 
Jerusalem,  Zadok  and  all  the  Levites  bearing  the 
Ark  accompanied  him  (2  Sam.  15.24).  When 
Absalom  was  slain,  Zadok  was  among  those  who 
persuaded  the  elders  of  Judah  to  invite  David 
to  return.  In  David's  old  age,  when  Adonijah 
was  set  up  for  king  by  an  influential  party, 
Zadok  took  the  side  of  David,  and  anointed 
Solomon  as  his  prospective  successor.  When 
Solomon  came  to  the  throne  he  deposed  Zadok's 


ZAHAM] 


505 


[ZEBOIM,  ZEBOIIM 


colleague  in  the  high  priesthood,  namely,  Abia- 
thar  (who  had  been  a  partisan  of  Adonijah),  and 
left  Zadok  in  undisputed  authority  (1  K.  1.7,  26, 
2.27, 35).  In  Ezek.  44.1 5, 16  his  descendants 
are  praised  for  their  faithfulness  from  the  days 
of  Solomon,  an  J  are  given  special  privileges  in 
the  prophet's  vision  of  the  restored  Temple  and 
its  worship.  2.  The  father  of  Jerushah,  who 
was  the  wife  of  King  Uzziah  and  mother  of 
King  Jotham  (2  K.  15.33  ;  2  Ch.  27.1).  3.  One 
who  repaired  a  portion  of  the  wall  in  the  time 
of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  3.4).  4.  A  priest  who  did 
the  same  (Neh.  3.29). 

Za'ham. — A grandson  of  Solomon  (2  Ch.ll.19). 

Za'ir. — The  site  of  Joram's1  camp  in  the 
expedition  against  the  Edomites  (2  K.  8.21). 

Za'laph.— Father  of  Hanun  (Neh.  3.30). 

Zal'mon. — Shady  place  :  1.  The  wooded  hill 
whence  Abimelech  procured  branches  to  set 
fire  to  the  Tower  of  Shechem  (Judg.  9.48). 
[SALMON.]  2.  One  of  David's  guard  (2  Sam. 
23.28) ;  called  Ilai  in  1  Ch.  11.29. 

Zalmo'nah. — Shady  place  :  the  site  of  the 
Israelite  encampment  on  east  of  Edom  (Num. 
33.41,  42). 

Zalmun'na. — One  of  the  two  kings  of  Midian 
whom  Gideon  put  to  death  (Judg.  8.5-21 ;  Ps. 
83.11).  [ZEBAH.] 

Zamzum'mims.  —  The  Ammonite  name  for 
the  Rephaim  (Deut.  2.20,  R.V.).  They  had  been 
"  great,  many,  and  tall,"  but  they  were  con- 
quered or  destroyed  by  the  Ammonites,  who 
seized  then-  territory,  a  district  lying  to  the 
north-east  of  Moab.  [ZuziMS.] 

Zano'ah. — Marshy  place  :  1.  Now  Zanua,  on 
north  side  of  Wady  Ismail,  town  in  lowland  of 
Judah,  reoccupied  after  the  Captivity  (Josh. 
15.34;  Neh.  3.13,  11.30).  2.  Now  Zanuta, 
town  in  highland  of  Judah  (Josh.  15.56).  3.  A 
member  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  4.18). 

Zaph'nath-paa'neah  (R.V.  Zaphenath- 
paneah). — God  spake,  and  he  (not  He)  came  into 
life:  the  name  given  by  Pharaoh  to  Joseph 
(Gen.  41.45). 

Zaplion. — North  :  now  'Amatah,  a  town  of 
Gad  (Josh.  13.27).  Perhaps  connected  with 
ZEPHON  and  ZIPHION. 

Za'ra  (R.V.  Zerah).— (Matt.  1.3).    [ZEBAH  2.] 

Za'rah  (R.V.  Zerah).— (Gen.  38.30,  46.12). 
[ZEHAH  2.] 

Zare'ah  (R.V.  Zorah).— (Neh.  11.29).  [ZORAH.] 

Zare'athites  (R.V.  Zorathites).— (1  Ch.  2.53). 

[ZORATHJTES.] 

Za'red  (R.V.  Stored).— (Num.  21.12).  [ZERED.] 
Zare'phath. — Smelting-place  :  now  Sarafend  ; 
a  Phoenician  town,  between  Tyre  and  Sidon ; 
the  temporary  residence  of  Elijah  (I  K.  17.9, 10  ; 
Obad.  20;  Lk.  4.26,  R.V.).  The  Crusaders  erected 
a  chapel  on  the  reputed  site  of  the  widow's  house. 
Sarepta  (Lk.  4.26,  A.V.)  is  the  Greek  form  of 
Zarephath. 

Zare'tan  (R.V.  Zarethan).— The  place  where 
the  Israelites  crossed  the  Jordan  into  Canaan 
(Josh.  3.16),  and  the  brazen  vessels  were  cast 
for  Solomon's  Temple  ;  the  same  as  Zartanah 
(1  K.  4.12,  A.V.)  and  Zarlhan  (1  K.  7.46,  A.V.). 


In  2Ch.  4.17  the  name  is  Zeredah  (A.V.  Zere- 
dathah),  which  should  also,  perhaps,  replace  the 
Zererah  or  Zererath  of  Judg.  7.22. 

Za'reth-cha'har,  Ze'reth-sha'har.  —  A  town 
allotted  to  Reuben  (Josh.  13.19),  identified,  con- 
jecturally,  with  a  spot  called  Sara,  in  a  recess 
on  the  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  about  3  miles 
south  of  the  deep  ravine  of  Zerka  Main. 

Zar'hites,  Zerahites.  —  The  descendants  of 
Zerah,  a  son  of  Judah.  Achan  was  of  this 
family,  as  were  also  two  famous  warriors  of 
David's  time,  Sibbechai  and  Maharai  (Num. 
26.13, 20 ;  Josh.  7.17 ;  1  Ch.  27.11, 13). 

Zarrah.—  [ZORAH.] 

Zartanah.— (1  K.  4.12).    [ZARETAN.] 

Zarthan.— (1  K.  7.46).    [ZARETAN.] 

Zat'thu,  Zat'tu.— The  sons  of  Zattu  were  a 
family  of  laymen  of  Israel  who  returned  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  2.8;  Neh.  7.13,  10.14). 
Several  members  of  this  family  had  married 
foreign  wives. 

Za'van.— [ZAAVAN.] 

Za'za. — One  of  the  sons  of  Jonathan,  a 
descendant  of  Jerahmeel  (1  Ch.  2.33). 

Zealot. — [CANAANITE,  ZELOTES.] 

Zebadi'ah.  —  1.  A  Benjamite  who  joined 
David  at  Ziklag  (1  Ch.  12.7).  2.  One  who,  with 
eighty  of  his  clan,  returned  with  Ezra  (Ezra 
8.8).  3.  A  priest  who  married  a  foreign  wife 
after  the  return  from  Babylon  (Ezra  10.20). 
4.  A  Levite  sent  to  teach  the  Law  in  the  cities 
of  Judah  (2  Ch.  17.8).  5.  The  ruler  of  the  house 
of  Judah  "  in  all  the  king's  matters "  in  the 
days  of  Jehoshaphat  (2  Ch.  19.11).  6.  Other 
persons  of  the  name  of  Zebadiah  are  mentioned 
in  1  Ch.  8.15,  17,  26.2,  27.7. 

Ze'bah. — One  of  the  two  kings  of  Midian  who 
were  slain  by  Gideon.  They  had,  in  the  course 
of  their  raids,  slain  Gideon's  brothers.  After 
the  defeat  of  the  Midianite  horde,  the  two  kings 
made  their  escape  through  Gilead  to  Karkor. 
Hither  Gideon  pursued  them,  then  surprised  and 
captured  them.  He  brought  them  to  Ophrah, 
his  native  village,  and  slew  them  (Judg.  8.5-21 ; 
Ps.  83.11). 

Zeba'im. — The  home  of  some  of  the  menials 
of  the  second  Temple  (Ezra  2.57).  The  R.V. 
makes  the  word  part  of  the  preceding  name : 
Pochereth-hazzebaim. 

Zeb'edee. — A  fisherman  of  Galilee,  the  father 
of  two  of  the  twelve  disciples,  James  and  John, 
and  the  husband  of  Salome.  His  two  sons 
received  their  calling  from  Jesus  when  they 
were  in  their  father's  boat  helping  to  mend 
their  nets.  The  family  were  sufficiently  well 
off  to  employ  hired  servants.  The  acquaintance 
between  John  and  the  high-priest  also  suggests 
social  position  (Matt.  4.21,  27.56;  Mk.  1.20, 
15.40  ;  John  18.15). 

Zebidah. — [ZEBUDAH.] 

Zebi'na. — An  Israelite  who  had  married  a 
foreigner  after  the  return  from  Babylon  (Ezra 
10.43). 

Zebo'ixn,  Zebo'iim. — Hyenas  :  1.  One  of  the 
cities  of  the  plain  destroyed  with  Sodom  and 
Gomorrah.  It  had  a  king  of  its  own  (Gen.  10.19, 


ZEBUDAH] 


506         [ZECHARIAH,  THE  BOOK  OF 


14.2,  8  ;  Deut.  29.23  ;  Has.  11.8).  2.  Ravine 
east  of  Michmash,  in  Benjamin  (1  Sam.  13.18). 

Zebu'dah  (R.V.  Zebidah).— Wife  of  King 
Josiah  and  mother  of  King  Jehoiakim  (2  K. 
23.36). 

Ze'bul. — Abimelech  appointed  Zebul  ruler 
of  Shechem  during  his  absence.  The  native 
inhabitants,  Canaanites,  rose  in  rebellion.  Zebul 
sent  messengers  to  Abimelech,  who  arrived  at 
the  town  in  hot  haste,  and  suppressed  the  in- 
surrection (Judg.  9). 

Zebu'lonite. — An  appellation  of  Elon,  the 
one  judge  produced  by  the  tribe  of  Zebulun 
(Judg.  12.11, 12). 

Zebu'lun.  —  The  tenth  son  of  Jacob  (Gen. 
30.20).  When  the  tribe  of  Zebulun  left  Egypt, 
it  numbered  57,400  men  able  to  bear  arms. 
About  forty  years  later  the  number  was 
60,500.  The  portion  allotted  to  Zebulun  in 
the  Promised  Land  lay,  roughly  speaking, 
between  the  Sea  of  Tiberias  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean (Gen.  49.13).  The  reference  in  Deut. 
33.19,  "  They  shall  suck  of  the  abundance  of  the 
seas,  and  of  treasures  hid  in  the  sand,"  has  been 
taken  to  imply  that  the  tribe  would  engage  in 
trade  and  fishing  and  in  the  smelting  of  metals 
and  glass.  The  river  Belus,  the  sand  of  which 
was  well  adapted  for  the  manufacture  of  glass, 
is  in  the  territory  of  Zebulun.  The  "  going 
out "  of  the  previous  verse  is  the  outlet  of  the 
plain  of  Akka,  and  the  mountain  in  ver.  19  is  the 
sacred  height  of  Tabor,  which  Zebulun  shared 
with  Issachar.  The  "  way  of  the  sea  "  (/sat. 
9.1),  the  great  road  from  Damascus  to  the 
Mediterranean,  traversed  a  good  portion  of  the 
territory  of  Zebulun,  and  must  have  brought  its 
people  into  contact  with  the  merchants  of  the 
commodities  of  Syria,  Phoenicia,  and  Egypt. 
The  tribes  of  Zebulun  and  Naphtali  distinguished 
themselves  in  the  war  of  Barak  and  Deborah 
against  Sisera,  the  general  of  the  armies  of 
Jabin.  See,  further,  Num.  1.9,30,  26.26,27; 
Josh.  19.10 ;  Judg.  4.6, 10,  5.14, 18.  Nazareth, 
Cana,  and  Tiberias  were  all  situated  within  the 
limits  of  Zebulun  (Isai.  9.1 ;  Matt.  4.13, 15). 

Zebu'lunites,  The. — Members  of  the  tribe  of 
Zebulun  (Num.  26.27). 

Zechari'ah.  —  Jehovah  remembers  :  1.  The 
writer  of  the  Book  of  Zechariah,  which  see. 

2.  A  porter  at  the  door  of  the  tabernacle  of  the 
congregation.     He  is  described  as  one  "  counsel- 
ling with  understanding  "  (1  Ch.  9.21,  26.2,  14). 

3.  A  prince  of  Judah  in  the  reign  of  Jehoshaphat 
who  was  sent  to  instruct  the  people  in  the  Law 
(2  Ch.  17.7).    4.  A  son  of  the  high-priest,  Jehoi- 
ada.     [ZACHARIAS  1.]     It  is  he  to  whom  our 
Lord   refers    in   Matt.   23.35.     5.  An   overseer 
of  the  workmen  engaged  in  the  restoration  of 
the  Temple  (2  Ch.  34.12).    6.  A  leader  of  the 
people    associated    with    Ezra    in    the    return 
from  Babylon  and  the  reading  of  the  Law  (Ezra 
8.16;    Neh.  8.4).      7.  A   priest  who  blew  the 
trumpets  at  the  dedication  of  the  city  wall  by 
Ezra  and  Nehemiah  (Neh.  12.35,  41).    8.  Several 
other  persons   of   the  name  of   Zechariah   are 
mentioned,    but    beyond    the    mere    reference 


nothing  is  known  of  them.    [ZACHARIAH,  ZAC- 
HARIAS.] 

Zechariah,  The  Book  of.— The  authorship  of 
this  book  is,  from  its  opening  words,  referred  to 
Zechariah,  the  son  of  Berechiah  and  grandson 
of  Iddo.  He  was  of  the  priestly  tribe  (Neh. 
12.4, 16),  and  returned  from  Babylon,  when 
quite  a  youth,  with  Zerubbabel  and  Jeshua. 
He  began  to  prophesy  about  two  months  after 
Haggai  (Ezra  5.1,  6.14  ;  Hag.  1.1),  in  the  second 
year  of  Darius  Hystaspis,  and  continued  to 
prophesy  for  two  years  (Zech.  7.1).  To  his 
zealous  encouragement  and  to  that  of  Haggai 
the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple  owed  much  (Ezra 
5.1,  6.14).  The  immediate  purpose  of  his  work 
was  the  stimulus  of  the  Jews  in  the  restoration 
of  public  worship ;  but  he  had  other  objects 
more  remote  and  important.  His  prophecies 
extend  to  the  "  times  of  the  Gentiles,"  though 
the  history  of  the  chosen  people  occupies  the 
centre  of  his  predictions.  The  contents  of  the 
book  may  be  divided  into  three  sections  : — 

1.  Chaps.  1-6  contain  a  series  of  eight  visions, 
which  were  communicated  to  the  prophet  in  the 
second  year  of  Darius,  revealing  the  dispensations 
of  God's  providence  relative  both  to  the  Jews 
and  to  the  nations  which  had  oppressed  them. 

2.  Chaps.   7,  8  contain  prophecies  of  pros- 
perity and  enlargement  to  Jerusalem ;    inter- 
mixed with  warnings  and  exhortations. 

3.  The  remaining  six  chapters  contain  a  series 
of  predictions,  unfolding  the  future  history  of 
the  people  of  God  from  that  period  to  the  end 
of   the  world ;    with  which  are  mingled  many 
prophecies  relating  to  the  person,  character,  and 
work  of  the  Messiah,  the  promulgation  of  the 
gospel,  the  calling  of  the  Gentiles,  and  the  final 
glory  and  blessedness  of  the  Church  of  God, 
uniting    Jew   and    Gentile    in   one    holy  com- 
munity under  their  great  High  Priest  and  King 
(9-14). 

These  six  chapters  differ  considerably  in  style 
from  the  preceding  part  of  the  Book,  and  have 
by  many  been  referred  to  some  other  author, 
either  earlier  or  later  than  Zechariah.  The  first 
eight  chapters  contain  a  succession  of  prophecies 
and  visions,  in  which  the  name  of  Zechariah, 
and  the  date  of  the  message,  are  given  with 
precision;  the  last  six  (9-14)  comprise  a 
series  of  prophetic  sections  without  name 
or  date.  The  prophecies,  again,  in  the  former 
part,  have  a  definite  historic  background  in  the 
condition  of  the  Jewish  people  after  the  Cap- 
tivity ;  those  of  the  second  portion  have  no  such 
definite  standing-point,  but  are  general  in  their 
character,  and  for  the  most  part  point  to  a  dis- 
tant future.  Some  critics  attribute  these  latter 
sections  to  a  prophet  who  lived  before  the  Exile. 
It  is  urged  that  Assyria  and  Egypt  are  men- 
tioned as  existing  world-powers  (10.10,  11). 
Judah  and  Ephraim  are  spoken  of  as  still  dis- 
tinct (10.6,  7),  and  idolatry  is  still  one  of  the  chief 
national  sins  (13.1-6) ;  while  the  mourning  for 
King  Josiah  is  referred  to  in  language  appro- 
priate to  a  recent  event  (12.11).  It  is  remark- 
able that  in  Matthew  a  passage  from  this  section 


ZECHER] 


507 


[ZENAN 


(11.12, 13)  is  quoted  as  from  Jeremiah  (Matt. 
27.9). 

There  are  considerations,  however,  of  great 
weight  in  favour  of  the  post-exilian  date.  The 
reference  of  9.13  to  "  the  Greeks  "  would  have 
been  scarcely  intelligible  at  an  earlier  period  ; 
the  House  of  David  is  described  (12.7, 12)  in 
terms  which  would  hardly  have  been  employed 
in  the  days  of  the  still  existing  monarchy ;  and 
the  many  apparent  citations  in  this  portion  of 
the  Book  from  prophets  before  and  during  the 
Captivity  seem  to  make  it  clear  that  the  author 
was  later  than  they.  For  it  is  more  reasonable 
to  suppose  that  one  prophet  quoted  from  them 
than  that  they  all  quoted  from  him.  Cf.  9.2 
with  Ezek.  28.3;  9.5  with  Zeph.  2.4;  9.11  with 
Isai.  51.14;  9.12  with  /sat.  49.9,  61.7  ;  10.3  with 
Ezek.  34.17  ;  11.4  with  Ezek.  34.4 ;  11.3  with  Jer. 
12.5 ;  13.8,  9  with  Ezek.  5.12 ;  14.8  with  Ezek. 
47.1-12;  14.10,11  with  Jer.  31.38-40;  14.16-19 
with  Isai.  66.23  and  60.12 ;  14.20,  21  with  Ezek. 

43.12,  44.9. 

Some  of  the  N.T.  quotations  from  Zechariah 
are  intimately  associated  with  the  work  of  our 
Lord  :  Zech.  9.9,  the  entrance  of  the  King  into 
Jerusalem  (Matt.  21.5  ;  John  12.14, 15) ;  Zech. 

11.13,  the  thirty  pieces  of  silver  (Matt.  27.9, 10) ; 
Zech.  12.10,  looking  to  the  pierced  One  (John 
19.37  ;  Rev.  1.7);  Zech.  13.9,  the  smitten  Shep- 
herd (Matt.  26.31 ;  Mk.  14.27) ;  Zech.  14.11,  no 
more  curse  (Rev.  22.3). 

Zecher.— [ZACHER.] 

Ze'dad. — A  town  in  northern  boundary  of 
Palestine  (Num.  34.8  ;  Ezek.  47.15). 

Zedeki'ah— Righteousness  of  Jehovah  :  1.  The 
last  king  of  Judah  before  the  Captivity.  When 
Nebuchadnezzar  took  Jerusalem,  he  carried 
King  Jeconiah  (Jehoiachin)  to  Babylon,  with  his 
wives,  children,  officers,  and  the  best  artificers 
in  Judaea,  and  put  in  his  place  his  uncle, 
Mattaniah,  whose  name  he  changed  to  Zedekiah, 
and  made  him  take  an  oath  of  allegiance. 
Zedekiah  did  evil  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord.  In 
the  ninth  year  of  his  reign  he  revolted  against 
Nebuchadnezzar,  who  thereupon  marched  an 
army  against  Jerusalem.  Jeremiah  advised 
Zedekiah  to  surrender,  but  he  refused.  When 
the  city  was  captured,  Zedekiah  endeavoured 
to  escape,  but  was  captured  in  the  plain  of 
Jericho.  He  was  brought  before  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, who  was  then  at  Riblah  in  Syria,  his 
children  were  slain  before  his  face,  and  then  his 
own  eyes  were  put  out.  Loaded  with  chains  of 
brass,  he  was  carried  to  Babylon.  In  the  case 
of  Zedekiah  two  predictions  that  seemed  contra- 
dictory were  reconciled.  The  former  of  these 
(Jer.  32.4)  states  that  Zedekiah  shall  "  speak 
with  the  king  of  Babylon  mouth  to  mouth, 
and  his  eyes  shall  behold  his  eyes " ;  the 
latter  (Ezek.  12.13),  that  he  should  be  brought 
to  Babylon,  "  yet  shall  he  not  see  it,  though  he 
shall  die  there."  The  kingdom  of  Judah  was 
now  at  an  end. 

2.  A  prophet  of  Baal  at  the  court  of  Ahab. 
When  rebuked  by  Micaiah,  a  prophet  of  Jehovah, 
for  his  false  prediction,  he  smote  the  latter  on 


the  cheek.  The  death  of  Ahab  at  Ramoth- 
gilead  confirmed  the  prophecy  of  Micaiah  (1  K. 
22  ;  2  Ch.  18).  3.  A  false  prophet  in  Babylon 
among  the  captives  who  were  taken  with 
Jeconiah  (Jer.  29.21,  22).  Jeremiah  foretells 
his  terrible  fate.  4.  A  prince  of  Judah  in  the 
days  of  Jehoiakim  (Jer.  36.12).  5.  One  who 
subscribed  to  the  Covenant,  and  is  mentioned 
immediately  after  the  Governor,  but  otherwise 
unknown.  He  may  have  been  a  Persian  official, 
or  one  of  the  royal  line  of  Israel.  He  is  called 
Zidkijah  in  the  A.V.  (Neh.  10.1). 

Ze'eb. — Wolf :  one  of  the  two  princes  of 
Midian  in  the  great  invasion  of  Israel,  which 
Gideon  repelled.  Zeeb  and  Oreb  (raven)  were 
slain  (Judg.  7.25,  8.3  ;  Ps.  83.11). 

Ze'lah. — Rock :  a  town  of  Benjamin,  the 
home  and  burial-place  of  Kish,  Saul,  and  his  sons 
( Josh.  18.28  ;  2  Sam.  21.13, 14). 

Ze'lek. — An  Ammonite,  one  of  David's  guard 
(2  Sam.  23.37  ;  1  Ch.  11.39). 

Zelophe'had.  —  The  interest  attaching  to 
Zelophehad  is  that  on  his  death  without  male 
heirs  his  five  daughters  came  before  Moses 
and  Eleazar  to  claim  the  inheritance  of  their 
father  in  the  tribe  of  Manasseh.  This  case  led 
to  the  promulgation  of  a  general  law  in  tha 
sense  which  these  daughters  desired,  which  again 
led  to  a  further  enactment  that  such  heiresses 
should  not  marry  out  of  their  own  tribe  (Num. 
26.33,  27.1-11,  36 ;  Josh.  17.3,  4). 

Zelo'tes. — The  epithet  given  to  the  lesser 
Apostle  Simon,  perhaps  to  distinguish  him  from 
Simon  Peter  (Lk.  6.15;  Acts  1.13;  R.V.,  in  both 
places,  "  Simon  the  Zealot").  The  Zealots  were 
a  fanatical  sect,  which  revolted  against  Rome 
under  Judas  of  Galilee  in  A.D.  6.  To  this  body, 
it  is  to  be  presumed,  Simon  had  belonged.  In 
the  lists  of  Matthew  (10.4)  and  Mark  (3.18)  he 
is  called  the  Cananaean  (R.V.),  the  Aramaic 
equivalent  for  the  Greek  Zelotes.  [CANAANITK.] 

Zel'zah. — In  1  Sam.  10.2  Rachel's  tomb  is  said 
to  be  "  in  the  border  of  Benjamin  at  Zelzah." 
No  such  place  is  known.  The  LXX  refers  it 
to  Saul's  two  men,  and  translates,  "  bounding 
along  greatly,"  which  points  to  a  corrupt  text. 

Zemara'im. — 1.  Now  Es-Sumrah,  two  ruins, 
4  miles  north  of  Jericho.  Town  of  Benjamin 
(Josh.  18.22).  2.  An  eminence  among  the 
highlands  of  Ephraim  (2  Ch.  13.4),  from  the  top 
of  which  Abijah  delivered  an  address  to  Jero- 
boam and  the  Israelitish  army. 

Ze'marite. — A  tribe  mentioned  in  Gen.  10.18 
and  1  Ch  1.16.  The  Zemarite  is  mentioned 
among  the  sons  of  Canaan.  Zemar,  writes  Pro- 
fessor Sayce,  was  an  inland  town  of  Southern 
Phoenicia.  It  was  the  seat  of  an  Egyptian 
governor  in  the  time  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty, 
when  Palestine  and  Syria  were  subject  to  Egypt. 
Subsequently  it  lost  its  importance,  like  the 
other  Phoenician  towns  which  were  not  situated 
on  the  coast. 

Zemi'ra. — Grandson  of  Benjamin  (1  Ch.  7.8). 

Ze'nan. — A  town  in  lowland  of  Judah,  east  of 
Ashkelon  (Josh.  15.37);  probably  the  same  as 
Zaanan  (Mic.  1.11). 


ZENAS] 


508 


[ZEREDA 


Ze'nas. — Zenas,  "  the  lawyer,"  is,  along  with 
Apollos,  commended  by  Paul  to  the  good 
offices  of  Titus  and  the  Cretan  brethren  (Tit. 
3.13).  He  was  either  a  Roman  jurisconsult  or 
a  doctor  of  the  Jewish  law. 

Zephani'ah.— 1.  The  author  of  the  Book  of 
Zephaniah,  which  see.  2.  An  ancestor  of 
Samuel  and  Heman  (1  Ch.  6.36).  3.  The  second 
priest  in  the  reign  of  Zedekiah.  Shemaiah, 
writing  from  Babylon,  requested  him  to  punish 
Jeremiah,  presumably  on  the  ground  that  the 
latter  was  a  false  pretender  to  prophecy. 
Zephaniah  was  twice  sent  by  the  king  to 
Jeremiah,  to  inquire  as  to  the  result  of  the 
siege,  and  to  implore  the  prophet  to  intercede 
for  the  people.  On  the  capture  of  the  city, 
Zephaniah  was  taken,  with  others,  to  Riblah, 
and  there  slain  (2  K.  25.18 ;  Jer.  21.1,  29.25,  29, 
37.3,  52.24).  4.  Father  of  Josiah  (Zech.  6.10). 

Zephaniah,  The  Book  of. — The  author  of  this 
book  may  have  been  a  great-great-grandson  of 
King  Hezekiah  (1.1,  R.V.).  He  flourished  in 
the  reign  of  King  Josiah  (1.1),  and  apparently 
before  Josiah  had  undertaken  the  reformation 
associated  with  his  name.  The  purpose  of  the 
prophet  was  to  warn  the  people  against  the 
results  of  sin,  and  so  to  prepare  the  way  for 
reform.  The  contents  of  the  book  may  be 
summarised  thus  : — 

Chap.  1  contains  a  general  denunciation  of 
vengeance  against  Judah  and  those  who  prac- 
tised idolatrous  rites ;  Baal,  his  black -robed 
priests  (Chemarim),  and  Malcham  (Moloch)  being 
all  condemned  ;  and  declares  "  the  great  day  of 
trouble  and  distress"  to  be  at  hand  (1.14, 15). 
There  is  an  evident  reference  here  to  the  invasion 
of  the  Scythians,  which  at  this  time  filled 
the  land  with  consternation.  The  surrounding 
countries  were  ravaged,  especially  Philistia,  but 
there  was  hope  that  Jerusalem  might  be  spared 
(12).  This  hope  was  fulfilled. 

Chap.  2  predicts  the  judgments  in  connexion' 
with  this  great  invasion,  about  to  fall  on  the  Philis- 
tines, those  especially  of  the  sea-coasts  (Chere- 
thites),  theMoabites,  Ammonites,  and  Ethiopians ; 
and  describes  in  wonderfully  accurate  terms  the 
desolation  of  Nineveh  :  prophecies  which  began 
to  be  accomplished  in  the  conquests  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar. The  result  was  to  be  the  reverence 
paid  to  Jehovah  when  "  the  gods  of  the  earth  " 
were  thus  discredited.  The  heathen  should 
worship  Him  "  every  one  from  his  place  "  (2.11), 
while  in  the  latter  part  of  the  prophecy  they 
are  described  as  bringing  their  offerings  to 
Him  (3.10). 

Chap.  3  arraigns  Jerusalem,  rebukes  her  sins, 
and  concludes  with  promises  of  her  future 
restoration,  of  the  gathering  of  the  nations  into 
the  Church  of  God,  and  of  the  happy  state  of  the 
people  of  Jehovah  in  the  latter  days. 

Keith  has  noticed  the  exactitude  with  which 
Zephaniah,  Amos,  and  Zechariah  foretell  the 
destinies  of  the  four  chief  cities  of  Philistia — 
Gaza,  Ashkelon,  Ashdod,  and  Ekron.  Compar- 
ing Amos  1.6,  7,  8  ;  Zech.  9.5;  and  Zeph.  2.4-6, 
it  will  be  seen  that  of  Gaza  it  is  declared  that 


baldness  shall  come  upon  it,  and  that  it  should 
be  bereaved  of  its  king.  At  present,  amid 
ruins  of  white  marble  indicating  its  former 
magnificence,  a  few  villages  of  dry  mud  are  the 
only  abode  of  its  inhabitants.  Of  Ashkelon  and 
Ashdod  it  is  said  that  both  shall  be  "  without 
inhabitants "  ;  and  so  they  are.  Gaza  is  in- 
habited ;  Ashkelon  and  Ashdod  are  nflt,  though 
their  ruins  remain.  Different  from  the  destiny 
of  each  was  to  be  the  end  of  Ekron :  "  It  shall 
be  rooted  up."  Now  its  very  name  is  lost,  nor 
is  the  spot  known  on  which  it  stood.  .  .  . 
Clearly,  prophecy  and  providence — predictions 
and  the  events  that  fulfil  them — are  guided  by 
the  same  hand. 

Ze'phath. — A  Canaanite  town  taken  by  Judah 
and  Simeon ;  also  called  Hormah  (Judg.  1.17 ; 
cf.  Num.  14.45). 

Zepha'thah. — A  valley,  by  Mareshah,  site  of 
battle  between  Asa  and  Zerah  the  Ethiopian 
(2  Ch.  14.10).  The  name  and  the  vicinity  are 
doubtful. 

Ze'phi,  Ze'pho. — A  grandson  of  Esau  and 
"  duke  "  of  Edom  (Gen.  36.11  ;  1  Ch.  1.36). 

Ze'phon. — A  son  of  Gad,  and  ancestor  of  the 
Zephonites  (Num.  26.15).  [ZAPHON,  ZIPHION.] 

Zer. — A  fortified  town  of  Naphtali  (Josh. 
19.35),  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  south-west 
side  of  the  Lake  of  Gennesareth. 

Ze'rah. — 1.  A  grandson  of  Esau,  and  one  of 
the  "  dukes  "  of  Edom  (Gen.  36.13, 17  ;  1  Ch. 
1.37).  2.  (A.V.  Zara,  Zarah).  The  twin  son 
with  his  elder  brother  Pharez  of  Judah  and 
Tamar  (Gen.  38.30;  1  Ch.  2.6;  Matt.  1.3). 
His  descendants  were  called  Zarhites,  Ezrahites, 
and  Izrahites,  and  continued  down  to  the  time 
of  Zerubbabel  (Num.  26.20;  1  K.  4.31; 
1  Ch.  9.6,  27.8, 11 ;  Neh.  11.24).  3.  A  son  of 
Simeon  (1  Ch.  4.24) ;  Zohar  in  Gen.  46.10.  4.  A 
Gershonite  (1  Ch.  6.21).  5.  An  Ethiopian  (a 
man  of  Gush),  who  invaded  Judah,  and  was 
defeated  by  King  Asa.  As  Gush  (Gen.  10.7)  was 
the  ancestor  of  certain  Arabian  tribes,  it  is  pos- 
sible that  Zerah  was  not  a  king  of  Ethiopia, 
but  only  a  leader -of  Arabians.  If  so,  the  word 
Zerah  may  represent  Dhirrih  (Zirrih),  a  title  of 
princes  of  Saba  in  Arabia.  Zerah,  who  is  said 
to  have  had  an  army  of  a  million  men,  came 
unopposed  out  of  Egypt  as  far  as  Mareshah,  on 
the  west  of  the  hill-country  of  Judah.  Here  he 
was  met  in  the  Valley  of  Zephathah  by  Asa, 
and  completely  defeated,  being  pursued  as  far 
as  Gerar,  in  the  angle  of  Arabia  that  divides 
Egypt  and  Palestine  (2  Ch.  14.9-15  . 

Zerah'iah. — 1.  An  ancestor  of  Ezra  the  scribe 
(1  Ch.  6.6,51;  Ezra  7.4).  2.  The  father  of 
Elihoenai  (Ezra  8.4). 

Ze'red. — A  brook  by  the  upper  part  of  which 
the  Israelites  encamped  before  they  passed  over 
into  the  land  of  the  Amorites  (Num.  21.12  ; 
Deut.  2.13, 14) ;  identified  conjecturally  with  the 
Wady  el-Hesi,  which  enters  the  Dead  Sea  near 
the  south-east  corner,  or,  better,  with  the  Wady 
Kerak,  rather  more  north. 

Zere'da  (R.V.  Zere'dah).—  The  birthplace  of 
Jeroboam  (1  K.  11.26);  perhaps  Suodah. 


ZEREDATHAH] 


509 


[ZIDON 


Zereda'thah  (R.V.  Zeredah).—  (2  Ch.  4.17). 
The  same  as  ZARETAN. 

Zere'rah,  Zere'rath.  —  A  district  through 
which  the  Midianites  fled  from  Gideon  (Judg. 
7.22);  perhaps  we  should  read  Zeredah.  [ZA- 


Ze'resh. —  The  wife  of  Haman,  who  advised 
him  to  prepare  the  gallows  for  Mordecai.  When, 
however,  she  learned  that  Mordecai  was  a  Jew, 
she  predicted  that  her  husband  would  surely  fall 
before  him  (Esth.  5.10,  14,  6.13). 

Ze'reth.—  A  son  of  Ashur  (1  Ch.  4.7). 

Ze'reth-sha'har.  —  [ZARETH-SHAHAB.] 

Ze'ri.  —  One  set  apart  for  the  sacred  services 
under  David  (1  Ch.  25.3)  ;  in  1  Ch.  25.11,  Izri. 

Ze'ror.  —  An  ancestor  of  King  Saul  (1  Sam.  9.1). 

Zeru'ah.  —  The  mother  of  Jeroboam,  the  first 
king  of  the  ten  tribes  of  Israel  (1  K.  11.26). 

Zerub'babel.  —  The  head  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah,  who  led  back  the  Return  from  the 
Babylonish  captivity  in  the  first  year  of  Cyrus, 
and  held  the  title  of  the  Tirshatha.  He  received 
back,  before  beginning  his  journey,  the  sacred 
vessels  which  Nebuchadnezzar  had  brought 
from  the  Temple.  The  exiles,  having  received 
presents  of  silver,  gold,  goods,  and  beasts,  went 
forth  with  Zerubbabel  at  their  head,  accom- 
panied by  Jeshua  the  high-priest,  priests, 
Levites,  and  heads  of  houses.  The  altar  was 
built  on  the  old  site,  and  the  daily  sacrifice 
restored.  The  great  work  of  Zerubbabel, 
however,  was  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple. 
Cyrus  made  him  grants  of  timber,  stone,  and 
money,  and  the  foundation  stone  was  laid  with 
much  pomp  and  religious  ceremony.  Again 
was  heard  the  same  Psalm  of  praise  for  God's 
unfailing  mercy  to  Israel  as  was  sung  when 
Solomon  dedicated  his  Temple.  But  opposition 
and  obstacles  of  various  sorts  arose.  The 
Samaritans  claimed  a  share  in  the  work,  and 
when  they  were  refused  sought  to  hinder  it. 
Further,  the  first  enthusiasm  died  away,  so  that 
for  sixteen  years  the  work  ceased.  In  the 
meantime  the  people  were  building  costly 
houses  for  themselves.  But  in  the  second  year 
of  Darius  the  people  were  stirred  up  by  the 
prophetic  utterances  of  Haggai  and  Zechariah. 
Zerubbabel,  Jeshua,  and  all  the  people  threw 
themselves  into  the  work  with  passionate 
earnestness,  an<l  Zerubbabel  was  assured  of 
the  Lord's  protection  (Hag.  2.33).  In  the  sixth 
year  of  Darius  the  Temple  was  finished,  and  was 
dedicated  with  much  rejoicing.  Zerubbabel, 
further,  restored  the  courses  of  priests  and 
Levites,  and  made  provision  for  their  mainten- 
ance. He  also  registered  the  returned  exiles 
according  to  their  genealogies  (1  Ch.  3.19  ;  Ezra 
2,  3,  4,  5  ;  Neh.  7.7,  12.1,  47  ;  Hag.  1  and  2  ; 
Zech  4.6-10). 

Zeruiah.  —  A  sister  of  David,  and  the  mother 
of  Abishai,  Joab,  and  Asahel,  the  three  most 
eminent  warriors  of  David's  army  (1  Sam.  26.6  ; 
2  Sam.  2.13  ;  1  K.  1.7  ;  1  Ch.  2.16).  There  is 
no  mention  of  her  husband. 

Ze'tham.  —  A  descendant  of  Laadan  (1  Ch. 
23.8). 


Ze'than.— A  Benjamite  (1  Ch.  7.10). 

Ze'thar.— A  chamberlain  of  Ahasuerus  (Esth. 
1.10). 

Zi'a.— A  Gadite  (1  Ch.  5.13). 

Zi'ba. — Originally  a  slave  of  King  Saul,  who 
obtained  his  liberty,  and  founded  a  family, 
having  fifteen  sons  and  twenty  slaves  (2  Sam. 
9.2-11).  Ziba  reported  to  David  the  existence 
of  Mephibosheth,  the  lame  son  of  Jonathan. 
David  showed  kindness  to  Mephibosheth,  who 
ate  at  his  table  ;  but  ordered  that  Ziba,  his 
sons  and  servants,  should  till,  for  the  benefit 
of  Mephibosheth,  the  land  that  had  been  restored 
to  him.  This  looks  like  the  reduction  of  Ziba 
from  the  position  of  independent  landholder  to 
that  of  mere  dependant.  By  falsely  accusing 
Mephibosheth  of  treachery  to  David  on  the 
occasion  of  Absalom's  rebellion,  Ziba  secured 
half  of  the  inheritance  (2  Sam.  16.1-4,  19.17-29). 

Zi'beon.— The  grandfather  of  Esau's  wife, 
Aholibamah  (Gen.  36.2). 

Zib'ia.— A  Benjamite  (1  Ch.  8.9). 

Zib'iah.— The  mother  of  King  Joash  (2  K. 
12.1 ;  2  Ch.  24.1). 

Zich'ri.  —  An  Ephraimite  warrior  in  the 
army  of  Pekah.  In  the  battle  which  was  so 
disastrous  to  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  Maaseiah, 
the  king's  son,  Azrikam,  the  prefect  of  the 
palace,  and  Elkanah,  who  was  next  to  the  king, 
fell  by  the  hand  of  Zichri  (2  Ch.  28.7).  Other 
persons  of  that  name  are  mentioned  in  Ex. 
6.21;  1  Ch.  8.19,23,27,  9.15,  26.25,  27.16; 
2  Ch.  17.16,  23.1 ;  Neh.  11.9,  12.17. 

Zid'dim. — Now,  perhaps,  Hattin,  6  miles 
north-west  of  Tiberias ;  fortified  town  of 
Naphtali  (Josh.  19.35). 

Zidki'jah.— [ZEDEKIAH  5.] 

Zi'don,  or  Si'don.  —  Fishery  :  now  Saida. 
Ancient  wealthy  Phoenician  city  on  a  small 
promontory  which  juts  out  into  the  Mediter- 
ranean ;  in  earliest  times  more  important  than 
Tyre  (Josh.  11.8, 19.28 ;  Judg.  18.7).  An  ancient 
historian  asserts  that  the  inhabitants  of  Sidon 
founded  Tyre ;  but  there  is  no  evidence  for  this, 
unless  it  be  the  fact  that  the  Tyrians  are  called 
Sidonians,  but  the  Sidonians  are  never  called 
Tyrians.  At  any  rate,  this  circumstance  tends 
to  show  that  in  early  times  Sidon  was  the  more 
influential  city.  Further,  the  word  Sidonians 
is  used  as  the  generic  name  of  the  Phoenicians 
or  Canaanites  (Josh.  13.6  ;  Judg.  18.7,  28).  In 
the  last  passage  Tyre  would  certainly  have  been 
mentioned  if  it  had  been  at  all  of  like  im- 
portance, for  it  was  of  the  same  religion  and 
almost  20  miles  nearer.  But  in  Bible  times 
generally  Sidon  was  subordinate  to  Tyre. 
Sidon  was  in  the  border  of  Zebulun;  allotted 
to  Asher,  occupied,  but  inhabitants  not  ex- 
pelled, and  their  idolatry  a  snare  to  the 
Israelites  (Gen.  49.13  ;  Josh.  13.6,  19.28;  Judg. 
1.31,  10.6;  2  Sam.  24.6;  1  K.  16.31,32).  Like 
Tyre,  which  is  less  than  20  miles  to  the  south, 
Sidon  was  closely  allied  with  Israelites.  One  of 
its  kings  was  Ethbaal,  father  of  Jezebel,  Ahab's 
wife  (1  K.  16.31) ;  it  was  denounced  by  prophets 
(Jsai.  23 ;  Jer.  25.22, 27.3,  47.4  ;  Ezek.  28.21,  22; 


ZIDONIANS,  SIDONIANS] 


510 


[ZOAN 


Joel  3.4;  Zech.  9.2).  The  neighbourhood  of 
Sidon,  about  50  miles  from  Nazareth,  was 
visited  by  our  Lord  (Matt.  15.21 ;  Mk.  7.24-31) ; 
its  inhabitants  resorted  to  Him  (Mk.  3.8;  Lk. 
6.17);  subject  to  Herod's  rule  (Acts  12.20); 
residence  of  Christian  disciples  (Acts  27.3). 

Zidonians,  Sidonians.  —  The  inhabitants  of 
Zidon  (Judg.  10.12  ;  1  K.  11.1 ;  2  K.  23.13  ; 
1  Ch.  22.4;  Ezek.  32.30).  They  hewed  cedar 
trees  for  David  and  Solomon.  They  worshipped 
Ashtoreth  as  their  goddess,  as  well  as  the  sun- 
god  Baal.  Zidonian  women  were  in  Solomon's 
harem. 

Zi!  (R.V.  Ziv).— Blossom :  the  name  of  the 
second  Jewish  month  (the  flower  month),  occur- 
ring from  about  the  middle  of  April  to  the 
middle  of  May  (1  K.  6.1,  37). 

Zi'ha. — The  children  of  Ziha  were  a  family 
of  Nethinim  who  returned  with  Zerubbabel 
(Ezra  2.43  ;  Neh.  7.46,  11.21). 

Zik'lag.— A  border  town  in  extreme  south  of 
Judah  (Josh.  19.5),  allotted  to  Simeon;  in 
possession  of  the  Philistines,  but  given  by 
Achish,  king  of  Gath,  to  David.  There  he 
received  the  news  of  Saul's  death.  It  was  re- 
built and  occupied  after  the  Captivity  (Josh. 
15.31,  19.5  ;  1  Sam.  27.6,  30.1, 14, 26  ;  2  Sam. 
1.1,  4.10  ;  1  Ch.  4.30,  12.1, 20  ;  Neh.  11.28). 

Zil'lah. — One  of  the  two  wives  of  Lamech 
the  Cainite.  To  them  Lamech  addressed  his 
song.  She  was  the  mother  of  Tubal-cain  and 
Naamah  (Gen.  4.19,  22,  23). 

Zil'lethai.— [ZiLTHAi.] 

Zil'pah.— A  Syrian  given  by  Laban  to  bis 
daughter  Leah  as  an  attendant,  and  by  Leah 
to  Jacob  as  a  concubine.  She  became  the 
mother  of  Gad  and  Asher  (Gen.  29.24,  30.9-13). 

Zil'thai,  Zil'lethai.— 1.  A  Benjamite  (1  Ch. 
8.20).  2.  A  captain  of  Manasseh  who  joined 
David  in  Ziklag  (1  Ch.  12.20). 

Zim'mah. — The  name  of  a  family  of  Ger- 
shonite Levites  (1  Ch.  6.20,  42 ;  2  Ch.  29.12). 

Zim'ran.— A  son  of  Abraham  by  Keturah 
(Gen.  25.2  ;  1  Ch.  1.32). 

Zim'ri. — 1.  A  chief  man  in  the  tribe  of 
Simeon  who  was  slain,  with  the  Midianitish 
princess  Cozbi,  by  Phinehas,  the  son  of  Aaron 
(Num.  25.14).  At  the  time  the  Israelites  were 
suffering  from  plagues  for  their  impure  worship 
of  Baal-peor.  Zimri  chose  this  juncture  to  intro- 
duce Cozbi  into  the  presence  of  Moses  and  the 
whole  congregation.  2.  A  king  of  the  northern 
kingdom  of  Israel  who  ruled  only  seven  days. 
He  usurped  the  throne  by  the  murder  of  King 
Elah,  but  the  army  proclaimed  their  general, 
Omri,  king.  Omri  immediately  marched  against 
Tirzah,  the  capital.  Zimri  retreated  into  the 
innermost  part  of  the  palace,  set  it  on  fire,  and 
perished  in  the  flames  (1  K.  16.9-20).  3.  A 
descendant  of  Judah  (1  Ch.  2.6).  4.  A  descend- 
ant of  Saul  (1  Ch.  8.36,  9.42).  5.  A  tribe  of  the 
sons  of  the  East  (Jer.  25.25). 

Zin. — A  wilderness  south  of  Palestine,  between 
et-Tlh  on  the  west  and  the  Arabah  on  the  east ; 
boundary  undetermined ;  perhaps  it  included 
part  of  the  Wilderness  of  Paran  (Num.  13.21, 


20.1, 33.36,  34.3, 4 ;  Deut.  32.51 ;  Josh.  15.1,  3). 
Kadesh  lay  in  the  Wilderness  of  Zin,  and  here 
also  Idumaea  was  conterminous  with  Judah ; 
since  Kadesh  was  a  city  on  the  border  of  Edom 
(Num.  27.14).  [WANDERINGS.] 

Zi'na.— A  Gershonite  (1  Ch.  23.10;  in  ver.  11, 
Zizah). 

Zi'on. — (2  5am.  5.7,  etc.).  The  stronghold 
of  JERUSALEM. 

Zi'or. — Now  Si'alr;  a  town  in  mountains  of 
Judah  (Josh.  ]5.54). 

Ziph. — 1.  A  town  in  south  of  Judah  (Josh. 
15.24).  2.  (Now  Tele  Zif,  round  eminence  4  miles 
south-east  of  Hebron).  A  town  in  highland  of 
Judah,  with  neighbouring  waste  pasture  land  ; 
scene  of  David's  adventures  when  fleeing  from 
Saul  (Josh.  15.55  ;  1  Sam.  23.14,  15,  24,  26.2 ; 
2  Ch.  11.8).  3.  A  son  of  Jehaleleel  (1  Ch. 
4.16). 

Zi'phah.— A  son  of  Jehaleleel  (1  Ch.  4.16). 

Zi'phims.— The  inhabitants  of  Ziph  2.    Title 

Of   PS.   54.       [ZlPHITES.] 

Ziph'ion.— A  son  of  Gad  (Gen.  46.16) ;  called 
Zephon  in  Num.  26.15.  [ZAPHON.] 

Ziph'ites,  The.— The  inhabitants  of  Ziph  2 
(1  Sam.  23.19,  26.1). 

Ziph'ron. — A  place  in  northern  boundary  of 
the  Promised  Land  (Num.  34.9).  Perhaps  the 
same  as  Sibraim. 

Zip'por.— Bird  :  the  father  of  Balak  (Num. 
22.2,  4, 10, 16,  23.18  ;  Josh.  24.9  ;  Judg.  11.25). 

Zippo'rah. — Bird  :  the  daughter  of  Reuel  or 
Jethro,  the  priest  of  Midian,  wife  of  Moses,  and 
mother  of  his  two  sons,  Gershom  and  Eliezer 
(Ex.  2.21,  4.25,  18.2). 

Zith'ri  (R.V.  Sithii).— A  son  of  Uzziel  (Ex. 
6.22). 

Ziv.— [Zrp.] 

Ziz. — The  ascent  above  En-gedi,  now  the 
Wady  Husasah,  by  which  the  Moabites  and 
Ammonites  made  their  way  from  the  Dead  Sea 
to  the  Wilderness  of  Judah,  near  Tekoa  (2  Ch. 
20.16).  The  same  route  is  taken  by  Arabs  in 
their  marauding  expeditions  at  the  present  day. 
The  tableland  immediately  above  the  pass  is  still 
called  el-Husasah— Haz-ziz. 

Ziza.— 1.  A  Simeonite  (1  Ch.  4.37).  2.  A 
grandson  of  Solomon  (2  Ch.  11.20). 

Zizah.— A  Gershonite  (1  Ch.  23.11;  in  ver. 
10,  Zina). 

Zo'an. — The  modern  San,  and  the  classical 
Tanis.  It  is  in  an  extensive  plain,  on  the  east 
of  a  former  eastern  branch  of  the  Nile,  near  its 
mouth.  Zoan  was  a  very  ancient  city  of  Lower 
Egypt,  and  one  of  the  principal  residences  of  the 
Pharaohs ;  built  or,  at  least,  fortified  by  the 
Shepherd  Kings,  who  invaded  and  subdued 
Egypt  somewhere  about  2000  B.C.  After 
reigning  500  years,  they  were  gradually  expelled 
from  the  country,  until  Zoan  was  their  last 
remaining  fortress.  About  1500  B.C.  they  were 
compelled  to  capitulate.  During  the  dynasty 
of  the  Shepherd  Kings  there  was  built  at  Zoan 
a  temple  to  Set,  the  Egyptian  Baal.  Rameses 
ii.,  who  is  believed  to  have  belonged  to  that 
dynasty,  embellished  this  temple,  and  was  fol- 


ZOAR] 


511 


[ZUZIMS 


lowed  by  his  son  Menemptah.  It  is  within  that 
period,  from  the  Shepherd  invasion  to  the  reign  of 
Menemptah,  that  the  sojourn  and  exodus  of  the 
Israelites  are  placed.  It  is  conjectured  that 
the  earlier  kings  of  the  Shepherd  dynasty  were 
in  effective  possession  both  of  Memphis  and 
Zoan,  but  that  the  Pharaohs  of  the  oppression 
and  exodus  had  their  seat  of  authority  only 
in  Zoan.  The  doom  of  Zoan  is  foretold  in 
Ezek.  30.14.  "  One  of  the  principal  capitals 
and  royal  abodes  of  the  Pharaohs  is  now  the 
habitation  of  fishermen,  the  resort  of  wild 
beasts,  and  infested  with  reptiles  and  malignant 
fevers."  The  remains  of  the  ancient  temple 
prove  its  former  grandeur  (Num.  13.22 ;  Ps. 
78.12,  43  ;  Isai.  19.11, 13,  30.4).  [EGYPT.] 

Zo'ar. — Small :  probably  to  be  identified 
with  Tell  Esh-Shaghur,  behind  which  the 
ground  rises  steeply  for  2  or  3  miles,  and  is 
pierced  with  many  caves.  One  of  the  cities  of 
the  plain,  anciently  called  Bela  (Gen.  14.2,  8), 
spared  at  the  overthrow  of  Sodom  and 
Gomorrah  at  the  intercession  of  Lot,  who  found 
shelter  there.  It  had  a  king  of  its  own.  It  is 
mentioned  in  the  account  of  the  death  of  Moses 
as  one  of  the  landmarks  which  bounded  his 
view  from  Pisgah  (Gen.  13.10,  19.22,23,30; 
Deut.  34.3  ;  Isai.  15.5  ;  Jer.  48.34). 

Zo'ba,  Zo'bah. — A  small  Syrian  kingdom, 
extending  north  of  Damascus,  and  east  of 
Hamath,  towards  the  Euphrates.  Hostile  to 
Saul,  David,  and  Solomon ;  home  of  one  of 
David's  mighty  men  (1  Sam.  14.47  ;  2  Sam. 
8.3-12,  10.6-8,  23.36 ;  1  K.  11.23 ;  1  Ch.  18.3-9, 
19.6 ;  title  of  Ps.  60).  The  wealth  of  Zobah  is 
very  apparent  in  the  narrative  of  David's  first 
campaign  against  it.  Several  of  the  officers  of 
the  enemy  carried  "  shields  of  gold,"  and  the 
cities  which  David  took  yielded  him  "  exceeding 
much  brass."  At  a  later  period,  Joab  and  David 
successively  defeated  Zobah  with  very  heavy  loss. 
The  petty  princes  hitherto  tributary  to  the  small 
Syrian  kingdom  transferred  their  allegiance  to  the 
king  of  Israel. 

Zob'ebah.— A  descendant  of  Judah  (1  Ch. 
4.8). 

Zo'har.— 1.  The  father  of  Ephron  the  Hittite 
(Gen.  23.8,  25.9).  2.  A  son  of  Simeon  (Gen. 
46.10;  Ex.  6.15);  called  Zerah  in  1  Ch.  4.24. 

Zoh  eleth. — Serpent's  stone  :  now  Zahweileh  ; 
a  sacred  stone  close  to  the  Virgin's  Fount — 
Enrogel — in  the  ravine  south-east  of  Jerusalem ; 
where  Adonijah  raised  the  standard  of  rebellion 
against  David  (1  K.  1.9).  The  practice  of  placing 
stones  and  naming  them  from  a  person  or  an 
event  is  a  common  occurrence  recorded  in  the 
Scriptures  (Gen.  28.22,  31.45,  35.14;  Josh. 


4.9-20,  15.6,  18.17,  24.26;  1  Sam.  6.14,18, 
7.11,12,  14.33). 

Zo'heth. — A  descendant  of  Judah  (1  Ch. 
4.20). 

Zo'phah.— An  Asherite  (1  Ch.  7.35,  36). 

Zo'phai.— An  ancestor  of  Samuel  (1  Ch.  6.26) ; 
the  same  as  ZUPH. 

Zo'phar. — One  of  the  three  friends  of  Job 
(Job  2.11,  11.1,  20.1,  42.9). 

Zo'phim,  The  Field  of.— Watchmen  :  a  spot  on 
or  near  the  top  of  Pisgah,  from  which  Balaam 
had  his  second  view  of  the  encampment  of 
Israel  (Num.  23.14). 

Zo'rah,  Zoreah  (R.V.  Zorah  throughout).— 
Now  Sur'ah.  On  the  edge  of  the  hill- country, 
on  the  south  end  of  a  crest  overlooking  the 
Wady  Surar.  Town  of  Judah,  occupied  by  Dan 
(Josh.  15.33,  19.41;  Judg.  18.2,8,11);  home 
and  burial-place  of  Manoah  and  Samson  (Judg. 
13.2,  25,  16.31) ;  fortified  by  Rehoboam  (2  Ch. 
11.10). 

Zo'rathites. — The  people  of  Zorah  are  men- 
tioned in  1  Ch.  4.2  as  descended  from  Shobal, 
one  of  the  sons  of  Judah,  who  in  1  Ch.  2.52, 53 
(Zareathites,  A.V.)  is  stated  to  have  founded 
Kirjath-jearim,  from  which  again  "  the  Zorathites 
and  the  Eshtaolites  "  were  colonised. 

Zore'ah.— (Josh.  15.33).    [ZORAH.] 

Zo'rites,  The. — Named  in  the  genealogies  of 
Judah  (1  Ch.  2.54),  but  possibly  Zorathites  should 
be  read. 

Zorob'abel. — An  ancestor  of  our  Lord  (A.V. 
Matt.  1.12, 13 ;  Lk.  3.27 ;  R.V.  Zerubbabel). 

Zu'ar.— The  father  of  Nethaneel  (Num.  1.8, 
2.5,  7.18, 23,  10.15). 

Zuph. — 1.  An  ancestor  of  Samuel  (1  Sam.  1.1 ; 
1  Ch.  6.35).  In  1  Ch.  6.26  he  is  called  Zophai. 
2.  A  district  adjoining  Benjamin;  the  limit  of 
Saul's  search  for  the  lost  asses  (1  Sam.  9.5). 

Zur. — Rock  :  1.  One  of  the  five  princes  of 
Midian  who  were  slain  by  the  Israelites  when 
Balaam  fell  (Num.  31.8).  His  daughter,  Cozbi, 
was  killed  by  Phinehas,  together  with  her 
paramour  Zimri,  the  Simeonite  chieftain  (Num. 
25.15).  2.  A  Benjamite  (1  Ch.  8.30,  9.36). 

Zuri'el. — My  rock  is  Jehovah :  a  son  of  Abihail 
(Num.  3.35). 

Zu'rishad'dai. — My  rock  is  the  Almighty  : 
the  father  of  Shelumiel,  a  Simeonite  (Num.  1.6, 
2.12,  7.36,  41,  10.19). 

Zu'zims  (R.V.  Zuzim). — An  aboriginal  race 
overthrown  by  Chedorlaomer  and  his  allies 
(Gen.  14.5).  It  is  conjectured  that  the  Zuzim 
inhabited  the  country  of  the  Ammonites,  and 
were  identical  with  the  Zamzummim,  or  Rephaim, 
who  were  exterminated  and  succeeded  in  their 
land  by  the  Ammonites  (Deut.  2.20). 


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